Versailles: The Paris Peace Conference

Background

•   Losses during WWI - a few details?•   Wilson's 14 Points (which, very briefly, were?) paved the way•   Armistice (briefly, what were its terms?)•   Bitterness - e.g. Geddes•   January 1919, delegates from 32 countries met at Versailles

Meat

•   At first Wilson was suspicious of Britain (Empire)•   Wilson insisted that the LoN was set up first.•   Clemenceau wanted punitive reparations•   LG played both sides - sent Cecil (an appeaser) to negotiate the

LoN, but hardliners (Sumner and Cunliffe) to negotiate reparations.  

•   Wilson and Clemenceau soon came to stalemate over LoN v reparations

•   25 March Fontainbleau Memorandum - forces Clemenceau to be moderate, then Wilson to accept War Guilt Clause.

End•   7 May draft sent to Germans, who protest that it breaches self-

determination and will destroy Germany, but •   they are forced to sign on 28 June 1919.

  

Versailles: What the Big Three Wanted

Wilson

1.   14 Points (know some details)2.   a better world ‘safe for democracy’3.   fair peace4.   self-determination5.   International Co-operation (League of Nations)

Clemenceau

1.   blamed Germany = punishment/ ‘hard justice’2.   angry = revenge. 3.   wanted to ’make Germany pay’ for the Damage = reparations 4.   threatened = wanted independent Rhineland/ get Alsace-

Lorraine/ 5.   peace = wanted Germany weak and crippled .

Lloyd George

1.   compromise (nb Fontainbleau Memorandum)2.   had promised Parliament/November 1918 election that he would

punish/make Germany pay, but did not want revenge like France3.   protect British Empire (=Mandates)/ British navy (=German navy)4.   trade5.   peace: did not want to create anger in Germany which would lead

to war in the future.  

Versailles: What the Big Three Got

Wilson

LIKED/GOT•   League of Nations•   self-determination for Poland, Czechoslovakia etc, DISLIKED•   many of his 14 points were ignored•   Britain opposed freedom of seas•   only defeated powers were made to disarm•   colonies were given no say in their future

Clemenceau

LIKED/GOT•   Clause 231•   disarmament•   Reparations•   Getting back Alsace-Lorraine•   getting mandates DISLIKED•   Saar (only got for 15 years)•   wanted an independent Rhineland, not just demilitarised.

Lloyd George

LIKED/GOT•   reducing German navy•   getting German colonies as British mandatesDISLIKED•   Wilson’s ideas about colonies and freedom of the seas•   Clemenceau’s harshness•   JM Keynes said that reparations would cause another war•   Harold Nicolson thought the Treaty ‘neither just nor wise'.

  

Versailles: Importance of the Big Three

Wilson

1.   Gave the Conference its moral authority (14 points) - regarded as great and good man from America, bringing a new world order

2.   Secured the LoN - influenced world peace for two decades/ brilliant new PRINCIPLE of 'collective security' still seen today (in UN).

3.   'Self-determination' was the dominating principle of foreign affairs for the next two decades -  countries like Estonia, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia owed their existence to him.

4.   Almost ruined the conference because he fell out with Clemenceau

5.   Failed to get US Congress to agree ToV or LoN - so made sure they both failed

Clemenceau

1.   Demanding war-guilt/ reparations/ Rhineland angered the Germans and gave Hitler his platform.

2.   Almost ruined the conference because he fell out with Wilson3.   Got back Alsace-Lorraine for France, and Saar for 15 years4.   Got Germany disarmed and Rhineland demilitarised - and so set

the scene for politics in Europe (e.g. France could invade in 1920, 1921 AND 1923) until Hitler re-armed in 1935 and re-occupied the Rhineland in 1936.

Lloyd George

1.   Increased the British empire by getting the mandates2.   Secured the British navy by getting the German navy reduced to

6 ships - and the rest given to Britain at Scapa Flow/ defeated Wilson's ideas for freedom of the seas

3.   Continually mediated between Wilson and Clemenceau - the Fontainbleau Memorandum saved the Conference

4.   His determination to get a lasting peace got a Treaty which survived 20 years

5.   Managed to please the electorate (to 'make Germany pay') YET Germany made a trade treaty with Britain in 1924.

  

Versailles: The Treaty of VersaillesGuilt •   clause 231- Germany accepted blame ‘for causing all the loss and

damage’ of the war.

Army

•   army: 100,000•   no submarines•   no aeroplanes •   6 battleships•   Rhineland de-militarised

Reparations•   Conference couldn't decide - handed it over to a Commission of the

LoN which reported in April 1921•   £6,600 million – in instalments, until 1984

Germany lost land

•   Alsace-Lorraine to France•   Saar to France (15 years)•   Malmedy to Belgium•   North Schleswig to Denmark•   West Prussia and Upper Silesia to Poland•   Danzig a ‘free city’•   Memel to Lithuania•   In all, Germany lost 10% of its land, all its colonies, 12% of its

population, 16% of its coalfields, half its iron and steel industry, most of its army and navy, all its airforce.

LoN •   set up: first 26 articles of the Treaty (and of St Germain, Neuilly, Trianon) were the Covenant of the LoN

Extra •   forbade Anschluss•   Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania independent states.

  

Versailles: How Germany felt about the Treaty  

  Facts Effects

Unfair

•   no part in the Conference talks•   forced to sign•   few of 14 Points in the Treaty. •   based instead on Armistice

•   riots in Berlin •   Deutsche Zeitung attacked ‘the disgraceful treaty’•   Kapp Putsch (1920) to try to overturn the Treaty•   led to the 'Stab-in-the-back' legend, and hatred of the

'November criminals' = Weimar government lacked support

Guilt•   ‘Such a confession in my mouth

would be a lie’, said Count Brockdorff-Rantzau.

•   led Germany to publish all documents•   Hindenburg denied it in 1927 = first successful challenge by

Germany to ToV

Army•   Rhineland clearly unreasonable•   France invaded in 1920 when

Germany sent in troops to quell a riot

•   Germany could not defend itself against even small countries (whom they called the Dungervolker - Dung people).

•   gave moral force to Hitler's demands for the Rhineland/ rearmament

Reparations•   too big for the weakened

Germany economy to pay•   Germans said the allies were trying to starve their children.•   needed Dawes Plan (nb Hungary and Austria also needed

economic help)

Germany lost land

•   a humiliation•   contrary to self-determination•   took farm land (W Prussia) and

industrial land (Saar).

•   made Germany economy too weak to pay reparations = problems in 1923

•   gave moral force to Hitler

LoN

•   an insult•   treats Germany as an outcast

nation 

•   meant that Germany could not defend itself in the League of Nations.

•   meant that the 'November criminal' German politicians could not even say they had restored Germany to a place amongst the nations

Extra•   forbidding Anschluss was

against the principle of self-determination.

•   made nationalist German determined to achieve it•   gave moral force to Hitler's demands for

  

Versailles: Importance of the Treaty of Versailles   Big Three negotiated Versailles - it had all the authority of the Allies.   Other countries sent delegations to them

= an IMPOSED treaty, not a negotiated treaty. Outlined principles (self-determination/Guilt/Army reduced/Reparations/loss of land) - the treaties of St Germain,

Neuilly and Trianon were designed by officials who simply copied the principles of Versailles. League of Nations was set up by Versailles - set political agenda for next 20 years/ a force for peace/

forerunner of the United Nations of todayMajor Powers - it said how GERMANY was to be treated. Drew the political map of Europe for the next 20

years.Afterwards, Versailles led to Hitler and World War II:•   Unfairness of Treaty outraged Germans (see above) and led them to hate the Weimar politicians ('November

Criminals' who had 'stabbed the army in the back', and to support Hitler when he promised to overthrow it.•   Severity of reparations caused 1923 crisis in Germany/ led to Dawes Plan.   Hitler could still get support by

promising to stop paying them in 1933.•   Unfairness of Treaty demoralised Britain and France and gave force to 'appeasers' who thought Hitler's

claims were 'reasonable'•   Failure of US to ratify/support it led to the failure of the LoN and peace.

  

League of Nations: Membership

Background•   42 countries joined at the start (i.e. all which signed the ToV). •   By the 1930s this had risen to 60.•   The leading members (of the Council) were Britain, France, Japan

and Italy.

Meat

•   May 1920, the US Senate voted against Versailles - biggest setback (expand from below)

•   Germany was not allowed to join the League as a punishment for causing WWI.   Admitted 1926 (Stresemann) but Hitler left in 1933.

•   The USSR did not join the League - instead it set up the Comintern (1919) to cause world revolution.   It joined in 1934 when Germany was rearming, but left in 1938 in protest at appeasement.

•   Japan left in 1933 when a vote went against it over Manchuria•   Italy left in 1937, after making the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany

and Japan•   Eight other countries (Spain and countries in Latin America) left as

the League failed 1935-1939.

End•   Britain and France stayed members till the end, but they abandoned

the principle of collective security to follow appeasement after 1936, and Hoare-Laval betrayed the League over Abyssinia (1936)

•   the League was formally disbanded by the United Nations in 1946  

League of Nations: America

Background

1.   Wilson had suffered a number of 'headaches' (small strokes) during the Versailles Conference, and was not as strong as he had been.

2.   He failed to consult powerful Senators such as Taft/ Cabot Lodge.3.   Many Americans were 'isolationist' - as early as May 1919, Lodge

rejected the idea of 'mutual guarantee' in the Covenant (i.e. would not support other member countries if they were attacked)

4.   NB other factors:•    many German Americans thought the ToV was unfair•    most Americans hated the British Empire•    most Americans were worried about the cost of involvement

Meat

1.   Wilson returned home on 8 July 1919.   He told the Senate: 'The stage is set, the destiny disclosed.'

2.   July 14-28: Lodge read all 246 pages of Treaty to Senate out loud.3.   Great opposition in the Senate (a Senate Committee proposed 14

'Lodge reservations').   5.   In Sept 1919 Senator Borah set off on an anti-Treaty campaign

End

1.   4 Sept 1919: Wilson set off on a 8000 mile tour, planning speeches in 29 cities in 22 days to advocate the League to the public.

2.   25 Sept 1919: Wilson collapsed in Pueblo, suffered a stroke soon after; was ill for 7 months

3.   Jan 1920: Hitchcock and Taft both proposed reservations giving America the chance NOT to go to war for another country unless Congress agreed.   Wilson refused ALL changes to the Treaty.

4.   19 March 1920: the Senate rejected the ToV/LoN5.   Nov 1920: Harding was elected president promising 'a return to

normalcy' (i.e. isolationaism).  

League of Nations: Aims, organisation and work

Stop War

ORGANISATION•   Article 10 of the Covenant proposed 'collective security'•   Assembly (met once a year - needed a unanimous decision)•   Council (GB+Fr+It+Jap+ Ger after 1926) met 4-5 times a year and in crises)•   Secretariat (too small for all work)•   Court of international justice •   Conference of Ambassadors (informal meeting of main powers; made a lot of 'deals' in secret)SUCCESSES•   Aaland Islands, 1921: the League said they should belong to Finland; Sweden and Finland agreed. •   Bulgaria, 1925: Greece invaded Bulgaria, but withdrew when Bulgaria appealed to the League. FAILURES•   Vilna, 1920: the League could not stop Poland invading Lithuania. •   Ruhr, 1923: the League did not stop France invading the Ruhr. •   Corfu, 1923: Italy occupied Corfu.   The League ordered Mussolini to leave, but the Conference of

Ambassadors overruled & made Greece pay compensation to Italy. •   Manchuria and Abyssinia in the 1930s.

Improve lives and jobs

ORGANISATIONArticle 23 of the Covenant agreed to improve lives, which was to be accomplished by the 'agencies' of the League:•   Health committee/ International Labour Organisation/ Refugees committee/ Mandates commission/

Slavery commission  SUCCESSES•   400,000 Prisoners of War repatriated/ Turkish refugee camps (1922)/ Leprosy/ Drugs companies

closed down/ Attacked slave owners in Sierra Leone and Burma/ Economic help to Austria and Hungary

FAILURES•   The ILO failed to get an agreement to a 48-hour week•  

Disarmament

ORGANISATION•   Disarmament Conferences in 1923 and 1931SUCCESSES•   Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928: signed by 23 nations and supported by 65, to outlaw war. FAILURES•   Britain objected to the 1923 conference •   Hitler wrecked the 1932-1934 conference by demanding parity with France

  

League of Nations: Importance of the Powers

Moral Persuasion

ORGANISATION•   Article 10 of the Covenant proposed 'collective security'•   Wilson spoke of a 'Community of Power'SUCCESSES•   Bulgaria, 1925: Greece invaded Bulgaria, but withdrew when Bulgaria appealed to the League. FAILURESConference of Ambassadors made a lot of 'deals' in secret•   Corfu, 1923: The League ordered Mussolini to leave, but the Conference of Ambassadors overruled & forced Greece to pay

compensation to Italy'Moral persuasion' did not work with powerful or determined countries •   Vilna, 1920: the League could not stop Poland invading Lithuania. •   Ruhr, 1923: the League did not stop France invading the Ruhr. •   Manchuria and Abyssinia in the 1930s•   Hitler

Arbitration

ORGANISATION•   Court of international justice SUCCESSES•   Aaland Islands, 1921: said the islands should belong to Finland; Sweden and Finland agreed. FAILURESUseless where countries determined to go to war:•   Vilna, 1920: the League could not stop Poland invading Lithuania. •   Ruhr, 1923: the League did not stop France invading the Ruhr. •   Manchuria and Abyssinia in the 1930s•   Hitler

Sanctions

ORGANISATION•   Article 16 of the Covenant gave the League the right to impose trade sanctionsSUCCESSES•   None.FAILURESThe problem with sanctions is that they hurt countries by damaging trade, so nobody wanted them:•   Manchuria, 1931: the League decided not to impose sanctions because they wouldn't work without the USA and the USA wasn't in the

League•   Abyssinia, 1935: the League banned weapons sales, and put sanctions on rubber and metal, but this hurt Abyssinia more than Italy.   It

did NOT close the Suez Canal or ban oil sales, which would have stopped the Italian invasion.   America took the opportunity to increase their oil sales to Italy.   In 1936 Britain and France got sanctions lifted.

•   Rhineland, 1936: France and Belgium asked for sanctions against Germany, but Britain opposed the idea and it was defeated.

Military force

ORGANISATION•   Article 16 of the Covenant gave the League the right to raise an army to protect the Covenent.SUCCESSES•   The League sent soldiers to make sure LoN plebiscites (e.g. Schleswig 1920, Silesia 1921, Saar 1935) took place peacefully. FAILURES•   The problem with this was that Britain and France were the only countries supporting the League big enough to do this, and they were not prepared to pay/go to war.•   The absence of America from the League was terminal.

  League of Nations: Manchuria

Background

•   The Nationalist government of China led by Chiang Kai-shek was weak, corrupt and busy fighting the Communists.

•   Because of the Great Depression, Japan wanted to build an empire to secure supplies of raw materials.

•   The Japanese government was controlled by the army•   China ruled Manchuria, but the Japanese army ran the railway there.

Meat

•   Sept 1931: Japan claimed the Chinese had sabotaged the railway.   •   They invaded Manchuria and set up the 'independent' (i.e.

Japanese-controlled) state of Manchukuo under the former Emperor of China, Henry P'ui.   In 1932 they bombed Shanghai.

•   China appealed to the League.•   Dec 1931: the League appointed a commission led by Lord Lytton to

investigate.   He did not arrive in Manchuria until April 1932 and did not report until October.

•   Oct 1932: Lytton's report stated that Japan was the aggressor and should leave, but that Manchuria should be independent.

•   24 Feb 1933: The Assembly voted that Japan return Manchuria (Japan walked out of the meeting)

End•   The League could not agree economic sanctions or arms sales ban. •   Japan stayed in Manchuria.   •   In 1933 Japan resigned from the League, and invaded and

conquered Jehol (next to Manchuria).   

League of Nations: Results/importance of Manchuria1.   The Japanese got everything they wanted by ignoring the League - they kept

Manchuria.2.   This was the beginning of Japanese expansion in the Pacific.   In 1933 they

invaded and conquered Jehol (next to Manchuria) and in 1937 they invaded China.3.   The Manchuria affair showed the weaknesses of the League:•     A country could get its own way if it just ignored the League•     The 'moral force' of the League's principle of 'collective security' was powerless

where national interests were involved - especially during the Great Depression.•     The League was slow and cumbersome (the Lytton Report took almost a year)•     Even the great powers within the League (Japan was on the Council) were

prepared to ignore it.  

League of Nations: Abyssinia

Background

•   The government of Abyssinia led by Haile Selassie was Christian, but Abyssinia was very poor.

•   Because of the Great Depression, Italy wanted to build an empire to secure supplies of raw materials.

•   Mussolini was a fascist, and wanted to revive the glories of Rome•   Mussolini signed the Stresa Pact (1935) with France and Britain, who needed his support

against Hitler•   The border between Abyssinia and Italian Somaliland was uncertain and disputed - in Dec

1934 there was a small skirmish at Wal-Wal.

Meat

•   Mussolini demanded an apology and prepared to invade•   There was great anger in Britain, and Hoare made a strong speech supporting sanctions

and collective security.•   Feb 1935: The League set up a commission, which reported Sept.  It did not blame

Abyssinia for the Wal-Wal incident, but suggested giving part of Abyssinia to Italy. •   Oct 1935: Mussolini rejected the plan and invaded Abyssinia.   He used tanks and flame-

throwers and attacked red Cross hospitals.•   The League banned weapons sales, and put sanctions on rubber and metal (though this

hurt Abyssinia more than Italy).   It did NOT close the Suez Canal or ban oil sales, which would have stopped the Italian invasion.  

•   Dec 1935: news leaked out of the Hoare-Laval Pact, a secret plan by Britain and France to give most of Abyssinia to Italy.

•   Britain and France asked that sanctions be lifted, and only Abyssinia voted against lifting them.

End•   Mar 1936: Hitler marched into the Rhineland - everyone forgot about Abyssinia•   May 1936: Mussolini completed his conquest of Abyssinia.•   June 1936: Haile Selassie went in person to appeal to the League of Nations to ask the

League to reconsider its 'terrible precedent' of giving way to force.   He was ignored.  

League of Nations: Results/importance of Abyssinia1.   Mussolini got everything he wanted by ignoring the League - he conquered

Abyssinia.  2.   This was the beginning of fascist expansion in the west.   In Nov 1936: Axis Treaty

between Mussolini and Hitler/ Hitler and Mussolini supported the fascists in the Spanish Civil War etc.

3.   Hitler TOOK ADVANTAGE of the Abyssinia crisis to invade the Rhineland in March 1936 - France could not do anything.

4.   After Abyssinia, Britain and France abandoned the League as a way to keep the peace, and turned instead to the policy of appeasement.

4.   The Abyssinia affair is sometimes said to have 'killed' the League.   It showed:•     A strong country could get its own way if it just ignored the League•     The 'moral force' of the League's principle of 'collective security' was powerless

where national interests were involved - especially during the Great Depression.•     Even the greatest powers within the League (Italy was on the Council) were

prepared to ignore it.•     Even Britain and France were prepared to betray it.•     The League was slow and cumbersome (the Commission Report took 8 months,

and a further 5 months to decide whether to impose oil sanctions).   Mussolini had taken advantage of this slowness, by conquering Abyssinia while the League was investigating - it made the league look weak and foolish.

•     9 countries left the League after 1936.   •     The historian AJP Taylor said Abyssinia showed the League to be 'a useless

fraud'.  

Road to War: Hitler's Aims and Policies

Abolish the Treaty of Versailles

Until Munich, most of Hitler's policies were pointed towards the destruction of the Treaty of Versailles:1.   Hitler claimed that the ToV was 'worthless', and that Germans were 'on fire with shame

and anger' about it.   The Treaty was a constant reminder to the Germans of their humiliation in WWI.

2.   Hitler did not accept Germany had lost WWI, and wanted to make Germany great again.3.   He objected to:•   The tiny armed forces (and so he re-armed German after 1935).•   Rhineland demilitarised (and so he marched in in March 1936).•   Anschluss forbidden (so he annexed Austria in March 1938)•   Germans under Czech and Polish rule (so he took over the Sudetenland in Sept 1938,

and attacked Poland in Sept 1939).

Lebensraum and Aryan supremacy

After Munich, Hitler began to pursue his other gaols of Lebensraum, Aryan supremacy and the destruction of Communist Russia:1.   Hitler said that the German population was growing and would need 'living space' in

eastern Europe.   'Destiny points us towards Russia' he said in Mein Kampf.•   The Nazi-Soviet Pact Aug 1939 gave him half of Poland, which he attacked in Sept

1939.   •   In June 1941, he attacked Russia.2.   This was connected to his belief in Aryan supremacy - he believed this gave him the

right to invade eastern Europe and make the Slav peoples Germany's slaves.•   He moved Poles into certain areas of Poland (ethnic cleansing so Germans could take the

rest) and used them as labourers for the German war effort.•   The Nazis used Jews and Gypsies and slave labourers in workcamps.•   Nazi governors (eg Hans Frank in Poland) were told to 'Germanize' the population.  

Poles were not to be educated, and educated Poles were put to death.•   in places like Norway and Poland, the Nazis took lebensborn (German-looking) children

and sent them to be brought up as Germans.

Destroy Communism

1.   Hitler hated and feared the Communists, esp. Russia - 'the menace of Russia hangs over Germany', he said in Mein Kampf.

•   In June 1941, he attacked Russia, before he had fully defeated Britain.

Road to War: Steps to War

Saar

ACTIONS•   The ToV had put the Saar under League control for 15 years; plebiscite due in 1935 to decide

future.•   Many anti-Nazis had fled to the Saar in 1933.   Seeing what Hitler was doing in Germany,

Communists and Social Democrats formed a 'united front' campaign to try to retain LoN status.•   The Nazis formed a 'German Front' with the Catholics.   Helped by the police and the Nazi

Gestapo, they attacked their opponents.•   The LoN knew what was happening, but it was afraid to stop them•   Spaniol and 17,000 Nazi Saarlanders (who had joined the SA in Germany to) threatened to

invade.   This was stopped Dec 1935 when Britain offered to send soldiers to keep the peace.•   13 Jan 1935: plebiscite - 90.3% voted to return to Germany.IMPORTANCE/RESULTS•   It was, says one historian, 'the greatest triumph of the Nazis in a free election' = massive boost to

Hitler's prestige.•   Showed that Germans outside Germany hated the ToV & loved Germany more than they feared

Hitler.•   Gave moral authority to Hitler's claims on Austria/ Sudetenland.•   Showed the LoN was scared in the face of violence - and FAILED to notice that the Nazis

immediately backed down when Britain promised to send soldiers.

Re-armament

ACTIONS•   1933: Hitler begins rearming in secret - by 1935 army had risen 3x to 300,000, and airplanes

from 36 to 2500.•   1934: Hitler wrecked the LoN Disarmament Conference by demanding parity with France•   1935: Hitler introduced conscription, and formed the Luftwaffe.   Both broke the ToV.   A huge

Military Rally openly showed off how he had broken the ToV.   Br & Fr did nothing•   1935 Britain made a treaty with Hitler letting Germany have a navy one-third as big as Britain's.•   By 1939 Hitler was spending 25% of his budget on armaments - 'guns before butter'•   By 1939, Germany had 95 warships, 8250 airplanes and an army of almost 1 million.IMPORTANCE/RESULTS•   Hitler openly broke the ToV and go away with it•   Britain HELPED him - beginning of appeasement•   NB not necessarily aggressive - Hitler said he only wanted them as a deterrent ... but he later

used them to threaten and bully.

Rhineland

ACTIONS•   Demilitarised under ToV (and Germany had accepted this at the Treaty of Locarno, 1925).  

Hitler now overturned them both.•   In 1936, France and USSR signed a defensive alliance - Hitler claimed this threatened

Germany's safety.•   Br & Fr/ LoN were distracted by the Abyssinian crisis with Italy.•   7 Mar 1936: Hitler ordered his army into the Rhineland; it had orders to retreat if the French

opposed it (they did not).•   The LoN condemned Hitler, but refused to impose sanctions.•   The German troops were welcomed as heroes.IMPORTANCE/RESULTS•   Hitler openly broke the ToV and the LoN let him•   Hitler's prestige soared - especially in Germany•   It was the start of a feeling that he would always get away with it (Br & Fr would always back

down) that led to WWII in the end•   Encourages him to try to change Anschluss.

Austria

ACTIONS•   Mein Kampf had said that Austria was part of 'Greater Germany'.•   1934: nightmare year for Austria - economic depression, in February the Social Democrats

rebelled, then in July the Austrian Nazis rebelled and assassinated the Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss.   Hitler wanted to help the Nazis, but Mussolini moved his army to the Austrian border and Hitler was forced to back down.

•   Nov 1936: Hitler made the Axis alliance with Mussolini.•   1938, Austrian Nazis rioted, calling for Anschluss.   Hitler supported them.  Br & Fr refused to

defend Austria.  The Austrian Chancellor  Schuschnigg suggested a plebsicite.•   11 Mar 1938: Fearing that he would lose, Hitler invaded.   •   20,000 Austrians arrested/ plebiscite held - controlled by Nazi army - 99.75% vote for Anschluss.IMPORTANCE/RESULTS•   Hitler openly broke the ToV and LoN let him•   Hitler's prestige soared - especially in Germany•   It was the first time Hitler had tried aggression outside Germany•   Hitler grew in confidence to attempt the Sudetenland  

  

Road to War: AppeasementYou should not get asked directly about:●   why Chamberlain appeased Hitler, or ●   whether appeasement was sensible, or even ●   who was to blame but make sure you have thought about these questions.   However: THIS IS THE LIST YOU MUST LEARN:Appeasement was believing that Hitler's claims were REASONABLE, and that he was reasonable, and that if we gave in to his reasonable demands he would stop what they were fulfilled - that is why Chamberlain set so much store by Hitler's promise at Munich that he had no more demands.   Appeasement involved treating Hitler's Germany, not as a troublemaker or an outcast, but as an equal and 'a man who can be trusted':   1933 Prime Minister Ramsey MacDonald ignored German rearmament1935 Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin ignored Hitler's open rearmament

rally and introduction of conscription1935 Baldwin made the naval agreement with Germany7 March 1936 Baldwin ignored the reoccupation of the RhinelandApril 1938 Chamberlain did nothing about AnschlussSept 1938 Chamberlain GAVE Hitler the Sudetenland at Munich after a

humiliating series of meetings.    

Road to War: Results/importance of Appeasement1. Britain gained time to build up her armed forces - but so did Hitler. 2. Hitler decided that Britain and France were afraid of him and that they would not

stop him whatever he did.   Historians have suggested that in this way appeasement ENCOURAGED Hitler to start WWII.

3. Russia decided that Britain and France would never stand up to Hitler, and that war with Germany was inevitable (this led to the Nazi-Soviet Pact).

4. The people of Britain realised that they had been duped, and decided that war was inevitable.

5. But it also improved the morale of the British people, who knew they had done everything possible to avoid war.

   

Road to War: Sudetenland and Munich

Background

•   By 1938, Hitler expected Br & Fr to appease him. •   He was buoyed up by the successful invasion of Austria.   •   7 Sept 1938:  the Sudeten Nazi Party (led by Konrad henlein)

demanded union with Germany – riots.      Hitler accused the Czechs of atrocities and threatened to support the Sudeten Germans with military force.

Meat

THREE MEETINGS:•   15 Sept 1938: Chamberlain met Hitler at Berchtesgaden.  They

agreed on a plebiscite.   Hitler promised him that this was the ‘last problem to be solved’.   Chamberlain decided Hitler was ‘a man who can be relied upon’.   Chamberlain got the Czech to agree.

•   22 Sep 19382.    Chamberlain met Hitler at Bad Godesberg.   Hitler made more demands.   Chamberlain refused, but then he decided that Czechoslovakia was not one of the ‘great issues’ which justified war, but just ‘a quarrel in a far-away country between people of whom we know nothing’.   

•   29 Sep 1938: Chamberlain and Daladier met Hitler at Munich and gave the Sudetenland to Germany.   Czechoslovakia was not even invited to the talks. 

End

•   30 Sept 1938: Chamberlain returned to England with his ‘piece of paper’: ‘I believe it is peace for our time’, he told the cheering crowd.  

•   1 Oct 1938: Hitler marched into the Sudetenland and boasted that it was the start of a 1000-year Reich.  

    

Road to War: Sudetenland/Munich - results/importance1. Czechoslovakia was weakened (only a matter of time before Hitler took the rest - 15

Mar 1939).2. Hitler decided that Britain and France were afraid of him and that they would not stop

him whatever he did (historians have suggested that in this way appeasement ENCOURAGED Hitler to start WWII).

3. Russia decided that Britain and France would never stand up to Hitler, and that war with Germany was inevitable (this led to the Nazi-Soviet Pact - Aug 1939).

4. The people of Britain immediately realised that they had been duped, and decided that war was inevitable (Winston Churchill said: 'It is a total defeat. Czechoslovakia will be swallowed up by the Nazis. And do not suppose that this is the end. This is only the beginning').

5. Britain gained a year to prepare for war (but so did Hitler)

Dec 1938 ‘National Register’ of who would do what if there was a war. Jan 1939 Plans to strengthen navy and RAF

Feb  A quarter of a million free air raid shelters are given to Londoners. Mar Territorial Army doubled in numbers. Apr Parliament increases defence spending. Civil Defence Act – plans to

evacuate women and children from London to the countryside. May Military Training Act – conscription.

31 Aug First children evacuated from London.

6. It improved the war morale of the British people, who knew they had done everything possible to avoid war, and now decided that Hitler was evil.

 

Road to War: The Slide to War, 1938-9It is arguable that Chamberlain realised that war was coming even as he was negotiating the Munich Agreement (or immediately afterwards). Remember that - throughout the year - Britain was preparing for war. However - even if Chamberlain still thought Hitler could be trusted - events during 1938-39 pushed him and Britain into war: 

  Event Significance

Events in Britain ending appeasement

•   Winston Churchill •   led campaign against appeasement•   3 Oct 1938: Duff Cooper (head

of navy), resigned over Munich.

•    showed growing hostility to appeasement in the government

•   27 Oct 1938: anti-appeasers do well in the Oxford by-election

•   showed growing hostility to appeasement amongst ordinary people

•   28 Feb 1939: MPs shouted ‘Heil Chamberlain’

•   showed growing hostility to appeasement in parliament

Events in Europe bringing war

•   8 Nov 1938: Kristallnacht •   Shows the Nazis as evil racists•   People wonder what life would be like in a Nazi Europe

•   28 Feb 1939: Fascists won the Spanish Civil War. 

•   Seems that fascism was triumphing everywhere

•   15 Mar 1939: Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia

•   Chamberlain promised to defend Poland. •   The first time Hitler had attacked non-Germans. •   Chamberlain called it a ‘shock to confidence’ (= showed

Hitler lied at Munich).   •   13 Apr 1939: Mussolini

conquered Albania. •   proved that fascists wanted to take over the world

•   23 Aug 1939: Nazi-Soviet Pact •   freed Hitler to attack Poland•   ended any hopes of alliance with Russia against Hitler -

only answer now was war•   1 Sep 1939: Hitler invaded

Poland•   3 Sep: Britain declared war.

    

Road to War: Nazi-Soviet Pact 

Background

•    31 Mar 1939: Chamberlain promised to defend Poland.   Churchill said that the only way to do this was by an alliance with Stalin.   Chamberlain approached the Russian ambassador to open negotiations.   Stalin, who was also afraid of Hitler, agreed.

•    Chamberlain did not trust Communist Russia.   Negotiations went very slowly.  

•    Meanwhile, Stalin did not trust the British, who he believed would eventually appease Hitler and leave him in the lurch.   On June 15 the Soviets secretly sounded out the Nazis for an alliance.   While Stalin was negotiating with Britain, he was negotiating with Hitler behind Chamberlain's back.

Meat

•    Aug 1939: the British eventually sent a minor official called Reginald Ranfurly Plunckett-Ernle-Erle-Drax.   He travelled by slow boat.   He did not have authority to make any decisions, and had to refer every question back to London.  

•    3 Aug: Hitler agreed to pay the Soviet price for a pact with Russia.•    19 Aug: a Nazi-Soviet trade treaty was signed. •    23 Aug: the Nazi-Soviet Pact was concluded.   Hitler pounded on

the wall with his fists and shouted, "I have the world in my pocket!"

End•    The public text of the Nazi-Soviet Pact was merely a non-

aggression pact.•    A secret protocol agreed to attack and partition Poland between

them – Russia was also to get Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.  

Road to War: Nazi-Soviet Pact - results/importance1. Freed up Hitler to invade Poland - he knew that Britain couldn't do

anything to defend Poland (he invaded 9 days later). 2. Ended Britain's hopes of an alliance with Russia to stop Hitler - people in

Britain realised that nothing would stop Hitler now but war.3. Improved morale of British people for war - showed Hitler as an

opportunist and a trickster, who could never be trusted.4. Anger at Russia was to become a cause of the Cold War.

     

Road to War: Poland

Background

•    The Polish corridor had been given to Poland by the ToV/ Danzig was a LoN 'free city'.

•    31 Mar 1939: Chamberlain had guaranteed Poland against German attack.   Hitler was not afraid of Britain, but he did fear war with Russia

Meat

•    Hitler demanded Danzig and right of way through the Polish corridor

•    The Germans in Danzig demanded union with Germany.•    Hitler accused the Polish government of atrocities.   He threatened

war if Poland did not give way.•    23 Aug: the Nazi-Soviet Pact removed the fear of war with Russia.

End •    1 Sep 1939: Hitler invaded Poland•    3 Sep 1939: Chamberlain declared war on Germany.

    

Cold War: The Ideological ConflictWhat you need here is to be able to flesh out the table that you remember from this Causes of the Cold War diagram:  

  America Russia

IdeologyCapitalist Communist

Democracy DictatorshipHuman Rights No personal freedoms

Aims Recovery ReparationsProtect democracy Buffer states

History1939 1918

  1944    

Cold War: Results/significance1. Post-1991 historians now believe that the ideological clash was the chief

cause of the Cold War.2. Because democracy and Communists were beliefs, they gave the Cold War

the feeling of a religious war, with the kind of bitterness that attends a religious war (e.g. the 'kitchen debate' between Nixon and Khrushchev in 1959).

3. Because capitalism and communism were ideologies, they both felt the need to prove that they were better than the other by competing (e.g. led to the arms race, the space race, the Olympics, propaganda war etc.)

4. Because they were beliefs, they affected people INSIDE the country, which led to fear (e.g. McCarthy 'witch-hunts' of the 1950s/ USSR arrested 'dissidents').

5. Russia was on the back foot re human rights - led to Poland and Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968) trying to get free, which caused international crises.

6. Russia's desire for a buffer led to 'salami tactics', and because the USA interpreted this as empire-building, it led to the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan.

7. Britain and America's desire to build up West Germany as a prosperous capitalist trading partner led to the Berlin Blockade and (because so many people in the east were defecting) to the Berlin Wall.

 

Cold War: Yalta and Potsdam  

Yalta Potsdam

BackgroundFebruary 1945 July 1945

Stalin  •Roosevelt (liked and trusted Stalin)  •

Churchill (hated Communism, but good-humoured towards Stalin)  •

•  Stalin•  Truman (anti-Communist, anti-Stalin)•  Attlee (disliked Stalin)

Stalin had broken through and was advancing on Berlin from the east -

Britain and America, from the west,  had still not managed to invade Germany

Germany had surrendered and Hitler had committed suicide.

Roosevelt wanted Stalin to help him against Japan America had developed the atomic bomb - Truman did not need Russia's help against Japan

Protocols (Agreements)to divide Germany into four ‘zones’, which Britain, France,

the USA and the USSR would occupy after the warto set up the four ‘zones of occupation’ in Germany, destroy the Nazi thinking, and build a democracy in Germany.

to bring Nazi war-criminals to trial to bring Nazi war-criminals to trial. to set up a Polish Provisional Government of National

Unity 'pledged to the holding of free and unfettered elections as soon as possible'

to recognize the Polish Provisional Government of National Unity and hold 'free and unfettered elections as soon as possible'.

'The Declaration of Liberated Europe' - to help the freed peoples of Europe set up self-governing

governments and hold democratic elections

(Stalin had arrested large numbers of non-Communist Polish leaders)

to set up a commission to look into reparations

Russia was allowed to take reparations from the Soviet Zone, and also 10% of the industrial equipment of the western zones.America and Britain could take reparations from their zones if they wished.

that Russia would join the United Nations Stalin offered to help the Americans defeat Japan .

Cold War: Results of Yalta1. Many historians believe that Yalta was when the Cold War began. 2. Germany remained divided until 1990.3. Certainly, tension was growing throughout the conference, notably about the

fate of Poland and eastern Europe, and especially between Churchill and Stalin.   After the conference, Churchill wrote to Roosevelt that ‘The Soviet Union has become a danger to the free world.’

4. Churchill was forced to make the 'percentages agreement' with Stalin - allowing him a 'sphere of influence' in eastern Europe.   Many historians have claimed that Yalta thus handed over eastern Europe to Russia, and condemned millions to Communist oppression - President George Bush described it as 'pone of the greatest wrongs in history'.

5. Downing and Isaacs (makes of TV series on the Cold War) say: "Yalta revealed cracks in the Grand Alliance. Only the common objective of defeating Hitler had kept it together."

6. Time magazine in 1945 said that - compared with the Treaty of Versailles - Yalta was a good peace.

   

Cold War: Results of Potsdam1. Potsdam just repeated the decisions of Yalta2. The tensions of Yalta came out into open disagreement -  it arguable that

Potsdam was the moment when the Cold War actually broke out.3. Truman and Churchill HATED the reparations agreement at Potsdam.   Truman

presented it as a 'compromise', but really he was furious.4. The British were furious about Poland - Polish freedom was why they had

fought WWII in the first place!   Soon after, Truman invited Churchill to Fulton, to give his 'Iron Curtain' speech.

5. The Russian offer to help defeat Japan terrified Truman, who feared the Soviets doing in the far east what they had in eastern Europe)

6. Stalin was FURIOUS that Truman did not tell him that he had the atomic bomb.   

Cold War: Salami Tactics

Background

•   Stalin wanted a 'buffer' to protect the USSR•   In the so-called 'percentages agreement' Churchill had agreed to a Russian 'sphere of influence' in

eastern Europe.•   The Red Army conquered eastern Europe 1944-46 - there was •   nothing America or Britain could do

to dislodge it.

Meat

•   East Germany was made the Russian 'zone' at Yalta•   In 1945-7, Communist governments came to power in Bulgaria, Albania and Romania. •   HOW the Communists did it was described by Rakosi as 'slicing salami' - case studies:•   Hungary

•   1945 - Russian troops stayed there.•   Stalin allowed elections, which the non-communists won. However, some communists were

elected (led by Rakosi).•   1946 - Rakosi got non-Communist parties banned, saying that otherwise the Russians would take

over the country. •   He got control of the police, and had his opponents arrested. •   He set up a brutal secret police, the AVO. •   1947 - Rakosi had complete control over Hungary.

•   Poland•   1945 - Russians set up a Communist government (though at Yalta Stalin agreed to let non-

Communists join it).•   Stalin invited 16 non-Communist leaders to Moscow and imprisoned them. •   1946 - Elections were delayed a number of times.•   1947 - Thousands of non-Communists were imprisoned.  

•   Czechoslovakia•   1945 - the Red Army stayed there•   a government was set up with non-Communists and Communists (led by Gottwald).•   Gottwald had non-Communists arrested, claiming they had helped the Nazis during the war•   He made sure that Communists were in charge of the police, radio and army.•   1947 - a secret police was set up•   1948 - The leading anti-Communist Jan Masaryk 'committed suicide' by throwing himself out of his

bathroom window.End •   By 1948, hard-line Stalinist governments ruled in every country of eastern Europe.

     

Cold War: Results of Soviet expansion1. In the 1960s, historians blamed Soviet expansion for causing the Cold War -

they said the USSR was empire-building (this Illingworth cartoon shows was the west thought about it).

2. The peoples of eastern Europe fell under the control of hard-line Stalinist government =  lack of freedom (e.g. Hungary 1956, Czechoslovakia, 1968).

3. Soviet expansion led directly to the Fulton speech, the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan

 

Cold War: Fulton Speech

Background

•   Churchill feared Communism - in 1944, he suggested that America and Britain make peace with Germany and attack Russia!

•   At Yalta, he had been forced to make the percentages agreement, but regretted it.

•   After Yalta, told Roosevelt that ‘The Soviet Union has become a danger to the free world.’

•   Truman was very anti-Communist, and FURIOUS about Potsdam.•   George Kennan, the US Ambassador in Moscow, sent Truman a

'Long Telegram' , saying that the Soviet Union was growing and  - without going to war - had to be stopped (by 'educating the public').

Meat

•   5 Mar 1946, Truman invited Churchill to give a speech in Fulton, Missouri - it was all pre-agreed, and Truman gave a speech of introduction

•   Churchill said that an 'iron curtain' had come down across Europe, behind which the Communists had taken over.

•   He described the Communist governments as a 'shadow' over civilisation - of 'totalitarian control [and] police governments'.

End •   Stalin said that Churchill had 'declared war' on the USSR     

Cold War: Results of Fulton1. Fulton warned the people of America and Britain (who were used to thinking of

'Uncle Joe' as their ally) that their governments were becoming alarmed at Soviet expansion - nb Kennan's advice about 'educating the public'

2. Fulton prepared the ground for the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.3. Stalin was furious - he said that Churchill had 'declared war' on the USSR.   The

Soviets became openly hostile towards the west - thereby bringing on a Cold War.

4. 5 Mar 1946 can be said to be the date on which the Cold War broke out.   

Cold War: Truman Doctrine

Background

•   Stalin was taking over eastern Europe by 'salami tactics'•   George Kennan's 'Long Telegram' assured Truman that Russia

COULD be stopped by resolute action.•   At Fulton, Truman had got Churchill to give the 'Iron Curtain'

speech•   In the 'percentages agreement', Stalin had promised to leave

Greece alone - but Communists were still attacking the Greek government.

•   British soldiers were defending Greece, but in Feb 1947 the British told Truman they could not afford to keep them there any more.

Meat

•   As after the First World War, many Americans had hoped to be able to return to 'isolation'.

•   12 Mar 1947 he told Congress:a.  that Communism was growingb.  that it was America's 'responsibility ... 'to ensure the peaceful

development of nations, free from coercion'.•   Although the word was not in the speech), the Truman Doctrine

came to stand for 'containment' - not trying to 'roll back' Communism, but stopping further advance.

End•   Congress supported Truman, who asked for $400 million for

military intervention in Greece and Turkey•   Truman sent General George Marshall to Europe to see what else

needed to be done to stop Communism.     

Cold War: Results of Truman Doctrine1. America changed her policy - overturned for ever the 'Monroe Doctrine' of

isolation (which they had followed since the 19th century) - and adopted instead the 'Truman Doctrine' . Truman's speech was in fact America's declaration of 'Cold War' on Russia.

2. Congress allocated $400 million for immediate military intervention in Greece and Turkey - the Communists were quickly defeated/stopped in both countries.

3. Truman sent General George Marshall to Europe to see what else needed to be done - this led immediately to the Marshall Plan

4. Although the word was not in the speech), the Truman Doctrine came to stand for 'containment' - not trying to 'roll back' Communism, but stopping further advance - this idea led to the Korean and Vietnam Wars

5. Truman's idea of Soviet advance led to the 'domino theory', which lay behind the Korean and Vietnam Wars

6. Truman's decision to give military support to countries resisting Communism led eventually to the formation of NATO

  

Cold War: Marshall Plan

Background

•   All the background of - Salami tactics; Kennan; Fulton; Greece.•   12 Mar 1946, Truman had secured the support of Congress for the

'Truman Doctrine' of 'containing' Communism.•   Truman sent General George Marshall on a tour of Europe to see

what needed to be done to stop the spread of Communism.   Marshall came back believing that Europe was so poor after the war that ALL EUROPE was 'a breeding ground of hate' and in danger of turning Communist.

Meat

•   5 June 1947, Marshall gave a speech advocating spending vast sums of money to get the European economy going.

•   He said that the war had caused: 'the dislocation of the entire fabric of the European economy'.

•   He insisted that: 'Our policy is directed not against any country or doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos.'

•   He said that the countries of Europe needed to decide how much they needed for what - on 12 July 1947 Britain arranged a meeting in Paris to decide.

•   In 1948, the European Recovery Program (ERP) went into effect.

End•   Congress at first hesitated to spend so much money.   However, in

March 1948 Czechoslovakia turned Communist, and Congress voted the funding.

     

Cold War: Results of the Marshall Plan1. Europe asked for $22bn, Truman asked for $17bn, and Congress voted

£13bn.   2. The money was spent as the countries of Europe decided - on roads and

railways, factories, tractors, fishing nets, food aid .. everything down to donkeys.

3. Note that a substantial proportion of the money was spent on the military and weapons.

4. Britain (got $3bn) and West Germany benefited most, also France, Italy and the Netherlands.

5. This money worked - it stopped further countries from turning Communist.6. The Russians (correctly) interpreted this as America going to war with them,

using money not weapons.7. Stalin forbade Iron Curtain countries to seek Marshall Aid (Czechoslovakia,

which had at first asked for Aid, had to 'change its mind').8. Stalin set up Cominform as a counter-influence.9. Co-operating over the Marshall Plan led eventually to the 'European Economic

Community' (the EU).    

Cold War: Germany after WWII1. At Potsdam (July 1945) Germany had been divided into four zones.   Berlin (in

the Russian zone) was also divided into four zones.2. BOTH sides had huge military forces stationed in Germany.3. America and Russia had different Aims for Germany:4. Stalin wanted to ruin Germany:

•    The USSR took reparations from west Germany and stripped the Russian zone of its wealth and machinery

5. Britain and the USA wanted to rebuild Germany’s industry to become a trading partner:

•    they joined their two zones together into Bizonia (Jan 1947)•    Germany was eligible for Marshall Aid (31 March 1948), but Stalin forbade

the Russian zone to take part.•    June 1948, they announced that they wanted to create the new country of

West Germany   

Cold War: Berlin Blockade and Airlift

Background

•   Britain and the USA wanted to rebuild Germany’s industry to become a wealthy trading partner.   They joined their two zones together into Bizonia (Jan 1947).

•   the US gave west Germany Marshall Aid (31 March 1948), but Stalin forbade the Russian zone to take part, and the Russians started stopping and searching all road and rail traffic into Berlin.

•   June 1948, America and Britain announced that they wanted to create the new country of West Germany; this was a direct affront to the USSR, which had not been consulted.

•   23 June 1948 America and Britain introduced a new currency into ‘Bizonia’ and western Berlin.   This caused an economic crisis in the Russian zone, as people in eastern Europe rushed to change all their money into the new western currency, which was worth more.  

Meat

•   24 June 1948 Stalin stopped all road and rail traffic into Berlin.•   Gen. Clay, the American commander in Germany, wanted to fight its way into Berlin – that

would have caused a war.   •   Instead, Truman decided to supply Berlin by air ('Operation Vittles').•   Stalin offered to supply food to west Berlin but this was refused.•   The blockade lasted 318 days (11 months). •   The situation was bad at first, but got better as time went on.•   In the winter of 1948–49 Berliners lived on dried potatoes, powdered eggs and cans of

meat.   They had 4 hours of electricity a day. •   275,000 flights carried in 1½ million tons of supplies.   A plane landed every 3 mins. •   Pilot Gail Halvorsen dropped chocolate and sweets. •   The USA stationed B-29 bombers (which could carry an atomic bomb) in Britain - Stalin

didn't dare shoot down the supply planes.

End•   The Blockade was portrayed in the west as an attempt to conquer Berlin by starvation•   It became clear that the Blockade was failing, and on 12 May 1949, Stalin re-opened the

border..     

Cold War: Results of Berlin Blockade1. Cold War got worse - the US stationed B-29 bomber (which could carry an

atomic bomb) in Britain2. Germany split (until 1990) into East and West Germany.   In May 1949,

America, Britain and France united their zones into the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany).   In October 1949, Stalin set up the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).

3. Armed stand-off: in 1949, the western Allies set up NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) as a defensive alliance against Russia. NATO countries surrounded Russia; in 1955, the Soviet Union set up the Warsaw Pact – a military alliance of Communist states.  

4. Arms Race - after Berlin, the USA and the USSR realised that they were in a competition for world domination and began to build up their armies and weapons.  

Cold War: Korea after WWII1. After the war, the Americans and Russians divided Korea (which had been ruled by Japan) into a Communist north

and a capitalist south.2. It was divided along the 38th parallel because the only map available was a small-scale map of the world.3. The North Korea ruler was the hard-line communist Kim Il Sung.   The President of South Korea was Syngman Rhee.4. North and South Korea hated each other - there were constant border clashes, and fear of invasion.

   

Cold War: The Korean War

Background

•   The Americans developed the 'domino theory' to explain Communist expansion.•   In April 1950, the American National Security Council issued a report (NSC 68)

recommending abandoning 'containment' to start 'rolling back' Communism.•   In 1949, Kim Il Sung visited Stalin and persuaded him to let him invade South

Korea.    Stalin saw a chance to continue the cold war and discomfort America, but ‘at arm’s length’

•   Kim II Sung also went to see Mao Zedong, the leader of China, who promised his full support.  

•   In 1950, Syngman Rhee boasted that he was going to attack North Korea. It gave Kim Il Sung an excuse to  invade South Korea (on 25 June 1950).  

Meat

•   The North Korean People's Army (NKPA) easily drove back the Republic of Korea's army (the ROKs) to Pusan

•   The Americans persuaded the United Nations to pass a resolution supporting South Korea, and sent troops to Korea.  

•   15 Sept 1950: Gen. MacArthur with 300,000 UN troops led an amphibious assault at Inchon; the NKPA were driven back to the Chinese border.  

•   25 Nov 1950: the Chinese 'People's Volunteers' attacked to help the North Koreans.   They drove back the Americans, and the war reached a stalemate at the 38th parallel.  

End•   In 1953, Eisenhower became American president.  He threatened to use the atomic

bomb if China did not stop fighting.   •   The Chinese agree to a truce, which was signed on 27 July 1953.  

     

Cold War: Results of the Korean War1. Human cost - perhaps a million Chinese and half a million North Korean

soldiers died in the war.    Many civilians - perhaps 8 million - died.2. Korea stayed split and still is; North Korea is STILL regarded as a 'problem'

state.3. Cold War/ Vietnam - the Americans believed that Korea proved the domino

theory, and this made them try to stop Communist expansion elsewhere - especially in Vietnam.   They also used some of the tactics (e.g. napalm) they developed in Korea.  

4. Atomic War.   Many Americans had wanted to use the atomic bomb in Korea, and the world came close to nuclear war.   This led to fear of 'Armageddon' in the west, CND and Ban-the-Bomb campaigns.

 

Cold War: Khrushchev's policiesBackground

•   Stalin died in 1953 and, after a leadership battle, Nikita Khrushchev became leader.

•   In 1957, Khrushchev gave a speech calling Stalin a murderer and tyrant.

Meat

Khrushchev:a    said he wanted 'destalinisation', and a relaxation of the tyranny in the countries

of eastern Europe.   •  he told Tito of Yugoslavia there were 'many roads to communism'.

b    said he wanted 'peaceful co-existence', and that the alternative was nuclear war and the end of humankind.   •  he met Western leaders at summit meetings (e.g. Paris 1960/ Vienna 1961).

BUT:a    destalinisation and 'many roads to communism' did not mean he was going to

let the Iron Curtain countries turn capitalist, or get free from Russian control:•   he sent in troops when countries tried to leave Russian control (e.g. Poland

and Hungary, 1956)b    by peaceful co-existence, Khrushchev meant ‘free competition’:

•   he loved to argue (e.g. the kitchen debate with Nixon) •   he built up allies (e.g. Afghanistan, Burma and Cuba) by giving economic aid

in return for support. •   he entered into the Arms Race (including forming the Warsaw Pact in 1955).•   he entered into the Space Race

End•   When Khrushchev came to power, the West saw him as a jolly, laughing man

who they hoped would end the Cold War. •   In fact, Khrushchev's policies INCREASED tension, and 1955-1963 was the

time of greatest danger in the Cold War.     

Cold War: Results of Khrushchev's policiesa    When Khrushchev came to power, the West saw him as a jolly, laughing man who

they hoped would end the Cold War. They hoped that 'destalinisation' would give Iron Curtain countries freedom, and that 'peaceful co-existence' meant Russia would be less expansionist.

b    In fact, Khrushchev's policies INCREASED tension, and 1955-1963 was the time of greatest danger in the Cold War.   Crisis after 1955 included Poland and Hungary (1956), U2 crisis (1960), Berlin Wall (1961) and the Cuban Missiles crisis (1962).

 c    America's response was aggressive:

•   In the 1950s, McCarthy conducted a 'witchhunt' for Communists in America•   America tried to build up allies (especially in Central America)•   America supported wars against communists (e.g. in Vietnam)•   America entered the Arms Race with Russia •   America entered the Space Race with Russia.•   American U2 planes spied on Russia•   In 1961 the Americans elected a new president (Kennedy), who promised to get

tougher on Communism.     

Cold War: The Arms RaceBoth sides raced to build up as many weapons as possible.   The idea was that this would be a 'deterrent' to the other side, to stop them daring to attack.   America had more nuclear weapons, Russia had more conventional forces.By the 1960s, both sides had enough ICBMs, trained on the other, to destroy every living thing on earth many times over (= '100x overkill')1945        America  – Atomic Bomb1949        Russia – Atomic Bomb1949        NATO formed   1955        Warsaw Pact set up1955        NATO agreed to an army of 0.5million men in West Germany     

Cold War: The Space RaceBoth sides argued that they were exploring space for its military, or mineral, possibilities - but really, they were just trying to prove that they were more 'advanced' than the other.   Although the Americans were the first to put a man on the moon (1969), it was the Russians who led the space race at first.1957        Russia – Sputnik (first satellite)1958        America  – NASA set up   1961        Gagarin  – first astronaut to orbit the earth1961        Kennedy promises to put a man on the moon by 1969  

Cold War: The Hungarian Revolution

Background

•   Khrushchev's policy of 'destalinisation' undermined all the Stalinist govts of Eastern Europe (e.g. riots in Poland and Czechoslovakia).

•   The Hungarians hated Russian control - sending food to Russia, Russian control of education, and Russian troops in Hungary.

•   They hated Rakosi's Stalinist government, especially censorship, the AVH, and repression of Catholicism (Cardinal Mindzenty in prison)

•   They were led to believe that Eisenhower or the UN would help.

Meat

•   23 Oct: revolution - students attacked the AVH and Russian troops, and toppled a huge statue of Stalin.  

•   Khrushchev refused to help Rakosi, who fell from power.•   24 Oct–3 Nov: a new government led by Imre Nagy introduced

democracy, freedom of speech and religion (Cardinal Mindzenty joined the government)

•   Nagy asked Khrushchev to take Russian troops out of Hungary - Khrushchev agreed.

End•   But then Nagy announced Hungary was leaving the Warsaw Pact. •   4 Nov: 1000 Russian tanks crushed the revolution. •   Western powers protested but didn’t send troops.

  

Cold War: Results of the Hungarian RevolutionIn Hungary•   4,000 Hungarians (including Nagy) were executed. •   200,000 Hungarians fled to the West. •   The Russians put Janos Kadar into power.    Cold War:•   Russia stayed in total control behind the Iron Curtain. •   Communism was utterly discredited in the west - many western communists

resigned from the Communist party. •   Western leaders became more determined to oppose communism.  

Cold War: The U2 Crisis, 1960

Background

•   By 1960, Cold War tension was at an all-time high:•   Russia was winning the space race (Sputnik 1957/Gagarin 1961)

and had a HUGE army in eastern Europe.•   The Communists had taken over Cuba in 1959, and China was

very aggressive, demanding that Russia get tough with the West.•   Russia wanted the Americans out of West Berlin.•   The Americans wanted an 'open skies' agreement giving them the

right to fly over Communist countries.•   A Summit meeting was arranged for May 1960 in Paris to try and

sort all this out.

Meat

•   1 May 1960: Soviets shot down an American U2 spy plane over USSR, and captured pilot Gary Powers.

•   (neither Russian planes nor guns could get high enough to shoot down a U2 plane, but the U2 got shot down by accident when a Russian gun trying to shoot it down blew up a Russian plane trying to shoot it down)

•   At first the Americans claimed it was a weather plane, but they were shown to be liars when the Russians put Gary Powers on trial as a spy - the Americans had to admit he was a spy.

End•   When the Paris summit met 14 May 1960, Khrushchev immediately

demanded apology + end to spying flights. •   Eisenhower agreed to end spy-flights, but refused to apologise, so

Khrushchev walked out.     

Cold War: Results of the U2 Crisis•   The Paris summit was ruined - Cold War tension increased•   Eisenhower’s planned visit to Russia was cancelled  In America:•   America came off badly (had been caught lying) = propaganda victory for USSR. •   Eisenhower lost prestige.   In 1961 the Americans elected a new president

(Kennedy), who promised to get tougher on Communism.    In Russia•   Attitudes hardened - Khrushchev demanded that US left West Berlin   

Cold War: The Berlin Wall, 1961

Background

•   Tension in Cold War - Kennedy was helping the war in Vietnam.•   Tension over West Berlin - by 1961, 2000 people a day (3 million

since 1945) were fleeing to the West through West Berlin.•   West Berlin was a centre for American spies•   At the Vienna Summit (June 1961) Khrushchev again demanded

that the Americans leave West Berlin.•   Instead, in July 1961, Kennedy INCREASED his arms spending

Meat•   13 August 1961: the East Germans erected a barbed wire wall

overnight, later replaced with concrete. •   All movement between East and West was stopped. •   The Wall was fortified with barbed wire and guns.

End•   Western powers protested but couldn't do anything.•   Wall remained until 1991, a symbol of the division between East

and West. •   MANY East Germans died trying to escape through the Wall.

     

Cold War: Results of the Berlin Wall•   Cold War tension grew - both sides began testing nuclear bombs.•   Berlin was split into two.   •   The Wall remained until 1991, a symbol of the division between East and West.    •   At first, it was a Russian propaganda victory - the Americans couldn't do anything.•   BUT as time went on, MANY East Germans died trying to escape through the Wall -

it became a symbol of the failures of Communism, poor, oppressed, and cut off from the West.

•   It therefore also inspired people in the West to try to defeat communism - the West became more anti-Communist.

•   In 1963, President Kennedy went to West Berlin and - in his 'I am a Berliner' speech, given right next to the Wall - made HUGE propaganda out of the Wall, about the need to defeat communism.   He said that it showed that there could be no accommodations made with the communists - they must be opposed.   (On the other side of the Wall, East Berliners listened and cheered him).

  

Cold War: Background1.   By 1960, superpower tension was at an all time high:•    arms race - both sides were nuclear testing, and the Americans had recently put

ICBMs in Turkey•    America was funding anti-Communists in Vietnam,•    the U2 crisis•    the failed summit meetings at Paris (1960) and Vienna (1961)•    the Berlin Wall.    2   There were especial problems in Cuba:•    In 1959, Fidel Castro took power in Cuba.•    In 1960 he nationalised all American-owned companies.•    In retaliation, the Americans stopped trading with Cuba. •    So Castro made a trade agreement with Russia, whereby Cuba sent sugar to

Russia, in return for oil, machines and money.   Castro became a Communist.•    April 1961: the CIA supported the failed Bay of Pigs invasion•    Sept 1961: Castro asked for (and Russia publicly promised) weapons to defend

Cuba against America.   

Cold War: The Bay of Pigs, 1961

Background

•    Background of tension - arms race/ U2/ Berlin Wall•    In 1959, the Communist Fidel Castro took power in Cuba.•    In 1960 he nationalised all American-owned companies.•    In retaliation, the Americans stopped trading with Cuba. •    So Castro made a trade agreement with Russia, whereby Cuba

sent sugar to Russia, in return for oil, machines and money.   Castro became a Communist.

•    President Eisenhower told the CIA to collect, fund and arms a force of Cuban exiles.

Meat

•   The CIA persuaded Kennedy to agree to an invasion.•   17 April 1961, a force of 1500 Cuban exiles was transported to the

Bay of Pigs in Cuba.•   The local inhabitants immediately betrayed them to Castro's forces.•   They were easily defeated - by 21 April 1,173 had been taken

prisoner.

End

•   Kennedy was humiliated.•   In Sept 1961: Castro asked for (and Russia publicly promised)

weapons to defend Cuba against America - this led directly to the Cuban missiles crisis of 1962.

•   In 1962, America paid $53 million dollars-worth of food and medicines to ransom the captured soldiers.

•   The CIA internal report on the failure blamed CIA ignorance and incompetence - Kennedy never trusted the CIA again

     

Cold War: The Cuban Missiles Crisis, 1962

Background

•    Background of tension - arms race/ U2/ Berlin Wall•    In 1959, the Communist Fidel Castro took power in Cuba.•    In 1960 he nationalised all American-owned companies.•    In retaliation, the Americans stopped trading with Cuba. •    So Castro made a trade agreement with Russia, whereby Cuba sent sugar to Russia, in return for oil,

machines and money.   Castro became a Communist.•    April 1961: the CIA supported the failed Bay of Pigs invasion•    Sept 1961: Castro asked for (and Russia publicly promised) weapons to defend Cuba against America.

Meat

•   14 Oct: an American U2 spy-plane took pictures of missile sites being built on Cuba.  Kennedy called the National Security Council, who told him he had 10 days to act.   Some options (e.g. invasion of Cuba) were very dangerous because they would have caused a World War.

•    22 Oct: Kennedy announced on TV that he was mounting a naval blockade of Cuba.   He said he would not 'shrink from the risk' of world war.   Khrushchev accused him of 'piracy', and promised ‘a fitting reply to the aggressor’.

•    25 Oct: the first Russian ship reached the naval blockade. It was an oil ship and was allowed through. All the other Russian ships turned back. Secretly, the US government offered to remove US missiles in Turkey in exchange for those in Cuba.

•    26 Oct: Kennedy was about to authorise an invasion of Cuba.Then, at 6pm,Khrushchev sent a telegram offering to dismantle the sites if Kennedy would lift the blockade and agree not to invade Cuba.

•    27 Oct: Before Kennedy could reply, Khrushchev sent another letter, demanding that Kennedy also dismantle American missile sites in Turkey. On the same day, a U2 plane was shot down over Cuba. War was about to happen.  But Kennedy ignored the U2 incident AND the second letter.   He offered to lift the blockade and promise not to invade Cuba if the missile sites were dismantled.    He also offered secretly to dismantle the Turkish missile sites.

•    28 Oct: Khrushchev agreed. The crisis finished.

End •    20 Nov: The Turkish missiles sites were dismantled.   Russian bombers left Cuba, and Kennedy lifted the naval blockade.  

     

Cold War: Results of Cuba1    Cuba remained a Communist dictatorship, and America left it alone.2    Surprisingly, Kennedy gained prestige. Although he had lost, it looked as though

he had faced down the Russians. 3    Surprisingly, Khrushchev lost prestige – although he had won, it looked as though

he had failed. Particularly, China broke from Russia.  In 1964, he fell from power.4    Both sides had had a fright. They were more careful in future. The two leaders

set up a telephone ‘hotline’ to talk directly in a crisis. 5    In 1963, they agreed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Cuba was the start of the end

of the Cold War.    

Britain & WWII: The BEF and Dunkirk, 1939-40 ISSUES1.  At first, Britain could not hope to help Poland, so far away, so the government was forced to prepare at home as best it

could, and wait until Hitler attacked - this period of no fighting was called the 'Phoney War'.2.  When Hitler attacked, the British Expeditionary Force in France and the French were utterly unable to resist Hitler's

'Blitzkrieg' tactics.   3.  How valid are newsreels of Dunkirk from the time? - by concentrating on small craft heroically taking soldiers from

beaches, and the 345,000 troops evacuated, the government succeeded in presenting Dunkirk in the media as a wonderful salvation and example of British determination and team-work ('the myth of Dunkirk'), but really it was the HUGE defeat.

      FIVE FACTS1.  11 Sept: British Expeditionary Force of four divisions – 158,000 men with 25,000 vehicles – went to France,

but too small and poorly-equipped.2.  ‘Phoney War’ – no fighting, but 38 million gas-masks were issued.   3.  9 April: Norway fell – British naval force utterly failed to help.   4.  10 May: Hitler invaded Holland, Belgium and France.   Churchill became PM.5   22 May-2 June: ‘Operation Dynamo’ - the BEF lost 2,500 guns, 84,500 vehicles, 77,000 tons ammunition,

416,000 tons supplies, 165,000 tons petrol and 68,000 soldiers killed/taken prisoner.  

Britain & WWII: Evacuation ISSUES1.  Evacuation began BEFORE the declaration of war.2.  The government removed the women and children so that morale would not fall when they began dying in the bombing

raids that were expected.   The government was VERY anxious that children should go.3.  Arrangements were - by today's standards - dreadful, and many children ended up in abusive or dirty homes.4.  Many hosts were shocked by the poverty, ignorance and dirtiness of the evacuees - after the war, this led to the Welfare

State.5.  Hosting an evacuee was a VERY burdensome task.6.  Many evacuees went home - in the end, morale was better served keeping them at home. 7.  How valid are fictional representations of evacuation such as Carrie's War or Goodnight Mr Tom?       FIVE FACTS1.  1-3 Sep 1939: 827,000 children and 535,000 pregnant mothers were evacuated from towns to the country.   2.  Teachers evacuated with their pupils - overload village schools3.  Some excited, some homesick.   Some evacuees like Kenneth Williams MUCH PREFERRED their new

homes to their real families.4.  Many ignorant - some had never seen farm animals.   Some nightmare evacuees – swore/ pee-ed on

wallpaper/ had never worn underclothes, eaten food from a table or slept in a bed/ filthy/ naughty/ many wet the bed.

5.  Many went home during Phoney War. 

Britain & WWII: Battle of Britain and the Blitz ISSUES1.  The heroism of the pilots - and how close Britain came to defeat in the Battle of Britain.2.  The Blitz was GOOD for Britain's war effort, because it gave the RAF time to recover.3.  The mechanisms of coping with the Blitz- blackout/ shelters etc.4.  Did the Blitz wreck morale?   Churchill and the newsreels of the time said no; Nazi propaganda (and some facts turned

up by historians) suggest all was not as well as Churchill said.   5.  How valid were wartime newsreels and films of the Battle of Britain?6.  How valid are fictionalised representations of the Blitz such as the film Hope and Glory?       FIVE FACTSBattle of Britain1.  Radar was the key to Britain's success - so the Luftwaffe attacked the radar stations first, but FAILED to put

them out of action.2.  Churchill put Lord Beaverbrook, owner of Daily Express, in charge of aircraft production.   3.  The young pilots were called ‘Dowding’s chicks’, after Air Chief Marshall Dowding   The RAF lost 1,173

planes and 510 pilots and gunners.   The Luftwaffe lost 1,733 planes and 3,368 airmen.   4.  The turning point came on 2 Sep, when Hitler switched the Luftwaffe to bombing cities.   5.  15 Sep major Luftwaffe raid repulsed.   Sealion called off.     Blitz1.  FOUR kinds of shelter: Anderson / Morrison / Underground and ‘trekking’ to the fields2.  FOUR kinds of bomb: HEs / ‘Molotovs’ / Parachute bombs / ‘Carpet- bombing’3.  Coventry was so badly bombed that the Nazis coined the word: ‘coventrate’4.  Baedecker Raids on tourist and historical sites.   5.  EIGHTS ways of helping: Firemen/ Fire-watchers/ Rescue workers/ Blackout/ ARP/ ‘ack-ack’/ Bomb

disposal/ Local Defence Volunteers  (‘Dad’s Army’)/ Women’s Voluntary Service. 

Britain & WWII: Conscription and Internment ISSUES1.  The need for conscription - other forms of service such as the Home Guard.2.  The need to conscript people (including women) into industry.3.  Initial over-reaction and wide-scale internment of foreign nationals (some had lived in Britain for generations) - later

separating them into categories of risk.   4.  How valid is the comedy series Dad's Army as an image of life in the Home Guard?       FIVE FACTSConscription1.  3 Sept 1939: National Service (Armed Forces) Act - so in Jan 1940: two million men aged 20–27 were called

up.   2.  Tax inspectors, engineers, coal miners exempt. 3.  Tribunals for Conscientious Objectors (sent to farms, hospitals, in the Pacifist Service Units, Friends

Ambulance Unit).  60,000 sent to prison.  4.  May 1940: Emergency Powers Act (could conscript workers into essential industries - e.g. 22,000 ‘Bevin

boys’ conscripted to mines).   5.  Mar 1941: Essential Works Order (women 20-30 could be conscripted into war work).   Internment1.  1939: 74,000 Germans interviewed to see if they were loyal - 64,000 were ‘Category C’ (=loyal).   2.  At first only 600 ‘Category A’ (=a danger to Britain) Germans interned.   3.  When Italy declared war on Britain (1940), Churchill had all Italians in Britain arrested: by 1940, 27,000

Germans and Italians were interned.   4.  First women interned during 1940.5.  By summer 1941 fear of invasion had fallen, and this had fallen to 5,000. 

Britain & WWII: Censorship and Propaganda ISSUES1.  Based on detailed research ('Mass Observation').2.  Improved until very successful - sophisticated and amusing.3.  Different media used (e.g. radio, cinema, posters, Churchill's speeches).4.  Censorship covers up pictures etc which the Ministry of Information thought would damage morale (e.g. pictures of

dead children/ a picture of a bombed underground station) BUT the success of British propaganda was that it usually told the truth, only put a positive 'slant' on it.

4.  'Black propaganda', misleading the Germans.      FIVE FACTS1.  22 Jan 1940: newspapers and newsreels were censored by the government Ministry of Information. 2.  6 Feb 1940: MoI ‘Careless Talk Costs Lives’ campaign.3.  Mass Observation monitored public morale.    4.  Radio: Listen while you Work/ The Kitchen Front/ ITMA/ Vera Lynn sang for British soldiers.   5.  Black propaganda (Political Warfare Executive pretended to be a rebel German radio station). 

Britain & WWII: U-boats, rationing and the role of womenISSUES1.  Britain depended on supply by sea for most of her raw materials - if Hitler could cut this off, he would win.   Churchill

said that the U-boat menace was the only thing that worried him during the war.2.  Protecting the convoys and the merchant seamen - advances in technology/ importance of intelligence.3.  VITAL importance of the 'home front' and women in this 'total war'.4.  The population in general were HEALTHIER during the war, because rationing shared food more equally - nb

especially the feeling of 'pulling together'.5.  Note that women were often NOT welcomed into industry by the men, because they 'diluted' men's wages.6.  How valid are fictionalised accounts such as Sink the Bismark! and U571?

FIVE FACTSBattle of the Atlantic1.  An early disaster was convoy HX–84 (1940) – HMS Jervis Bay and five merchant ships sunk.   2.  August 1940: US gave Britain 50 destroyers in exchange for Atlantic naval bases.3.  Many things helped the Allies to stop the U-boats, but key were the codebreakers at Bletchley Park (especially when Britain captured an Enigma 

code machine)4.  The turning point was Convoy ONS–5 (1943).   Although 13 merchant ships were lost, the U-Boats were detected by HF-DF, and six sunk.   5.  Nazi counter-measures - anti-aircraft guns, Snorkel (U-Boats refresh air without surfacing) and ‘Bottoming’ - did not work. 

Rationing and the effects of submarine warfare1.  22 Sept 1939: petrol rationed2.  30 Jan 1940: national campaign to collect scrap metal, paper, and food waste (for pig-swill)3.  3 Apr 1940: Lord Woolton appointed Minister of Food4.  1940: butter, sugar and bacon, then meat rationed5.  TEN FACTS OF RATIONING LIFE: Coupons/ Black market/ Dig for Victory/ Potato Pete and Dr Carrot/ SPAM/ Dried eggs/ Women’s Voluntary 

Service collections/ Utility clothing and furniture/ swapshops/ 6” water in the bath.    

The role of women1.  Sept 1939: 25,000 women join the Women’s Land Army. 2.  After Dec 1941, women aged 20–30 could be conscripted to the women’s armed forces (though not to fight)3.  THREE WAYS WOMEN SERVED: WRNS/ WAAF/ 450,000 in the ATS.4.  The number of women employed rose from 5 to 8 million/ by 1943, nine out of every ten single women were doing war work.5.  Until 1943 the government did not conscript married women, and women with children under 14 could not be sent away from home.

Britain & WWII: D-Day and the defeat of Germany ISSUES1.  Preparations for D-Day.2.  Great difficulty and losses of D-Day.3.  Did the Americans 'win the war'?  4.  How valid are film representations of D-Day, such as The Longest Day and Saving Private Ryan?          FIVE FACTS1.  ‘Operation Overlord’ was led by the American General Ike Eisenhower. 2.  Some men at Dover (+ wooden tanks) AND a Spanish double agent convinced the Nazis that the main

invasion was at Calais, and that the Normandy attack was just a diversion.   3.  3 am, 6 June 1944: 6,000 ships/ 200,000 seamen/ 185,000 soldiers/ 20,000 vehicles/ 20,000 men dropped

by parachute or landed in gliders behind enemy lines/ 11,000 planes/ 7 battleships, 23 cruisers and 105 destroyers.

4.  British and Canadians at Gold, Juno, Sword (4500 casualties but captured a large area).   Americans at Utah (only 210 casualties) and Omaha.

5.  Disaster at Omaha - B17 bombers overshot/ Nazi defences dug into the cliffs/ the Nazis had just moved in their crack 352nd Division/ powerful tide sank many landing craft = 3,000 casualties.