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The Paradox of Institutionalization: Why are metrics globally ubiquitous, but locally divergent in their consequences? Walter W. Powell Stanford University *This research was done jointly with coauthors Hokyu Hwang, University of New South Wales, and Tricia Bromley, Stanford University. Research support provided by the Center for Social Innovation, Stanford Graduate School of Business.

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Page 1: The Paradox Institutionalization: Why are metrics globally … · 2014-08-25 · The Paradox of Institutionalization: Why are metrics globally ubiquitous, but locally divergent in

The Paradox of Institutionalization:Why are metrics globally ubiquitous, but locally 

divergent in their consequences?

Walter W. PowellStanford University

*This research was done jointly with co‐authors Hokyu Hwang, University of New South Wales, and Tricia Bromley, Stanford University.  Research support provided by the 

Center for Social Innovation, Stanford Graduate School of Business.

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Motivations• Substantive concerns: The nonprofit sector globally is 

undergoing rapid professionalization, which has brought significant organizational and institutional changes.  Similar shifts are underway in leading foundations, international non‐governmental organizations, and educational organizations throughout the world.

• What are the ramifications of this transformation? Professions are carriers of social projects.

• What are the consequences in terms of types of services rendered and clients served?  What happens to organizations internally when passions are transformed into interests? 

• Theoretical question: Why do very similar practices diffuse, become ubiquitous, and transform a previously disparate group of organizations into a more coherent field, but locally these practices are differently implemented?  How do we account for different patterns of reception and implementation?

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A notable example:

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Professionalism Poses a Paradox• Alongside the declining influence of older, traditional professions,• e.g., legal and medical professions

• we observe the “professionalization of everyone,”• Growth of professions (20% of the U.S. labor force)

• Profusion of meanings• Dramatic expansion of both higher education and formal organization

• and the rise of managers as organizational and administrative professionals, often supervising formerly sovereign professionals and altering the contexts in which they work.

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The Professionalization of Everyone?

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Professionalism Includes Multiple Dimensions• Professionalization as a process (Wilensky, 1964).  Key stages:

• Full‐time work

• Training (school)

• Professional association

• Licensing and jurisdictional protection

• Formal code of ethics

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Professionalism in the Nonprofit ContextTwo quotes from our interviews with executive directors are 

illustrative:

• I don’t know if my business experience has made much of a difference in how I run the Boys and Girls Club, but I think my MBA has made a big difference.  I would say that, compared to my peers, I have a deeper understanding of accounting and finance, and they probably have a better understanding of the general mission and its purposes. (Executive Director of Boys and Girls Club, who has a MBA)

•We’ve been developing a long‐range plan for some time now, and it’s starting to come to fruition … I’ll be resigning… It’s really clear we need someone who is much more professional and is not a clinician first. (Executive Director and MD of a health organization)

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Stanford Project on Evolution of the Nonprofit Sector (SPEN)

• 2‐3 hour interviews with 200 nonprofit leaders drawn from a random sample of the 9,000 plus 501(c)(3) operating charities inthe San Francisco Bay Area.

• Utilize quantitative and qualitative data from the interviews, along with Internal Revenue Service form 990 data digitized by the National Center for Charitable Statistics (NCCS).

• Analysis of organizational artifacts…webpages, annual reports, strategic plans, evaluation studies, advocacy efforts.

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To analyze the effects of professionalism on organizational behavior, we created a dependent variable to capture organizational rationalization ‐‐ i.e., methodical, evaluative, purposive efforts

The factor includes the following activities:• Presence of strategic plan• Use of consultants• Presence of independent financial audit• Presence of quantitative evaluation methods

Why does rationalization matter? We contend that the form and content of civic associations influence the character of their service delivery and their mode of engagement in civil society.

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Factor Solution: 

Organizational Rationalization Factor

Strategic Planning 0.8233

Use of Consultants 0.8212

Independent Financial Audit 0.9068

Quantitative Program Evaluation 0.8114

Eigenvalue 2.38279

Percent of Variance 70.82%

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Variables that reflect professionalism:• Organizational Professionalism Index

• Staffed by paid personnel

• Services provided only by paid personnel

• Executive director present

• Executive director is a paid position

• Executive director works full‐time

• Type of Professional Credentials• Management degree (e.g. MBA, MPA, etc.)• Traditional, sovereign professions (e.g. law, medicine, divinity)• Semi‐professions (more applied degrees, e.g. social work, 

criminology, counseling, public health)

• Professional Training and Development• Management training (HR, board relations, fund‐raising)• Substantive training (seminars in law, public health, medicine, 

child psychology, etc.)

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Control Variables include:• Size (total operating expenses, logged)• Organizational Age (logged); Founded in past 10 yrs.

• Based on IRS rule date• Funding source diversity ‐ ‐ Herfindahl index

• Donations, government finance, and earned income (measure of resource dependence)

• Activities in largest sub‐sectors• Human services and Health care

• Other funding related variables• Receiving government or foundation grants

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Quick summary of main effects of professionalism (from Hwang and Powell, ASQ, June 2009):

• There is a continuum running from purely volunteer‐based nonprofits to those with salaried, full‐time managers and employees with respect to the extent of organizational rationalization.

• There are more significant points of departure between substantive professionals and managerial and applied professionals. The latter leave a much larger footprint of rationalization than the former.  

• Management training represents a key aspiration of nonprofit leaders, and serves as a potent source of rationalization in the nonprofit sector.

• The receipt of foundation grants is strongly associated with formalized practices.

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(Law, Medicine, PhDs)

(MBA, MPA)

(Crim. Justice, Soc. Work, etc.)

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Results: Strong Imprint of Foundations

• The director of a choral group describes the process of applying for foundation grants as: …very intensive.  They evaluate us musically but they also ask: Are you a viable arts organization?  Do you charge for tickets?  Are your audience numbers growing?  Is your board integrated?  Is your organization serving various economic goals?

• The director of a Boys and Girls Club noted that a foundation planning grant, given five years ago, allowed them to hire a consultant who drafted their first strategic plan.  Because the plan was so well done, they now look forward to their annual strategic planning process.

• Note diverse reactions to foundation support (same outcome, but different meanings attached to the experience)

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The executive director of a youth services organization commented that a foundation capacity building grant enabled them to hire a consultant to design their new fundraising campaign:

He did an analysis of our sources of income and how we track that income, where our weaknesses and strengths are, and what things we should add to our kit in terms of fundraising.  And then the second consultant we hired was a campaign manager who came in and helped us run the campaign.  All this was made possible by foundation grants.

One nonprofit in the sample, whose name was the “Community Compact” changed its name to the “County Business Collaborative.” This transformation was motivated by hiring an executive director with a nonprofit management degree and considerable experience in consulting:

When I was hired, I said what’s the mission?  Is there a strategic plan?  My first task was to initiate a strategic planning process.  So I hired a consultant and he worked with the board to develop a strategic plan to refocus our vision, mission, goals, and objectives.  The strategic planning process lead to the idea that we should change our name, as well.

Note that one key consequence of rationalization is further rationalization.

Results: Use of consultants is notable

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• The director of a religious‐training organization showed us his PowerPoint presentation to Christian leaders that urges them to “Build Market Share for God.” His organization contends that much biblical teaching today is uninspiring, and needs to be enlivened and made more measurable. 

• I had to surround myself with people who come from business. I have a deputy who has a very strong business background. He used to be a banker. And then the younger people I have been hiring come from the new wave of MBAs that are getting into the nonprofit sector, and are very strategic in terms of how you set and assess your mission, your vision, your goal. (Executive director, large art museum)

The Ubiquity of “Measurement”

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The linkage between managerialism and rationalization

We are a business!:

You know, I did learn from my MBA training. I think that the challenge is you have to move from the passion aspect to change the organization from a development standpoint to have a realistic view of goals and objectives. Even though we are allvolunteers, we are still a business! (ED of a volunteer‐based international health organization, MBA)

From Club Med to inner‐cities:

One of the things I took away from the Club Med case study is that your cheapest business is repeat business, because new businesses cost you more money. So I said we need to be very serious about inner‐cities, where the need for housing exists. We need to be much more deliberative about gaining repeat business in those inner‐cities we already have a presence. (ED of a housing organization, MBA)

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What are the ramifications of increased managerialism?

Why does everyone equate professionalism only with business practices?  The director of a large cultural facility captures this collision of values in a discussion of avant‐garde dance:

When there is a financial problem, the first response of our board is, ‘Well, the problem is all this new, weird work that nobody wants to see, so if we mainstream our program we’ll do better.’ The board told me ‘we love your commitment to the arts, and it will come back, but right now you have to be more commercially focused.’ But you have to make the right choice. If you say, for example, ‘we’ve been losing money on dance, so we’ll do less dance’, then you will have less people coming to see dance which means that you will do even less dance. And the next thing you know, it’s gone.

The director of a small performing arts organization reflects on the challenge of managing cross‐currents:

I think there’s an artistic component and a financial component to success.  Ithink by and large the program has to be well‐curated. The relationship between art and business is kind of what non‐profit performing arts is all about.  It’s a difficult relationship.  And trying to find a way to make those two things live together.  They never agree.  But they have to live together to meet the challenge.

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Managing as a balancing act:The executive director of a special needs school, who has a 

masters in education, reflects on the tensions between substantive goals and evaluation criteria:

We have both long‐term goals and short‐term objectives, and those objectives are usually described quantitatively, irritatingly quantitatively.  That’s a requirement of all of the agencies we have to report to for oversight of special education.  But sometimes you just can’t put goals in quantity terms.  For example, you want someone to become toilet trained when they come to the school not trained.  That’s pretty quantifiable.  How many days are they dry?  But what about, is the child less agitated?  That’s much more difficult to quantify.  So you have to say how many seconds can they sit quietly without jumping up and running across the room screaming.  Grantees and regulators want quantifiable measures, unfortunately, and don’t want to know about the children’s real progress.

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Field‐wide isomorphism can result in heterogeneity

• Our core takeaway from the analyses of professionalism was that different pathways and configurations could lead to the same outcome; nonetheless there was considerable variation in the consequences of rationalization.

• For example, nonprofits were prompted to engage in program evaluation or strategic planning because:• The board asked for a plan;• A funder required it;• A consultant or fundraiser persuaded the leaders;• The executive director went to a management training course

• We examine whether these different starting points lead to divergent outcomes.

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We find that different meanings & purposes are associated with the same activity.

•I don’t know how anyone gets up in the morning without a strategic plan. (ED of an elite private school)

•Planning has “a major impact…it allowed the organization to be governed better and structured better”. (ED of a music festival organization)

•Planning “enhanced group solidarity”. (ED of a community meal program)

•Everyone participates in the planning process…parents, students, teachers, staff…it involves a whole series of workshops…everyone was knee deep in it.  I will be forever grateful to my predecessor for putting this plan together. (ED of a private school)

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We use multiple methods to examine which organizations plan and to account for heterogeneous outcomes:

• Quantitative analysis (full sample)• Factors associated with the presence of strategic plans

• Content analysis of the different rationales given for strategic planning (interviews with executive directors)

• Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA)• A systematic comparison of a medium number of cases ‐ ‐too small for statistical purposes, too large for deep case studies.

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Which organizations plan?Table 2. Factors associated with the presence of strategic planning (Full sample=186)

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) Organizational size 0.404*** 0.418*** 0.395*** 0.323** 0.363*** 0.266* 0.281**

(0.132) (0.133) (0.136) (0.137) (0.134) (0.140) (0.140) Organizational age 0.005 -0.109 -0.073 -0.074 -0.092 -0.041 -0.040

(0.215) (0.223) (0.227) (0.228) (0.229) (0.235) (0.235) Foundation grants 1.001*** 0.714* 0.664* 0.454 0.573 0.274 0.324

(0.375) (0.397) (0.401) (0.415) (0.409) (0.434) (0.429) Affected by downturn -0.106 -0.094 -0.125 -0.194 -0.010 -0.147 -0.131

(0.395) (0.399) (0.401) (0.410) (0.407) (0.418) (0.412) Management turnover 0.347 0.264 0.187 0.334 0.246 0.238 0.203

(0.391) (0.399) (0.404) (0.409) (0.406) (0.418) (0.415) Org. professionalism index 0.354** 0.364** 0.281* 0.351** 0.288* 0.222 0.203

(0.153) (0.155) (0.163) (0.156) (0.161) (0.168) (0.167) Funding diversity index 1.421** 1.550** 1.532** 1.353** 1.571** 1.578**

(0.660) (0.672) (0.680) (0.678) (0.707) (0.699) Management training 0.737* 0.625

(0.394) (0.412) Paid fundraiser 1.310** 1.212**

(0.520) (0.535) Consultants 1.064** 0.888*

(0.459) (0.473) Receptor site/carriers 2.177***

(0.635) Constant -6.970*** -7.276*** -7.208*** -6.242*** -7.093*** -6.074*** -6.320***

(1.483) (1.519) (1.544) (1.556) (1.524) (1.578) (1.561) Observations 186 186 186 186 186 186 186

Standard errors in parentheses * significant at 10%; ** significant at 5%; *** significant at 1%

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Who Plans?

• Organizational Capacity (+)

• Size – larger orgs. have more resources• Professionalism Index – imprint of MBAs, full‐time execs

• Foundation Grants & Funding Diversity (+)

• Carriers and Receptor Sites (+)• Extensive use of consultants, fundraisers

• Connection to Larger Rationalization Movement (+)• Participation in executive education

• Leadership Change and Downturn (No effect)• Not prompted by managerial turnover or financial crises.

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Rationales for Strategic Planning I

• Opportunistic logic (62 cases)

• Instrumental motivation related to short‐term survival or contingencies

• Planning as a solution to pressing needs or challenge

• Creating personnel policy or meeting external demands (typically from funders)

Initially we didn’t have any motivation for strategic planning. We thought: Let’s just apply for this National Endowment for the Arts grant and see what happens. (Executive director of a dance group)

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Rationales for Strategic Planning II

• Associational motivations (20 cases)

• Reaffirm or revisit mission and identity

• Effort at collective renewal• Prompted by transitional stages in an organization’s life cycle

We look at what’s going on with the agency. Are we still a vital agency? Is there still a need for us to be here? (Executive director, soup kitchen)

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Rationales for Strategic Planning III

• Professional rationales (11 cases)

• Management tool

• Administrative or supervisory purposes

• Evaluate and improve the delivery of servicesI really have a strong philosophy that when you have a plan in place, it should be a tool that you refer to frequently. And that you should base individual work plans on it. And I think that the only way that employees can see their impact is if they understand the overall strategy of the organization. (Executive director, music program for inner city youth)

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Outcomes of Planning I

• Processual dimension is critical• Broad vs. limited participation in plan design

• Routinely plan vs. irregular activity

• Recalibration (30 cases)• Meaningful reorientationWe did some long‐range planning in terms of funding sources and looked at the growth in the community. It was  a surprise to us. Outreach has really been one of the things that came out of the strategic planning and also establishing a website. (Executive director of a meal program)

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Outcomes of Planning II

• Decoupling (24 cases)Largely symbolic and not linked to everyday actionsWe could have paid our consultant to write up our strategic plan, but we didn’t want to spend the money, so we basically have all the notes from that meeting.  (Executive director, women’s business group)

• Routinization (49 cases)Regular, normal part of organizational life; conscious expectation

There is a feeling that we have to have a strategic plan—something to follow and guide you, especially because we’re volunteer led and we just need to have a plan that we all agreed upon so that we could work independently on the different parts of the plan to move itforward. (Executive director, volunteer‐based health agency)

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Summary• Nonprofits with a strategic plan are a more homogeneous 

group in terms of capacity and level of rationalization.

Larger, staffed by paid personnel, have foundation grants, more ties to the external environment through consultants, paid fundraisers, and managerial training, and more diversified funding sources.

• Yet there is a considerable variety in the rationales and outcomes of strategic planning within this cluster.

• Strategic planning became either routinized (regular, baked into operations), decoupled (ceremonial), or lead to meaningful recalibration.

• We turn to specify the causal conditions associated with different outcomes. We move beyond explanations based on ‘translation’, using QCA to examine contingent external and internal factors.

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What is Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA)?

• An approach that combines:• set‐theoretic elements of qualitative analysis 

• i.e. examining how the different parts of a case fit together, both contextually and historically 

• formal elements of quantitative analysis• i.e. Boolean algebra is used to represent each case as a combination of causal and outcome conditions, which are compared with each other and then logically simplified create a set of necessary and/or sufficient conditions

• We often intuitively think in set‐theoretic terms:• Food is necessary for survival (but not sufficient, we also need water and shelter)

• Perfect grades may be sufficient for university admission  (but not necessary, there are other combinations of factors that enable students to attend university)

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What is QCA?  Necessary Conditions

Are excellent grades in high school (cause) necessary for admission to a prestigious university (outcome)?

Cause = 0 Cause = 1

Outcome = 1 5 95

Outcome = 0 Not relevant Not relevant

Conclusion:  Since 95% (95/100) of students admitted to a prestigious university had very high grades in high school, the data strongly support the claim that excellent high school grades are necessary for admission to a prestigious university.

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What is QCA?  Sufficient ConditionsAre excellent grades in high school (cause) sufficient for admission to a prestigious university (outcome)?

Cause = 0 Cause = 1

Outcome = 1 Not relevant 95

Outcome = 0 Not relevant 405

Conclusion:  Since only 19% (95/500) of students with excellent high school grades were admitted to a prestigious university, the data do NOT support the claim that excellent high school grades are sufficient for admission to a prestigious university.  Admitted students may possess additional characteristics, or combinationsof characteristics, that could be explored in more complex QCA.

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Analysis III:  Necessary Conditions

• Routinization:  Inclusive Process, present in 90% of organizations (44/49 cases)

• Recalibration:  Inclusive Process, present in 90% of organizations (27/30 cases)

• Decoupling:  No necessary conditions.  (Just 67% of organizations with this outcome have an inclusive process, 16/24 cases)

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Analysis III: Outcomes — Routinization• Sufficiency Pathway(s):  Combined, these cover 41% of 

organizations with this outcome (20/49 cases)

Plan Regularly

(Receptivity)

Single Rationale

(Mindfulness)

Note: Included in analysis, but not part of sufficiency analyses:  High Funding Diversity,  Organizational Capacity

17/49 cases35%

14/49 cases29%

Leader for 2+ Years

Affected by Downturn

OR

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Analysis III: Outcomes —Decoupling• Sufficiency Pathway(s):

New Leader NOT an inclusive process

Note: Included in analysis, but no consistent pattern: Economic Downturn, 

High Funding Diversity, Multiple Rationales, Receptivity, Capacity

5/24 cases21%

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Analysis III: Outcomes — Recalibration

• Sufficiency Pathway(s):  No dominant paths.  

• Only one combination of conditions led to this outcome more often than it led to not having it, and the solution covered just 2/30 organizations.

• Significant organizational change in this population is highly idiosyncratic

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Conclusion

• External influences and linkages to the external environment explain the use of strategic planning. 

• There are divergent rationales for, and outcomes of, strategic planning; isomorphism produces heterogeneity in organizational responses.

• Given the wide prevalence of routinization and recalibration, strategic planning has become habitual in the social sector.

• But the sector retains its distinctiveness because nonprofits appropriate business practices to fit their own idiosyncratic circumstances and appear to benefit from doing so.

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Implications: Planning and evaluation as a moving targetIn response to our question about measurement of program delivery, a manager whose nonprofit runs programs to aid families under stress noted:

We are pressed by funders to become more outcome driven, and so we need to report various aspects of that.  We could, for example, say we have trained 50 parents and count the number and tell our granters that the 50 parents had their behavior changed, but we would really like to say something more like our kids left and the families could have a family meal without it erupting into a big argument.  We would like to define outcomes that capture a real change in behavior, and make a difference in people’s lives.  More and more funders say we should be having assessments of the parents, and I should say that some of these are really good, but lots of them are simply frustrating and a lot of baloney.  You know they are not measuring anything besides the level of frustration that you can put a client through having them sit there for hour after hour doing this silly stuff.  But I think it is a fairly new field on assessment and measuring outcomes.  I don’t know where we will be in ten years.  I hope it is going to get better, and I think it is a worthwhile thing. I am not complaining about the time it takes; it is a tool that needs to be continuously refined and made better, but it needs to get closer to the actual activity.  (ED with a MA in mental health counseling)

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Implications: Does formalization represent the “rationalization of the lifeworld”?• How much does the professionalization of clients and audiences 

contribute to this process, lowering the boundaries between the providers and recipients?  

• What happens to advocacy groups when they become professionalized? (example of rape crisis centers—from justice to therapy…)

• Why do innovative entrepreneurs from the private sector do rather poorly in bringing innovation (transposing logics of scale, replication, etc.) to the social sector?

• Why don’t more nonprofits develop their own metrics?  The leader of a Catholic homeless food bank commented that she has been pressed by funders to come up with measures, so she did: I want to see if my people have a life and if there are people in this world who care about them.  I count the number of people that show up at their funerals, the amount of mail people get, and how many phone calls are received during the Christmas holidays.

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Thanks for your attention!