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AL-USTATH Special Fourth Scientific Conference for the year 2016 --1 437 e number extension

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The Phenomenon of Borrowing In English and Arabic

Languages

A contrastive Study

(Ph.D.) Asst. Prof. Enas Naji Kadim

University of Wassit / College of Education

English language Department of

:Abstract All languages change over a period of time, often so gradually that speakers are

not even aware of the changes until a century or more has spread. Changes may occur in

all aspects of a language –in pronunciation, syntax, and in the lexicon. Lexical changes

are the most noticeable and may be observed almost daily. An important type of lexical

change in English is linguistic borrowing, the addition to the lexicon of a word from

another language. English has borrowed so many words from so many languages that it

is almost impossible to say anything without using a least one borrowed word .Modern

borrowings are most obvious, such as kibbutz, from Hebrew, while words borrowed

long ago is now often indistinguishable from native English words.

From the era of protest (and the era of protest started since the pre-Islamic era and

up to the year 150 AH which is the era of the approved Arabic language after that era,

metaphors and terminologies were appeared in the language) . Then later the term al-

dakhil (اندخم) grew which entered afterwards at the hands of generators .Other terms

such as generator, arabazation also refer to this phenomenon. Both of them have their

own features and formula which distinguish them from the al-dakhil. All these

processes play an important role in increasing the wealth of lexicon of language.

Linguistic borrowing in English language

1-Introduction

In this part of this study which deals with the phenomenon of linguistic

borrowing in English language. It is necessary to say that linguistic

borrowing is a very common phenomenon and that no language is

completely free of borrowed lexical items. This part clarifies different axis

of this phenomenon which are the following ones: the types, functions,

conditions, and taxonomies of linguistic borrowing, in addition to its

relation to other phenomenon such as code-switching.

1-Definition of the Term Borrowing

There are many sources of new words in English language and one of

these is the process simply labeled borrowing, that is", the taking over of

words from other languages. Throughout its history , the English language

has borrowed a huge number of loan –words from other languages ,

including alcohol ( Arabic) ,boss (Dutch), croissant (French), lilac(Persian

), piano ( Italian), pretzel(German), robot(Czech),tycoon( Japanese)

,yogurt (Turkish) and zebra ( Bantu)"(Yule,1995:65).


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According to S. Kemmer “loanwords are words adopted by the speakers

of one language for a different language”. Many linguists use the terms

„loanwords‟ and „borrowing‟ metaphorically, though some others would

prefer „borrowing‟ only to the „process‟ of speakers adopting words from a

source language into their native language, and „loanwords‟ to the

borrowed items.

Linguistic borrowing is little different from ordinary borrowing, in that

there is no literal lending process taking place. There is no transfer from

one language to another and no „returning word to the source language‟

(Namgyel, 2003-126).

English, one of the most spoken languages in the world nowadays, is far

from being a totally pure language. Throughout its long history, it has

borrowed thousands of words from nearly all languages spoken on the

earth. Sheard (1970:323) states that" the actual number of native words in

any of our large standard dictionaries is extremely small with the number

of foreign borrowings recorded. It is because English language has been

prepared to accept many words from nearly every language with which it

has come into contact for this reason that its vocabulary is richer that the

vocabulary of any other spoken language

2- Types of Linguistic Borrowing Phenomenon

According to more than one linguist, there are many types of linguistic

borrowing. Each type of linguistic borrowing has its own features and

reasons for which the process of borrowing from other languages is

occurred .

1- Phonemic Borrowing

One of the types of borrowing is phonological borrowing. This occurs

when a language adopts new sounds or changes in the present sounds from

other languages which is under the influence of them which it is in contact

with them.

According to Hladky (2003:325) there were two diphthongs of French

origin that completed the existing English diphthongs. The new diphthongs

were / oi/, which can find in modern English words choice, noise and / ui/,

which is spelled oi as in boil, point.

In addition to the influence of French diphthongs, we have certain

sounds came from this influence which are the following consonant

sounds:-

1-The /Ʒ / phoneme is also emerged in the 17th century, a development of /

zj / in much the same way as in modern English a rapid pronunciation of


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your readily results in a coalescence of the two sounds. Such words as

occasion, vision, beige, and garage.

2- Another type of phonemic aspect of the French influence concerned

with initial and final spirants that were voiceless in old English and voiced

in medial position.

In old English, [V] was the allophone or variant of /f/ between vowels.

There are certain words which have /v/ such as vat, and vixen which are

borrowed from French.

French borrowings which came into English after 1650 retained their

pronunciation. For example, „ch‟ is pronounced as /Ŝ /, e.g. parachute,

„qu‟ is pronounced as /k/, e.g. bouquet, „ou‟ is pronounced as /u: /, e.g.

rouge, „I‟ is pronounced as /i: /, e.g. machine, „g‟ is pronounced as /Ʒ /,

e.g. rouge.

The borrowing of foreign words always entails their phonetic

modifications. There are sure to be foreign sounds or accentual peculiarities

that do not fit native phonetic habits. They are so then changed as to as

little violence as possible to these habits. Frequently we have phonetic

compromises .Such an English word as the recently introduced

camouflage, as now ordinarily pronounced, corresponds to the typical

phonetic usage of neither English nor French. The aspirated k, the obscure

vowel of the accent on the first syllable, the precise quality of the l and of

the last a, and, above all, the strong accent on the first syllable, are all the

results of unconscious assimilation to our English habits of pronunciation.

They differentiate our camouflage clearly from the same word as

pronounced by the French. On the other hand , the long , heavy vowel in

the third syllable and the final position of the" zh" sound ( like z in azure )

are distinctly un-English , just as , in Middle English , the initial j and v

must have been felt at first as not strictly in accord with English usage

,though the strangeness has worn off by now . In all four of these cases –

initial j, initial v, final" zh" and unaccented a of father – English gas not

taken on a new sound but has merely extended the use of an old one.

Occasionally a new sound is introduced, but it is likely to melt away

before long. In Chaucer s day the old Anglo-Saxon ὒ (written y) had long

become unrounded to I, but a new set of ὒ – vowels had come in from the

French in such words as due, value, and nature. The new ὒ did not long

tell its own; it become diphthongized to iu and was amalgamated with the

native iw of words like new and slew. Eventually this diphthong appears as

yu , with changes of stress – dew ( from Anglo-Saxon deaw ) like due (

Chaucerian dὒ ) . Facts like these show how stubbornly a language resists

radical tampering with its phonetic pattern. (Sapir, 1921: ix)


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2-Phonetic Borrowing

One of the types of borrowing is phonetic borrowing which is the most

common in most languages. In other words, words which are borrowed

with their spelling, pronunciation and meaning and they are underwent

assimilation, each sound in the borrowed word is subtitled by

corresponding sound of the borrowing language. In some cases the spelling

is changed. The structure of the word can also be changed. The position of

the stress is very often influenced by the phonetic system of the borrowing

language. The paradigm of the word and, sometimes, the meaning of the

word are also changed. In French words, the stress was originally placed on

the final syllable but over time it is shifted into initial position. Words like

punish, manner which were formerly stressed on the second syllable, but

later the stress moved to the first syllable and that preserved into modern

English. Such words are

Labour, travel, chair, people which are phonetic borrowings from French,

apparatchik, sputnik are phonetic borrowing from Russian, and bank,

soprano are phonetic borrowings from Italian

)www.ranes/articlehd/388 (

3-Morphemic Borrowing

Morphemic borrowing is an uncertain category since several scholars

have indicated that borrowing of morpheme is only possible by indirect

means. Certain borrowed morphemes are felt to be particularly common

with the mass of loanwords which are introduced into a given language;

thus, the speakers of that language analyze these loanwords, identify these

morphemes and become acquainted with them; later on, these morphemes

become productive or generative into the receiving language. Weinreich

(1953, 13-31) also indicates that the morpheme is easily identified when

the language receives pairs of words, with and without the morphemes:

cigar/cigarette.

When one language borrows words so extensively from another, the

linguistic system of the borrowing language may be affected by more than

just the addition of number of words. The vocabulary of the language is the

sum total of the morphemes in its lexicon and the rules for the combination

for these morphemes into words. Morphemic borrowing is the borrowing of

affixes from different languages when many words with identical affixes

are borrowed from one language into another, so that the morphemic

structure of the borrowed words becomes familiar to the people who speak

borrowing language. We can find a lot of affixes in the English word.

These affixes are classified into two types as follows:


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1- Derivational Building System which has the following ones:-

-ation from Latin

-ize from Greek

- uber from German

ify: from Latin-

ible and- able: from French origin-

Hyper: from Greek-

2-Inflectional Affixes

Nouns which have been borrowed from foreign languages pose a

particular problem. Some have adopted the regular plural system. Some

have kept the original foreign plural. The table below shows the main

inflectional affixes (Crystal, :201).

Source - ending borrowing i - 1- Latin - us

ae - 2- Latin & Greek - s

3- Latin - um - a

-ices 4- Latin - ex-,ix

es - 5 Greek - is

g - 6- Greek - on

eaur - 7- French - eau

I - 8- Italian - o

Im - 9- Hebrew noun -s, - es

4-Syntactic Borrowing

By the end of the old English period English language underwent a

strong influence of Scandinavian due to the Scandinavian conquest of the

British Isles. Scandinavians belonged to the same group of people as

Englishmen and their language had much in common. As a result of this

conquest there are about 700 words borrowed from Scandinavian into

English language.

However, there are many syntactic items have been borrowed from

Scandinavians. These are pronouns and connective words such as same,

both, till, though and pronominal forms with “th” they, them, their, and

etc. Scandinavian influenced the development of phrasal verbs, which did

not exist in old English language. Phrasal verbs are now highly productive

in English language, such as take off, give in ... etc.


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It is widely acknowledged that nouns are borrowed more easily than

other parts of speech (Myers-Scollen, 2002: 240). Van Hout and Muysken

(1994:42) give the following explanation.

"A very important factor involves one of the primary motivations for

lexical borrowing, that is, to extend the referential potential of a language.

Since reference is established primarily through nouns, these are the

elements borrowed most easily".

According to Myers Scollen (2002: 240) nouns are borrowed

preferentially because they receive, not assign, thematic roles ", so "their

insertion in another language is less descriptive of predicate – argument

structure ".

5- Graphic Borrowing

Another type of linguistic borrowing which came into English during is

the Norman Conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of

English but also its spelling, because French scribes wrote documents as

the local population was mainly illiterate, and the ruling class was French.

Runic letters remaining in English after the Latin alphabet was borrowed

we subtitled by Latin letters and combination of letters, e.g. the following

ones:

1-The digraph <<ch>> was introduced to denote the sound /ch/ instead of

the letter << C >> in /chest/ before front vowels where.

2-The digraph << sh >> was introduced instead of combination <<sc>> to

denote the sound /sh/ /ship.

3-The digraph << the >> was introduced instead of the runic letters <<

>>

4-The letters << y >> was introduced instead of the runic letter << >> to

denote the sound /j/

3-Borrowing between Social Dialects The study of borrowing between dialects gained importance, for

example, Labov study (1966: v-vi) of the English of New York City.

According to him" Sociolinguistics can mean merely a descriptive study of

aspects of society and language or it can be a study which seeks to solve

linguistic problems, which in turn are ultimately problems of social

behavior. Labov (1966:242) found regular patterns of social variation and

stylistic variation in New York City. The social values attached to the

social patterns are illustrated in the study of the social class and the r-less

dialect on the casual/formal speech scale. A r-less dialect user in general is

a vowel or vowel lengthening for words of final /r/ or pre-consonantal /r/,

as in /ba/ for „bar‟. All social groups use a higher percentage of /r/as

formality increase, but all lower middle classes with almost no /r/ in casual

speech show a sudden increase in careful speech. In fact, they use more /r/


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than the upper middle class. This borrowing of a speech pattern from a

higher class, perhaps more prestigious class is an example of hyper-

correction.

4-Borrowing of Nonverbal Features

Language use is accompanied by movements of the speaker and

addressee. In general, the nonverbal communication deals with the non-

language features of communication (Hall, 1977). The field covers

gestures, gaze behavior, proxemics (the study of distracting), Haptics

(touching behavior) and many more. The study of borrowing of nonverbal

communication covers not only the items such as gestures but the effects

on cross-culture or cross-group communication of the lack or misuse of the

other‟s nonverbal communication features ( Hoffer, 1980:12).

-Functions of Linguistic Borrowing 5 Linguistic borrowing serves a number of functions other than ordinary

communication of words and ideas. When a new object or activity or idea

enters a culture, the word which expresses it may be borrowed. There are a

number of functions of linguistic borrowing, which are the following ones:

1- Communication about the new object /action /idea.

A culture may elect its own resources for the new items, in other cases;

the borrowed word enters the language and becomes part of the regular

dictionary. „Kimono‟, „pizza‟, „berel‟ and all the thousands of other words

have their basic function which the simple communication and a result the

word or phrase has a meaning in the dictionary .Usually a word must be in

use for twenty to twenty five years before it enters a major dictionary.

2-Fashionable

Words may be borrowed for serving the function of fashion. The speaker

follows fashion by using and borrowing words as a

Fashion up to date.

3- Euphemism:

One function of borrowed words is that of acting as a euphemism for a

native word or a phrase that carries negative connotations. In early English

language materials, the word „die‟ was often avoided and used instead

„went over‟. Language can use loans as well for the purpose of

communicating an idea while avoiding undesirable connotation.

4-Prestige

Another category of the function of linguistic borrowing is that of

prestige or elite status. For many centuries in the west Latin was the


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language of education and, therefore, the mark of the learned man and

woman English still has many examples of the prestige of Latin, especially

in written materials. Ibid, etc. and et al. so on.

5-Poetic/ literary/word play The last function of borrowing is this one. Authors were able to use

double-meaning forms for a variety of effects, from humor to pathos.

Hoffer, 2002:18-20).)

6-Conditions for Borrowing

A language is in order to borrow words from another language. There are

certain conditions must be met. These are the conditions required in many

of the instances of linguistic borrowing.

Two or more distinct languages come into contact as a result there is

cultural contact. The speaker of the borrowing language must understand,

or he thinks the particular utterance in the source language. The speaker of

the borrowing language must have some motives overt or covert for the

linguistic borrowing (Namgy, 2003: 126).

7-The History of English language and Linguistic Borrowing

When one language takes lexemes from another, the new items are

usually called loan words or borrowings –though neither term is really

appropriate, as the receiving language does not give them back. English,

perhaps more than any other language, is an instable borrower .Whereas the

speakers of some languages take pains to exclude foreign words from their

lexicons, English seems always to have welcomed them. Over 350

languages are on record as sources of its present-day vocabulary, and the

locations of contact are found all over the world. The borrowing began

even before the Anglo-Saxons arrived , there are very few Celtic loans

during that period , but the influences of Latin is strong , especially after

the arrival of Christianity ( e.g. bishop, church , priest, school , giant ,

lobster, purple , plant ). The Vikings invasions alone resulted in about

2,000 Scandinavians words coming into English (e.g. dirt, egg, kid, leg,

skin, sky, and window). After the Normans conquest, the influx of words

from the continent of Europe, especially French, doubled the size o f the

lexicon to over 100,000 items. By the end of the Renaissance, the growth in

classically – derived vocabulary, especially from Latin, had doubled the

size of the lexicon again. While these periods represent the peaks of

borrowing activity in the history of English, there was no reduction in the

underlying trend during later centuries.

Since the 1950s, a fresh wave of borrowing has been taking place, which

eventually may exceed the totals encountered in the Middle English period


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.The emergence of English as a world language has promoted regular

contact with an unprecedented number of languages and cultures, and the

borrowings have shown an immediate and dramatic upturn. New fauna and

flora , political groups an intuitions , landscape features , industrial

produces , foodstuffs, inventions , leisure activities , and other forms of

behavior have all generated thousands of new lexemes – and continue to do

so . The growth of local nationalism has had its effect, too, with people

seeking fresh lexical ways of showing their local identity within the

undifferentiated domain of international Standard English ( Crystal

,2003:126).

8-Taxonomies of Linguistic Borrowing

There are many taxonomies of linguistic borrowing which classify this

phenomenon into different types as a result of the attitudes of different

linguists.

1-Katamba’s Model This is a very basic distinction that can be made between different types of

linguistic borrowing.

1- Direct Borrowing This type is when a language takes over a term directly from another

language. The English word omelette is an example for direct borrowing

because it has been taken from French directly, without any major

phonological or orthographical changes (Katamba, 1994: 191).

2-Indirect Borrowing

Indirect borrowing takes place when a certain word is passed on from the

source language to another and then from that language is handed over to

another and maybe even to another. This process may go hand in hand with

the development of that word. Each time it is passed on from one language

into another, is adjusted phonologically, or orthographically to make it fit

to the phonological or orthographical system of the recipient language

(Katamba, 1994:192).

On the other hand, Katamba (1994: 194) indicates another distinction

between the kinds of linguistic borrowing, i.e., the distinction between the

loanwords and the loan shift:-

a) Loan Words have been imported and adopted from another language,

either directly or indirectly, and might have undergone phonological

/orthographical changes.


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b) Loan Shifts are done by translating the vocabulary item or its meaning

into the receiving language. Such a loan shift is the German word

Ubermensel which has been translated into English as Superman.

Moreover, the term loan word itself is a loan translation from the German

Lehnwort (Katamba, 1994:194).

2- Haugen Model

One of the best known taxonomy of linguistic borrowing is Haugen

model (1950: 210-211) who distinguished different types of linguistic

borrowing, which are the following:-

1-Loanwords form and meaning are copied completely.

2-Loan blends: words consisting of a copied part and a native part.

3-Loan shift: where only the meaning is copied. This type is subdivided

into two types which are the following:-

a- loan translations are words formed from the material existing in a

language but adjusted according to patterns taken from another language.

b- Semantic borrowings, where only the meaning is copied. There is a

development in a word of a new meaning due to the influence of a related

word in another language.

3- Myer Scotten’s Model of Linguistic Borrowing

Myers-Scotten (2003: 139) has another type of classification of linguistic

borrowing and she distinguishes between cultural borrowing and core

borrowing which according to her have a very different origins.

a- Cultural Borrowing:

Cultural borrowings are words for new objects (e.g. espresso) or words

for new (non-objects) concepts (e.g. zeitgeist), and they usually appear

abruptly when influential groups use them.

b- Core Borrowings

Core borrowings, by contrast, are words that more or less duplicate

already existing words (e.g. ok in German, which replaces gut). Core

borrowings usually begin life in the recipient language when bilinguals

introduce them as singly occurring code switching forms into the mixed

constituents of their code switching.

9-Code Switching and Borrowing

The term code switching refers to a situation in which a speaker uses a

mixture of distinct varieties as discourse proceeds. This occurs quite

commonly in everyday speech with regard to levels of style, as for

example, when speakers mix formal and informal styles:


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(1) Example

We must not permit the stat of California to deplete the water supply of the

stat of Arizona. Ain t no way we are gonna give em that water.

The speaker ( in this case an Arizona Politician ) is mixing styles for a

certain rhetorical effect : the juxtaposition of formal speech-making style

with informal colloquial style adds emphasis to the speakers position on the

water issue ;and the use of the informal style in the context is intended by

the speaker to increase a feeling of solidarity with the. Code switching can

often happen within a single sentence (and numerous points within a

sentence). Among the most interesting cases of this sort of code switching

are those in which a speaker mixes distinct languages, a situation that often

arises in bilingual or multilingual areas, such as the American southwest. In

the following example, Spanish is mixed with English (the Spanish forms

are italicized, with the English glosses in parentheses).

(2) Example

Its now ocho y media (eight-thirty) on Saturday night, and we are gonna

hear a new artist con (with) his new group. You are in tune with la

maquine ritmica (the rhythm machine).

This example (taken from a radio broadcast on station KXEW, "Radio

Fiesta," Tucson Arizona) is predominantly based on English with a mixture

of Spanish words.

In cases of code switching, the speaker is in effect using two distinct

languages varieties at the same time. We can contrast this situation with

that of borrowing. When speakers of one language borrow words from

another language, the foreign words come to be used as regular vocabulary

items. For example (3), when a speaker of English says, "They have a great

deal of savoir-fair," we might well recognize that the term savoir-fair was

originally a borrowed word (or loanword) from French, but it has come to

be used as a vocabulary item in English (in fact, it is listed in Webster's). In

contrast, the Spanish phrase ocho y media(2) is not a borrowed vocabulary

item that English speakers now use, but rather is a result of code switching

between English and Spanish. (Akmahian et al., 2001:307-308)

2-Linguistic Borrowing in Arabic Language

2.1-Introduction

Borrowing is a natural linguistic phenomenon known among the nations

from the ancient's ages. It is one way of the development of linguistic

fortune .So no language is free from it, due to the affect and the effect

among the speakers. This part of the study deals with the linguistic


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borrowing in Arabic language, factors of this phenomenon, opinions of the

scholars, terms related to it, and finally the types of linguistic borrowing in

Arabic language.

2. 2-The Factors of Linguistic Borrowing Emergence

The process of borrowing phenomenon occurs as a result of contacting

Arabs with other Nations. Arabic language has taken vocabularies from

many languages and stood behind the process of borrowing several factors

that can be summarized as follows:

1- Neighborhood: Since ancient times, Arabs had contacted with other neighboring nations

such as the Ethiopians, Greeks, Assyrians, Nabati, and others. Their Arabic

language contacted with all these nations, which was inevitable." it is

impossible to remain language without contacting with other languages".

(1976:229 ,اف)

The Arabs of Iraq used many objects from Persian ( , درد 3111: 163 ) and

the people of Sham inputed many vocabularies in their speech from Syriac

. This was done by transferring certain words from Latin and then into

Arabic. The participation of Arabic language with other sisters in descent

and then the neighboring of Arab tribes to non-Arabs had made the door

open for borrowing. (176 :2000 ,انظانى)

2- Linguistic Development:

It is something that naturally occurs in all languages all over the world

.The development of language in isolation from all external influences will

be ideal and can not be achieved in any language, but on the opposite, the

effect which is occurred on one of the neighboring languages often plays an

important role in the linguistic development .This is because the linguistic

contact between languages is historical necessity and leads to overlapping.

(1950:348 ,انداخه)

3- Need:

One of the factors that lead to the need of linguistic borrowing is the

need of the speakers to borrow some words from other languages . This is

the most important factor which plays very important role in linguistic

borrowing between languages. This aspect particularly activates the

exchange movement between languages and linguistic borrowing from

each other. (1976 ,اف: 391 )

3-Arabian Attitudes and Linguistic.

The positions of the modern scholars are different towards the

phenomenon of linguistic borrowing in Arabic language.

They are divided into three their attitudes or teams which are the following

ones. :3996)204-3-2 ,د.عه)


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1-The first grammarians:

The ones who didn‟t allow Arabization, and they said that we must

cover and satisfy the vocabularies to our needs by some ways, such as

derivation (االشتقاق), replacement)االتدال), and alnnaht (انحت)

2-The second grammarians:

They went to the necessity of Arabization the alaejimih words(االعج)

as they agreed without paying attention to the rules of Arabazation which

were developed by of the ancient scholars of language .They developed

them without any limitation or condition because of the huge number of

many names of machines and inventions in western culture .

3-The third grammarians:

They have authorized the use of Arabization to satisfy the needs of

Arabic vocabulary, provided that this is originally not found in Arabic

language. In other words, they didn‟t have Arabic origin.

2.4-Types of Linguistic Borrowing

In Arabic language, we find that there are different terms refer to the

words which are borrowed from different languages which are the

following ones at once: Arabazation (انعزب(, al-dakhil (اندخم), generator

.(انند)

2.4.1-The Term Linguistic Generator (المولد اللغوي)

which is (انند انهغي ) defined the term linguistic generator (682 , )خهم

a general linguistic phenomenon. All languages around the world obey this

phenomenon in every time and place. It is a linguistic response for the

cultural and mental development for the speakers of language in general.

(ibid, 682)

Many linguists and scholars used the term almuhdath (انحدث) beside

the term linguistic generator. Both of them refer to the words which were

not used in the Arabic language during Pre-Islamic period. (ibid: 160)

The term linguistic generator (انند) has four types which are the following

ones:

1- The vocabularies which were used by the generators from foreign words

that were not arabized by the eloquent speech generators.

2-The words which were transferred by the generators either through

derivation from its original linguistic meaning to another meaning that is

agreed among the general linguists or among the specific scholars such as

philosophers, grammarians, pharmacies, and engineers, etc. .


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3- The words which were distorted on the tongues of the generators from

the Arabic language vocabularies whether this distortion was in the sound

or in the significance or both of them. This can not be

out of the origin of the classical eloquence language which was known as

the melody (ا نهح) in Arabic language.

4- The vocabularies which have not origins. In other words, they were not

known either in Arabic or in other languages which the generators knew

them.

Finally, the eldest linguists who used the term generator (انند) were Abu–

Omar, Bin –Alaa (154) and Younis ben Habib(182).(204-203: 1986 ,د.عه)

2.4.2- The Term Arabzation (all-mua arab)

The term Arabzation (انعزب) as is indicated from its name, quoting a

word from a foreign language and incorporating it in the Arabic language

.It is necessary to refer to what was mentioned by Suyuti(911 ,انظط)

about Arabzation . Suyuti is one of the linguists who wrote many books

about this term. There are many features which distinguish the Arabized

words as follows: (90 :1908 ,ادي شزي), (1964:291 ,االسزي).

1- The weight of Arabized words will be out of the Arabic weights such

as the word apersem (اتزظى) on the weight of afiell .(اتزظى عهى س افعهم)

2- The first letters of the word must be noon () and alraa (راء) such as

narcissus (زجض).

3- The last letters of the word must be zaa(ساء) and dall (دال) such as

mhendz (يدص ) .

4- The word must have the litters sad (طاد) and jeem (جى) together such

as plaster (جض).

5- 5- Both kaf (كاف) and jeem(جى) come together in one word.

6- The word must be from one of these weights either four or fife letters

but not of aldlaqh ( القاند ) litters which are alaba (تاء), alra (راء), and faa (فاء)

. )1958:268 ,اننى)

2.4.3 - The term Al-Dakhil (foreigner) is what entered into (اندخم)defined the term Al-Dakhil(2007:319) طانح

Arabic language from foreign words which either were used by the

eloquent Arabs during pre-Islamic era and Islamic periods or what were

used y the generators . This term includes not only words but also foreign

sounds and affixes as follows:

1- Foreign Sounds

a- They used kaaf (كاف) or (قاف) instead of jeem (جى) such as "kurb"

.(جرب) "instead of "jurib (كرب)

b- They used voiced b or faa (فاء) instead voiceless p such as "brind" (تزد)

"frend" (فزد).


15

2- Foreign Affixes

Arabic language has borrowed many affixes from languages such as

Greek and Latin languages. Some of these affixes are prefixes and suffixes

which are added to the Arabic words such as AL Coyle "alghulil" (انغنم).

2.5-The Main Uses of Foreign Words in Arabic Language

The poets did not use the Arabization (انعزب) and foreign words "al-

dakhhil" (اندخم) just because they did not find equivalence for these words

in the Arabic eloquent language but for other uses such as:

1- They used foreign words in the courts of fun to laugh.

As the poet Al-Adui (انعدي) said

اا انعزت انثاك -2

I am Arabi Allback. The meaning of the word Allback (انثاك) in Persian

language is pure.

3- They used to take into consideration the rhyme of the words. As

Hajjaj (انعجاج) said: -

كا رأت ف انالء انثزدجا -4

The word Aalberdj (انثزدج) means burda (تزد). It is a noun of object in

Persian language and means (انظث). It is rabized in jeem (جى) because the

grammarians changed haa (اناء( into jeem (جى) in arabization (انتعزة).

5- They used Arabized words deliberately in their poems to be proud of

themselves to show that they are proficient in other languages. They even

manipulated the forms of the words such as Abu – Mahdi (اندي) said:

قن ن : شثذ نظت يشثذا طال انهان , أ شل ثثز . -6

They say to me, chenbz, and I am not chenbz throughout the night or go

away. The word chenbz (شنبذ) is an order verb which means the sense of

making a day (شنبو). Shonbeh (شنبو) means Saturday. This word is Persian

from Syrian origin.

7- They used them deliberately in their educational poetry such as

mentioning the names of the seven planets.

ال سنت تثقى تزقى نهعال اتدآ يا داو نهظثعة األفالك أحكاو -8

يز يم كا تز يعا زيض ااد تزاو

All of them belong to Persian language and their meanings are the

following words: sun, moon, Saturn, mercury, Jupiter, Venus, and mars.

.(237-2005:235 ,انتج)

2.6-The Main Linguistic Changes on The Foreign Words

1- The Morphological Changes:

1- The Arabs obliged to change the form of the word because of its length

or the difficulty of its pronunciation as it is in their language such as the

word philosophy – (فلسفو).


16

2 - They derived verbs such as the verb" phone v.:" تلفن" from the noun"

telephone". They also derived nouns such as television. "تلفشه"

3- They cut off either one letter or more such as zintarih (سنطاريو) from the

English Dysentery.

4- They deleted one word from the compound word such as tram (تزام) –

tramway.

5- They added the Arabic ratio on some of the words such as the academy

.(دبلوماسيو) and diplomatic (اكاديميو)

2-The Phonological Changes

1- They pronounced letters which the French do not usually pronounce

them such as jrtyir (جزتز). The two letters alraa (راء) and altaa (تاء).

2- They pronounced the letter v as b (انثاء) such as avwkatu (افكات)

abwakatu (اتكات)

3- They pronounced t altta (انتاء) as (طاء) potato - bitata (تطاطا).

4- They pronounced th )انثاء) as t )انتاء) such as thulium (ثن) – titos.

5- They pronounced alddad (انضاد) instead of alddal (اندال) such as moda

(يض) so they said mudih ,(يد)

6 – They pronounced alsad (انظاد) instead of alssin (انظ) such as (قثزص)

qabris, so they said (قثزص) qubrus.

7- If the foreign word stars with a consonant sound, it is added hamaz

wasal to it such as studio "اطتد ".

3-The Semantic Changes

1- They Arabized word which has many meanings in the origin, and they

chose one meaning such as the word artist (ارتظت). They uttered this word

at all artists. But in the Arab land, they used this word to refer only to a

dancer). (139-137 :2005 ,انتج)

Conclusions

1- In English language, there are different types of linguistic borrowing

which are divided into different levels such as phonemic, phonetic,

morphological, syntactic, and graphic.

2- These types of linguistic borrowing are classified in English

language according to different modals which pave the road for these

words to enter the language.

3- Many of the borrowed words in English language are entered and

used in English language without doing any processes on them. In contrast

to the Arabic language the borrowed words must be formulated according

to specified Arabic formula and weights. In addition to mention the

language of their origins.


17

4-The linguistic borrowing of words from different languages is a result

of many factors. Some of them are primary and some of them secondary in

the influence.

5-This paper presents different terms of borrowing in Arabic language.

These terms are three ones linguistic generator, arabization, and al-dakhil

which refer to the phenomenon of borrowing in (اندخم ,انند انهغي انعزب)

Arabic language.

6-The phenomenon of borrowing in Arabic language is conditioned by

syntactic, morphological, and phonological weights.

7-This paper presents that borrowed words can be recognized easily

because these words will out of the linguistic patterns of Arabic language.

8-This paper presents that arabiation ) انعزب) in Arabic language is a

foreign word which is formulated in its letters and sounds according to the

morphological Arabic structures which are capable of derivation and

change according to he Arabic weights .

9-It is also indicates that al –dakhil )اندخم) is a foreign word which retains

its foreign weight. It is used in the Arabic language without derivation or

change.

10-Englsih language is more flexible than Arabic language in borrowing

words from other languages.

11- This phenomenon can be occurred in standard and non-standard

dialects.

12- The reasons of borrowing can be political, social, and geographical.

In other words, there is more than one reason for borrowing.

In conclusion, we should not ignore the role of the dictionaries in

following the origin of the words which are borrowed from other

languages.


18

:References

References: English 1-

1. Akmajian, Adrian, Demers, Richard A. and Harnish, Robert M. (2001)

2. Linguistics: An Introduction to Language and Communication

.London: The MIT Press.

3. English language . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

4. Edward, Sapir (1921). Language: An Introduction to the Study of

Speech.

5. Falk , Julias. (1973). Linguistics and Language: A Survey of Basic

Concept and Implications. John Wiley & sons . New York: Santa Barbara.

6. Haugen , Einar. (1950). The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing .

Heine , Bernd .

7. Hoffer,Bater L.(2002). Language Borrowing and language diffusion: an

overview. Trinity University .

8. Katamba , Franccis . (1994) . English Words. Routledge: London.

9. Myers-scotten, Carol. (2002). Language Contact : Bilingual Encounters

and Grammatical Outcomes. Oxford: Oxford University press.

10. Namgyel, s (2003) .The Language Web of Bhutan, Bhutan: KMT

publisher.

11. Sheard,J.A.(1970).The Words We Use .London: Andre Deutsch.

12. Van hout, Roeland, and Muysken, Pieter. (1994). Modeling Lexical:

Borrowability Language Variation and Change.

13. Weinreich, Vriel. (1953). Language in contact Findings and Problem.

The Hague: Mouton.

14. Yule,George .(1996).The Study of Language . 2nd

edn .Cambridge:

Cambridge press.

Net References

(www.ranes/articlehd/388)

http://www.ranes/articlehd/388


19

2-Arabic References:

( 1964: عبد السالم محمد ىارون , ومراجعو : محمد عمي النجار ) , تحقيقالمغةتيديب ىـ ( 14االزىري ) .1 . القاىرة, القومية, دار

لبنان. –. بيروت المعرفة.دار وآدابيا العربية المغةالمعرب والدخيل في م( 2005محمد ) التونجي , د. .2 اىرة , مكتبة المقدسي., الق شرح أدب الكاتبىـ( 1350الجواليقي ) .3 بيروت . –. , دار العمم لمماليين فقو المغة المقارنم ( 1968السامرائي, ابراىيم ) .4 لبنان . –. دار العمم لمماليين , بيروت دراسات في فقو المغةم ( 2009.صبحي ) الصالح, د .5 العراق. –النشر , الموصل ,مطبعة دار الحكمة لمطباعة و فقو المغةم( 1999حاتم صالح ) الضامن, د. .6 الكاوثولكيو , بيروت . المطبعة, المعربة الفارسيةااللفاظ م( 1908ادي شيري ) .7 النيضةدار .االسالم وتطويرييا بعد العربية المغةفي نمو دراسة العربيةالمولد في خميل ,د. حممي.)( .8

لبنان. –, بيروت العربية حيدر اباد , الدكن . –. دار المعارف العثمانية المغة جميرةىـ ( 1344دريد , محمد بن الحسن ) .9

, مطبعو لجنو البيان العربي.السادسة الطبعة. المغةفقو م ( 1986) عمي عبد الواحد , د. .10 , الطبعة السابعة , دار نيضة مصر , القاىرة . عمم المغةم( 1976وافي, د.عمي عبد الواحد ) .11


20

ظاهرة االقتراض في المغة اإلنجميزية والعربية دراسة التقابمية

إيناس ناجي كاظمأ,م,د. قسم المغة اإلنجميزية -جامعة واسط / كمية التربية

:الممخص

يمكن ان تحدث ,بالتغيرات اال بعد قرن او اكثر ين ال يدركونان المتحدث ةات بمرور الوقت لدرجتتغير المغ متغيرات ىي من اكثر ال ة. التغيرات المعجميةو والمعجمي, النحكالنطق ةمن المغ دةعدمتتغيرات في جوانب ال

من ةجديد ةكمم ةىي اضاف ةاالنكميزي ةفي المغ ةاىم االنواع من التغيرات المعجمي. احد ةاليومي ةوضوحا في الحيانطق كممو من ةلعديد من المغات لدرجو من الصعوبالعديد من الكممات من ا ةاالنكميزي ةاستعارت المغ اخرى. ةغل

. بينما ىناك ةالعبري ةمن المغ ةجماعي ةييودي ة( كمبيوتز معناه مزرعkibbutz) اخرى مثال ةدون استعارتيا من لغ .ةاالنكميزي ةلمغ ةمكن تميزييا عن الكممات االصميي العديد من الكممات قد استعارت من زمن طويل ال

. ةالعربي ةير االستعارات والمصمحات في المغتظ الفترةبعد ىذه بدأت 150 ةصر ما قبل االسالم والى سنمنذ ع, ك مصمحات اخرى ظيرت مثال المولدىنا .يل ودخل عمى ايدي المولدين العربفيما بعد ظير مصطمح الدخ

. بييم تميزىم من الدخيل ةالب خاص. كالىما يمتمكون خصائص وقو الظاىرةير ايضا الى ىده المعرب والتي تش .ةعام ةبصور لمغة المعجمية الثروةكل ىذه العمميات تمعب دور ميم في زياده

the phenomenon of borrowing in english and arabic ...alustathiq.com/lionimages/news/c4-4-e-1.pdf ·...

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