the origins of california’s high-seas tuna fleet · the origins of california’s high-seas tuna...

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The Origins of California’s High-Seas Tuna FleetBy August Felando and Harold Medina

The Early Years

Thecanningoftuna,accordingtomostsources,wasfirstintroducedtotheworldbyFrenchfishcannersin1850.1 The tunas harvested and canned in Europeduringtheearlyyearswerebluefinandalbacoreduetotheiravailabilityin the temperate waters of the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.Canningoftuna,however,did not become an industry in the United States until 1903.Because of the uncertainty of the sardine supply as a result ofthesardineshortageof1902,SouthernCaliforniafishermensearchedfornewtypesoffishtocan.AlbertP.Halfhill,cofounderoftheSanPedro-basedcanningfirm, the California FishCompany,wasoneofthefirstdevelopers of tuna canning in California.2AlthoughHalfhill’scanned albacore was unpopular atfirstintheLosAngelesarea,hisshipmentstoNewYorkweresuccessfulenoughtocreatean“instantaneous”demand.3

August Felando,attorneyatlaw,grewupinatunafishingfamilyinSanPedro.HemanagedtheaffairsoftheAmericanTunaboatAssociationofSanDiegofrom1960to1991.Captain Harold Medina,amemberofthewell-knownPortuguesefishingfamily,hasworkedtoprotectdolphinsandco-authoredThe Tuna Porpoise ControversywithFelandoin2011.Theabovearticlehasbeen condensed by Maxwell Lanefromtheirforthcomingfull-lengthbookontheOriginoftheHigh-SeasTunaIndustry.

Japanese Flag passenger vessel Toni Maru that carried fishermen of Japan to California and Mexico prior to 1920. ©SDHC#1919 13721-24.

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The Journal of San Diego History

TheEastCoastdemandforcannedalbacorefosterednewgrowthinthetunaindustryofSouthernCalifornia.Fivenewcanneriesopenedfrom1911-1912.Asaresult,thefishingindustryinSouthernCaliforniagrewrapidly,particularlyintheportsofSanPedro,LongBeach,Wilmington,andSanDiego.Infact,SanDiego’sfirstcannery,thePacificTunaCanningCompany,becamethesecondoperationaltunacanneryinSouthernCaliforniaafterHalfhill’sCaliforniaFishCompany.4 TheSanDiego-basedcanneryobtaineditsalbacoresupplyfromsmallfishingboatsmannedbyJapaneseandPortugueseimmigrants who caught the tuna by trolling with artificiallures,fishingwithbaitedhand-linegear,andutilizingthebamboopolemethod.5 SincealbacoretunaoccurredofftheSouthernCaliforniacoastonlyfromroughlySeptembertoJune,thePacificTunaCanningCompany,alongwith the other canneries, operated on a seasonal basis.

The spectacular growth of the Southern Californiatunaindustrywouldcontinueinthefollowingyears.AccordingtoN.B.Scofield,afisherybiologistemployedbytheCaliforniaFishandGameCommission,therewereatleast

Portuguese tuna fishermen in the La Playa area of Point Loma ca. 1905. ©SDHC #81:10564.

Masaharu Kondo, 1928. Courtesy of Japanese American Historical Society.

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The Origins of California's High-Seas Tuna Fleet

elevencanneriesoperatinginSouthernCaliforniaasofJuly1914.6 In his article, ScofieldalsostatedthatthemostknowledgeableexpertonalbacoremigrationwasaformerJapaneseprofessorattheImperialFisheriesInstituteinTokyo,MasaharuKondo.In1912,KondofoundedtheM.K.FisheriesCompany,basedoutofSanDiegowiththepurposeofharvestingandprocessingmarinefisheryresourcesoffthePacificCoastofBajaCalifornia.AlongwithhisMexicanassociate,AurelioSandoval,KondoemployedexperiencedJapaneselobsterandabalonefishermentooperatefromMagdalenaBaytoTurtleBay.Asdiscussedlater,KondowasabletomakesubstantialcontributionstothedevelopmentofthetunafisheriesinBajaCalifornia,SouthernCalifornia,andhisnativeJapan.7

ItisworthmentioningthatbluefintunaalsooccurredoffSouthernCaliforniaduringthesummermonths,butfishermenwereunabletodevelopfishinggearandmethodstocatchthemefficiently.Moreimportantly,however,bluefinwerehighlyprizedbyinfluentialsport-fishermeninCaliforniaandthoseinvolvedintheyoungtunaindustryrecognizedthatitwouldbeagravepoliticalmistaketoupsetthesepowerfulmen.8Furthermore,cookedbluefinwasnotas“chickenwhite”ascookedalbacore,andsincethealbacorewasstillreliableinthenascentyears,itwasunnecessarytoexperimentwithbluefin.

InOctober1914,theSouthernCaliforniatunaindustryencountereditsfirstmajorobstacleintheformofanunexpectedalbacore“disappearance.”Thisshortagestrainedcanneries’inventoriesandcausedtheyoungindustry’s

Italian Fishermen mending nets. ©SDHC #95:19338-13.

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strugglestobecomethesubjectofextensivemedia attention resulting from the increased demand for canned albacore and the large scale marketingcampaignof1913.Consequently,tensions rose as the more established canneries accused the newer canneries of discrediting the industryandruining themarketwithmassive advertising campaigns that were basedonanuncertainsupplyofalbacore.9 These same established canneries noted the needforreliablescientificinformationaboutthealbacoreresource,andinitiatedpoliticaleffortstoinfluencetheU.S.BureauofFisheriesandtheU.S.Congresstoinvestigatemigrationandspawninghabits.10

Despitetheestablishedcanneries’concerns,thetunaindustryunderwentanotherwaveofgrowthinthesummerof1914astheItaliantunaindustrydwindledwiththeoutbreakofWorldWarI.Duringthisperiod,sixnewcannerswereorganized,someofwhichwerecontractedwithaggressiveandexperiencedfoodbrokersinSanFranciscowhocreatednewmarketsforSouthernCalifornia

Tuna clipper baitboat Sacramento, built in 1928, unloading fish at San Diego Van Camp cannery, October 4, 1929. ©SDHC #11587.

PacificFisherman, January 25, 1933.

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cannedtunathroughouttheUnitedStates.11

Still, it seemed the concerns surrounding the supply of albacore would not cease.RussellPalmerofthePacific FishermannotedinJanuary1915thatthefutureofthecannedtunaindustryreliedmoreheavilyonthe“existenceofasufficientsupply”ofalbacore,“ratherthanonthelimitationsofthemarket.”Moreover,Palmerwarnedthatwithoutscientificdataregarding“thesourceofrawmaterial,”the“financialconfidence”inthecannedtunaindustrycouldnotbeestablished.12Thedisappointingalbacoreseasonof1915,coupledwiththeexpansionofevenmorecanneries,seemedtosupportthewarningsofPalmerandtheestablishedcanneriesbeforehim.Withoutproperscientificinformation,pricewarsemergedforcingtwocanneriesintobankruptcy.13Clearly,theindustrycouldnotcontinuetoburgeonwithoutextensivescientificinvestigationintothemigrationandspawninghabitsofthealbacoreoffSouthernCalifornia.

The Japanese Influence

Astheseasonalalbacoretunafisherydeveloped off Southern California, itbecame dominated by Japanese immigrant fishermen.TheywerethemostnumerousintheestablishedfreshfishmarketindustriesofSanDiegoandSanPedro—theplacestofindcommercialfishermenwillingtotry theirskillsatcatchingalbacore forcanners.14Atitspeak,thecannersestimatedthat80to90percentofthealbacorecatchwaslandedby“theJapaneseMonopoly.”

JapanesetunafishermenenteredintoSouthernCaliforniaat the turnof thecentury, “when a group of former railroad workersfromLosAngelesdiscoveredtherichabalonegroundsoffWhitePointinSanPedro.”15 Soon thereafter, these fishermenmovedfromanareaontheSanPedrosideoftheChanneltoEastSanPedro(TerminalIsland)nearwhereasardinecanneryhadbeenestablishedin1892bytheCaliforniaFishCompany.By1914,150Japanesetunafishermenwereoperating50outofthe131totalvesselsbasedinSanPedro.16 In the same year, theCoastFishingCompany,organizedandsuccessfullyoperatedbyJapanese

Japanese fisherman aboard tuna clipper baitboat Enterprise, 1925. ©SDHC #13721-8.

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immigrants,wasbasedinTerminalIsland.17 In fact, Terminal Island would becomesowellknownasthehomeformostJapanesetunafishermeninSouthernCaliforniathatitearnedthenickname“LittleNippon.”18

TerminalIsland,however,wasnottheonlySouthernCalifornialocationwhereJapanesetunafishermensettled.DuringJuly1899,Japanesefishermen,sailingintwovesselsfromtheirhomebaseinSanPedro,enteredSanDiegoBayforthepurposeoffishingforabalone.LocalJapanesesaltflatworkersquittheirjobsintheSouthBaytojoinintheabalonefishingventure,creatingthefirstJapanesefishingcommunityofSanDiego.By1911,thenewlyestablishedfishcanneriesofSanDiegocontractedwiththeseJapanesefishermen.Twoyearslater,in1913,theJapaneseimmigrantfishermenincorporatedthemselvesintotheJapaneseFishermen’sAssociationofSanDiego.19TheJapaneseinfluenceinSanDiegokeptgrowingsothatby1918,Japaneseimmigrantsownedoroperatedmorethan45

Tokichi Namiki with children from families living behind the Van Camp Cannery in 1926. ©SDHC #13721-27.

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fishingvesselsinSanDiego,whilemorethan200fishermenweremembersoftheJapaneseFishermen’sAssociation.

Beforetheopeningofthe1914season,thecontroversialquestionovertheuseofnetswasbroughttotheforefront.TheJapanesefishermenwereupsetbecausesomecannerswerefinancinglocalfreshfishmarketfishermentofishforalbacorewithnets.Assuch,theSanPedroandSanDiegochaptersoftheJapaneseFishermen’sAssociationnegotiatedwiththecannerstoseekexclusiverightstosupplyalbacoreandtobantheuseofnets.Bothproposalswererejectedbythecanners,andthedisputeovertheuseofnetsintensified.

Onecannerspecifically,FrankVanCamp,believedthebamboopolesorlive-baitfishingmethodwasnotefficientenoughtocatchallthealbacoreavailableduringtheregularfishingseason(JunetoDecember).20Consequently,VanCamp’scompanyfinancedtheuseofanexperimentalnettobeusedbythesummerof1915withthebeliefthat“tunacanbecaughtwithnets”andthatthesenetscancatchtunaeven“inthewinterwhentheywillnotbiteahook.”21Earlierin1914,netswereused,albeitunsuccessfully,tocatchtunabyanAustrian-DalmatianimmigrantnamedAndrewPetrich.22Furthermore,manyJapanesefishermen

Tuna fishing - 4 bamboo pole fishing. ©SDHC #84:14821-17.

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claimedthenetexperimenthadalreadybeenthoroughlyattemptedinJapanmanyyearsbefore.Nevertheless,thesewarningsdidnotstoptheeffortsofatleastsixdifferentoutfitsandtheirfinancerswhoattemptedtocatchtunawithexperimentalnetsduringthespringof1914andbreaktheJapanesemonopoly.23

Similarly,thecreationofa“TunaExchange”wasusedtolessenthepoweroftheJapanesemonopoly.Inpreparationforthe1915season,tunacannersorganizedtheTunaExchangetocreateanalbacore-buyingagencythatwouldapportionthecontractedcatchbasedontheneedsofthemembercannersintheLosAngelesandSanDiegoCounties.24TheExchange’sfirstpublicaction,however,wasanefforttoemploywhitefishermenfromportsinNorthernCaliforniatofishforalbacoreandbreaktheJapanesemonopoly.25Nevertheless,likethepurseseineattempts,theintroductionofwhitefishermenfailed,andtheJapanesecontinuedtocatchmorefishthantheirwhitecounterparts.AsanissueofthePacific Fisherman claimed,“whattheJapaneselackinstrengthandabilityseemstobemorethanmadeupinpatienceanduniquemethodsofluringthefishtotakethehook.”26 Whitefishermeneventriedtomovetheproductionoftunaoutonthewaterbyexperimentingwithtendersandcold-storagebarges.Still,in1915thetechnologywasnotadvancedenoughfortheselargevesselstohaveamajorimpact,letaloneusurptheJapaneseoutput.

Women working at Van Camp Cannery, ca. 1925. ©SDHC #13721.

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Bytheendof1915,tunacannerscommencedstrongereffortstoseekfederalaidinconductingscientificresearchonalbacore.27 After a dismal 1916season,theresultsofpreliminaryat-seainvestigations conducted by scientists aboard the Albatrossweretroubling.Cannerswantedsolid answers about albacore availability and sustainability.28 In response to these concerns, theCaliforniaFishandGameCommissionhiredthenotedfisheryscientist,WillF.Thompson,toinvestigatetheleveloffishingthetunacouldstandwithoutjeopardizingtheindustry.Withthis great uncertainty surrounding the albacore supply,theexistenceofaSouthernCaliforniatuna industry based solely on the production ofcannedalbacorewasbeingthreatened.

World War I

WiththeoutbreakofWorldWarIinEurope,WestCoastcannersweregivenauniqueopportunitytodevelopaseafoodproductasanalternativetocanned

John Athaide and Joe Azevedo in kinder-garten, New Bedford, Massachusetts. ©SDHC #20259-45.

Italians unloading at Westgate - Louis Castagnola, Andrea Castagnola, Tony Carmagna, Laurie Massa, Steve Massa, ca. 1932. ©SDHC #95:19349-19.

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albacore at a time when the uncertainty of albacore supply was causing tough bargainingwiththefishermen.AsthewarinEuropebegan,andcontinuedtointensify,newmarketsforCaliforniacannedsardinesandtunaweredevelopeddomesticallyandinternationally.Consequently,landingsofsardinespriortoandafterthealbacoretunaseasonincreasedintheLosAngelesandSanDiegoharborregionsduring1917.29

Aroundthesametime,purseseinersbeganconductingsuccessfulexperimentsincatchingbluefintunaasanalternativetoalbacore.30OnAugust19,1917,“thelargestcatcheverrecordedinsouthernCaliforniawaters”ofbluefinwasmadebyfourpurse-seineboatsoffPointDume.Mostofthe75tonsofbluefincaughtwerecannedbyVanCampSeaFoodCompanyforthedomesticItalianmarket.31 Thesuccessofthesepurseseinerstocatchbluefinsurprisedmostoftheindustryinlightofthefailureofthesamemethodtocatchalbacore.ThePacific Fisherman reportedinSeptember1918 thatbetweenJune25andJuly18,tenpurseseinerslandedabout1,000tonsofbluefintuna.Thefishsoldfor$90atonandwentmainlytoSouthCoastCanningCompanyofLongBeachforapackofsome18,000cases(48lbspercase).Thecatchof1,000tonsofbluefinwassignificantin

Tuna baitboat Oceana, built in 1924 by Campbell Machine, owned by M.O. Medina and Joe V. Soares. ©SDHC #89:17618-22.

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itsimpactbyinfluencingNorthwestSalmonseinerstocometoCalifornia.“Takenaltogether,thiswasthegreatestcatchoffisheverknowninSouthernCaliforniawaters,” wrote the author of an article in the Pacific Fisherman.32 Unfortunately, the fortunesexperiencedbythetunaindustrythroughthenewsardinemarkets,aswellasthebluefinsupply,wouldbeshortlived,aspeaceinEuropewasreachedinfallof1918.

The Dark Years

Thisnewlyexpandedsardine-canningindustry,aproductoftheWorldWarI,wasadverselyshakenalmostimmediatelybythechangesthatoccurredinthedomesticandforeignmarketsafterthearmisticewasannouncedinNovember1918.Subsequently,thetunaindustryenduredthreeyearsofeconomictroubles,causingmanytunacannersin1922topermanentlyclosetheirdoors,merge,orbeacquiredbyothercompanies.

Inadditiontolosingsardinemarkets,lowalbacoreproductionworsenedtheeconomiceffects.The1920albacoreseasonwasdisappointing,causingeightcanneriestocloseinSanPedroalongwithanothertwoinSanDiego.ThislowseasonalsoledtothedisbandingoftheSouthernCaliforniaFishCannersAssociationinOctober1921asbusinessconditionsworsenedandparticipationdecreased.However,1921wasnottheendofthesuffering.In1922,thealbacoresupplywasagaindisappointing.Asonetunacannerymanagerclaimed,itwastheworstseasonhehadeverexperiencedinhistwelve-yearcareer.33 Also in

Monterey fishing boat LaDiana owned by Joe De Santi. Photo by Ted Walton, 2004.

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1922,thebluefinsupply,whichhadpreviouslyflourishedusingthepurse-seinetechnique,wasafailure.34

Japanese and American Ventures in Baja California

Tocombattheeconomicdownturn,thefourlargesttunacanningfirmsmergedduring1922.VanCampSeaFoodCompany,InternationalPackingCorporation,Nielsen&KittleCanningCo.,Ltd.,andWhiteStarCanningCompanymergedunderthenameofVanCampSeaFoodCompanyInc.35 This new company would controlabout75percentofthefishingvesselsoperatinginSouthernCalifornia,andremainopenyearroundtocombatoverheadcosts.36 This consolidation affectedcommercialfishermensincetherewerenewincentivestofishfortunacannersyearround,ratherthancontinuingtofishforthefreshfishmarketduringpartoftheyear.37TunafishingbytheuseofpurseseinersalsocontinueddespiteobjectionscomingmainlyfromtheMexicanportofEnsenada.TheU.S.Consultherereportedconcernsofthefreshfishmarketfishermenaboutthecompetitionfromtheseiners.

Tuna clipper baitboat Azoreana, built in 1937 at Campbell Machine, U.S. Navy YP 292 in WW II. Managing owners included Van Camp Sea Food Co. and Captain Manuel G. Rosa. ©SDHC #17999.

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As mentioned previously, a large portion of the history of Japanese involvement inthetunaindustry,especiallyinBajaCalifornia,revolvedaroundKondoMasaharu.AfterdiscoveringthatinsufficientfreshwaterdrainagehadplacedlimitsonthesustainabilityoftheabaloneresourcethathisSanDiegocompany,M.K.FisheriesCompany,hadreliedonheavily,Kondolookedtoexpandhisventures.Subsequently,in1918,KondoenteredthetunamarketbycreatinganewSanDiegofirm,MexicanIndustrialDevelopmentCompany.

WithfinancialbackingfromJapaneseinvestorsandfishingconcessionsacquiredfromtheMexicangovernment,38Kondo’snewcompanyemployed70Japanesetunafishermentooperatefourfishingvessels.39 Turtle Bay was selected as a base of operation because its natural harbor catered to tenders from San Diegoandbecausethesitehadtunafishinggroundsthatwereproductiveaftertheendofthealbacore/bluefinseasonsofSouthernCalifornia.Additionally,theVanCampSeaFoodCompanyhadproventhatCapeSanLucashadasufficientyellowfinsupplypriortotheopeningoftheSouthernCaliforniaseason.These

The vessels entering the San Diego tuna bait boat fleet during 1924-1927.

NAME OF VESSEL OFFICIAL NUMBER

REGISTERED LENGTH IN FEET MANAGING OWNER

OCEANA 223-913 58.0 J.V.SOARES

SUPREME 224-003 57.3 MARYM.CORREIA

INVINCIBLE 224-004 71.8 THOMASBAGALINI

CHESAPEAKE 224-162 60.4 CHARLESA.LANDERS

BALBOA 224-462 60.8 JOEC.MONISE

MARY PIGEON 224-536 60.8 A.RODRIQUEZ

DE LITE 224-687 45.5 MANUELS.MONISE

UNCLE SAM 224-841 65.5 FRANKP.SILVA

ABRAHAM LINCOLN 224-937 77.7 JOES.SOARES

SAN JOAQUIN 224-967 75.3 M.O.MEDINA

IDEAL 225-187 60.8 THOMASBAGALINI

LOIS S. 225-499 68.0 GUYH.SILVA

BETTY B. 225-524 59.0 FREDSCHELLIN

IOLA M. 225-661 52.0 J.E.LOUSTALET

AMOR DA PATRIA 225-896 68.6 LAWRENCEOLIVER

VASCO DA GAMA 225-994 81.5 FRANKMITCHELL,JR.

LISBOA 226-180 67.0 W.V.AMBROSE

KAMINE* n/a n/a A.SAKAMOTO

• Built for a Japanese resident alien; therefore, an undocumented vesselbuiltbySanDiegoMarineConstructioninSanDiego

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twodevelopmentsshowedthepotentialforestablishingayear-roundtunafisheryoffBajaCalifornia.

KondowasnottheonlyfishermaninterestedinBajaCalifornia,asAmericanfishermenbeganinvestinginBajaCaliforniaexplorationin1919whenaSanDiegocanneragreedtoguaranteepaymentoftripexpensesifexploratorytrips

Tuna clipper baitboat Lusitania, built in 1927 at Al Larson Boat Shop, San Pedro. Captain Manuel G. Rosa ©SDHC #83:14541-368.

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werefailures,andtopayahighpriceforallyellowfintunadeliveredingoodconditiontothecannery.40By1922,moreCaliforniacannersinvestedinvesselstofishoffCapeSanLucasasaresultofthesuccessesofftheBajaCaliforniacoast.Thesecanneriesviewedthewaterstothesouthasanopportunitytokeepthecanneriesopenyearround.41In1923,theseinvestmentsexpandedasdisappointingalbacoreandbluefinseasonsincreasedthedesiretofishforyellowfinandskipjack,whichwereabundantintheMexicanwaters.42 These investments manifested themselves in the form of refrigerator schooners such as the Oceania Vance of the HalfhillTunaPackingCompanyandtheMonfalconeoftheCurtisCorporation.43

Unfortunatelyforthecanners,theprofitsfromthetunasupplyoffBajaCaliforniawouldtakeablowasthecoffersoftheMexicangovernmentlookedtocapitalizeontheseventures.EffectiveMarch1,1924,Mexicanofficialsannouncedthattheexportdutyontunaandalbacorewouldbeincreasedfrom$10to$18.60perton.Shortlythereafter,afishermanfortheWestgatePackingCompanyofSanDiegolearned,uponarrivingatCapeSanLucas,thatthetaxhadbeendoubledto$37.20pertonandthatthegovernorofBajaCaliforniaSurwantedpaymentingold.

TheconfusionabouttheincreasedexportfishtaxandotherrelatedproblemswiththeMexicangovernmentcausedallbuttwooftheCaliforniatunacannerstorefrainfromconductingtunafishingoperationsoffTurtleBayduringthelast

Tuna clipper baitboatBelleofPortugal,built in 1937 at Campbell Machine; U.S. Navy YP 321 during WW II. Managing Owner Manuel G. Rosa. Courtesy of the Zolezzi photographic collection, Maritime Museum of San Diego.

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quarterof1924.FortunatelyfortheCaliforniatunacanners,therecord-breaking1924albacoreseasonforthe700-vesselfleetoperatingfromSanPedroandthe400-vesselfleetoperatingfromSanDiegomitigatedwhateverproblemswerecreatedbytheirdecisionnottooperateoffMexico.44Althoughthe1924seasonwasshortenedbypricedisputes,the7,700tonsoflandedalbacoreexceededtheamountsofallotherpreviousyearsexcept1919.

“Tuna Clipper” Revolution

TheopportunitytofishfortunasoffBajaCaliforniaencouragedCaliforniafishermenoperatingfromSanDiegotogambleonthebuildingoflarger,faster,andmoreefficientvesselsasawayofincreasingtheirprofits.Inadditiontotheobviousadvantagesofalargervessel(greaterspeed,abilitytooperateinrougherweather,etc.),theownercouldchoose,ascircumstanceswarranted,todeliverthecatchtoacanneryathigherpricesortoatenderatlowerprices.Consequently,duringearly1924,atacostof$15,000,ManuelO.Medina(“M.O.”)andJoeV.Soares

Tuna clipper baitboat Challenger, built in 1940 at San Diego Marine Construction; U.S. Navy YP 239, was destroyed in 1946. Captain Joe S. Rogers. Union Tribune Collection ©SDHC #8241-1353.

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contractedwithCampbellMachineCompanyofSanDiegoforthebuildingofthe Oceana.Thesuccessofthis vessel during the tuna season in waters south of SanDiegoinfluencedthebuildingof10additionalvessels by other aggressive SanDiegotunafishermenduring1924-1925.45

As the Oceana was being constructed, Japanese tuna fishermen inSanPedrohad completedwork indesigning a “new style”

tunabaitboat.Thisnewdesignhadthecapacitytocarryenoughbait,fuel,andfoodforlengthyfishingtripsonthehighseas(beyondthe3-mileterritorialsealimitrecognizedbytheUnitedStatesasMexicanterritory)tolegallyavoidthe

Tuna clipper baitboat Europa, built in 1931 at San Diego Marine Construction; U.S. Navy YP 236 during WW II, was destroyed in 1946. Managing Owner and Captain Mariano Crivello. Photo courtesy of the Maritime Museum of San Diego #P-15145.

Tuna clipper baitboat Alert, built in 1930 by San Diego Marine Construction; registered fishing vessel owned by resident Japanese, then documented as a U.S. Flag Fishing vessel in 1940. U.S. Navy YP 264. Managing Owner was Tokunosuke Abe of San Diego. ©SDHC #UT 6740.

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Mexicanexportduty.46 Although these new tuna clippers were successful from theoutsetinSanPedrowiththePatricia I and Patricia II, they would not be fully appreciatedinSanDiegountilafewyearslater.

In1926,ManuelO.MedinaandtheCampbellMachineCompanyofSanDiegobuiltthelargestdocumentedU.S.flagtunaclipper,theAtlantic,tobeginfishingoffTurtleBayinthefinalquarterofthatyear.Shortlyafter,SanDiego’ssecondtunaclipper, the Lusitania,wasbuiltinMarch1927.47 The Lusitania, built by a successful Portuguesefisherman,ManuelG.Rosa,wasdesignedbyAlLarsonBoatyardofSanPedro.ByJune1927,SanDiegowouldhaveitsthirdtunaclipper,astheCampbellMachineCompanylaunchedtheOlympia, owned and commanded byCaptainJoeC.MoniseofSanDiego.DuringJuly1927,theDel Monte, another tunaclipperbuiltbyCampbellMachineCompanyforagroupofPortuguesetunafishermen,tookhersuccessfulmaidenvoyageunderthecommandofherco-ownerCaptainManuelH.Freitas.48 All four of these new tuna clippers were designedspecificallyforoperationofftheMexicancoast.

Althoughthe1926-1927albacoreseasonwasdisappointing,theyellowfinandskipjacklandingsincreaseddramatically.ThesuccessesoftheAtlantic, Lusitania, Olympia, and Del Monte wereresponsibleforthelargeyellowfinandskipjacklandings,makingitthefirsttimeinhistorythatover50percentofthetunaprocessedinCaliforniaportswascaughtsouthoftheborder.49 These successes ledtoincreasedconfidenceintunaclippers,asPortuguese,Japanese,andItalianfishermeninvestedinthebuildingofnewvesselsinSanDiego.50Competition

Lily Castagnola, Louisa Dentono, Amelia Marline, and Rose Ghio mending nets. ©SDHC #95:19350-5.

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amongdieselenginecompaniesandshipyardsinSanPedroandSanDiegoaliketo build or convert boats into tuna clippers further accelerated the building of thesevessels.51

TheMarch1928issueofPacific Fisherman summarizes the appeal of the tuna clippersbyexplainingthatthesenew“vesselsareabletobringintheirownfish,makingthemindependentoftenders,andthevastlyincreasedradiusofoperationhas been found of great advantage in developing new and productive grounds atgreatdistancesfromthecanneries.”52Clearly,the“TunaClipperRevolution”hadadrasticimpactontheSouthernCaliforniatunaindustry.

Failed Agreement with Mexico

AlthoughthetunaclippersrejuvenatedinterestinthefishingpotentialoffMexicanshores,thepoliticalissuessurroundinginternationalfishingventuresstillpersisted.Tocombatsuchissues,atreatywassignedonDecember23,1925,thatattemptedtodefineinternationalboundariesinrelationtotheenforcementofduties,aswellascreatinganInternationalFisheriesCommissiontomonitorfishingrelationsbetweentheUnitedStatesandMexico.53AlthoughmanyfishermenhadhopedthecreationoftheCommissionwouldfosteraloweringoftheMexicantax,theiroptimismwanedasseveralU.S.flagtunavesselsenduredseizures,arrestsoftheircrews,andenforcementoffines.54 Even a visit from Secretary of

Pete Asaro (left) with shipmates in 1938. ©SDHC #95:19359-2.

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CommerceHerbertHoovercouldnotbolstertheeffortstodecreasethetax.55 In March1927,astensionscontinued,theTreatywasterminated.

Still, despite thesepolitical setbacks,thebuildingofnewtunaclipperstofishinwaterssouthofthebordercontinued.From1928-1931,35newtunaclipperswerelaunched and 7 other ocean service vessels wereconvertedanddocumentedasfishingvessels.56 An additional ten undocumented tuna clippers were built by Japanese aliens tobolstertheCaliforniafleet.Ofthe52newtunaclippers,37operatedoutofSanDiego.These new clippers pushed the wave of expansion,operatinginwatersasfarsouthas Ecuador, increasing the area of operation to a size greater than that of the continental UnitedStates.

Bregante’s Fish Market, 1938. ©SDHC #Sensor 5-501.

Westgate Food Company Tuna Cans, 1966. ©SDHC #93: 18923-47.20.

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Conservation and Management

In1930,theUnitedStatesgovernmentfinallymadesomegenuinestridestowardsaddressingtheissueofsustainabilityofthetunaindustry.GeraldineConneroftheBureauofCommercialFisheries,CaliforniaDivisionofFishandGame,expressedhervisionofinternationalstewardshiponthefutureofthetunas,callingfortheCaliforniatunaindustryandthegovernmentsofMexico,CostaRica,andtheUnitedStatestoparticipateinascientificefforttoconserveandmanage

Van Camp employee holding tuna, 1931. ©SDHC #11496.

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thetunasintheeasternPacific.Connerjustifiedsuchanagreementbystatingthatit“willnaturallyworktothegoodoftheindustryaswellastothepreservationofthefish.”57AlthoughMexicowouldnotparticipateinitially,theUnitedStatesandCostaRicacreatedtheInter-AmericanTropicalTunaCommission(IATTC)in1949—theworld’sfirstinternationalefforttoundertaketheconservationandmanagementofthetunas.58Since1950,theheadquartersoftheIATTChavebeenlocatedinSanDiegoCounty,andremaintheretoday.Presently,theIATTChasCommissionersfromColombia,CostaRica,Ecuador,ElSalvador,Spain,France,Guatemala,Japan,Mexico,Nicaragua,Panama,Peru,theRepublicofKorea,theUnitedStates,Vanuatu,andVenezuela.59

Disadvantages and Innovations

As the tuna clipper revolution manifested itself, “regular” purse seiners discovered that they could not compete with bait boats on thehighseasoffMexico.60 Some of the most formidabledisadvantagesthesepurse-seinersfaced were that their nets were still pulled inbyhand,andthatthepurse-seinemethodrequiredfavorableweatherandseaconditions,

Tuna clipper baitboats built in 1947 by National Steel Shipbuilding of San Diego: LuckyStar. Mg. Owner and Captain Manuel H. Freitas, and LucyElena, Mg. Owner William H. Schmidt. ©SDHC #LB 4031.

Lou Brito, Captain of the SouthernPacific. In 1958 the vessel became the first San Diego based tuna clipper baitboat converted to a seiner. ©SDHC #UT85: B8707.

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mostoftenfoundclosetoshore,amongrocks.Furthermore,theirproximitytoshoremeanttheircatcheswerelegallyunderthejurisdictionoftheMexicantax.

Consequently,thesurvivaloftunapurse-seinersascompetitivefishermeninthetunaindustryreliedupontheirabilitytoadaptandevolve.Bythesummerof1929tunanetsmadeofcottontwinegrewsubstantiallyandsteelpurselineswereintroducedviaNorwegianfishermen.61 Additionally, power hoisting by rope“strap”(slings)andboomreplacedturntablepowerrollers.Thischangefrom hand pulling over a turning roller to power “strapping in” of a net with a boomandtheseinewinchcameaboutintheearly1930s,dramaticallyreducingtheamountofphysicallaborrequiredtopullinthenets.By1935,innovationshadledto“powerpulling”technologythataidedpurse-seinecrewsevenfurther.62

Asaresultoftheseinnovations,twolargepurse-seiners,theParamount and the Falcon,joinedtheCaliforniafleetasyear-roundoperationalvessels.Thesevesselswere not consistently successful, however, and were converted to baitboats before beinglostinmilitaryserviceinWorldWarII.Ahandfulofothervesselsbuiltjustpriorto,during,orimmediatelyafterthewaroperatedasseinersatleaston

The Sun King, a tuna clipper baitboat converted to seiner in 1957 by Captain Larry Zuanich, pictured brailing tuna from the net to the vessel during a 1959 fishing trip.PacificFisherman cover photo June 1959.

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apart-timebasis.Nevertheless,liketheParamount and Falcon before them, almost allconvertedbacktopurebaitboats.63

AfewyearsaftertheendoftheWorldWar II, threenewsteel-hulledvesselsenteredthetunafleetasyear-roundtunafishingseiners:Santa Helena, Defiance, and Southern Queen.Inaddition,thewood-hullUSNYP-632wasconvertedtoapurse-seinerin1947andrenamedtheYankee Mariner.Theseandotherlargerregularseiners were operating successfully ontropical tunafishinggroundsoncedominatedbytunaclippers.Unfortunately,despitethesesuccesses,thethreesteel-hulledseinerswereconvertedtotunaclippers and the Yankee MarinerwaslostatseaoffPointArgüelloin1949.64 Moreover, scientistsoftheIATTCconcludedthattherewasnosubstantialevidencetojustifythe opinion that tuna clippers should convert to purse seiners in an attempt to increaseproduction.65Thefutureofthepurse-seinemethodinthetunaindustrywasseeminglyhanginginbalance.

Although the futureofCaliforniapurseseiners lookedbleak, furtheradvancementsreviveditspotential.Thetwogearinnovationsthathelpedpavethe way for a world revolution in tuna purse seining were the nylon net and the PureticPowerBlock.Nylonnetsaresuperiortocottonnetsbecausetheyare

stronger and lighter and because they donotrot—avitaladvantagewhilefishing in tropical conditions.Thepowerblock,inventedbyaSanPedrofishermannamedMarioPuretic,isessentiallyahydraulically-poweredpulleyattachedtotheendoftheboom.The net is pulled upward through the powerblockwithhydraulicpower,and then it goes downward to the sternoftheboat,whereitisstackedby fishermen standing there.66 By reducing arduous manual labor, the powerblockmade the retrievalofthetunanetfaster,easier,andsafer.

Captain Joe Madruga in 1963 commanded the Saratoga, a tuna clipper baitboat converted to seiner in 1959. ©SDHC #UT85: 5065d.

Captain Joe Soares (left) with son Roger, Captain of the newly built tuna clipper seiner BluePacific, upon arrival in San Diego during 1967. ©SDHC #UT85: 2429g.

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These two innovations were so pivotal that CaptainAntonMisetichoftheAnthony M declared them as the “salvation of the tuna purseseineindustry.”67

Yet,morehadtobedonetosolidifythepurse-seiners’placeinthetunaindustry.InMay1957,LarryZuanichandStar-KistFoodspurchased the Sun King and had it converted intoatunaseinerbyCampbellShipyardofSanDiego.68Makingthedecisiontogothroughwithsuchafinanciallydangerousconversion, however, was not so easy.Zuanichwaswarnedseveraltimesbymultiplepeoplethattheprojectwouldnotwork.Still,Zuanichwascertainthatlargeseinerscouldsucceed,especiallyoffthecoastofPeru.Assuch,uponcompletionZuanichsailedtheSun KingtoCoischo,Peru,whereitoperatedfromStar-Kist’sPeruvianfacilities.69Ayearlaterin1958,co-authorAugustFelandovisitedPerutodiscusstheconversionwithZuanichand to inspect the Sun King.70Duringthevisit,ZuanichandanotherseasonedfishermannamedJackBorcichconvincedFelandothatfishinPeruvianwaterswereavailabletothepurse-seine,andthatvesselsliketheSun Kingwouldsucceed.

Zuanich’simpressiononFelandowasstrong,asFelandoreturnedtoSanPedroto discuss with his father and others the prospect of converting the Challenger to apurse-seiner.Unfortunately,theywerenotasenthusiasticasFelandoandwere

notpersuadedtodoit.Subsequently,Felando decided it was in the best interestsofthemanyco-ownersofthe Challenger to sell the vessel to Star-Kistinthefallof1958.

InFebruary1958,twosuccessfulcaptainsofSanDiegotunaclippers,LouBritoandJoeMadruga,werediscussing how live bait fishing wasprovinginefficient.Duringtheconversation, Brito told Madruga that he had decided to convert his vessel, the Southern Pacific, into a tunaseiner.Madrugaagreedthatitwas a good idea, and admitted that he too was interested at that time in

Catherine Ghio, 1966. ©SDHC #UT85: 9781e.

Wives waving as converted tuna seiner Saratoga departs San Diego, 1963. ©SDHC #UT85: 8698c.

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PacificFishermanAnnualStatisticalNumber January 25, 1933.

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converting his vessel, the Paramount,intoaseiner.Afterthisconversation,theracewason.

Unfortunately,CaptainMadrugadidnotreceivethereactionhemusthaveanticipated.AftergivinghisproposaltoStar-Kistofficials,whoownedthevessel,the response was so negative that one member of the company told Madruga that he would “starve to death” if the Paramountwasconvertedtoatunaseiner.Essentially,Star-Kistwasnotinterestedinfinancinganothercostlyconversionof a tuna clipper in addition to the previously converted Sun King.Accordingly,Madrugadecidedthathecouldnotcarryouthisdesiredconversion.71

CaptainBrito,likeFelando,wasinfluencedbylearningaboutthesuccessofZuanichandhistwoseinersinPeru,theSun King and the Stranger.Afterevaluatingthe Southern Pacific,ZuanichassuredBritothathisvesselwouldhaveequal,ifnotgreater, success than the Sun King.72 In contrast to Madruga, the managing owner ofBrito’svessel,JosephS.MartinacJr.,73andanotherowner,NickBogdanovich,gaveBritotheirsupportandapproval.74

Withthesupportoftheowners,BritocompletedtheconversionoftheSouthern Pacific in1958.Hismaidenvoyageascaptainofthenewtunaseinerwasasuccessful30-daytripthatyielded231tonsofyellowfintuna.Afterhiringnewpersonnelin1959whenafewofhisinitialemployeesquit,BritohadreturnedtoSanDiegowith235tonsofyellowfin.75 The enormous success achieved in such a short amount of timebroughtBritoinstantrecognitionasthesalvationoftheSanDiegotunafleet.FollowingBrito’ssuccess,94tunaclipperswereconvertedintopurse-seinersfrom1958to1969.76Theestimatedtotalcostfortheseconversionswas$14.4million.77 From1961to2000,over160newtunaseinerswerebuiltintheUnitedStatesoracquiredfromforeigncitizensforentryintotheU.S.-flagtunaseinerfleetatanestimatedcostofover$500million.ThesestatisticsreflecttheenormousimpactCaptainBritoandhisSouthern Pacific seiner made on not only the Southern Californiatunaindustry,butalsotheUnitedStatestunaindustryatlarge.

Conclusion

Duringthetwodecadesfollowing1959,thetunafishermenofothermajortunafishingcountriesoftheworld,suchasJapan,Spain,France,Taiwan,SouthKorea,Mexico,Ecuador,andVenezuela,adoptedthevesseldesignandgeartechnologydevelopedforandbyAmericantunaseinerfishermen.From1990to2000,theaverageannualtunacatchwasabout3.4millionmetrictons,amassiveincreasefrompreviousdecades.78TheCaliforniatunaindustryand,inparticular,theSanDiegotunafishermen,wereinstrumentalindevelopingthefishinggearandtacticsforthisnewclassofcommercialfishingvessels.By2003,over500“super”

28


tuna seiners operated in tropical seas all over the world, solidifying the claim thattheSouthernCaliforniatunaindustrywasresponsiblefordevelopingtunafishingintoaninternationalventure.

ThepredictionbyDr.TageSkogsbergin1923abouttheimpactoftunapurseseiners,79thewarningbyMs.GeraldineConnerin1929abouttheneedforregionalorganizations to conserve and manage the tunas, and the prediction by George RogerChutein1930aboutthedevelopmentofaworldwidetunafleetallcametofruitionduringthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcentury.Inpursuingthewritingsofthesevisionaries,wehavealsodiscoveredtheoriginsoftheCaliforniahigh-seastunaclipperfleet.

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NOTES1. DavidK.Sabock,“TheFrenchTunaIndustry,”Commercial Fisheries Review32,no.3(March

1970),57-60,BureauofCommercialFisheries,UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheInterior.“By1869,theislandofCroixhadbecomethetunacenter,butitwasn’tuntil1891thatthefirstmajortunafishingcampaignwasorganizedinConcarneau.”CanningmayhavebeenintroducedintheUnitedStatesin1819whenoystersandotherseafoodswerepackedinNewYork.SalmonprobablycannedfirstinAberdeen,Scotland,in1824andthefirstPacificsalmonpackedatSacramento,Californiain1864whilesardineswerefirstpackedatNantes,France,in1834.ThefirstsuccessfulPacificCoastsardinecannerywasestablishedatSanPedroin1896.“HistoricalOutlineoftheCanningofFisheryProducts,”U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior,FishandWildlifeService, Fishery Leaflet No. 78,1;NormanD.Jarvis,“CanningTuna,”Fishery Leaflet No. 20(June1943),1.

2. Theplantestablishedin1892atSanPedrobyafirmorganizedbysevenindividuals,includingA.P.Halfhill,R.D.Wade,andJ.H.Lapman.“HereTunaCanningBegan,”Pacific Fisherman (December1953),15.ItisreportedthatA.P.Halfhill’spartnerintheownershipandmanagementoftheSanPedroplantwas“aMainesardinecannernamedSpencer.”EarlChapinMay,The Canning Clan(NewYork:TheMacmillanCompany,1937),190.“Thefirstseason(1903)thecompanypacked1500casesofrockcod,500casesofhalibut,and700casesofalbacore…thefirstcase(cannedalbacore)wentontheshelvesof(astoreownedbyH.Jevne,pioneerLosAngelesgrocer)…twoyearslater(Mr.Halfhill)foundsomeoftheoriginalorderyetontheshelves.”Mr.HalfhilldiedonMay7,1924,athishomeinLosAngeles,attheageof76.“PioneerTunaPackerDead,”Pacific Fisherman(June1924),19.Atatimewhensardineswerescarce,avesseloperatedbyJapaneseimmigrantfishermenfishingfortheCaliforniaFishCompanyofSanPedroarrivedwithacatchof600poundsofalbacore.“Thepriceforthefishwasoneandahalfcentperpound.Therebeingnodemandforthisfishandthecatchbeingratherlargeandtoogoodtothrowaway,thecanneryofficialsdecidedtoexperimentbycanningthefish.”KatsumiYoshizumi,“LittleNipponAJapaneseIslandinCalifornia,”Fishermen’s Almanac(SanPedro,CA:Fishermen’sAlmanacCo.,1935),23-24.

3. “NewSeaFoodGivenWorld,”Los Angeles Sunday Times,July26,1914,II:3.See“FishingIsGrowingBusinessInSanDiego.LooksandTastesLikeChickenButIsn’t.TunaPackingBidsFairtoBecomeImportantIndustryinSanDiego-TwoPlantsinOperation—GovernmentAskedtoMakeStudyofMetamorphosisoftheDelicateFish,”San Diego Union,January1,1914,24.The article incorrectly states that there “are only two places in the world where tuna are to be found—offthecoastofSouthernCaliforniaandtheMediterranean.”AfternotingtheexistenceoftwocanningplantsinSanDiego,twoinLongBeach,threeinSanPedroandoneinMonterey,thearticlenotes:“SanDiegoenjoysthedistinctionofhavingthenewest,largestnad[sic]mostmodern plant in the one recently completed to replace the one which was burned to the ground lastJulyatthefootofFstreet.”

4. “ThePacificTunaCanningCompany,whichrecentlyerectedacanningplantonthewaterfrontnearthefootofFStreet,yesterdayreceivedacarloadof120,000speciallymoldedcanscomprising2500cases.Wheninfulloperationsthecompanywillcanabout200casesaday.Theplantwillemployabout26handsandforthepresentwilldevoteitscanningoperationstotuna.Latersardineswillbehandled.Thecompany,ofwhichJamesMcKinneyissuperintendent,willgiveemploymenttoabout25fishingboats.OperationswillbecommencedaboutJune15.”“FishCanningFirmNowReadyForOperation,ReceivesLargeConsignmentOfTinsForPreparingProductForMarketTunaToBeSpecialty,”San Diego Union,June4,1911,24.“SanDiegohasafullyequippedfishcanneryrunningfullblastatthefootofFstreet,whichemploys25girlsandabouttenmen,besidesthefishermen.Soquietlywasthebusinessorganizedandstartedthatonlypersonslivingintheimmediateneighborhoodknewofthenewenterprise.Thecannery has already made two shipments to Boston and other eastern points and is rapidly makingcontractsforalloftheproductthatitcanhandle.Itscapacityis6000onepoundcansaday.SometimeagoitwasannouncedthatthePacificTunaCanningCompanyofSan

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PedrowouldcometoSanDiego,butnothingmorewassaidorheardaboutthecompany.E.E.MerrittofSanPedroismanagingtheconcern,andwithhimisPaulEchus[sic],alsoofSanPedro.Thereareseveralotherpartnersintheenterprise....Anewfishingfleetwillrunforthecannery,leavingportat3a.m.everymorningandreturningaboutnoontime.Justhowmany boats can be used is not determined yet, as the company has made only two shipments totheeasterntrade.Another3000poundswaspreparedforshippingyesterday.”The San Diego Union,July25,1911,6;“BigCatchIsMadeForNewTunaCannery-MoreThan5000PoundsLandedYesterday;8000inTwoDays.”The San Diego Union,July26,1911,12:“OneofthebiggestandmostsuccessfultunacatchesmadeofftheSanDiegocoastwasbroughtintotheharboryesterdayforthenewtunacanningcompany.Thecatchamountedtomorethan5000pounds.Monday’scatchwas3000pounds.Afleetofsixfishingboatslefttheharborthismorningaftertuna.”The San Diego Union,August3,1911,19:“Thesupplyoftunaforthenewcannerythatwasstartedafewweeksagocontinuesasplentifulthattheestablishmenthasbeeneasilyabletorunatfullcapacity.Indicationsarethatthecatchwillbesufficienttosupplyalargerplant.” “In1911,PaulEachus,ofSanPedro,cametoSanDiegoandpersuadedLouisJ.Rice,abankcashier,toenterthetunacannerybusiness.Theplantwasbuiltatthefootof“F”Street.Firedestroyedthecanneryin1912[sic].During1913,anewplantbecameoperationalatthefootof26thStreet.”WileyV.Ambrose,“HistoryoftheFishCanningIndustryinSanDiegoCounty,”History of San Diego County(TheSanDiegoPressClub,1936),203;Pacific Fisherman12,no.1(January1914),77,reportedthattheplant“wastotallydestroyedbyfireJuly18,1913.”Seealso:“$30,000WorthofFishDestroyedinEarlyMorningFire,”The San Diego Union,July18,1913:“Apparentlyignitedbyanexplosionofgasolineorsomeotheroilsinstoragethere,causedbydefectivewires,thewarehousesoftheAmericanUnionFishCompany,atthefootofFstreet,andthePacificTunaCanningCompany,atthefootofEstreet,werepracticallydestroyedbyfireabout1:30o’clockthismorning…Itwasatwo-storywarehouse,wellpackedwithcannedfish.”

5. Forphotosofthenewplantandinformationthatthecanneryplanstohavea“fleetofeighttotenfishingboatsmannedbyJapaneseandPortuguesefishermen(to)supplythefish.”“AModelPacificTunaCannery,”Pacific Fisherman(January1914),77-79.

6. N.B.Scofield(fisheryexpert),“TheTunaCanningIndustryofSouthernCalifornia,”State of California Fish and Game Commission, 23rd Biennial Report 1912-1914(1914),122.Baseduponinformationprovidedtohimin1914bytwoJapaneseprofessorswhohadmadefisheryinvestigationsoffLower(Baja)Californiaduringtheprevioustwoyears,Mr.ScofieldexpressedfaultyopinionsaboutthemigratorypatternsandspawninghabitsofalbacoreoffthecoastofMexico.HethoughtthatalbacorespawnedoffBajaCalifornia,nearCapeSanLucas.

7. Forexample,in1918,heorganizedtheMexicanIndustrialDevelopmentCompanyofCaliforniatoparticipateinthegrowingcannedtunafisheriesofJapanandCalifornia.Byearly1920,hisfirmworkedwithMexicangovernmentofficialstopermitskilledJapanesetunafishermenestablishtunafishing,processing,andtransshipmentoperationsinTurtleBay.Shortly,thereafter,Mr.KondoworkedwithaJapaneseshippingfirmandtwoCaliforniatunacannersinestablishingtunafishingandtransshipmentoperationslocatedatCapeSanLucas,BajaCalifornia.DonEstes, “Kondo Masaharu And the Best of All Fishermen,” The Journal of San Diego History23,no.3(Summer1977):1-19.Mr.Esteslists13locationsonthePacificcoastofBajaCaliforniathatwereusedinMr.Kondo’sfishingoperations.“ThereisnoquestionthatKondoMasaharuisthemanrecognizedasbeingthefirsttounderstandthefisherypotentialofBajaCalifornia,andthentodosomethingaboutit.ItwashisearlysuccessandinitiativewhichinducedJapanesecapitaltoinvestinthefutureofBajaCalifornia.ThissameearlysuccesswasalsoinpartresponsiblefordrawingincreasinglylargernumbersofJapaneseintothefishingfleetsofSanDiegoandSanPedro.”Ibid,17.

8. “Inconnectionwiththerumoredmis-impressionthatthecannerswereutilizingtheLeaping(Bluefin)andYellowfintunaaswellastheLongFin(Albacore)thepackerspointoutthatthemeatoftheselatterfishinnowayresemblesthatoftheformer.Theystatethatitwouldbeimpossibleto successfully substitute one for the other and that to introduce a number of grades of a new productsimultaneouslywouldresultonlyinunprofitableconfusionandsuspicionamongthe

31


buyers.Another potent reason is that they have no desire to antagonize the game fishing element of the state which is well organized and powerful in legislative matters.”RussellPalmer,“CaliforniaTunaCanningIndustry,”Pacific Fisherman Yearbook,(January1915),76-77(emphasisadded).“TheThunnus thunnus(BluefinorLeapingTuna)isthelargerofthetwo,weighingfrom40to100poundsandmoreinlocalwatersandashighas600and700poundsintheMediterranean.Itisthisvarietywhichiscommonlyknownasthetunaandwhichfurnishessomuchsporttotheenthusiasticfishermen.Thethunnus albicores,usuallycalledthealbacore,weighsfrom15to75poundsandit,too,isagamefish.Itisthisvarietythatisusedinthecanningindustrybecauseitsfleshisnotsocoarseandthemeatissowhitethatitcloselyresemblesthebreastofchicken…Theregulartuna(Bluefin)issolargethatthegrainofthefishistoocoarseforuseandwhatisworseisthefactthatthefleshretainssomuchofthebloodthatthemeatisdarkwhencooked.”“LooksandTastesLikeChickenButIsn’t,”San Diego Union,January1,1914,24

9. “CannedTuna,”Pacific Fisherman(February1914),17.

10. AconventionwasheldinSanFranciscoduringJanuary1914,bytheCaliforniaTunaPackersAssociation.Asa“memorialtoCongress,”thecannersadoptedaresolutionaskingforanappropriation“forathoroughscientificstudyofthehabitsandearlyenvironmentsofthefish(Albacore).”“CannedTuna,”Pacific Fisherman(February1914),17.“Thewinterhabitatofthetuna,oralbacore,isasyetanunknownquantity…Mr.BarnhartwasleftondrylanduntiltheAssociatedtunapackerscametohisrescue,assessingthemselvesfor$100permonthwithwhichaboatwassecured…butwasunabletodomuchexcepttagsomethousandsofthemandaskfishermentoreport.”“TunaProblemsStillUnsolved,”Pacific Fisherman(January1915),21.ForareferencetoaletterbytheBureauexplainingwhyCongressdidnotappropriatefunds($5,000)fortheAlbatrosstoconductat-seatunasurveys,see“TunaProblemsandtheU.S.Bureauof Fisheries,” Pacific Fisherman(February1915),25.

11. “CannedTuna,”Pacific Fisherman(January,1913),86.Forarticlesconcerningthefishbrokerswhointroducedcannedtunatothetrade:“PopularizingCannedTuna,”Pacific Fisherman (September1912),27;“TunaNotes,”Pacific Fisherman(August1913),32;“MiscellaneousCannedFish Notes,” Pacific Fisherman(September1913),66;Pacific Fisherman(October1913),24,and“CannedTunaASuccess”Pacific Fisherman(July1912),21.ForarticlesaboutfoodbrokerC.E.PierceofSanFrancisco,whowasrecognizedas“oneofthemostactiveandprogressivefactorsintheupbuildingofthecannedfishindustry…itwaslargelythroughhispublicitymethodsandenergeticworkthatthecannedtunaindustryattaineditspresentprominence.”“NotedTunaManPassesAway,”Pacific Fisherman(August1915),20.Seealso:“TheTunnyMan,”Pacific Fisherman(March1914),20,and“CannedFishNotes,”Pacific Fisherman(October1913),24.

12. RussellPalmer,“CaliforniaTunaCanningIndustry,”Pacific Fisherman Year Book(January1915),76-77.

13. “MonarchCanningCompanyofWilmingtonfilesforBankruptcy,”Pacific Fisherman(September1915),26;“PierceTunnyFishCompanyofSanPedrofilesforBankruptcy,”Pacific Fisherman (October1915),25.Forthe1915season,theplantofUnitedTunaPackerswasleasedbySouthernCaliforniaFishCompanyandlaterbytheNorthAmericanTunaCanningCompany.Pacific Fisherman(November1915),26.In1916,Stafford-CrandallPacking&FishCompanyofLosAngelespurchasedthetunacanneryformerlyownedbyMonarchCanningCompanyofWilmington.“NewTunaCompanyPurchasesMonarchPlant,”Pacific Fisherman(January1916),24.ThenewtunafirmGoldenStateTunaPackingCompanyacquiredthecanneryofthebankruptPierceTunnyFishCompanyofSanPedro.“NewCompanyTakesOverPiercePlant,”Pacific Fisherman (May1916),28.Seealso:“GoldenStateTunaPackingCo.,”Pacific Fisherman(June1916),31.

14. By1911,thefreshfishmarketindustryinSanDiegowas“oneofthemostimportant.”Anarticlereportedthatduring1910,SanDiego’sFishIndustryhadproducedmorethan4.6millionpoundsoffreshfood,fish,saltfish,pickedfish,lobsters,andturtles,valuedat$225,216.“SanDiegoSuppliesStatesinEntireSouthwestwithFish,”San Diego Union,January2,1911.“Thefishingfleet,whoseanchorageisoffthefootofA,B,C,D,EandFstreets,iscomposedofaboutthirtyboats,allownedbyfishermen,whoselldirecttothewholesalers,ofwhichtherearefour

32


concerns-theNational,SanDiego,Union,andAmericanFishcompanies.”“FreshfoodfisharemarketedinhugequantitiesinSanDiego…Nevada,Arizona,andNewMexicoaresuppliedtoagreatextentfromSanDiego.Theaveragedailyexportthepastyearwasabouttentons…SanDiegoisalsothedistributingpointforfishcaughtoffthecoastsofLowerCaliforniaandMexico…Notonlyisthefishingformarketgaininginimportance,butrodandreelsportisattractingadditionalthousandseveryyeartoSanDiego,whichsportsmenrecognizeasawonderfulfishingground.”“FisheriesEnjoyProsperousYear,”San Diego Union,January1,1912.ForaccountsofthefreshfishmarkettradeinSanDiegoduringtheearlyyears,see:LawrenceOliver, Never Backward: The Autobiography of Lawrence Oliver, A Portuguese-American,ed.RitaLarkinWolin(SanDiego:NeyeneschPrintersInc.,1972).

15. Yamashita,TerminalIslandEthnography,82.“Theseedof“LittleNippon”wasfirstplantedaroundtheyear1906,whenthreeyoungmen-Hayashi,Tanaka,andYama,establishedthemselvesatPointFermin[nearSanPedro]andengagedinthemodestenterpriseofabalonedivinganddrying.ThosemenwerethefirstJapanesetobeseeninandaboutSanPedro.Theenterprisedidnotfairsowellbutduringthenextfewyears,wefindtheaddedfacesofMessrs.J.Suzuhi,Tatsumi,T.Higashi,Isghigaki,andseveralothers.”Yoshizumi,“LittleNippon:AJapaneseIslandinCalifornia,”23-24.ForinformationaboutJapaneseimmigrantactivitiesintheSanPedroarea,see:OliverVickery,Harbor Heritage: Tales of the Harbor Area of Los Angeles, California(MountainView,CA:MorganPress/FaragAssociates,1979),145-146.

16. “NumberFishermenatSanPedro,”Pacific Fisherman(February1914),20.During1906,mygrandfatherAugustineFelandoandtwoofhissonstraveledfromtheislandofVis,ProvinceofDalmatia,countryofAustria,toSanDiegoviaEllisIsland,NewYork.(PriortotheendofWorldWarI,theAustro-HungarianEmpireoccupiedmuchofcentralEuropeandtheBalkans,andpeoplefromtherewerefrequentlycalled“Austrians.”)HisoldestsonhadpreviouslyemigratedandwasworkingasafishermaninSanDiego.Forunknownreasons,mygrandfatherandhisthreesons,Joseph,George,andTony,movedtoSanPedro.Myfather,August,hismother,andtwosisterscametoSanPedroinNovember1906,whenhewassevenyearsold.During1907,mygrandfatheracquiredagasoline-poweredfishingvesselandnamedittheOceana, because this wasthenameoftheshipthatbroughthimtoAmerica.Helateracquiredtwoothervesselsforoperation by his sons George and Tony, the Annie, named after my paternal grandmother, and the Nightingale.Myfathertoldmethatasayoungboyhehelpedthefamilybygoingfishingwith his father and that, on arrival in port, many times he had to rush to elementary school withoutchanginghisfishy-smellingworkclothes.InrecallinghisfishingwithhisfatheronTannerBank,southwestofSanClementeIsland,California,hedescribedwithadrawinghowtheywouldcatchrockcodforthefreshfishmarkettradewithbaitedhooksattachedtoalinesecuredtoafloat.Healsotoldmehowheandhisfatherwouldcatchalbacorewithagillnet,andofthedisputeshisfatherhadinpriceandweightdealingswithcanneryemployees.

17. “JapaneseTunaCanneryHadSuccessfulSeason,”Pacific Fisherman(December1914),22.ThesuccessoftheNorthAmericanTunaPackingCompanyduring1915wasattributedto“thefactthat the company virtually owns its own boats and that the men who operate them are among themostskilledinthebusiness.WhilethefirmiscomposedofJapanese,thewomenemployedare all Americans, dressed in white uniforms, and the sanitary conditions in the plant are among theverybest.”“JapaneseCanneryMeetingWithSuccess,”Pacific Fisherman(August1915),19.

18. ForanexcellentdescriptionsoftheJapanesecommunitiesintheSanPedroarea,particularlyofEastSanPedroandFishHarbor,see:KanshiStanleyYamashita,TerminalIsland:EthnographyofanEthnicCommunity,Ph.D.Dissertation,UniversityofCaliforniaIrvine,1985,p.71.Atitspeak,thetotalJapanesepopulationlivingintheSanPedroareawascloseto3,000.BasedupontheissuanceofCaliforniacommercialfishinglicensesintheSanPedroareaduring1931-1932,oftotal1,842licensedfishermen,theJapanesesharewas603,Americans459,YugoslavsorDalmatiansorAustrians,363,Italians134,and23Portuguese.

19. DonaldH.Estes,“SilverPetalsFalling:JapanesePioneersinSanDiego’sFishery,”Mains’l Haul 35,nos.2-3,(Summer1999):28-46.

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20. “There is hardly ever a time when tuna cannot be found in the channel during the season and favorableweatherbutmuchofthetimetheywillnottakethehookorbaitcannotbesecured.Thetunamustberavenouslyhungrytotakedeadsardinesoffahook.Oftenthatistheverytimewhenthefishermencannotgetbait.Attheothertimeswhenbaitisplentythereisalsoplentyoffeedforthefishandtheywilleatnothingbutlivefish.Itismoreaggravatingtothefishermentothrowoutlivesardinesandseethetunachasethemandthenwhentheyareputonthehooktohavethebigfishshowamostexasperatingcontemptforthebait.Withthenetsitisproposedtouselivebaittogetthefishtothesurfaceandthensurroundthemdrawinginthepursewhenthenetisfull.Bythismethoditisbelievedthattheproblemoffishshortagewhich has compelled canneries to run only a part of the time this summer will be solved and thatnextseasontherewillbeplentyoffishtokeepthemrunningcontinuously.”“WillTryOutNewTunaNetNextWeek-PurseNet400X35FathomsArrivesandisBeingMadeReady,”San Pedro Daily Pilot,October17,1914,frontpage.GilbertC.VanCamp,PresidentofVanCampSeaFoodCompany,Inc.,recalledthattheAlbacorepurseseineexperiment”wasconductedinthedarkestsecrecy.Thereason:fishermenfearedthatifthecompanydevelopedaworkablesystemforseiningtuna,allthefishwouldsoonbetakenfromthesea.SothehugenetwasassembledontheroofoftheVanCampplantandguardeddayandnighttopreventthefishermenfromdestroyingit.San Pedro News Pilot,September21,1951.

21. “Ihavelearnedthattunaweighing250poundsarecaughtinJapanandtheMediterraneanSeabynetsandIamgoingtogetthenetstocatchthemhere,”saidMr.VanCamp,“AfriendofmineinthePatheservicerecentlylearnedthatIwasinthebusinesshereandwrotemethattheyhadafilmshowingthetunaindustryintheMediterraneanfromthefishinthenetstothecans…hewillsendthisfilmassoonashecangetittoParis,soweshallseehowitisdone.”“SuccessfulTunaCatchWithNets-FishermanSaysTheyCanBeCaughtEasilyWithStrongEnoughNet-VanCampWiresForHeavyNetting-HopestoDemonstrateThatNetsCanBeUsedHereSuccessfully,”San Pedro Daily Pilot,September29,1914,frontpage.

22. San Pedro Daily Pilot,September29,1914,frontpage.

23. “CannedTunaDepartment,“Pacific Fisherman(January1915),21.

24. “TunaExchangeOpensOffice,”Pacific Fisherman(February1915),25.

25. Forthe1915albacoreseason,itwasestimatedthat85to90regularJapaneseboatswouldbeengaged,plusanadditional50freshfishboats.Itwasexpectedthatabout75vesselswouldbecomingfromNorthernCalifornia,andthatsomeofthesevesselswouldusepurse-seinegear.Further,itwasestimatedthat7vesselsoperatedbylocalAustrianfishermenwouldalsousepurse-seinegeartocatchalbacore.Itwasalsoreportedthatabout50newvesselshavebeenbuiltinLosAngelesHarborsincethewinterof1914.“TunaFishingFleet,”Pacific Fisherman(May1915),24.Purse-seinecatchesofyellowtail,barracuda,andseabass,butnotuna,byAustrianfishermenwerereportedduringthe1915season.“BigIncreaseinTunaFleet,”Pacific Fisherman (June1915),25,and“PurseSeiningForTuna,”Pacific Fisherman(July1915),29.

26. “JapaneseMorePersistentFisherman,”Pacific Fisherman(November1915),24.Seealso:“CannersPlanningForNextYear,”Pacific Fisherman(November1915),24.

27. “MeetingofCaliforniaTunaPackersAssociation,”Pacific Fisherman(February1914),17.“TunaProblemsandtheU.S.BureauofFisheries,”Pacific Fisherman(February1915),25.“ThroughtheeffortsofMr.Halfhill,theU.S.BureauofFisheriessteamerAlbatross will visit here in July and the habits of the tuna will be carefully studied and as much as possible learned as to its habitatduringthedullseason.ThetheoryprevailsthatthisfishseeksthewarmerwatersoftheGulfofCaliforniaduringthewinterseason,astheycannearlyalwaysbefoundthereinlargequantities.”Pacific Fisherman(May1914),24;“SeekingHabitatofTuna,”Pacific Fisherman (September1914),29;“TunaDisappear,”Pacific Fisherman(October1914),24.Investigatorsnotedthat“they(Albacore)rarelystayinwatercolderthan62degreesFahrenheit.TheyalsobelievethattheschoolsextendclearacrossthePacific.”“ScientistsStudyingtheTuna,” Pacific Fisherman(December1914),22.

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28. “WhattheAlbatross Found Out About Tuna; Albatross reports on Movements of Albacore,” Pacific Fisherman(November1916),16.“TunaResearchWorktoBeContinued,”Pacific Fisherman (December1916),17.WhiletheAlbatrosswasoffthecoastofBajaCalifornia,N.B.ScofieldoftheCaliforniaDepartmentofFishandGamereportedthatbluefinor“leapingtuna”andalbacore,alongwithswordfishandbarracuda,werefound“inconsiderablequantities”offthecoastbetweenMontereyandSanFrancisco.“TunaOffSanFrancisco,”Pacific Fisherman(June1916),31.Inhis1914reporttotheCaliforniaFishandGameCommission,Mr.Scofieldreported:“AsfarasweknowthealbacoredoesnotruninnumbersnorthoftheSantaBarbaraIslands.Occasionalindividualsaretakenfarnorthofthatpoint.Oneisrecorded250milesnorthofSanFrancisco,takenona“jig”madeofahookandseagullfeathers,lateinthefalloftheyear,byreturningAlaskasalmonfishermen.”Ibid.,114.

29. “TunaPopularinEngland,”Pacific Fisherman(April1918),56.“ThesardineindustryinCaliforniais,asitnowexists,essentiallyaproductofthegreatwar…WiththepracticalcessationofsardineimportsintotheUnitedStatesin1915,andthelatergreatforeigndemand,thepackofCaliforniasardinesrosetogreatheights.Nowwiththecomingofpeaceandthegradualreturn to normal conditions still so far removed, it remains to be seen how our new industry willmeetcompetition.”WillF.Thompson,“HistoricalReviewofCaliforniaSardineIndustry,”California Fish and Game7,no.4(October1921),195-206.

30. Forthe1919season,cannersinsisteduponlowerpricestothefishermenfortunaotherthanalbacore,bluefin,skipjack,andyellowfin.Theyexplainedthatthenewcannedproductmadefrom these other tunas could not be labeled as albacore or “white meat”; therefore, they argued that these new canned tuna products had to be sold to wholesalers for a lower case price than albacore.Thecannerswereoffering$110pertonforalbacore,and$90pertonfortheothertunas.“UncertainOutlookForTuna,”Pacific Fisherman(June1919),46;“AgreementReachedOnTunaPrices,”Pacific Fisherman(July1919),67;“TunaPriceQuestionDifficult,”Pacific Fisherman (June1920),63.

31. “VanCampPacksBlueFinTuna,”Pacific Fisherman(October1917),40.Itwasreportedthatthecatchwasvaluedat$6,000,andthatthecannerhadtakenmostofthecatchatapriceof$80perton.Areportstated,“about600,000poundsofBluefinwaslandedbypurseseinersin1917.”Thisreportalsostatedthat,priorto1915,therewasnolargescalepurseseiningoffish,andthatpurseseiningduringthe1915-17periodwasprimarilyonschoolsofbarracuda,whiteseabass,yellowtail,andmackerel,withsomeexperimentationontunaschools.Further,itstatesthatafterthesuccessoffishingforbluefinin1917,eightpurseseinerswerebuiltin1918foroperationsfromSanPedro,andthatabout6,240,971poundsoftunawaslandedbythisfleet.In1919,itstatesthatmorepurseseinersarrivedfromtheNorthwestandthatabout17seinerswerebuiltintheLosAngelesareaandoneinSanDiego.Duringthesummerseason,thepurse-seinefleetlandedabout14,990,860poundsofbluefin.TageSkogsberg,“PreliminaryInvestigationofthePurseSeineIndustryofSouthernCalifornia,”Fish Bulletin No. 9, State of CaliforniaFishandGameCommission(1925),9.

32. Pacific Fisherman(September1918).

33. “SeasonAFailure,SaysBuerkle,”Pacific Fisherman(October1922),47.

34. “TunaCatchShort,”Pacific Fisherman(September1922),44.Seealso:“TunaSeasonDisappointing,”Pacific Fisherman(October1922),44.JapanesefishermenclaimedthattheirpoorfishingseasonwascausedbyU.S.Navybattleshipsconductingtargetpracticewiththeir14-and16-inchgunsoffSanPedro.TheyalsocomplainedthattheirbaitboatoperationswereadverselyaffectedbythefishingtacticsoftheMontereyBayfleetof“jigfishermenortrollers”inthatthistypeoffishingscatteredtheschoolsofalbacore.“MoveTargetPracticeOffShore,”Pacific Fisherman(December1922),54,58;“TrollersGoAfterTuna,”Pacific Fisherman(August1922),32.AcombinationofhighalbacorepricesguaranteedbyatunacannerandthepoorsalmonrunoffMontereycausedafleetofabout75trollersfromtheMontereyBayareatocompetewiththe“JapaneseMonopoly”offSouthernCalifornia.

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35. Forinformationontheothermergersandacquisitionsoftunafirmsduring1922,see:“SanDiegoCanneriesConsolidate,”Pacific Fisherman(July1922),34.IncludedinthismergerwastheplantandassetsofSunHarborPackingCorporationunderthenameoftheNormandySeaFoodCompany.TheSanDiegoplantandbusinessofSteelePackingCompanywaspurchased.“Steel[sic]PackingPlantSold,“Pacific Fisherman(September1922),44.TheSouthernCaliforniaFishCompanyofTerminalIslandwasacquiredbythenewly-organizedfirm“SouthernCaliforniaFishCorporationofLosAngeles.”“SouthernCalif.Co.Reorganized,“Pacific Fisherman(October1922),44.TheWestCoastSeaFoodCompanyofLosAngeleswasorganizedtotakeovertheassetsoftheWestCoastFishCompanyofSanPedro.“BuysWestCoastPlant,”Pacific Fisherman (May1922),40.“ConsolidationofTunaPackingInterests,”Pacific Fisherman(July1922),14.Thefourfirmsmergedwere:VanCampSeaFoodCompany,InternationalPackingCorporation,Nielsen&KittleCanningCo.,Ltd..,andWhiteStarCanningCompany.FrankVanCampwaselectedPresidentbytheelevenmembersofthenewBoardofDirectors.

36. Ibid.

37. ThefollowingcommentbyW.L.Scofieldin1936isrelevantinunderstandingtheearlycommercialfishingpolicyoftheStateofCalifornia:“Thefishcatchdependsuponlargenumbersofpeopletoeatthefish.ThewesternhalfoftheUnitedStatesisnotdenselypopulatedsothatnogreatquantityofseafoodcanbesoldinfreshfishmarkets,norcanthemarineproductsbefrozenorsaltedforshipmentingreatquantities.Thegreatcentersofpopulationarefarawaysothatbothtimeanddistanceintervenebetweenthesourceofthefishsupplyandtheultimateconsumer.Thisis the reason why we have adopted canning of fish as a solution to the problem of shipping sea foods to distant markets. Canning, then, is the key to an understanding of the fish catch of this state and as canning goes, so goes the catch.”CaliforniaDepartmentofFishandGame,Fish Bulletin 49(1936),9(emphasisadded).

38. TheMexicangovernmentorderedthatallexistingfishingconcessionsberenewed,“ornotatall.”“CarranzaIssuesDecreeAffectingLowerCaliforniaFisheries,”Pacific Fisherman(October1916),17.SouthernCaliforniatunacannersmadeanexploratorytripduringMarch1917,“toinvestigatethepossibilitiesoffisheriesinMexicanwaters.”“TunaProspectsinMexicanWaters,”Pacific Fisherman(April1917),14.ArepresentativeoftheCarranzagovernmentvisitedwithSouthernCaliforniatunacannersandfishermenandofferedthemaplan“tostabilizetheindustryontheMexicancoast.”“MexicanFisheriesPlan,”Pacific Fisherman(December1919),74.

39. “AshortageinthesupplyoffreshwateravailablealongthecoastofLower[Baja]CaliforniahasresultedintheabandonmentofplansforthebuildingoftwolargefishingcanningestablishmentsalongtheMexicancoast…ThepartyvisitedEnsenada,TurtleBay,CedrosIslands,andotherplacesseekingpossiblesitesforcanneries.Harborswerefoundtobeunprotectedandtheonlywaterobtainablehadtobecarriedonpackmulesfrominland,”“MexicanPlanAbandoned,” Pacific Fisherman(January1920),65.DonEstes,“KondoMasaharuAndTheBestOfAll Fishermen,” Journal of San Diego History23,no.3(Summer1977):3-19.Theauthordescribesthefishermen’s35-daytripfromJapantoEnsenada,Mexico,andthefailureexperiencedbythefishermeninusinglong-linegeartocatchtunabecauseofsharkinterference.

40. FollowinghisserviceintheU.S.Armyduring1917-1919,ManuelO.Medina(M.O.)returnedtoSanDiegoandhisprofessionofcommercialfishing.Duringthesummerof1919,M.O.recalledthataMr.Steele,aco-owneroftheSteelePackingCompany,offeredhimafishingopportunitythat“hecouldnotrefuse.”Heandhiscrewoffourleftaboardthe44.8-footPacific on August 15;theyreturnedtwoweekslaterwithacatchof11tonsofyellowfinfromwatersoffSanBenitoIsland,BajaCalifornia.HemadethreemoretunafishingtripsforMr.Steeleduringtheremainingmonthsof1919.“AnIndustryPortrait:AudaciousM.O.MedinaPioneeredBigClippers,ParlayedHisHunchesIntoSuccessfulTunaCareer,”The Magazine Tuna Fisherman 1,no.3,(1947),17-18,22.JoeMcCain,“MedinaFoundSeaWorthy,”San Diego Evening Tribune, April16,1968,B-1,B-3.In1920,“M.O.”operatedalargervessel,the60-footPeerless, and on its maidenvoyageof14days,acatchof32tonsofyellowfinwaslandedinSanDiego.ThetripwassuccessfulprimarilybecauseM.O.andcrewusedanewtypeofbarblesshookdeveloped

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inJapan.Thelatterdescribedthehook’seffectivenessas“beautiful.”Thehooksor“squids”wereobtainedbyJoeRogers,ChiefEngineer,reportedlywithoutpermission,fromJapanesefishermenoperatinginSanDiego.DonEstesreportedthatTaniguchiTakezoofSanDiegois“generallycreditedwiththeintroductionin1920ofaJapanese-producedlureknownasasquid.”Estes“KondoMasaharuandTheBestOfAllFishermen,”17.M.O.becameconvincedthatheneededanew,larger,andfasterfishingvessel.Hereasonedthatwithalargervessel,hecouldfishtunagroundslocatedfurthersouth,believingthatYellowfintunaweremoreabundantintropicalwaters.FormorebackgroundinformationonM.O.,seeAugustFelando,“TheFishingIndustryinSanDiegoFrom1800tothePresent,AnOverview,”They Came From the Sea, A Maritime History of San Diego,SeventhAnnualCabrilloFestivalHistoricSeminar,1,no.7,(1979),34-37;M.O.Medina,interviewedbyauthor,September1979.

41. “FollowYellowfinSouthward,”Pacific Fisherman(December1922),52.

42. “ReviewofTunaCanningIndustryin1923,”Pacific Fisherman Year Book(January1924),84;“CannedTuna-NowPackingYellowfin-FishingatTurtleBay,”Pacific Fisherman(October1923),40.

43. “YellowfinOperationsCurtailed,”Pacific Fisherman(April1924),33.

44. InJanuary1924,thelong-awaitedreportonthealbacorefisheryfromWillF.Thompson,fisheryexpertoftheCaliforniaFishandGameCommission,wasmadepublic.Hestatedthatitwasnotyetpossibletomakejudgmentsonthequestionregardingthe“presenceorabsenceofoverfishingforthealbacore.”Thereportdidnotcontainhintsorpredictionsaboutthe1924albacoreseason.Mr.Thompsoncalledforthecollectionofmoredata,andhopedthattherewouldbe“availabletheunhampereduseofasea-goingvesseltofollowupthepresentinvestigations.”Finally,henotedthat“thealbacoreproblemhascometotakesecondplaceintheprogramoftheStateFisheriesLaboratorytothatofthesardine,”andthattherepresentlyexistsa“veryseriousquestionastoitspermanence.”W.F.Thompson,“InvestigationofAlbacoreFishery,”Pacific Fisherman(January1924),10-11.

45. “NewDiesel-PoweredTunaBoat,”Pacific Fisherman(July1924),34.Thearticleincludesaphotograph of the Oceana.

46. “YellowfinOperationsCurtailed,”Pacific Fisherman(April1924),33.CurtisCorporationofLongBeachexplainedwhythistunacannerpurchasedthesteamerBergentotaketunaonthehighseasfromothervesselsoffMexico,statinginpart:“Levyingofexporttaxesonfishtakenoutsidethethree-milelimitbyMexicanofficialswill,ofcourse,beillegal,anditisproposedatleasttogivetheprojectatrial…ThetenderAngelhasbeenleasedbythecorporationtoworkinconjunctionwiththeBergen.”NoreportonthisproposedventurewaspublishedbyPacific Fisherman.

47. To view a photo of the Lusitaniaunderway,see:“AnInterestingTunaBoat,”Pacific Fisherman (April1927),39.ThisarticleprovidesinformationonthemaritimeexperienceofCaptainManuelG.Rosathatexplains,inpart,whyCaptainRosabecamealegendarysuccessasatunacaptain.

48. ToviewaprofilephotooftheDel MonteinSanDiegoBay,see“NewSanDiegoTunaBoatForCaliforniaPackingCorporation,”Pacific Fisherman(August1927),39.

49. GeraldineConner,“ComparisonoftheCatchesNorthandSouthoftheInternationalBoundary,”DivisionofFishandGameofCalifornia,BureauofCommercialFisheries,Fish Bulletin no.15(1929),51.Informationonthedeclineinalbacoreandbluefincatchesduring1926-1927,seeFigure48,53-54,59.Partofthisincreaseintropicaltunacatchesduringthefallmonthsof1927wasattributedtothereturnofPugetSoundpurseseinerstotheCaliforniatunafisheries.“LargestAlaskaHerringSeinerGoesSouthforTunaFishing,”Pacific Fisherman(November1927),8-9;“CaliforniaTunaandSardineBoatBuiltonPugetSound,”Pacific Fisherman(December1927),31-32;“More Seiners Go South,” Pacific Fisherman(December1927),32;“InterestingDieselInstallationin New Tuna Boat,” Pacific Fisherman(January1928),18-19;“AlaskaSeinersGoSouth,”Pacific Fisherman(November1928),39.Foraphotoofapoweredthree-mastedschooner,Golden Gate, undercharterduring1927forCaptainHeston’soperationinthetransportoftropicaltunas

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toCaliforniacanners,see:“CodfishSchoonerinTunaTrade,”Pacific Fisherman(July1927),40.ForinformationabouttheuseofsmallpurseseinersintheHestonoperation,see:“NewDevelopmentsinTunaFishery,”Pacific Fisherman(January1928),32;“MexicanTunaSeasonOver,” Pacific Fisherman(June1928),38.

50. CoburnF.Maddox,“SanDiegoTunaIndustry,”California Fish and Game 15,no.1(January1929):34-39.CaptainMaddoxprovidesanexcellentexplanationoftheMexicanexportdutiesonthetakingoffreshfishwithinMexicanterritorialwaters,anissuethatclearlymotivatedU.S.fishermentobuildvesselstoavoidthistaxation.

51. WayneB.Cave,“IncreasedSizeandPowerforCaliforniaTunaVessels,”Pacific Fisherman (March1928),14;Cave,“ExtensionofTunaFisheryBringsBoominVesselConstruction,”Pacific Fisherman(April1928),12-14;Cave,“RapidProgressonNewCaliforniaTunaVessels—SeveralLargeBoatsLaunchedinJune,andManyOtherOthersAreNearingCompletion—InterestingDetailsofEquipment,”Pacific Fisherman(July1928),16-17;“NewOff-ShoreTunaFleetStartsFishingonDistantBanks,”Pacific Fisherman(September1928),18-19;Geo.RogerChute,“NewSanPedroBoatShowsManyInterestingFeatures,”Pacific Fisherman(October1928),22,28;“MoreNewVesselsforCaliforniaTunaFleet,”Pacific Fisherman(March1929),16-17;“High-SeasTunaFleetDevelopsNewTendencies,”Pacific Fisherman(August1929),35-38;Cave,“NewBuildingWaveSweepsTunaIndustry,”Pacific Fisherman(October1929),18;Cave,“1930ModelTunaBoatsWillProveFinestYet,”Pacific Fisherman(November1929),39-40;“MayIsMonthofMaidenTripsandLaunchingsofNewTunaFlotilla,”Pacific Fisherman(June1930),36-37;“TunaClipperConstructionRevivesinCalifornia,”Pacific Fisherman(November1930),33.SanDiegoShipyards:CampbellMachineCo.,SanDiegoMarineConstruction,andPeterRask.San PedroAreaShipyards:AlLarson,HarborBoatBuilding,LosAngelesShipbuilding&DrydockCompany,D.BrusstarofLongBeach.Sausalito,California:NunesBrothers.DieselEngineFirms:UnionGasEngineCo.;Atlas-ImperialDiesel;WesternMachineryCompany(Western-EnterpriseDiesel);Fairbanks,Morse&Co.,andWashington-EstepDiesel.

52. Cave,“IncreasedSizeandPowerforCaliforniaTunaVessels,”14.Toillustratetheconsiderableinvolvementofcannerinvestment,see:Cave,“ExtensionofTunaFisheryBringsBoom,”12.By1927,tunaclipperswerelandingcatchesoftunainwatersoffSocorroandClarionIslands,IslasRevillagigedo,Mexico.GeraldineConner,“ExpansionofTunaFishingAreas,” Fish Bulletin No. 30(1931),23-31.Forlistingoftunaarticles,see:GenevieveCorwin,“ABibliographyoftheTunas,” Fish Bulletin No. 22(1930).

53. Forpressinformationonthetreatydealingwithfisheries:“MexicanTreatyDealswithFisheries,”Pacific Fisherman(April1926),12;“MexicanFisheriesTreatyAdopted,”Pacific Fisherman(May1926),8;“InternationalCommissionDiscussesMexicanBorderFisheries,”Pacific Fisherman (July1926),16;“InternationalCommissionDiscussesMexicanProblems,StartsScientificInvestigations—ReductionsofDutyUncertain—AmericansTakeStandonExtra-TerritorialActivities,” Pacific Fisherman(October1926),20-21.

54. InAugust1927,theSanDiego-basedtunaclipperDel Monte was rammed and shot at in waters nearSanBenitoIslandbyaMexicanpatrolvessel,believedtobetheformerCaliforniatunacanner tender Curtiscor.“MexicansFireonAmericanFishingBoat,”Pacific Fisherman(September1927),20.TheSanDiegotunabaitboatAmor da Patria and the tuna canner tender Superior were seized,thefishconfiscated,andfinescollectedbeforereleaseofthecrewsandvessels.LawrenceOliver, the managing owner of the Amor da Patria, reported that the vessel was anchored when seized,thatitneverfishedwithinMexicanwaters,andthatafteradetentionofthreemonths,hepaidafineof$3,500forthevessel’srelease.Oliver,Never Backward, 99-100.

55. “Sec.Hoover’sMexicanTrip,”Pacific Fisherman(December1926),21.

56. InSanDiego,captainswhoweresuccessfulinoperatingsmallertunaclippersmovedquicklytoinvestinthebuildingoflargerones.Forexample,CaptainManuelFreitaslefttheDel Monte of103grosstonsforownershipoftheNavigatorof175grosstons.CaptainJoeMonisesoldtheOlympiaof101grosstonsfortheMarinerof175grosstonsandthenlaterfortheInvaderof196

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grosstons.CaptainManuelM.PerrylefttheDe Liteof14grosstonsforthePoint Lomaof133grosstons.CaptainManuelCorreialefttheSupremeof27grosstonsfortheGlory of the Seas of 239grosstons.CaptainFrankSilvalefttheUncle Samof40grosstonsfortheSt. Thereseof164grosstons.CaptainMarianoCrivellolefttheOceanaof29grosstonstotheG. Marconiof106grosstons.CaptainGuySilvalefttheLoisS.of44grosstonsfortheEmma R. S.of148grosstons.

57. GeraldineConner,“TheFiveTunasandMexico,”Fishery Bulletin 20(1930),77.

58. WilliamH.Bayliff,“Organization,Functions,andAchievementsoftheInter-AmericanTropicalTunaCommission,”Inter-Amer.Trop.TunaComm.SpecialReport13,(2001)61.

59. During2009,theDirectoroftheIATTChasregularlysentcopiesofhisreportstotheCommissionerstothefollowingcountries:Belize,Canada,China,CookIslands,EuropeanUnion,ChineseTaipei,andKiribati.

60. CharlesF.Maddox,“SanDiegoTunaIndustry,”California Fish and Game15no.1(January1929):34-39.ForanexcellentreviewasofJanuary1938,see:H.C.Godsil,“TheHighSeasTunaFisheryofCalifornia,”California DFG Fish Bulletin No. 51(1938).

61. Pacific Fisherman (July1929),37.

62. California DFG Fish Bulletin No. 81,54.

63. PriortoWorldWarII,onlyonevessel,the“revolutionary”weldedsteelhull110.1-footParamount (O/N236731),enteredtheU.S.tunafleetasayear-aroundtunapurseseinertocompetewithtunaclippers.ItwasbuiltbyFrenchSardineCo.,CaptainBernardCarr,ChiefEngineerFrankMosichandotherAssociatesofSanPedro.Pacific Fisherman(March1937),26;Pacific Fisherman (May1937),14;Pacific Fisherman(November1937),38-42(photographs);Pacific Fisherman(January1938),15;Pacific Fisherman(June1938),32;Pacific Fisherman Annual Statistical Number(January25,1938),173,181-182.Itwaslaterconvertedbynewownersin1940toatunaclipper.InJanuary1937,planswereannouncedbySanPedrofishermanNickDragichtobuilda157-foottwin-screwtunapurseseiner.Pacific Fisherman(January1937),19.CaptainDragichdroppedtheseplansandconvertedaformer156-footNavytugbuiltin1919asatunapurseseiner,the148.3-footFalconO/N(239057).Pacific Fisherman(October1939),59;Pacific Fisherman Annual Statistical Number (January25,1942),201.In1942,thenewowneroftheFalcon converted the seiner to a tunaclipper.Pacific Fisherman(September1940),17;Pacific Fisherman(February1942),17.BothofthesevesselswerelostinmilitaryserviceduringWorldWarII.OnthelossoftheParamount (YP-USN-289),see:Pacific Fisherman(November1945),73.TheFalcon(YP515-USN)wasdestroyedonApril10,1946.PriortoWorldWarII,sevenvesselswerebuiltas“combinationtunaclippersandseiners.Fourofthesefishedprimarilyasregularseinersandtheothersfishedprimarilyastunaclippers.SixvesselsbuiltaspurseseinerspriortoorduringWorldWarIIwereconvertedtotunaclippersduringthe1943-46period.ThreepurseseinersbuiltafterWorldWarIIandbefore1960wereconvertedtotunaclippers.The91.8-footCalifornia(O/N252332),avesselbuiltasacombinationclipper/trawler/seinerforthePacificExplorationCo.,wasconvertedin1950fromatunaclippertoapurseseinerfortheCaliforniasardine,mackerel,andtunafisheries.Pacific Fisherman(July1949),1;Pacific Fisherman(October1949),39.

64. Pacific Fisherman(May1948),30;Pacific Fisherman(February1949),29;Pacific Fisherman(November1949),35.AllotherUSN-YPvesselsbuiltbytheUSNavyduringWorldWarIIandsoldbypublicauctionwereconvertedtotunaclippers.TheYankee Mariner under the command of managing ownerJackKaseroff,waslostatseaoffPointArguello,California,onOctober19,1949.Merchant Vessels of the United States, 1951,149.

65. CraigJ.OrangeandGordonC.Broadhead,“1958-1959—ATurningPointForTunaPurseSeineFishing?” Pacific Fisherman (June1959):20-27,Table1,27.

66. Photographsandarticles,Pacific Fisherman (May1955):26-27.MarioPureticvisitedJohnJ.Real,anAttorneyandManageroftheFishermen’sCooperativeAssociationofSanPedro.ArrangementsweremadebyJohnforMariotovisitalawfirmthatspecializedinpatentlaw.TonyTrutanich,interviewedbyauthor,May2003;JohnJ.Real,interviewedbyauthor,June25,2003.In1954-

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1955,workingmodelswereusedaboardthe73.5-footStar of San Pedro(O/N233869;CaptainNickTrutanich),Anthony M.(CaptainAntonMisetich),andCourageous(CaptainAndrewKuljis).During1955,thePureticpowerblockwassuccessfullyintroducedtosalmonpurse-seinefleetsofWashingtonandAlaska.MaryAnnPetrichandBarbaraRoje,The Yugoslav in Washington State: Among the Early Settlers(Tacoma,WA:WashingtonStateHistoricalSociety,1984).

67. CaptainAntonMisetich“highlightsthefactthatthelightnessofthenetanditsquickhandlingbythepowerblockmakeevenaskunksetpardonable,sincethetimeofhaulinginthenetiscutinmore-than-half,giving the crew time to find a more productive fishing ground”(emphasisadded). Pacific Fisherman(April1956),40.

68. Pacific Fisherman(June1957),16.PhotographsoftheSun King as tuna clipper can be found in, Pacific Fisherman(September1947),61,andasaconvertedtunaseiner,coverofPacific Fisherman (June1959),20.

69. Initially,LarryZuanichfishedtheregularseinerStrangerfromSanPedro.During1954-55,hetemporarilyfishedfromPanamaandCostaRica,makingnumerousdeliveriestoaCostaRicancanneryandtofreezershipsfortransshipmenttoU.S.canners.During1955-56,Larryandtheownersof14SanPedroregulartunaseinersbecameinvolvedinamajorjurisdictionaldisputebetweentwounionsrepresentingcommercialtunafishermen,theFishermen’sUnion,Local33,ILWU,andtheSeineandLineFishermen’sUnion,SIUNA-AFL.Pacific Fisherman(March1956),29.ThislabordisputewasafactorinthedecisionofLarrytooperatetheStranger for Star-KistfromCoischo,Peru,ratherthanfromSanPedro.InMarch1956,priortoitsdeparturetoPeru,theStrangerwasequippedwithaPureticpowerblock,butitsnetwasmadeofcotton,ratherthannylon.

70. In1953,Star-KistFoodsinitiateda5-monthexploratorytripoffthePacificcoastofSouthAmerica,usingthe78.7-footregularseinerFearless(O/N234372),renamedStarkist.AresultofthistripwasaninvestmentinvesselsandshorefacilitiesinChile,includingtheconversionof the Starkisttoatunaclipper.Pacific Fisherman(April1954),18; Pacific Fisherman(May1954):1.TheregularseinersOakland, Excellent(O/N228250,68.1foot),andVirginia II(O/N236468,72.2foot)weresenttoChile.Pacific Fisherman(June1954),14,18;Pacific Fisherman(July1954),30,43;Pacific Fisherman(July1955),36.Inearly1957,Star-KistcloseditsoperationsinChilePacific Fisherman(June1957),7.ForadescriptionoftheStar-KistoperationsatCoischo,Peru,whichincludeda2000-toncapacityfreezer,see:Pacific Fisherman-The Fisheries of Peru(November1957),77.Theauthorsofthisspecialissuedidnotanticipatethefutureoperationsoftunaseinerslikethe Sun King.AsubsidiaryofSanDiego’sWestgate-California,FrigorficoPaita,S.A.,operateda1500-toncapacityfreezingfacilityinPaita,Peru,dedicatedprimarilytofreezingwholetunaandtunaloinsfortransshipmenttotheUnitedStates.Itssupplyoftunacamemainlyfromtunaclippers.Pacific Fisherman-The Fisheries of Peru(November1957),91-92.

71. Inearly1959,CaptainAntonMisetichpurchasedanownershipinterestintheParamount, and CaptainJoeMadrugapurchasedanownershipinterestintheSaratoga(O/N261638).BothcaptainscommencedthemaidenvoyagesofthesetwoconvertedtunaseinersinJuly1959.

72. LarryZuanich,interviewedbyauthor,July7,2003.

73. JoeMadruga,interviewedbyauthor,February7,1998.

74. Co-authorFelandofirstmetCaptainLouBritoin1957duringavisittoNickBogdanovich’shomeinSanPedro.Atthetime,Nickwasaco-ownerofthetunaclippersChallenger and Southern Pacific, andthegeneralmanagerofStar-KistPlant4,TerminalIsland.NickintroducedLoutomeasoneofthebestyoungcaptainsinthetunafleet.NickwasfamiliarwiththerecentlyestablishedStar-KistoperationsinPeruandwasveryinformedonthesuccessfuloperationoftheAnthony M. and other regular tuna seiners since their installations of the combination nylon net/power blockin1956and1957.WhenevertheSouthern Pacificdelivereditscatchin1957toStar-KistatPlant4,NickurgedCaptainBritotoconsiderconvertingtheSouthern Pacific.Duringthemid1950s,CaptainBritooperatedvesselsbuiltandmanagedbytheMartinacfamily.JosephM.Martinac,founderofJ.M.MartinacShipbuildingCorporation,Tacoma,Washington,treatedLou

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Britoasason.Mrs.LouBrito,interviewedbyauthor,July7,2003.LouBrito’slifewastragicallycutshortin1983,whenhewasonly61yearsold.ForinformationontheMartinacshipyard,see:“J.M.MartinacCelebrates75years,”Pacific Maritime Magazine(September1999),M1-M8.

75. YoshioIwanmae,interviewedbyauthor,August27,2003.YoshexplainedthatinitiallyhethoughtthatPeteLipanovichandhisfellowcrewmembershadquitbecausethetrip’ssharewaslessthanexperiencedwhenfishingaboardtheregularseinerMarsha Ann($12pertonversus$9perton).Duringalaterconversation,PeteLipanovichtoldYoshthathisoriginalintentionhadbeentomakethemaidentriphisonlytripaboardtheSouthern Pacific.ThecrewmembershiredbyYoshincludedJoeVilicich(mastman)andRoyKatnich.

76. OnJanuary1,1960,therewere132tunaclippers,15convertedtunaseiners,and42regularseinersafloat,withatotalfish-carryingcapacityof36,414tons.Priortothatdate,nosurplusmilitaryhullshadbeenconvertedtotunaseinersandnotunaseinersbuilt.

77. Theaverageestimatedconversioncostforeachofthe96tunaclipperswasabout$150,000.During1961,thefirstnewly-constructedtunaseiner,the130.7-footRoyal Pacific(O/N286263),wasbuiltatJ.M.MartinacShipbuildingCorporation,Tacoma,Washington.ItsmaidenvoyagecommencedonSeptember6,1961,withco-ownerLouBritoincommand.During1961-69,34newtunaseinersdepartedontheirmaidenfishingtrips.In1957,therewere57regularseinerswithatotalfrozentuna-carryingcapacityof7,125tons.By1968,thisfleetwasreducedtonineseinerswithatotalfish-carryingcapacityof1,385tons.KeilmanandAllen,California Fisheries, 1969(DivisionofStatisticsandMarketNews,BureauofCommercialFisheries,FishandWildlifeService,U.S.DepartmentoftheInterior),iv.Thisreductionwascausedlargelybycompetitionfromconvertedandnewly-builtU.S.-flagtunaseiners.

78. Inter American Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), Annual Report, 1999,LaJolla,California(2001),110;IATTC, Annual Report 2000,LaJolla,California(2002),86.Comparingworldcatchesfortheperiod1970and1980,theyellowfin/skipjackcatchincreased71percent;fortheperiod1980and1990,itincreased81percent,andfortheperiod1990and2000,anincreaseof24percent.

79. Dr.SkogsbergnotedthatthedevelopmentofCaliforniaoceanfisherieswouldfollowtheEuropeanmodel,thatis,afuturedependentondevelopingdistantfishinggrounds.Therefore,aneedfor“vessels,large,speedy,andeconomicalenoughtooperatewithprofitasfarawayastheGulfofCalifornia,andalongthewestcoastofCentralAmerica,”in“PreliminaryInvestigationofthePurseSeineIndustryofSouthernCalifornia,”Fish Bulletin No. 9,StateofCaliforniaFishandGameCommission(1925),9.

PacificFishermanAnnualStatisticalNumber January 25, 1933, page 109.

the origins of california’s high-seas tuna fleet · the origins of california’s high-seas tuna...

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