the physical layer. the theoretical basis for data communication fourier analysis any periodical...
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The physical layer
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The Theoretical Basis for Data Communication
• Fourier Analysis• Any periodical signal can be decomposed as a
sum of sinusoidal signals at frequencies which are multiple of the original frequency
• We call those the “harmonics”
• Bandwidth-Limited Signals• Not all harmonics pass through a channel• The result is a distortion in the shape of the
signal
• Maximum Data Rate of a Channel
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Bandwidth-Limited Signals
A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes.
(b) – (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.
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Bandwidth-Limited Signals (2)
(d) – (e) Successive approximations to the original signal.
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Bandwidth-Limited Signals (3)
Relation between data rate and harmonics.
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Guided Transmission Data
•Magnetic Media• Write the data on a storage system (eg. tapes or hard drive), carry them over physically
•Twisted Pair•Coaxial Cable•Fiber Optics
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Twisted Pair
Category 3 UTP (unshielded twisted pair)(b) Category 5 UTP• since about 1988 – more twists, less crosstalk, better signal
over longer distances
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Coaxial Cable
• More expensive than twisted pair• High bandwidth and excellent noise immunity
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Fiber Optics
(a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary at different angles.
(b) Light trapped by total internal reflection.
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Single mode vs multi-mode
• Multi-mode fiber: light reflected on various angles inside the fiber.
• If the fiber is so narrow that it is only several wavelengths, the light can travel only in a single way, in a straight line, without bouncing. • The fiber acts like a wave guide
• Called a single mode fiber
• Smaller loss, more suitable for long distance transmission
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Transmission of Light through Fiber
Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared region.
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Fiber Cables
-Core: 50 microns for multi-mode, 8-10 microns for single mode-Cladding: glass with a lower refraction index, to keep the light in the
core-Connection:
-connectors (plug in) – about 20% attenuation-mechanical splicing, tuned by an operator – 10% attenuation-fused (melted together) – almost no attenuation
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Fiber Cables (2)
A comparison of semiconductor diodes and LEDs as light sources.
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Fiber Optic Networks
A fiber optic ring with active repeaters.
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Fiber Optic Networks (2)
A passive star connection in a fiber optics network.
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Wireless Transmission
• The Electromagnetic Spectrum• Radio Transmission• Microwave Transmission• Infrared and Millimeter Waves• Lightwave Transmission
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Narrow-band vs spread spectrum
Spectrum– About 8 bits / Hz (using all the tricks in the book)
Narrowband: – Δf / f << 1
Spread spectrum– Frequency hopping spread spectrum
Several times / sec, military communications, good resistance to multipath fading
– Direct sequence spread spectrum DSSS: 802.11b, CDMA telephony, GPS, Galileo, ZigBee
– Ultra-wide band any radio technology having bandwidth exceeding the lesser of 500 MHz
or 20% of the arithmetic center frequency
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication.
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Radio Transmission
(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
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Politics of the Electromagnetic Spectrum
The ISM bands in the United States (Industrial, Scientifical, Medical: also known as unlicenced bands)
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Lightwave Transmission
Convection currents can interfere with laser communication systems.
A bidirectional system with two lasers is pictured here.
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Communication Satellites
• Geostationary Satellites• Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites• Low-Earth Orbit Satellites• Satellites versus Fiber
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Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties, including altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time and
number of satellites needed for global coverage.
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Communication Satellites (2)
The principal satellite bands.
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Communication Satellites (3)
VSATs using a hub.
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Low-Earth Orbit SatellitesIridium
(a) The Iridium satellites from six necklaces around the earth.
(b) 1628 moving cells cover the earth.
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Globalstar
(a) Relaying in space.(b) Relaying on the ground.
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Public Switched Telephone System
• Structure of the Telephone System• The Politics of Telephones• The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL and Wireless
• Trunks and Multiplexing• Switching
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Structure of the Telephone System
(a) Fully-interconnected network.
(b) Centralized switch.
(c) Two-level hierarchy.
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Structure of the Telephone System (2)
A typical circuit route for a medium-distance call.
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Major Components of the Telephone System
• Local loops Analog twisted pairs going to houses and businesses
• Trunks Digital fiber optics connecting the switching offices
• Switching offices Where calls are moved from one trunk to another
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The Politics of Telephones
The relationship of LATAs, LECs, and IXCs. All the circles are LEC switching offices. Each hexagon belongs to the IXC whose number is on it.
LATA: local access and transport areasLEC: local exchange carrierIXC: interexchange carrierThis is the result of the 1984 breakup of the AT&T monopoly.
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The Local Loop: Modems, ADSL, and Wireless
The use of both analog and digital transmissions for a computer to computer call. Conversion is done by the
modems and codecs.
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Modems
(a) A binary signal
(b) Amplitude modulation(c) Frequency modulation
(d) Phase modulation
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Modems (2)
(a) QPSK.
(b) QAM-16.
(c) QAM-64.
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Modems (3)
(a) V.32 for 9600 bps.
(b) V32 bis for 14,400 bps.
(a) (b)
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Digital Subscriber Lines
Bandwidth versus distance over category 3 UTP for DSL.
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Digital Subscriber Lines (2)
Operation of ADSL using discrete multitone modulation.
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Digital Subscriber Lines (3)A typical ADSL equipment configuration.
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Wireless Local Loops
Architecture of an LMDS system.
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Frequency Division Multiplexing
(a) The original bandwidths.
(b) The bandwidths raised in frequency.
(b) The multiplexed channel.
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Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Wavelength division multiplexing.
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Time Division Multiplexing
The T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps).
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Time Division Multiplexing (2)
Delta modulation.
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Time Division Multiplexing (3)
Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers.
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Time Division Multiplexing (4)
Two back-to-back SONET frames.
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Time Division Multiplexing (5)
SONET and SDH multiplex rates.
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Circuit Switching
(a) Circuit switching.
(b) Packet switching.
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Message Switching
(a) Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet switching
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Packet Switching
A comparison of circuit switched and packet-switched networks.
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The Mobile Telephone System
• First-Generation Mobile Phones: Analog Voice
• Second-Generation Mobile Phones: Digital Voice
• Third-Generation Mobile Phones:Digital Voice and Data
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Advanced Mobile Phone System
(a) Frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells.
(b) To add more users, smaller cells can be used.
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Channel Categories
The 832 channels are divided into four categories:
• Control (base to mobile) to manage the system
• Paging (base to mobile) to alert users to calls for them
• Access (bidirectional) for call setup and channel assignment
• Data (bidirectional) for voice, fax, or data
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D-AMPS Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System
(a) A D-AMPS channel with three users.
(b) A D-AMPS channel with six users.
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GSMGlobal System for Mobile Communications
GSM uses 124 frequency channels, each of which uses an eight-slot TDM system
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GSM (2)
A portion of the GSM framing structure.
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CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
(a) Binary chip sequences for four stations(b) Bipolar chip sequences (c) Six examples of transmissions(d) Recovery of station C’s signal
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Third-Generation Mobile Phones:Digital Voice and Data
Basic services an IMT-2000 network should provide
• High-quality voice transmission
• Messaging (replace e-mail, fax, SMS, chat, etc.)
• Multimedia (music, videos, films, TV, etc.)
• Internet access (web surfing, w/multimedia.)
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Cable Television
• Community Antenna Television• Internet over Cable• Spectrum Allocation• Cable Modems• ADSL versus Cable
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Community Antenna Television
An early cable television system.
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Internet over Cable
Cable television
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Internet over Cable (2)
The fixed telephone system.
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Spectrum Allocation
Frequency allocation in a typical cable TV system used for Internet access
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Cable Modems
Typical details of the upstream and downstream channels in North America.