the photographic eye

R E V I S E D E D I T I O N

THE PHOTOGRAPHIC EYELearning to See with a Camera

Michael F. O'Brien & Norman Sibley

THE PHOTOGRAPHIC EYELearning to See with a Camera

Michael E O'Brien & Norman Sibley

Davis Publications, Inc., Worcester, Massachusetts

Copyright 1995Davis Publications, Inc.Worcester, Massachusetts U.S.A.

To the photography students ofSeoul American High School, past,present and future.

No part of this work may be repro-duced or transmitted in any form orby any means, electronic or mechan-ical, including photocopying and re-cording, or by any informationstorage or retrieval system withoutthe prior written permission of thecopyright owner, unless such copy-ing is expressly permitted by federalcopyright law. Davis is not autho-rized to grant permission for furtheruses of copyrighted selections or im-ages reprinted in this text without thepermission of their owners. Permis-sion must be obtained from the indi-vidual copyright owners as identifiedherein. Address requests for permis-sion to make copies of Davis mate-rial to Permissions, Davis Publi-cations, Inc., 50 Portland Street,Worcester, MA 01608.

Editor: Claire Mowbray GoldingDesign: Greta D. SibleyPrinted in the United States ofAmericaLibrary of Congress Catalog CardNumber: 93-74644ISBN: 0-87192-283-51 0 9 8 7 6 5

Cover: Student photograph by LeahGendler.

Student photograph by Gregory Conrad.

4 The Photographic Eye

Contents

7 Introduction

Part 1 Getting Started11 Chapter 1 From Blurs to Big Business

History Photographic Careers

Part 2 Elements of Composition35 Chapter 2 Tools

Manual or Automatic? The Camera, Inside & Out Exercises: Testing the Shutter & Aperture Loading Film

51 Chapter 3 What is Composition?Snapshots vs. Photographs Structure, Balance, Dynamics Exercises: Mat Frame Cropping

67 Chapter 4 Developing A Critical EyeCritique Session Evaluating a Print Exercise: Sample Crit

83 Chapter 5 Point of Departure (f!6 at 1/125)Starting Simply Doing it Right

87 Chapter 6 LinePattern, Structure, Direction Exercise: Pattern

95 Chapter 7 TextureExpressing the "Feel" Exercise: Leaves

103 Chapter 8 ShapeMass, Proportion & Relation Using Negative Space * Exercise: Circles & Ovals

113 Chapter 9 LightControlling Exposure Information & Mood Using a Light Meter Other Functions of Light Depth of Field * Exercise: Bracketing

129 Chapter 10 MotionThe Science of Blurs Stop and Co Exercise: Blurred Movement

137 Chapter 11 PerspectiveLenses Different Ways of Seeing A Point of View Exercise: A Point of View

Part 3 People, Places & Things: Exercises & Examples151 Chapter 12 Things

Exercises: Bicycle Hubcaps & Taillights Eggs Object & Its Shadow Bottles & Classes Water Old Things

167 Chapter 13 PlacesExercises: Landscape Architecture & Environment Neighborhoods Zoo/Farm Store Windows* Construction Sites

181 Chapter 14 PeopleExercises: Hands Elders Children Soft-Light Portrait Side-Lit Portrait Prop Portrait DetailPortrait Mood Portrait

197 Chapter 15 Putting It All TogetherExercises: Fairs Open Markets Rain Playgrounds Sports Events

209 Chapter 16 Breaking the RulesExercises: Night Monotone Silhouettes Grain and Diffusion Double Exposure Photo-CopyPhotos Panel Panorama Text and Image

Appendixes227 Appendix 1 Processing

Processing Film Printing Manipulation243 Appendix 2 Color

From B&W to Color Technical Considerations253 Appendix 3 Manipulation & Presentation

Presentation * Manipulation265 Appendix 4 Advanced Techniques

Tools272 Mat Frame (template)273 Cropping L's (template)275 Bibliography279 Glossary281 Index287 Acknowledgments


Introduction

P hotography is both an artand a science. As an art, itexpresses a personal vision.

As a science, it relies on technology.This double nature is not unique tophotography. Every kind of creativeexpression such as music, dance orpainting has both a purely artisticside and a more scientific or tech-ological side as well. For example,paints are a kind of technology, andusing them well involves a consid-rable amount of technical skill. Themain difference between photogaphyand more traditional visual arts, suchas painting, is the complexity of itstechnology.

In any of the arts, the first steptoward excellence is mastering tech-ique learning to use a specific tech-ology skillfully and effectively. Inphotography, this means that youmust learn to control the camera anddarkroom equipment, rather than let-ting them control you.

No artist, however creative, canproduce a masterpiece without asound basis in technique. On theother hand, no amount of technicalskill can make up for a lack of artisticvision. Both are essential. The goalof any artist is to use good techniquecreatively.

Simply speaking, a camera is amachine that produces a two-dimensional (flat) copy of a three-

dimensional scene. The process bywhich this is done may seem likemagic. (In fact, when cameras werefirst introduced, many people all overthe world thought that they weremagic.) Fundamentally, however,there's no magic in the camera. It'sjust a box with a hole in it. Yousupply the magic. When you, thephotographer, use a camera creative-ly, it changes from a simple,mechanical machine into an artist'stool. Instead of making randomcopies of things, it begins to saysomething about them.

Here are some of the technicalquestions a photographer mustanswer for every photograph: Howwill the lighting affect the clarity andmood of the photograph? How fastshould the shutter speed be? Howlarge a lens opening should be used?What should be in focus? Whatbelongs in the frame, and whatdoesn't? What lens should be used?

All these factors influence eachother, and they all affect the finalphotograph. A photograph is "suc-cessful"in the technical sense when these factors all work welltogether and are combined with cor-rect darkroom procedures. When acreative composition is added, thephotograph becomes aestheticallysuccessfully as well.

Eventually, you will learn how to

control each of these factors toachieve the effect you want. But itwill take time. As you may alreadyknow, it's often hard to keep all ofthem in mind every time you take apicture.

Fortunately, it is possible to beginmore simply. This book is designedto help you do that. It begins with abrief summary of photography'spast, present and future, including adiscussion of photography careers.This is followed by an introductionto the camera itself. Chapters 3 and4 provide a set of guidelines for com-posing and evaluating photographs.Chapter 5 explains a simple way tostart producing correctly exposedphotographs. As soon as you get thatbasic background behind you, youwill begin your first photographassignments. Chapters 6 through 11deal with specific "elements" ofphotography. At the end of thesechapters are exercises that will helpyou learn to recognize and use eachelement discussed.

The remainder of the book is com-posed of additional exercises (withexamples) and an Appendix, cover-ing most of the technical information(including a section on color photog-raphy). Finally, there's a glossary toclarify any confusing terminologyand a bibliography to help you locatemore detailed information.

7

part 1 Getting Started

Student photograph by Edward Maresh.

9

Dorothea Lange, Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California, 1936. Gelatin silver print. Library of Congress,Washington, D.C.

From Blurs toBig Business

chapter 1

S urprisingly few new artforms have been invented inI the course of recorded his-tory. Depending on how such termsas "art" and "new" are defined, thenovel as a form of literature mayqualify, as may rock 'n' roll andother kinds of electric and electronicmusic. More recent candidates in-clude computer graphics and thecurrent wave of digital creationsknown as multi-media.

One form that certainly qualifiesis photography. From its beginningsas a technological curiosity, it hasgrown into one of the most impor-tant influences in our society andculture. Every day, we encounterhundreds of images produced withcameras and film. We learn aboutthe latest fashion trends from photo-graphs and about the latest war orfamine. We also learn about the re-markable planet on which we liveand about the people with whom weshare it.

HISTORY

There is no single correct answer tothe question of how and when pho-tography began. No one person canbe credited with inventing it. In-stead, it emerged through centuriesof tinkering.

The first printed photographs were

rheain

made between 1816 and 1840. Thefirst recorded discovery that certainchemicals turned black when exposedto light was made in 1725. The basicdesign of the cameras we use todayhas been in use since the 1500s. TheChinese figured it out even longer agothan that as early as the fourth cen-tury. So, photography is between1,500 and 150 years old.

PreludeThe first stage of photography'sevolution in Europe was the cameraobscura, which is Latin for "darkchamber" (camera = chamber orroom; obscura = dark). The cameraobscura was a room, or a small build-ing, with no windows. One tiny hole,fitted with a lens, projected imagesfrom outside the room onto the farwall inside it.

The image was upside down andnot generally very clear, but it wasgood enough to become a useful toolfor artists. The projected image couldbe traced, providing an accuratesketch, which might then be devel-oped into a painting. Portable ver-sions of the camera obscura weredeveloped by the 1660s. The cameraexisted, but photography hadn't evenbeen imagined yet.

In 1725, a German professor ofanatomy, Johann Heinrich Schulze,attempted to produce a phosphores-

cent stone (one that would glow in thedark). He mixed powdered chalk intoa nitric acid solution and was sur-prised to discover that the mixtureturned purple in sunlight. After in-vestigating, he discovered that his ex-periment had been contaminated withsilver salt (silver chloride) and thatthis was causing the reaction to light.

Schulze was curious enough aboutthis phenomenon to experiment withit. He covered bottles of his mixturewith stencils so the light would"print" letters onto it, but the letterswould disintegrate as soon as the mix-ture was disturbed. Evidently, henever thought that his discoverymight have any practical application.

Early PrintsIn 1777, a Swedish chemist, CarlWilhelm Scheele, repeated Schulze'sexperiments. He also discovered thatammonia would dissolve the silverchloride and leave the image intact.With this second discovery, the basicchemistry of photography (exposingsilver chloride to produce an imageand "fixing" it with ammonia) wasestablished, but again what itmight lead to was not recognized.

Forty years later, the plot began tothicken. A number of people begantrying to produce a photographicimage on paper. In France, JosephNicephore Niepce developed an

11

Joseph Nicephore Niepce, world's first permanent camera image. Courtesy Gernsheim Collection, Harry RansomHumanities Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin.

emulsion (a light-sensitive varnish)out of bitumen of Judea, a kind ofasphalt. Instead of turning black, thismaterial is hardened by light. So, toproduce an image, Niepce coated aglass or pewter plate with his emul-sion, exposed it to light and thenwashed the plate with solvents. Thesolvents dissolved the unexposed (andstill soft) emulsion, producing aprint: the world's first permanentcamera image. It was only some blursof light and dark, and the exposurereportedly took eight hours, but itwas a real image.

Meanwhile, a painter in Paris

named Louis Jacques Mande Da-guerre was also trying to produce acamera image. He got in touch withNiepce and the two worked togetheron the problem. Niepce died, poorand discouraged, a few years later,but Daguerre continued (withNiepce's son Isadore as his newpartner).

Daguerre was convinced that silverwas the key to producing a better im-age than Niepce's asphalt prints. In1835, his conviction paid off. Hediscovered that if a silver plate wereiodized (treated with iodine), exposedfirst to light and then to mercury

vapor, and finally "fixed" with a saltsolution, then a visible, permanentimage would result. This discoveryformed the basis for the first photo-graphic process to be used outside ofa laboratory: the daguerreotype.

In England, William Henry FoxTalbot was also experimenting withcamera images. By 1835 he too hadsucceeded in producing a number ofphotographs. With his process, thefirst exposure produced a negativeimage on paper treated with silvercompounds. The exposed paper wasthen placed over a second sheet oftreated paper and exposed to a bright


light, producing a positive image onthe second sheet.

Thus, Talbot's process called acalotype or talbotype enabledphotographers to make multiplecopies of a single image. This was notpossible with a daguerreotype, whichproduced a positive image directly ona metal plate. Because the calotype'simage was transferred through apaper negative, however, it was notas clear as the daguerreotype.

In 1851, another Englishman,Frederick Scott Archer, introducedthe collodian wet-plate process,which offered the best of bothworlds: a high-quality image andmultiple copies. Talbot tried to claimcredit and licensing rights for this newprocess as well. In 1854, the courtsoverruled him and followed Archer'swishes by making the process freelyavailable to everyone.

The collodian process, like thedaguerreotype, was difficult to use.First, a clean glass plate had to beevenly coated with collodian (a sub-stance similar to plastic and contain-ing potassium iodide). While stilldamp, the plate had to be dipped intoa silver nitrate solution, inserted intothe camera and exposed. It was thendeveloped immediately, and finallyallowed to dry. If the plate driedbefore the process was complete, theemulsion would harden and the pho-tograph would be ruined. It wasn'teasy, but it worked.

Photography Goes PublicPhotography, dominated by the col-lodian and daguerreotype processes,began to take off. Cameras were setup in studios and loaded onto cartsto photograph portraits, landscapesand battles. Tourists collected inex-pensive prints of local attractions,called cartes-de-visite, by the

thousands. The stereoscopic camera(which produced a three-dimensionaleffect by combining two images) wasintroduced in 1849. By the 1860s, noparlor in America was consideredcomplete without a stereo viewer anda stack of slides to entertain guests.

Photography had more serioususes as well. As early as the 1850s,books of photographs were publishedshowing the harsh conditions of lifein the streets, factories, mines andslums of England and the UnitedStates. Lewis Mine, a sociologist,produced powerful photographs ofchildren who worked long hours in

Julia Margaret Cameron, AlfredTennyson with his sons Hallamand Lionel, 1865-69. Albumenprint, W/2 x 8>/4" (27 x 22 cm).Gift of David Bakalar, 1977.Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts,Boston.

From Blurs to Big Business 13

Lewis Mine, Doffer Girl in NewEngland Mill, c 1910.

textile mills and other industries. Hiswork helped to bring about new lawsto protect children's rights.

At the start of the Civil War, a suc-cessful portrait photographer namedMathew Brady asked President Lin-coln for permission to carry hiscameras onto the battlefields. Per-mission was granted, and Brady andhis staff compiled a remarkablerecord of that tragic period ofAmerican history. Like many of pho-tography's pioneers, he paid for theproject almost entirely by himself anddied penniless as a result.

In the 1880s, Eadweard Muybridgeinvented a device called a zooprax-iscope which produced a series of im-ages of a moving subject. It is said

that he did so to settle a bet as towhether or not running horses liftedall four hooves off the ground at onetime. By photographing a horse withhis device, he proved that they do. Healso contributed tremendously to ourunderstanding of how animals (andhumans) move.

These and other similar uses ofphotography often achieved a highdegree of aesthetic quality a highdegree of art. Their primary pur-poses, however, were practical: topromote social reform, record his-torical events and aid scientificinvestigations.


Mathew Brady, Magazine inBattery Rodgers, 1863. Library ofCongress, Washington, D.C.


Eadweard Muybridge, Atti tudes of Animals in Motion, c 1881.

But Is It Art?At the same time, another group ofphotographers were dealing with thepurely aesthetic issue of how photog-raphy relates to the traditional arts,particularly painting. Is photographyan art at all? If so, how should it beused? What should "art photog-raphy" look like? These same ques-tions continue to provoke discussionand argument even today. Photog-raphy is st i l l defining itself.

By the 1850s, two opposing fac-tions of artist-photographers hadbeen established. The Pictorialists,led by Oscar Rejlander and HenryPeach Robinson, believed that aphotograph should look as much likea painting as possible. Their idea of

what a painting should look like washeavily influenced by the Romanticistpainters (such as Delacroix). The Pic-tor ia l is t photographers, l ike theRomanticist painters, believed that anartist should improve upon nature byusing it to express noble ideas. Bothfavored elaborate i l lus t ra t ions ofscenes from ancient mythology.

The other faction called themselvesNaturalists. They were led by PeterHenry Emerson and George Davison.The Naturalists believed that aphotograph should capture nature'sown truth. They preferred the Bar-bizon painters, who took their easelsout to the forests, fields and streams,and painted them directly. The Nat-uralist photographers did the same

with their cameras, specializing inpeaceful scenes of country life. Theywere also increasingly fond of usingsoft focus (blurred edges) in theirphotographs.

Despite the differences betweenthem, both the Pictorialists and theNaturalists believed that a work ofart ought to express a "correct senti-ment" and that it ought to be decora-t i vepre t ty . This is what most setthem apart from the "practical" pho-tographers, like Brady and Muy-bridge, whose work showed the hardedges of reality, wi th all its flaws.


New Tools & ProcessesIn the late 1880s, flexible film ap-peared for the first time, replacingclumsy and heavy glass plates. By the1890s, George Eastman had intro-duced the Kodak camera, the firstthat was reasonably easy to use. Thecamera itself was simple: a box witha lens, a cord to cock the shutter, abutton to release it and a crank towind the film. What made thiscamera special was that it cameloaded with enough fi lm for 100photographs. When the film wasused up, the entire camera wasreturned to the Eastman KodakCompany. The film was then devel-oped and printed, and the camerawas reloaded and returned, ready for

another 100 photos. Eastman'sslogan was "You press the button; wedo the rest." (The name "Kodak," in-cidentally, doesn't mean anything.Eastman selected it because he felt itwou ld be easy for people toremember.)

In 1925, Leica introduced its "mini-ature" camera, the first to use 35mmfilm. Though not quite as simple touse as the earlier Kodak model, it wastechnically more sophisticated andquite a bit smaller As a result,amateur photography became an in-ternational passion.

Other technical advances con-tinued to appear all t he time. Thefirst commercial color film, Auto-chrome, hit the market in 1907.

Autochrome produced transparencies(slides) that could not be enlargedvery much without showing the grainof the starch dyes used to create theimage. It also took fifty times as longto expose as black-and-white film.

Then, in 1935, Kodak introducedKodachrome, an improved slide film,followed in 1941 by Kodacolor, formaking color prints. The familyphotograph album, which had existedfor only 100 years, was now bothwidespread and increasingly in fullcolor.

Peter Henry Emerson, Gunner Working Up to Fowl, c 1886.


FOCAL POINT: Alfred Stieglitz, 1864-1946

Alfred Stieglitz was in many ways thefirst "modern" photographer .Though his early photographs werecarefully manipulated to imitatepaintings, he soon recognized thatphotography was an art in its ownright and deserved to be treated asone. He saw the need to free photog-raphy from the conventions and lim-itations of painting. Consequently,Stieglitz promoted what came to beknown as "straight" photography making prints with little or no crop-ping, retouching or other alteration.

He was a founding member andleader of the "Photo Secession," agroup of photographers who weredetermined to break away from pho-tography's past and to chart itsfuture. Stieglitz was editor andpublisher of the group's magazine,Camera Work, the first publicationto deal seriously with photography asan independent art form. He work-ed with Edward Steichen to establish"Gallery 291" in New York City,which exhibited contemporary pho-tographs along with paintings byPicasso, Matisse and GeorgiaO'Keefe (whom Stieglitz latermarried).

When photography was first in-vented, it was a scientific novelty.Soon, it evolved into an excellentrecord-keeping tool. Photographerscould be hired to make a lastingrecord of a person, place or event. Bythe late 1800s, photographers werestriving to elevate their craft into arecognized art. They did this by im-itating the content and visual effectsof paintings. Stieglitz'great achieve-ment was to bring photography fullcircle: he merged its artistic potentialwith its ability to produce a factual

record. He returned to the straight-forward approach of the earlyphotographers, but he did so with theinsight and confidence of a trueartist.

Stieglitz was among the firstphotographers to produce work that,even today, does not look "dated."Though clothing and architecturalstyles have changed considerablysince his time, his best work still looksthoroughly modern. The main reasonfor this is that he used the camera as

we use it today as a familiar tool forexploring reality.

The attitudes and interests thatStieglitz brought to photography canbe traced to his upbringing. He wasborn in Hoboken, New Jersey, theson of German immigrants. He orig-inally intended to become a mechan-ical engineer. While in Berlin study-ing for this purpose, he happened tosee a camera in a store window. Hebought it and soon decided it wasmore interesting than engineering.

Alfred Stieglitz, The Rag Picker, New York, 1895.


Alfred Stieglitz, The 'Flat Iron', 1902.

Alfred Stieglitz, Sun Rays-Paula-Berlin, 1889.

When he returned to the U.S. at theage of 26, he was delighted to findthat photography was extremely pop-ular. But he was also dismayed by thelack of publications and galleries pro-moting it as an art. For the next 56years, he devoted himself to correct-ing this situation. Along the way, heproduced some of the finest photo-graphs in history.

FOCAL POINT: James Van Der Zee, 1886-1983

James Van Der Zee, Couple in Raccoon Coats, 1932. Courtesy Donna Van Der Zee.


James Van Der Zee was unique inmany ways. First and foremost, hewas perhaps the most accomplishedblack photographer in history, and iscertainly the best known today. Hisrecord of Harlem in the 1920s is un-surpassed, in both quantity andquality. But he was unique in otherways as well.

Stylistically, he employed bothstark realism and dreamy roman-ticism. Technically, he produced

v.

"straight" prints in the style of thePhoto Secessionists (Stiegli tz,Weston, Steichen, etc.) as well asheavily manipulated images, whichthe Photo Secessionists had rejected.Moreover, he used both approachesinterchangeably, according to his in-terpretation of a particular scene.One day he might do a straight out-door portrait of someone on thestreet. And the next day he mightpose a newly-wed couple in his

studio, and produce a double-exposed print showing their yet-to-be-born child as a ghost beside them.

Van Der Zee's photographic careerwas far from easy. Though hebecame interested in photography atthe age of 14 (when he purchased amail-order camera and darkroomkit), he was 30 before he was able toearn a living at it. In between, heworked as a waiter, elevator operatorand even as a violinist in a dance or-

chestra. His first photographic job,in 1914, was as a darkroom assistantin a department store in New YorkCity. Two years later, he opened hisown studio in Harlem. Though heoften had to change its location, VanDer Zee kept his studio in businessuntil 1969.

In addition to skill and creativity,he was blessed with good timing.Black culture was flourishing inHarlem during the 1920s. Duke Ell-ington and others were redefiningAmerican music. Adam ClaytonPowell, Langston Hughes, CounteeCullen and Marcus Garvey were help-ing to build a new black identity. AndJames Van Der Zee was the officialand unofficial photographer for allof it. He photographed proud blackcouples in the streets of Harlem andin elegant clubs. Celebrities and "or-dinary people" posed in his studio.He photographed weddings andfunerals. All together, he compiledsome 75,000 glass plates, negativesand prints. All of it revealing a worldthat was all but ignored by the better-known photographers of that time.

Van Der Zee received virtually norecognition outside of Harlem until1967. At that time, he was featuredin an exhibit, entitled "Harlem on MyMind," at New York's MetropolitanMuseum of Art. For the last 14 yearsof his life, his photography waswidely exhibited, published andpraised. He died at the age of 97,while in Washington, D.C. to receivean honorary degree from HowardUniversity.

proaches to photography.In Europe, Andre Kertesz, Eugene

Atget, Brassai, and Henri Carder-Bresson were among the most not-able of the new wave of artistphotographers. They each devotedthemselves to capturing life as itreally was, in the boulevards andback alleys and country lanes ofEurope. Yet each did so with adistinct and original style, a unique"way of seeing." They saw thatphotography was a new and indepen-

A New BreedPhotography was coming into itsown, both as an art and as a business.Alfred Steiglitz united photographyand painting by opening "Gallery291," which exhibited new work ineither medium. In his own photog-raphy and in his critical judgmentSteiglitz promoted a lively realismthat eventually became the standardfor art photography. From 1902 to1917, he published Camera Work, thefirst magazine devoted to artistic ap-

Eugene Atget, L'Escalier de L'Hotel Charron, 7900.


Edward Steichen, Gloria Swanson,1924.

dent art, not merely a cheap imitationof painting. Because of this, they along with Steiglitz and otherAmerican peers may be thought ofas the first modern photographers.

More practical applications ofphotography also continued. One ofthe most notable examples was aphotographic survey, begun in 1935,of conditions during the GreatDepression. Dorothea Lange, Walk-er Evans and other first-rate pho-tographers were hired by this pro-ject by the U.S. government's FarmSecurity Administration and com-piled hundreds of photographs thatrank among the best ever produced.

The use of photographs in publica-tions, a novelty as recently as 1900,was expanding rapidly. Life magazinestarted in 1936 and began a wholenew kind of publishing: photo-jou rna l i sm. Alfred Eisenstat ,Margaret Bourke-White and otherphotographers on Life's staff quicklybecame famous as they recorded theworld's events with their cameras.

By the end of the 1930s, all thebasic ingredients that continue todefine photography were in place:Photography was increasingly ac-

1937The SLR

(single lensreflex)camera

introduced tothe U.S. by

Exacta.

1938Automaticexposure

initiated byKodak with

its 6-20camera.

1939

Electronicflash

developed byDr. HaroldEdgerton.

1947

FirstPolaroidcamera

developed byEdwin Land.

1954First

high-speedfilm, Tri-X,comes onto

market.


Yousef Karsh, Ethiopian Bride,1963. Courtesy Woodfin Campand Associates.

cepted as an art in its own right.Photojournalists were a major sourceof information and insight for thegeneral public (a role that has sincebeen largely taken over by televisionreporters). Advertising had begunusing photography to catch attentionor communicate a message. Portablecameras had made snapshots a na-tional hobby.

Where Now?The list of technical advances inphotography continues to get longerand longer (see the photographic timeline), and the ranks of greatphotographers has expanded steadilyas well. Edward Steichen, MinorWhite, Sebastiao Salgado, EdwardWeston, Ansel Adams, Diane Arbus,Ernst Haas, Eugene Richards...the listis long and subject to fierce debate.

Photography is still a young art.Painting, sculpture, writing, dance,acting and music have all beenaround for thousands of years. Eventhey continue to change at an oftenalarming rate. This is all the moretrue of photography, which has

1959Development

of firstzoom lens,

the Zoomar36-82.

1966Konica

introducesfirst

professionalquality

automaticexposurecamera.

1972

Polaroidaddscolortoils

instantcameras.

1985Minolta

introducesthe first

professionalquality

automaticfocus camera,the Maxxum.

1987

Canondebuts first

"CommercialStill Video"

system.

1991

Kodaklaunches

Photo CDsystem and

digitalcamera.


FOCAL POINT: Manuel Alvarez Bravo, 1902-

Manuel Alvarez Bravo, Retrato de lo Eterno (Portrait of the Eternal),1935. Courtesy The Witkin Gallery, New York.

Throughout the world, photog-raphers have used the camera toobserve, interpret and record theirown cultures and environments. Inthe process, some have also achiev-ed unique styles that are particularlyappropriate to specific times andplaces. Manuel Alvarez Bravo isamong a select group of photog-raphers who have gone a stepfurther discovering a way of seeingthat seems to express the spirit of anentire culture.

Great works of art are rarelycreated in a vacuum. Instead, eventhe most gifted artist draws on alifetime of experiences and impres-sions. The work of other artists isalmost always an important in-fluence. Additional influences mayinclude one's level of wealth orpoverty; the personalities and valuesof friends and family; the climate,colors, sounds and rituals that arepart of daily life. By combining avariety of local and international in-fluences, some artists are able tocreate art tha t breaks th roughcultural barriers without losing asense of cultural roots. Bravo is onephotographer who has done th is .

In his case, the culture is that ofMexico. He was born in Mexico City,and has continued to be based therethroughout his life. His father andgrandfather were both artists, one apainter and the other a photographer.Before becoming interested in pho-tography, Bravo studied literature,music and painting, beginning in1917. In 1922, he began experimen-ting with photography. By 1926, hewas using a camera to produceabstract images of folded paper. Bythe early 1930's he was among the

leaders of a creative surge in Mexicanart.

His first solo exhibit was held inMexico City in 1932. Soon after, hebecame acquainted with Paul Strand,Henri Carder-Bresson, Walker Evansand other photographers who weregaining internat ional attention.Bravo also met Andre Breton, whois credited with creating the Surrealiststyle of painting. Surrealism, whichemploys the symbols and imagery ofdreams, became a major influence onBravo's photographic style.

In his best work, Bravo combinesthe technical skill and confidence ofphotographers like Strand andEvans; the ability to capture a"decisive moment" that is char-acteristic of Carder-Bresson; and theoften disturbing dreamlike qualitiesof Surrealist paintings. To this mix ofartistic influences, he adds a deep andproud understanding of Mexican cul-ture and a keen awareness of lightand mood. The result is a vision thatis both highly private and universallyaccessible.


Minor White, Moon and Wall Encrustations, 1964.

barely passed its first century of wide-spread use.

With most of the traditional arts,change has primarily been a matterof style. Michaelangelo and Picassoused essentially the same materialsand techniques to produce vastly dif-ferent results. Writers may use com-puters now, rather than quill pens, butthe process of writing hasn't reallychanged very much since Shake-speare's day. Writing styles, however,have changed enormously.

In the case of photography, al-most the opposite is now true: Pho-tography's essential nature (what it is

and how it works) is in the midst ofradical transformation a techno-logical revolution. Photography it-self is mutating into something newand strange and unpredictable.Compared to that , stylistic changeshardly seem to matter.

What is actually happening is thatphotography (along with computergraphics, electronic music and othertechnology-based arts) is movingaway from the traditional, "manual"arts (such as painting or classicalmusic). As a result, we are discover-ing entirely new ideas of how art maybe created and experienced.

The old distinctions between oneform of art and another are breakingdown. Words, images and music areall beginning to merge. The musicvideos on MTV are one typical ex-ample of this trend. They aren't sim-ply songs and they aren't quitemovies. They are a new hybrid: mu-sic and film merging into a new formof creative expression. Some of themtell stories. Some are more like mini-documentaries. Some resemble thesong-and-dance numbers of aBroadway musical. Similarly, it is in-creasingly difficult to define the dif-ference between a painting and a


photograph, or even between a pho-tograph and a poem.

In addition, all of the arts are be-coming more participatory. In thevery near future, it may no longer bestandard procedure for an artist tocreate some specific "thing" - aphotograph or a symphony whichothers simply receive by looking orlistening. Instead, each individualviewer or listener will have the powerto edit, combine and transform anenormous array of images andsounds. Your photograph will be rawmaterial which you may manipulatein any way you please, and to whichothers may then add their own inter-pretations and it will all be doneby computer. It is far too early to tellif all of this is actually an improve-ment, but it is certainly a change.

That is what's coming. But it isn'tquite here yet.

We are standing on the bridge be-tween photography's past and its fu-ture. And so we are able to moveback and forth between them. Wecan shoot a roll of f i lm on UncleFrank's old Pentax, make a print in atraditional darkroom and then re-interpret it on a copy machine orscan it into a Mac and make it alllook really weird. There is still a se-cure place for conventional art pho-tography, and a wide open field forexperimentation.

We are at the end of an era andat the start of a new one. This is aprivileged place to be. Enjoy it.

PHOTOGRAPHICCAREERS

The number of people who earn a"living wage" from any art is alwaysrelatively small. Photography is cer-tainly a case in point. Most pho-tographers are hobbyists who take

Wedding photography requires technical accuracy, good social skills and andthe ability to quickly arrange natural poses for individuals and large groups.Photograph by Donald Butler.

pictures for pleasure. Even many ofthe best-known art photographerspay their bills by doing commer-cial photography or other work onthe side.

Unfor tunately , being "good" oreven "the best" won't necessarilymake any difference. Many excellent

photographers have died penniless.At least a few have made good liv-ings without having much skill orcreativity. That's the way of all art timing, luck and who you know areat least as important as masteringyour craft.


Fortunately, however, commercialphotography can be a very rewardingcareer or sideline. Everything fromweddings to wars seems to require aphotographic record. Most commer-cial products rely on photography forpackaging and advertising. And thereis even a steadily growing market forphotographs as pure art though it'snot likely to make you rich.

The basic categories of profes-sional photographic work include:weddings and other social events,portraiture, journalism, productphotography and fashion. Dependingon the work you choose, the time youdevote to it and your luck and skill,you could earn from a few hundredto over a thousand dollars a day.

In each of these categories, thereare two ways of working: staff andfreelance. A staff photographer isjust like any employee, receiving asalary and clocking regular hours. Afreelance photographer is hired forspecific jobs and is generally paid by

the day. Freelancers tend to earnmore than staff photographers foreach day they work, but staff photog-raphers work more steadily. In otherwords, staff photographers are lesslikely either to get rich or to go broke.Freelancers take more risks and havea better chance of making it big.

Weddings and PortraitsProbably the largest number of pro-fessional photographers are primarilydevoted to photographing socialevents, especially weddings. The paycan be quite good several hundreddollars per day. Many wedding pho-tographers are represented by anagent who sets up photo assignmentsfor them. Many work only a coupleof days each week, generally week-ends (when weddings are most com-monly held). Wedding photographersmust be able to produce consistentlygood results, since there's no chancefor re-shooting if things get messedup. They must be especially good at

Arnold Newman, Igor Stravinsky,1946.

flash photography, since much oftheir work is done indoors on loca-tion. In addition, they must be skilledat interacting well with all sorts ofpeople. By and large, weddingphotography does not demand muchartistry most clients don't want art.It's a good line of work for anyonewho enjoys the technical side ofphotography and who likes tosocialize.

Closely related to weddings andsocial events is po r t r a i t u re -photographing a single person orsmall group. Whether it's for apassport photo or a prom portrait,everyone needs a photographer some-time. Virtually every town in thecountry has at least one studio forjust these kinds of things. Here again,the main requirements are technicalconsistency particularly in terms ofstudio lighting and social grace.


FOCAL POINT: Margaret Bourke-WhitePhotojournalismJournalistic photography rangesfrom covering a fire on Elm Street forthe local newspaper to traveling toTahiti for a major magazine. Photo-journalists must possess good in-stincts above all else. Sensing whena photo opportunity is about to oc-cur and knowing how to handle it areof vital importance. Being a first-ratephoto-technician is helpful . . . butnot strictly essential.

A more commercial field related tophotojournalism is freelance locationphotography. Corporate annualreports, slide presentations, promo-tional brochures, in-house publica-tions, trade magazines (Plumbers'Digest or New England BeverageRetailer, for example) all requireprofessional-quality photography.Being able to handle any lighting orcomposition challenge quickly andaccurately is the critical factor here.An ability to blend into the corporateenvironment is also essential.

Razzle DazzleAt the top of the career heap finan-cially are illustration, product, foodand fashion photography. This iswhere knowing the right people andbeing in the right place at the righttime are of critical importance. Aflair for style helps too. You alsohave to be very good if you expect tohave more than a brief career. Thecompetition is s t iff because therewards are high. A top-notch pro-duct, food or fashion photographerwill charge $2,000 or more per day.A comparable illustration photog-rapher might earn the same amountfor a single photograph. Nice workif you can get it.

Today we take photojournalism forgranted. We expect our magazine ar-ticles to be illustrated with photo-graphs that add insights and impactof their own. But, like photographyitself, photojournalism had to be in-vented. One of the people who playeda major role in inventing it wasMargaret Bourke-White.

While in college, Bourke-Whitediscovered that she excelled at pho-tography. After graduating fromCornell, she began working as a pro-fessional photographer. She wasespecially intrigued by the surge oftechnological developments at thattime and used her camera to conveythe power and beauty she saw ineverything from clock parts to steelmills. From 1929 to 1933, she was anindustrial photographer for Fortunemagazine. Her work there was notlimited to machine parts and con-struction projects, however. In 1934,she covered the drought known as the"Dust Bowl" that swept through theGreat Plains, showing how that trag-edy affected the lives of farmers andtheir families. This article was a mile-stone in photojournalism. Thoughother photographers, such as LewisHine, had done similar reporting onsocial issues, none had done so for amajor magazine.

After becoming a staff photog-rapher for Life magazine in 1936,Bourke-White continued to coverboth technological progress andhuman suffering. The very first issueof Life featured one of her photo-graphs on the cover: a dramaticimage of a massive dam constructionproject. She provided extensivecoverage of World War II, mostnotably the horrors discovered whenthe Allies liberated the concentrationcamps. She photographed the gran-deur and starvation of India in thelate 1940s, black South AfricanMiners in 1950, and the Korean Warin 1952.

By the mid-1950s, Bourke-Whitewas suffering from Parkinson'sDisease, which progressively reducesthe body's ability to control its move-ments. She left the staff of Life in1969 and died two years later.

Though she was neither a masterstylist nor an exceptional technician,Bourke-White was among the first toclearly understand the camera'spower to record "history in the mak-ing." She helped establish standardsfor commitment, concern and sheerenergy that photojournalists havestruggled to live up to ever since.


1904-71

Margaret Bourke-White, Airship Akron, Winner Goodyear Zeppelin Race, 1931.


A flair for the exotic and a sophisticated sense of humor are important assets in fashion photography. Photograph byBane Kapsu.


VariationsMixed in with these general categoriesare numerous photographic special-ties: scientific, sports, underwater,travel, architectural, art reproduc-tion, etc. Matching your skills and in-terests to one of these niches may bethe most satisfying career path of all.By specializing in one particularaspect of photography, rather thancompeting in a broader category, youhave a good chance of establishing aclear identity and of focusing in ona steady market. Word-of-mouth rec-ommendation is always a photog-rapher's best advertising. You standto benefit most from it if you earn agood reputation for a specific set ofskills.

If you enjoy photographing build-ings, for example, you can make acareer of it, hiring yourself out to ar-chitectural and construction firms orto design magazines. If you're veryprecise and detail oriented, you mightget into photographing art formuseums. If you like flying, youmight consider aerial photography. Ifyou prefer swimming, considerunderwater photography.

There are career opportunities inphotographic processing as well.Here again, developing a specific setof skills is recommended. Some pho-tographers specialize in a photo-graphic style that requires certainprocesses, such as antique style sepia-toned or hand-tinted prints. Whensomeone needs that particular stylefor a magazine illustration or cor-porate annual report, a specialist willgenerally be selected. The same ruleapplies to those who offer processing

services to other photographers.Retouchers, for example, are paidhandsomely to fix mistakes or other-wise alter a photo's appearance.Skilled darkroom techicians, special-izing in black and white or color, arehighly regarded and well paid.

Finally, there are many other jobsthat don't require regular use of acamera or darkroom but can, none-theless, keep a photographer "intouch." These include selling andrepairing cameras, mainta iningphotographic libraries or stock-agency files, curating in photographygalleries or museums, or even help-ing to develop new designs, formulasand processes for cameras or film.

Looking AheadIn virtually any photography-relatedfield, the key to getting started is toput together a winning portfolio an elegant, professional collection ofyour best work. Your portfolio willtell a prospective employer or clientwhat you can do, so it should be of aconsistently high standard rightdown to the details of excellent printquality, good mounting techniqueand slick presentation. If you arefortunate enough to have some ofyour photographs published (by a lo-cal newspaper, for example, or evenin a school publication) these -called tear sheets (as in a torn-outpage) should be included as well:Cut out the full page on which yourphotograph appears and mount it asyou would a standard print, or slip itinto a plastic sheet. (Use part of apage if the whole thing is too big tofit the size mat you're using for your

prints, but be sure to include the run-ning head or foot that indicates thename and date of the publication.)

Your portfolio should also be tai-lored to the kind of work you'reseeking. If you hope to be hired as alab technician, emphasize printquality. If you want to cover localnews events, include some goodaction shots. If advertising interestsyou, try to create some still-life pho-tographs that have the "look-and-feel" of studio composition andlighting. If you'd like to pursue fash-ion photography, you might team upwith a friend who aspires to a careerin modeling working together toproduce some fashion shots that youboth can use. And, of course, if youhope to sell your work as art, thenyour portfolio must show that you'veattained a high level of skill and crea-tivity.

As you progress through thiscourse, it is a good idea to keep yourlong-range goals in mind. It's nevertoo early to begin preparing forthem. Even if you have no interest ina photographic career, your portfo-lio is your own record of achieve-ment. And you never know when itmay come in handy, so you may aswell do it right.

Effective presentation (and atten-tion to detail) is vitally important inany line of work. Mastering photo-graphic technique and preparing agood portfolio will teach you valu-able skills which will serve you well,no matter what career you ultimatelychoose.


part 2 Elements of Composition

Student photograph by Michael Grassia.

33

Student photograph.


chapter 2 Tools

P hotographic technology ischanging so fast that it is ut-I terly impossible to definethe standard tools-of-the-trade withany degree of precision. Camerasnow in use range from clumsy boxeswith lots of knobs and dials to thelatest high-tech whiz-bang contrap-tions which look like props from StarTrek. Photographic images can nowbe stored on an astonishing array offilms plus CDs, computer disksand video tape. By the time you readthis, it is likely other new technolo-gies will have appeared, promisingeven greater ease, efficiency and op-portunities.

This is all well and good, but thereis also real value in understandingthe basic principles of photography and that is much easier to do withthe old fashioned, manual ap-proach. True, it does take more timeto produce a photograph in this way.And potentially great shots can bemissed while you fiddle with thoseknobs and dials. But there is aunique satisfaction in knowing ex-actly what your camera is doing andwhy, controlling it to achieve the ef-fect you choose rather than merelypointing and shooting.

So, it is perhaps fortunate thattechnological advances take sometime to settle in and push aside thepast. Just as there are times when

writing with an antique fountain penis infinitely preferable to tapping at acomputer keyboard, there are bene-fits to cameras that lack the latestautomation.

The essential point to all this isthat there's no need to worry if youcan't afford to buy a slick new cam-era with all the bells and whistles, astash of fancy lenses and a suitcase

full of clever attachments and acces-sories. In fact, odds are that you willbecome a better photographer if youbegin with a second-hand, second-rate old clunker that looks like anartifact from the Stone Age.

Not everyone needs the same kindof tool whether that tool is acamera or a musical instrument. Aconcert violinist may require the best

35

If you choose your camera carefully and practice with it often, you'll soonlearn to use it with very little effort or conscious thought. It will becomesimply an extension of eyes and handsresponsive, accurate andcomfortable. (Student photograph by Trevor Bredenkamp.)

violin money can buy, but a bluessinger may make fine music with anold beat-up guitar. Similarly, some ofthe world's best photographers usethe latest "high-tech" cameras; othersuse antiques held together with rub-ber bands and tape. The right choicefor most of us is somewhere betweenthese extremes.

Like any tool, each camera has a"personality" a mixture of oppor-tunities and limitations that you con-trol to express your personal vision.The goal in selecting a camera is tofind one that does what you need itto do, no more and no less. In otherwords, the right camera for you isone with a "personality" that matchesyour own.

So, the first rule for choosing acamera is to make the best of whatyou already have or can easily afford.After you become more experienced,you'll be more able to decide exactlywhat features you need. That's thetime to invest in your particulardream machine. For now, however,use what you have. If you don't yetown a camera, buy the least expen-sive one that meets your basic needs.The money you save can be spent onfilm and chemicals, which are farmore important at this stage than thequality of your camera.

One thing that is important, nomatter which camera you buy, isdurability. No matter how carefulyou are, your camera is likely to getknocked around a bit. Get one that isstrong enough to take abuse.

One of the most important dif-ferences among cameras is the lensesthat can be used with them. An inter-changeable lens can be removed fromthe camera body and replaced withanother lens that produces a differenteffect. For example, a telephoto lens,which works like a telescope, may be

Manual cameras provide a greater amount of creative control, especiallywith lighting. This photograph would have been virtually impossible withmost purely automatic cameras, since the lighting effect is not "normal."(Student photograph.)

used to make distant objects appearcloser.

The most popular and inexpensivecameras have a fixed lens. A fixedlens cannot be removed and, there-fore, cannot be changed. Though notessential, interchangeable lenses canbe a great asset.

Some modern cameras offer acompromise between fixed and inter-changeable lenses: permanently at-tached zooms. Others allow you toswitch from a wide-angle to a tele-photo lens, both of which are at-tached to the camera body.Generally, these kinds of lenses aretoo limited to be very useful, butthey'll do in a pinch.

There is no need to rush out andbuy a telephoto or any other non-standard lens immediately. For yourfirst assignments, you will be usingonly the standard 50mm lens. Even-tually, however, you will probably

want to try other lenses, so it is agood idea to use a camera that willallow you to do this. Once again,however, it is not essential. If yourbudget restricts you to a fixed-lenscamera, you will still be able to takeperfectly good photographs.

Manual or AutomaticIf you are buying a camera, you havetwo basic choices: manual orautomatic. Manual cameras havebeen in use far longer than automaticcameras, and they are still preferredby many professionals. They requireyou to load and wind the film, selectthe shutter speed, set the aperture,and focus. Automatic cameras willdo some or all of these things for you.

The big advantage of a manualcamera is that you always controlwhat it is doing. You make the deci-sions, and the camera does what you


Automatic cameras are especially useful for "grab shots," when there's notime to fiddle with knobs and dials. By letting the camera make thetechnical decisions, the photographer is able to concentrate on getting thetiming just right. (Student photograph by Lauren McDermott.)

tell it to do. As a result, you will learnwhat works and what doesn't. Youwill also make mistakes (which is howyou learn). The main disadvantage ofa manual camera is the amount oftime required to set up a shot.

Most manual cameras now avail-able in the 35mm format have a built-in light meter. The meter informs youof the lighting conditions, and you setthe speed and aperture accordingly.Older cameras, and many studiomodels, require you to use a hand-held light meter to "read" the light,before you set the camera.

Cameras with automatic lightmetering also fall into two categories:full automatic and manual-override.A full automatic chooses the apertureor shutter speed, or both, accordingto a built-in computer that is pro-grammed to make the decision youwould probably make anyway. While

this may sound very appealing, thereis a problem and that problem is the"probably."

As you become a more experiencedphotographer, you will sometimesdisagree with your camera's choice.You may want a picture to be a bitdarker or lighter for effect, or thecamera may be "confused" by a com-plex lighting situation. With fullautomatic, there's not much you cando to change the camera's decision.This is a poor choice for anyonewho really wants to learn aboutphotography.

Manual-override offers a solution.When you're sure the camera willmake the right decisions (i.e. whenyou want a normal photograph in anormal lighting situation), you let thecamera decide. When you disagree,you set the camera manually. If youmake an effort to pay attention to

what the camera is doing, you can usethe automatic light meter most of thetime and still learn how to use lighteffectively. If you don't make that ef-fort you won't learn much, and you'llend up taking a lot of "normal" andprobably boring pictures.

If you are shooting a lot of "can-dids" (quick, unposed photographs),like most photojournalists, theautomatic option can be a big help since you won't miss a good shot orannoy your subject while you fumblewith knobs and dials. If you're doinga lot of still-life or nature photog-raphy, or if you prefer to take yourtime, as most art photographers do,a manual camera will do just as well,and will teach you more.

All the other automatic featuresare far less important. Loading andwinding the film manually will soonbecome second nature to you, so hav-ing it done automatically is not muchof an advantage (unless you havereason to be in a real hurry). Auto-focus is another asset for the "grab-shooter," though focusing shouldn'ttake more than a split second onceyou get the hang of it.

What Format?Most modern cameras use 35mmfilm. This is a relatively small formatthat allows many frames to fit on asingle roll. As a result, it costs less pershot than larger formats. In addition,the smaller format means the cameracan be smaller and lighter, so it'seasier to carry and use.

There is one advantage to largerformats: the grain of the film. Allfilm stores images in tiny dots. Whenthe film is enlarged, the dots begin toshow. This is grain. If you are mak-ing a large print (such as for an ex-hibit or a full page in a magazine),grain can be a problem. Too much

Tools 37

Each kind of lens has its own characteristics and uses. The wide-angle lens used for this photograph produced aslightly surreal effect. Much of the photograph's impact would have been lost with either a normal or a telephotolens. (Student photograph by John Berringer.)

grain reduces the image quality. Itbegins to look "grainy."

For most uses, including most ex-hibit formats, the ease of using35mm outweighs the drawbacks ofgrain. And, as films continue to im-prove, grain is becoming less and lessof a problem. After you've devel-oped your skill and style, you maywant to move up to larger formats,but you can decide that later.

Choosing a LensIn many ways, choosing the right lensor lenses is even more important thanchoosing the right camera.

Once you've selected some brandnames you trust and can afford, youface another choice: which lenses tobuy. Most cameras come equippedwith a 50mm lens. This is the stan-dard lens for 35mm photography,because it is closest to normal vision.What you see through the camera will

look the same as what you see withyour own eyes. Whatever lenses youeventually buy, you will want to in-clude the 50mm range. (By the way,if you find 50mm lenses and 35mmfilm confusing, don't worry. Theseand other terms will graduallybecome familiar to you as you usethem.)

If you have a choice (and you oftenwon't) you might consider buying thecamera body and lens separately.


This will enable you to choose avariable focal-length, or "zoom," lensinstead of a "fixed focal-length" lens.

As explained in Chapter 11, thefocal-length of a lens determines howwide an area you can see through it.In effect, the 50mm lens draws a boxwithin which objects are normal insize and proportion. A shorter lens,such as a 35mm, draws a larger box,and makes objects appear smallerand somewhat "bent" or distorted. Alonger lens, such as a 135mm, drawsa smaller box, making objects appearlarger and more compressed (withless space between them). With eachfixed focal-length lens you have onlyone choice.

With a zoom (variable focal-length) lens, you have many choices.A zoom lens is essentially severallenses in one. For example, if a zoomlens ranges from 35mm to 135mm,you will have the same choices as youwould if you bought the three focal-lengths just mentioned (35mm,50mm and 135mm), plus all thefocal-lengths in between.

Any good modern zoom lens willmatch the image qual i ty of a typicalfixed focal-length lens. (Early zoomsproduced poor image quality at "in-between" focal-lengths, such as42mm. This problem has been cor-rected on most modern models.) Youwill, however, almost certainly losesome of the lower (larger) aperturesoffered by fixed focal-length lenses.Since a large aperture lets in morelight than a small one, a zoom lensmay limit your ability to photographin low-light situations or at high shut-ter speeds.

If your budget permits, it is usefulto have the three basic lens ranges:wide-angle, "normal" (50mm), andtelephoto. However, the normal lensis the most important. Do not start

your photo career with only a wide-angle or only a telephoto. It's per-fectly all right to start it with only a50mm. Once again, the best pro-cedure is probably to start simply,with just a standard lens, and addothers as you decide you need them.If you are thinking of investing inmore than one lens, review Chapter11 before making any decisions.

What Price?How much should you pay for acamera? Well, it really depends onwhat you can easily afford. Goodcameras are available for as little as$50. Top professional models cancost several thousand dollars.

If your budget limits you to under$100, buy the best manual camerayou can f ind perhaps a goodsecond-hand model. If you can af-ford more, take a careful look at the$100 to $500 range, keeping in mindthe features you care most about(automatic features, manual features,durability, lenses), and buy the onethat best suits you. A fully profes-sional camera system which you ab-solutely do not need at this stage i slikely to cost over $1,000, dependingon your choice of lenses.

Before buying any camera, readreviews of several in cameramagazines (see the Bibliography fornames of some good ones). Asksomeone you know who does a lot ofphotography to give you somerecommendations. Then make an in-formed decision.

Selecting a lens may be more dif-ficult. The quality of the glass andconstruction varies considerably. Acheap lens may result in photographsthat are always out of focus, blurryaround the edges or grainy.

A good rule of thumb is to stickwith the brand names you know. All

camera manufacturers make lensesfor their cameras that you can trustto be as well-made as the cameras. Inaddition, cameras with automaticfeatures may require that you staywith the same brand when buyinglenses. However, many companiesproduce lenses designed for use witha variety of cameras. These may beas good as or better than the cameramanufacturer's own lenses and oftencost less. Read the reviews in cameramagazines and ask for the advice ofexperienced photographers beforeyou decide.

One final note on lenses: Buy a UV(ultraviolet) or a "skylight" filter foreach lens, attach it and leave it on atall times. Either of these filters willhelp a little to reduce haze undersome lighting conditions, but theirreal use is to protect the lens itselffrom damage. Should you acciden-tally scratch the filter, it can be inex-pensively replaced. Replacing the lenswould of course be far more costly.

SummaryThere are only three key points youneed to understand at this point:First, start with the basics a simple,relatively inexpensive camera with a50mm lens. Ideally, your camera willpermit you to use other ("inter-changeable") lenses as well. Youshould have at least one lens thatopens up to f/2.8, and all lensesshould have UV or skylight filters at-tached. Second, choose a camera thatincludes manual controls for apertureand shutter-speed. Full manual isfine; automatic features are nice ex-tras, but they are not necessary.Third, make sure that both yourcamera and lens are manufactured bya reliable company. If you begin withthese essentials, you'll be wellequipped to learn photography.

Tools 39

Additional ToolsOnce you've selected a camera andlens (or lenses), you have taken careof the big decisions. Later, you maywant to add other tools, such as atripod and flash, but they can wait.Refer to Appendix 4 for more infor-mation on them when the timecomes. There are, however, a fewother inexpensive tools you'll need inorder to get started.

As soon as you begin producingphotographs, you'll want to storeyour negatives and prints, to keepthem clean and organized. Plasticsheets specially designed for storingnegatives are available that fit into astandard three-ring binder. Buy a boxof these and a binder to file them in.

Immediately after developing anddrying each roll of film, you will cutthe roll into shorter lengths (fiveframes each) and slip them into thenegative file. The next step is to placethe film directly onto a piece ofphotographic paper to make a con-tact print (see Appendix 1 for ex-planation). With a plastic negativefile, this can be done directly. Paperfiles are also available. They requireyou to remove the film to make acontact print, however, so are not aseasy to use as plastic sheets.

Similar sheets are available forstoring prints. If your photo storedoesn't carry them, you can probablyfind them in an office supply store.Any plastic sheet that will hold8'/2" x 11" paper, with holes for athree-ring binder, will do fine.

You will also want an ordinarygrease pencil (yellow or white) tomark your contacts when you'redeciding which frames to print.Grease pencil marks show up wellin the darkroom, and they can berubbed off if you change your mind.

Finally, be sure to have the instruc-

tions for your camera available at alltimes. If you are buying a newcamera, this will be easy. If not, youmay have to search a bi t , or buy oneof the many books available describ-ing different camera models. If youcan't locate instructions, have some-one who knows the camera well showyou how it works and be sure totake notes.

Basic Tools ChecklistThe following tools are all you willneed to get started. Check to see thatyou have them, and that your cameraand lens meet the key requirementslisted here:

Camera RequirementsDurabilityManual Aperture & Shutter-Speed ControlsReliable ManufacturerInterchangeable LensCapability

Lens RequirementsStandard Focal-Length(50mm)172.8Reliable Manufacturer

_ UV Filter

Additional ToolsPlastic Negative FilesPlastic Print SheetsGrease PencilOperations Manual or OtherInstructions for Camera

THE CAMERA, INSIDE& OUT

Most 35mm cameras are fairly similarin the design and placement of keycontrols. For example, the film ad-vance lever (the "winder") is generallyon the top right, next to the shutterrelease. Advances in electronics,however, are turning cameras into

mini-computers. Many are utterlyunl ike the traditional models. Somenew ones, for example, come with abuilt-in auto-winder and don't havea film advance lever at all.

So, the following pages are not in-tended as a substitute for yourcamera's manual. No one list can becorrect and complete for all camerabrands and models. You may have tohunt a bit to locate some of the com-ponents on your camera, since eachmodel tends to have its little quirks.Check your own manual to be surethat you know where each compo-nent is located on your camera andhow it works.

The following pages are intendedas a summary of the basic com-ponents of a typical, traditionalcamera. This will give you an idea ofhow your camera compares to mostothers.

You may not find all of the com-ponents that are listed here, eitherbecause they are not included in yourcamera or because they have beenreplaced by an automatic feature. Itis still a good idea to become familiarwith all of them. Understanding eachcomponent of a traditional camerawill help you understand how eventhe simplest or most automaticcamera works. And knowing how acamera works is vital to using it well.

As you read this section, compareeach description with your owncamera. Be sure to have your owncamera's manual on hand to clarifyany questions. Look for each compo-nent as it is described, and try it out.Do not put film into the camera un-t i l instructed to do so.


The Camera Body: Outside ViewfinderThe first thing to look at on yourcamera is the part that allows you tolook through it. The viewfinder, insimplest terms, is just a rectangularwindow that shows you what will bein your photograph when you clickthe shutter. (Actually, viewfindersgenerally show you a bit less thanyou'll actually get. This is usually anadvantage, as it gives you a little"slack" when you're making a print.)

Your viewfinder is probably quitea bit more than just a window,however. It certainly will includesome kind of focusing aid. One com-mon focusing aid is a split circle(called a split-image focusing screen)in which out-of-focus objects do notline up correctly. Another commonkind is a series of circles (called aground-glass focusing screen) that goin and out of focus as you turn thefocusing ring on the lens.

The split-image screen is especiallyhelpful if you're at all nearsighted. Touse it, you simply adjust the focus-ing ring until both sides of the circleline up. It works best when the splitis placed across a line of some kind,such as an eyelid or a branch, so youcan see what you're lining up.

In addition, most modern camerasuse the sides of the viewfinder toshow you important information.This may include the aperture of yourlens, the camera's shutter-speed,

Tools 41

whether the camera is in manual orautomatic mode, whether your flashhas recharged, etc.

Take some time to explore yourviewfinder. If you aren't certain whateverything in it means, consult theuser's manual for your camera or askan experienced photographer.

ASA/ISOThe first step of any photo assign-ment is to set the correct film speed.This will be listed on the film carton,or box, (and also on the canister, themetal container holding the film) asASA or ISO. These two terms areused to describe the same thing: thefilm's sensitivity to light. In fact theyoften appear together, as ASA/ISO.ISO is becoming the more commonterm, however, so we'll be using itthroughout this book. (Both "ASA"and "ISO" are the ini t ials oforganizations the American Stan-dards Association and the Interna-tional Standards Organization thatestablish scientific measurements.)

The ISO indicator is generally builtinto the rewind knob, on the left sideof the top of the camera. The ISOnumbers are usually visible througha little window in the rewind knob.Each number is usually double thepreceding number: 25, 50, 100, 200,400, 800, etc. Dots between thenumbers indicate settings in betweenthese numbers. So, for example, ISO125 is one dot above ISO 100.

You must remember to change theISO setting every time you use a dif-ferent kind of film. If you are usingany automatic exposure system, yourcamera will base its decisions on theISO setting you've selected. If it'swrong, all your photos will be incor-rectly exposed.

The same holds true for the cam-era's internal light meter. If you'resetting the shutter speed or apertureaccording to the meter, your ex-posures will only be correct if the ISOsetting is correct. Even if you're do-ing everything manually, the ISO set-ting is an important reminder of whatkind of film you're using.

To change the ISO setting, yougenerally turn a knob that moves thenumbers through the indicator win-dow. You may first need to press abutton, lift the knob or otherwiserelease a lock designed to prevent youfrom changing the setting acciden-tally. On many modern cameras,you'll change the ISO by pressing abutton until the right number comesup in a display panel. Some cameraswill set the ISO for you automat-ically, reading the proper setting froma code on the film canister. (Film thathas been coded for this purpose islabeled "DX.")

Locate the ISO indicator on yourcamera. Adjust the setting to see howlow and high it goes. Professionalcameras will provide ISO settings aslow as 6 and as high as 6400. Manypopular models have a range of 12 to3200. Don't worry if yours doesn't goas high or as low as that. Most filmsfall between ISO 25 and 1200.

Once you've checked out the limitsof your camera's ISO indicator, setit to ISO 125. This is the speed forKodak's Plus-X film, which you willbe using in your first assignment.

Shutter-Speed ControlThe shutter-speed control is almostalways on the top right of the camera.It determines how long the shutterwill remain open for each photo-graph. It is simply a timer. When youpress the shutter release, the shutteropens, light enters through the lens,and the timer begins counting. Whenthe shutter has been open for theamount of time you have selected, itcloses again. The numbers on theshutter-speed control indicate frac-tions of a second (60 = 1760 of a sec-ond, and so on), so the timer has tocount very quickly.

The most commonly used shutterspeeds are probably 60 and 125. Bothare fast enough to stop most actionwith a 50mm lens, while allowing fora fairly small aperture in mostlighting conditions.

Notice that 125 (or 1/125 of a sec-ond) is almost exactly twice as fast as60 (or 1/60 of a second). The nextspeed above 125 is 250 twice as fastagain. Depending on your camera,the highest speed may be 1000 or evenhigher, fast enough to "freeze" a birdin flight or a race car at the Indy 500.

Moving down from 60, the nextspeed is 30. Again depending on yourcamera, the shutter speeds may go aslow as 1, for 1 second. Some camerasprovide even longer automaticallytimed exposures, even as long as aminute or more.

The last indicator on the shutter-speed control should be a "B." This

stands for "bulb." In the early daysof photography, the shutter wasreleased by squeezing a rubber bulb,and it stayed open as long as the bulbwas squeezed. The photographer hadto decide when enough light hadentered the camera, and then let goof the bulb to close the shutter. Sincefilm was very slow in those days, thatwasn't as hard as it sounds.

Today, although everything aboutthe cameras we use is far more com-plex, this term remains the same. The"B" simply means that the shutter willremain open as long as the release isheld down. This is useful for verylong exposures, primarily at night.To use the "B" setting, you willalmost certainly need to use a tripodand a cable release, which (like theold-fashioned bulbs) is used to avoidshaking the camera.

Shutter ReleaseNext to the shutter-speed control (topright of the camera) you should findthe shutter release. It is simply a but-ton which, when pressed, triggers theshutter mechanism. (Note: On somecameras, the shutter release is pressedpart-way down to measure the lightor "freeze" the aperture setting.)

Film Advance LeverThe film-advance lever (or winder) isgenerally located directly behind theshutter release, making it easy toclick-and-wind quickly.

Try turning the winder (counter-clockwise). If it doesn't move morethan an inch, press the shutterrelease. You should hear a sharpclick. Then try the winder again. Itshould swing easily out to the side ofthe camera and snap back into placewhen you let go of it. If you had filmin the camera, you would have justtaken a photograph and advanced thefilm to the next frame. Rewind ReleaseAs you wind film through thecamera, it travels from its canister (onthe left) to the "take-up reel" belowthe advance lever (on the right).When you reach the end of a roll, thelever will jam. You will no longer beable to turn it easily. The next stepis to rewind the film back into thecanister.

Before you can do that, you'll needto release the lock that keeps the filmfrom slipping backwards by acci-dent. Remove the camera from itscase and look on the bottom of thecamera body. You should find asmall button directly below the filmadvance lever.

Pressing this button will release thelock, so you can rewind the film.(Until there is film in the camera,however, it won't have any effect, sodon't bother testing it yet.)

RewinderOnce you've released the film lock,you'll need to crank the film back in-to its canister, using the rewind knobon the left side of the camera's top.Generally, a small crank is lifted outof the rewind knob for this purpose.There should be an arrow indicatingthat the crank turns clockwise, in caseyou get confused. As you rewind thefilm, it is a good idea to keep yourfinger on the rewind release button soit doesn't lock again and tear thefilm's sprocket holes. Battery CompartmentAnother important component isgenerally located on the bottom ofthe camera: the battery compart-ment. If yours is there, it will prob-ably have a round metal cover witha slit in it. To open the compartment,you place the edge of a coin (a pennyworks well) into the slit and turn itcounter-clockwise. When the cover isremoved, a small packet with one ortwo coin-shaped batteries should slideout. These batteries are very sensitiveand may not work if you get dust orfingerprints on them. So treat themcarefully. Fortunately, your batteriesrarely need changing.

If you found a round metal coverwith a slit in it, but did not find anybatteries under it, then you've prob-ably just discovered your camera'smotor-drive connector. This is a gearthat connects a separate motor-driveunit to your camera's film advancemechanism. (To learn more about

Tools 43

motor-drives, see Appendix 4.) Inthis case, your camera's battery islocated elsewhere. Most likely it's ina compartment on the front of thecamera body, on the right side. If so,it's likely that your camera uses bat-teries to run both the light meter anda variety of automatic features. Themore automatic features your camerahas, the more power it requires, andthe more frequently you'll need freshbatteries. Check your manual to findout how to change them. Battery CheckThe placement and operation of thebattery check varies considerablyfrom one camera model to the next.It may be activated by a button onthe top or on the front of the body.It may cause a needle in the view-finder to move to an assigned spot,or light up an indicator lamp. Or itmay be fully automatic, activating anindicator only when the battery islow. Take a moment to locate thebattery-check function on yourcamera, using the manual, and besure you know how it works. Fewthings are more depressing inphotography than discovering toolate that your camera has deadbatteries.

Hot ShoeNearly all modern cameras comeequipped with a "hot shoe." This isa small clamp right above theeyepiece, onto which a flash can be

mounted. It establishes an electroniclink between the flash and thecamera. This link enables the camerato "trigger" the flash while the shut-ter is fully open. It may also enablethe flash and camera to "communi-cate," so the flash can "tell" thecamera what aperture to use, or thecamera can "tell" the flash when it hasreceived enough light. (See Appendix4 for more information on flashes.) AccessoriesThe next three components are notessential and are not included in allmodels. If your camera has them,however, they can be useful.

Self-Timer The primary purposeof the self-timer is to permit you totake a picture of yourself. It usuallyconsists of a lever that you turnbefore pressing the shutter release.The timer starts counting as soon asthe shutter release is pressed, gen-erally giving you a few seconds toposition yourself in front of thecamera and work on your smile.Most self-timers also include a littlelight that blinks to tell you it'sworking.

Multiple-Exposure Control Thisfeature stops the film advancemechanism from working, so you canmove the lever without moving thefilm. This enables you to cock theshutter for a new shot, while the filmstays where it is. You can then putmore than a single shot onto a single

frame of film. If you want to playwith multiple images, "ghosts" andrelated special effects, this mech-anism will allow you to do so.

Depth of Field Preview ButtonNormally, your lens will stay open tothe largest aperture available untilyou click the shutter. This gives youas much light in the viewfinder aspossible to help you focus precisely.The depth of field preview buttontemporarily closes the lens down tothe aperture you've selected, so yousee exactly what the film will see. Asexplained in Chapter 9, the smallerthe aperture, the greater the range ofdistance that will be in focus. Thisrange is known as depth of field.

If you have selected a small aper-ture (say, f/16) pressing the depth offield preview button will cause theviewfinder to become dark (due tothe small aperture). If you lookcarefully, you'll see that nearlyeverything is in crisp focus. If you'veselected a moderate aperture (say,f/5.6), the background will be out offocus when the foreground is infocus, and vice versa. If you'veselected your largest aperture, thedepth of field preview button won'thave any effect at all, since the depthof field stays the same.

The primary function of the depthof field preview button is to help youselect the correct aperture when depthof field is of critical importance.You'll find it especially useful whenshooting close-ups. Camera Back ReleaseNow comes the tricky part. Becauseyou don't want your camera to openitself accidentally, the latch thatkeeps the back shut is often cleverlyhidden. In addition, releasing it tendsto require several steps. Generally,the release is connected in some wayto pulling up the rewind knob (which


also frees the film canister from itssprocket). If in doubt, once again,consult your manual.

The Camera Body: InsideBefore we explore the internal work-ings of your camera, a few generalwords of caution are in order.Though the outside of most camerascan stand a fair amount of abuse, theinside can't. Once you've opened thecamera back, you have exposed somevery delicate machinery. This is onetime that strict rules do apply: Don'tpoke around with your fingers untilyou know what you're poking. Don'ttry to "fix" things, even if they appearto be broken. If you think some-thing's wrong, take the camera to anauthorized repair shop. Open thecamera back only when absolutelynecessary (to change film), and closeit again as quickly as possible. Pro-tect the interior from dust andmoisture. If you're shooting in dustyor wet conditions, aim your back in-to the wind and cover the camera asmuch as possible. In short, becareful!

ShutterThe first thing you're likely to noticeonce you open the camera back isalso the most fragile and important:the shutter. This is a piece of clothor a series of small metal plates cover-ing the rectangular space directlybelow the viewfinder. It is as delicateas it looks, so do not touch it.

When you click the shutter, threethings happen. The lens closes downto the aperture you've selected. Amirror between the lens and the shut-ter (which you'll see a little later) liftsup out of the way. Then the shutterslides open, stays open for the dura-tion of the shutter speed you'veselected, and slides shut.

Sound simple? In a sense it is, ex-cept that all this has to happen withabsolute precision in a fraction of a

second.The metal plate attached to the

camera back (see it?) presses the filmfiat. (This is another of the camera's"don't touch" parts.) The shutteropens and closes, letting a veryprecise amount of light in through thelens. The light exposes one piece (orframe) of film, initiating the chemicalreaction that produces a negative im-age. The film is advanced to a fresh(unexposed) frame and the process isrepeated until the film has all been ex-posed. That, in very simplified form,is how a camera works.

Film SpoolTo the left of the shutter screen is thefilm spool. This is where you'll inserta film canister. Notice the prongs thatprotrude from the end of the spool.These must be fitted to matchingopenings in the film canister. Noticealso that the entire spool slides up outof the way when you pull the rewindknob. This provides just enoughspace for you to slip in the canister.You then push the knob back down,fiddling with it, as needed, to slip theprongs into their respective openings.

Tools 45

Take-Up ReelThe final step in loading film occurs

Film-Advance SprocketJust to the right of the shutter screenthere are two sets of sprockets (gears)on a reel. This is the next step inloading film. The small rectangularholes along the upper and lower edgesof the film must be positioned overthese sprockets. Each knob of thesprocket should slide easily into ahole in the film as they turn together.

at the far right, just past the film-advance sprocket. This is the take-upreel. In most cameras, this reel issimply a tube with slits in it. Your jobis to insert the end of the film in oneof the slits and then wind the reel un-til the film catches and holds tight.

On some newer cameras, the take-up reel is equipped with a specialmechanism to make it easier to insertthe film. Some even load the filmautomatically. Once again, if youhave any questions, consult yourmanual.

The LensThe lens is a camera's eye. Like ahuman eye, its opening expands andcontracts (opens and closes) as the

amount of light it is "seeing"decreases and increases. Also like ahuman eye, it focuses on some thingsand not on others. Unlike the humaneye, however, a camera lens requireshelp to do these things. With mostcameras, that help must come fromyou, the photographer.

You expand and contract the open-ing of the lens by adjusting the aper-ture ring. You use the focusing ringto select what is in and out of focus.The aperture and focusing rings areused together to determine how muchis in focus. By decreasing the aper-ture, you increase the depth of field.In other words, a smaller lens open-ing means that more of your photo-graph will be in focus.


Aperture RingLet's start with the ring that is usuallyclosest to the camera body and moveoutwards. On most cameras, this willbe the aperture ring.

The aperture ring consists of aseries of numbers 4, 5.6, 8, 11,etc.-that can be turned to line upwith a marker. The lowest numberwill probably be 1.8, 2.8, or 3.5,depending on your lens. The highestis likely to be 16 or 22.

Each of these numbers stands foran aperture or f-stop, a different sizelens opening. The lower numbersrepresent larger openings; the highernumbers represent smaller ones.

On cameras with automatic meter-ing, you're likely to see an "A" orsome other symbol ind ica t ing"automatic." If so, you may need topress a button to release the ring soyou can turn it. In this case, the ringlocks itself on automatic, so youdon't accidentally bump it intomanual mode (which can result in alot of ruined photos.)

Depth of Field ScaleGenerally, there is another ring withthe same numbers (usually smallerand sometimes colored) right next tothe aperture ring. This one does notturn. It is the depth of field scale, andis there only to give information. Thescale tells you what range of distancewill be in focus at each f-stop. Forexample, at f/16 everything from 7to 30 feet away from you will be infocus. At f/4, the depth of field ismuch smaller: from 7 to about 9 feet.

Basically, the depth of field scalegives you the same information as thedepth of field preview button. Thedifference is that one tells and theother shows you.

Focusing RingIf you've been checking out the depthof field scale, you've probablyalready figured out the focusing ring.The focusing ring is marked withdistances, virtually always in bothfeet ("ft") and meters ("m"). Youturn the ring to adjust the focus.

Normally, of course, you won't seethe numbers, since you'll be looking

through the lens. The main use of thenumbers is to give you the option ofguessing at the correct focal distance.This can come in very handy if youwant to sneak a shot of someonewithout being noticed.

Lens Release & MountNow that you know how the lensworks, let's take it off . On mostcameras, you'll f ind a buttonsomewhere that you must press asyou turn the lens (and some turn oneway, some the other). Absolutely,positively, with no exceptions, do notattempt to remove a lens from anycamera until you're sure you knowhow. This goes double for trying toput the lens back on. (One of the bestways to ruin a camera, outside ofdropping it on concrete, is to forcea lens on the wrong way and thereare lots of wrong ways.) Alwayscheck the manual first.

Once you have studied the manualcarefully, practice removing the lensand putting it back on again until youcan do it quickly and effortlessly.Before you do, make sure you haveeverything correctly lined up, andthat you have a clean, safe place toput the lens when you take it off.Finally, never leave a lens lyingaround off the camera and out of itscase, or a camera lying around withno lens on it. Either way, you're justasking for trouble.

Tools 47

EXERCISE

Testing the Shutter & Aperture

By now you should be familiar withall the components that have an ef-fect on the shutter. Let's take a lookat them all in action.

Set your shutter speed to "B" andyour lens to its largest aperture(remember, that 's the lowestnumber). Make sure the film advancelever has been wound, to cock theshutter. Open your camera back.Aim the lens at any convenient lightsource. While looking at the shutterscreen, press the shutter release but-ton and hold it down.

You should find yourself lookingthroug

the photographic eye

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