the nilgiri biosphere reserve: a review of conservation...

SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATION PROGRAMME ON ENVlRONMENTAfLY

SOUND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE HUMID TROPICS

WORKlNG PAPERS

N"16, 1996

- UNITED NATIONS

UWHCU EDUCATIONAL, - SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL ORGANIZATION

MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME

THE THIRD WORLD UNITED NATIONS ACADEMY OF IJNIVERSIN SCIENCES

The Working Paners series is a publication of the South-South Co-operation

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~improving the traditional practices and orientation for applied research aimed at a more

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1 population in the buffer and transition zones. On more general issues, the Working Papers are

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also are an attempt to identify key problems that will become areas of concentration for

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ERRATA

The present Working Document was jointly done with the Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) and thus the senior author would be Dr. V. S. Vijayan, the Director of SACON whose name has unfortmately been left out in the present publication.

This work was sponsored by the Rajiv Gandhi Institute for Contemporary Studies and published by the same agency in 1995 as part of a book titled (( Protecting Endangered National Parks 1).

The photographs used have been provided by Dr. R. Prabhakar who is presently working with the Institute of Rural Management, Anand (IRMA).

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The Biosphere Reserves or similar managed areas that are joining the South-South

Cooperation Programme, are requested to produce an overview of their covering area containing first hand information on its conditions and urgnrg problems.

These reports will be primarily used as background materials for the comparative projects agreed upon in the programme of activities established at the Chiang Mai meeting, held in May1994. For more details please report to the newsletter South-South Persnectives (IN” 1, October 1994 [28 pp.], UNESCO, Paris [France]).

Given the rich information value of these reports, there are being made available to a wide audience. They may be obtained by contacting UNESCO/MAB Secretariat, Division of Ecological Sciences.

For other documents available in the series, see the back-cover

Working Paper Ng 16,1665, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), a representative area of the Western Ghats (India) covers 5670 sq. km. It was set up in 1986 as the first Biospher Reserve in India.

Out of a great topographic and vegetation types diversity, the NBR is characterized by a great biodiversity : more than 3700 plant species and 684 vertebrate species (among which 156 are endemic) have been registered. Several hundred of plant species have medicinal, industrial or food uses.

The human diversity is also great as the 2 millions of people living inside the NBR are divided in more of 30 communities.

The author lists management deficiencies and threats occurring in the NBR area. Present day problems of the tribals living in the NBR are also listed including destruction of habitat and implementation of welfare.

The chemical pollution affecting the NBR both from agricultural and industrial development are analyzed. Recommendations for better management and protection of the NBR are given as well as the most recent action plans for the effective management of the Reserve.

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La Reserve de Biosphere de Nilgiri (NBR), est une zone representative des Ghats Occidentaux (Inde) qui occupe plus de 5670 km2. Elle a etC creee en 1986 et est la premiere Reserve de Biosphere en Inde.

En plus dune diversite topographique &levee et de nombreux types de vegetation, la Reserve de Biosphere de Nilgiri se caractk-ise par une importante biodiversite : on y a recense plus de 3700 espbces de plantes et 684 especes de vertkbres (dont 156 sont endemiques).. Plusieurs centaines d’especes de plantes ont des usages medicinaux, industriels ou alimentaires.

La diversite humaine est egalement elevee et les 2 millions de personnes vivant dans la Reserve de Biosphere de Nilgiri sont r&parties en plus de 30 commnnautks.

L’auteur d&it les carences de gestion et les menaces qui interviennent dans le domaine de la Reserve de Biosphere de Nilgiri. Les problemes actuels des communautes tribales vivant dans la Reserve de Biosphere de Nilgiri sont egalement recensees y compris les destructions d’habitat et la misc en oeuvre de politique d’amelioration de la vie.

La pollution chimique affectant la Reserve de Biosphere de Nilgiri par suite des developpements agricoles et industriels sont analyses. Des recommandations pour ameliorer la gestion et la protection de la Reserve de Biosphere de Nilgiri sont don&es ainsi que les plus recents plans d’action pour la gestion efficace de la Reserve.

RJ. R4NJIT DANIELS works at the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation.

Working Paper NC 16,1995, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

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1. THE NILGIRl BIOSPHERE RESERVE - AN OVERVIEW .............................. 5 1 .l . Origins ........................................................................................... .5 1.2. Manaoement .................................................................................. 6 1.3. Obiectives of Biosohere Reserves.. ............................................ .7 1.4. Geography.. ................................................................................... 8 1.5. Vegetation ...................................................................................... 8 1.6. Biodiversity ................................................................................... .9 1.7. Human divers@. ......................................................................... 12 1.8. Documentation.. .......................................................................... 13

2. CURRENT STATUS OF THE NBR .............................................................. 14 2.1. Manaoement deficiencies.. ......................................................... 14 2.2. Threats ......................................................................................... 14

3. STATUS AND PRESERVATION OF THE TRIBALS OF NBR.. .................. 17 3.1. Tribal occuoation and wav of life ............................................... 17 3.2. Present dav oroblems of Tribals in NBR ................................... 18

4. CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN THE NBR ........................................................ 19 4.1. Industrial develoument in the towns located in and around the NBR ................................................................................................ 19 4.2. Pesticide contamination in NBR.. .............................................. 23

5. STATUS OF PROTECTED AREAS WITHIN THE NBR.. ............................ 24 6. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BETTER MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION OF THE NBR- ............................................................................ 25

6.1. A review of recommendations made in the cast ..................... .25 6.2. More recent action blans ............................................................ 28 6.3. A proposed action blan for effective management of the NBR ..................................................................................................... 28

7. REFERENCES.. ........................................................................................... .30 8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.. ............................................................................. 31 ANNEXES ......................................................................................................... 32

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The Nj/gjrjs Biosphere Reserve (hda)

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1. THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE - AN OVERVIEW

1 .l . Oriains

As part of the UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere Programme, India launched the Indian National Man and Biosphere Programme in the 1970s to identify areas which are representative of the various biogeographical zones that can be set aside as biosphere reserves. Consequently, the Nilgiris were identified as representative of the Western Ghats. The Department of Science and Technology had constituted a committee under the Chairmanship of Professor Madhav Gadgil of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore to survey and demarcate the exact limits of the proposed biosphere reserve in the Nilgiris. As per the first document on this proposed biosphere reserve, the total area demarcated was around 5670 km2 of which 2020 km2 were designated as the core zone, 2290 km2 as manipulation (forestry) zone, 1330 km2 as manipulation (agriculture) zone and a mere 30 km2 as restoration zone (Anon., 1980). Subsequently, the biosphere reserve was established.

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR) is the first biosphere reserve set up in India under the Indian National Man and Biosphere Programme. It was set up on 1.9.86 vide order number 5.22010/6/86.CSC, Government of India. The NBR is spread over three south Indian states; Tamilnadu, Kerala and Karnataka and hence under the joint jurisdiction of the three state’s forest departments. It embraces a complex of Protected Areas and reserved forests including Rajive Gandhi National Park (Nagarhole) and Bandipur (Karnataka), Wynaad, the slopes of Nilambur, Silent Valley and Siruvani Hills (Kerala) and Dr J Jayalalitha Wildlife Sanctuary (Mudumalai), Nilgiris and Mukurti (Tamihradu). Of these Bandipur, Nagarhole and Silent Valley are National Parks. Mudumaai, Wynaad and Mukurti are Wildlife Sanctuaries. Bandipur is a Tiger Reserve and also the single largest Protected Area (874.0 km2) within the NBR (see Table 1 in Annexes) (Anon, 1989).

Tab/e 1.1 Area under the various zones of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

State Total Core Area (km2) Manip Forestry Tourism Restoration

Tamil Nadu 2537.6 274.0 2081.5 65.8 116.3 Keralal 455.4 264.5 945.0 0.0 245.9 Kartnataka 1527.4 701.8 212.2 269.2 344.2

Total 5520.4 1240.3 3238.7 335.0 706.4 Source: Anon, 1985.

The NBR on declaration includes a total area of 5520 km2. This large area is further divided into a Core Zone (1240 km2) and a buffer zone (4280 km2) (Anon, 1989). The core zone is distributed between Kerala (264.5 kmz), Kamataka (701.8 km2) and Tamilnadu (274.0

Working Paper Ng 16,1996, UNESCO (South-SouZh Co-operation Programme), Paris (France)

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km*) (Anon, 1989). The Buffer Zone is further divided into Manipulation (Forestry) Zone (3239 km*), Manipulation (Tourism) Zone (335 km*) and Restoration Zone (706 km*) (Table 1.1; Fig. 2.1; Anon., 1985; Prabhakar, 1994).

Phofo I: Montane forests and grasslands of the upper Nilgiris

1.2. Manaaement

It was originally proposed that there will be five councils/committees to manage the NBR (Anon., 1980). These are the

1) Governing Council comprising of the higher officials of the three states viz., Chief Secretaries, Chief Conservators of Forests, Directors of Agriculture, four nominees from the Government of India Department of Science and Technology or Department of Environment including the Chairman of the Man and Biosphere Committee and the Technical Director of the Biosphere Reserve who would serve as the Secretary of the Governing Council.

2) Ecodevelopment Council including all members of the state legislature whose constituencies fall within the biosphere reserve area, all Deputy Commissioners concerned, the Technical Director of the Biosphere Reserve, three Field Directors of the biosphere reserve, Deputy Conservators of Forests involved, Deputy Directors of Agriculture, Horticulture and Animal Husbandry and Deputy Director of Tribal Welfare.

3) Biosphere Protection and Co-ordination Committee involving Deputy Inspector Generals of Police in charge of forests and wildlife in the three states, the three

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The Mgiris Biosphere Reserve (India)

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Field Directors, the concerned Deputy Commissioners and the Technical Director of the Biosphere Reserve.

4) Management Committee in which the Technical Director, the three Field Directors, Deputy Conservators of Forests, all Technical Advisers and three Research Scientists nominated by the Chairman, Man and Biosphere Committee would be the members.

5) Research and Monitoring Committee with Chairman of the Man and Biosphere Committee, the three Field Directors, all the Technical Advisers and all the Research Project Heads. The Technical Advisers will be from the departments of soil and water conservation, agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, forestry, wildlife management, tribal welfare, ecodevelopment, statistics and data management, finance and public education.

The organizational committee that was originally established included the Chief Conservators of Forests Kerala, Tamilnadu and Kamataka as the Nodal/Contact Officers and Departments. Directors of the NBR viz., Conservator of Forests, Udhagamandalam (Ooty, Tamihradu), Field Director, Project Tiger (Mysore, Kamataka) and a Conservator of Forests (Kerala) together formed the Co-ordination Committee. A 9 member Research Committee with Professor Madhav Gadgil, Indian Institute of Science, Banglore as Convener and an 8 member Management Council Chaired by a representative of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, GOI (Anon, 1989).

More recently in 1992, the Tamilnadu State Government has constituted a Steering Committee vide GO No. 10 dt 10.1.92 for preparation and review of action plans covering physical, fmacial and scientific aspects of the NBR. The members of this committee are Mr RRadcliffe and Mr Vidyaprakash (Anon*, 1992).

1.3. Obiectives of Biosohere Reserves

1.3.1. As stated by the Indian National Man and Biosphere Committee

Biosphere Reserves are aimed at: a. preserving biological diversity, b. catalysing ecologically sound development of the entire region and C. generating assured employment for all tribals, rural landless and other weaker

segments of the population living in and near the biosphere reserve for the purpose of ecological restoration (Anon., 1980).

1.3.2. As stated in the 1994 UNESCO’s Biosphere Reserve Nomination Form

Biosphere Reserves are designed to play three basic roles in relating conservation, development and logistic support for comparative research and monitoring.

Working Paper N’ 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South Co-operation Programme), Paris (France)

a) Conservation role: Biosphere Reserves provide non-conventional protection of indigenous genetic resources, plant and animal species, ecosystems and landscapes of value for the conservation of the world’s biological diversity.

b) Development role: Biosphere Reserves seek to combine conservation concerns with sustainable use of ecosystems’ resources through close co-operation with local communities, taking advantage of traditional knowledge, indigenous products and appropriate land management.

c) Logistic role: Biosphere Reserves are linked through a global network; they provide facilities for research, monitoring, education and training for local purposes as well as for international or regional comparative research and monitoring programmes.

1.4. Geoaraphv

The 5520 km* biosphere reserve (10’ 45’ - 12O 15’ N latitude and 76’ - 77’ 15’ E longitude) stretches from Coorg-Wynaad Plateau just east of Brahmagiri, south to Attapadi- Bolampatti Hills at the northern edge of the Palghat Gap and eastwards into the Talamalai- Hasanur Plateau of the Eastern Ghats.

The NBR is biogeographically part of the Indo-Malayan Realm and an appropriate representative of the topographic and climatic complexity of the Western Ghats - a biodiversity ‘hot-spot’ in India.

The underlying rocks in the Nilgiri Hills are archaean dating back to 2000 million years BP. The NBR is also representative of some of the oldest hills in India which were uplifted somewhere around 40 million years BP. The present structure of these hills (of the Western Ghats in general) - a steep western scarp and a gradual merging with the plateau in the east, is a result of more recent faulting.

The NBR has a remarkable topographic diversity varying from as low as 80 m (Nilambur plains) to over 2600 m (Nilgiri plateau) above MSL. As a result of this topographic complexity and spread, the NBR encompasses a wide range of rainfall zones which receive between 500 and 7000 mm of precipitation annually. The rainfall is generally heavier in the western side averaging 5000 mm. The wet season is June-September though there are summer and occasional winter rains locally within the biosphere reserve. The length of the dry season varies from about a month in the western hills to over six months in the eastern plateau. April- May are the hottest months. Ground temperature below 0’ C (frost) is frequent during December-January in the higher hills of Nilgiris.

The varied climatic pattern coupled with a complex relief have given rise to a wide variety of vegetation types viz., scrub in the eastern plains, through dry and moist deciduous forests as that in Mudumalai, evergreen forests as in Silent Valley, to montane forests (‘sholas) and grasslands as found in the Nilgiri Plateau (Fig. 2.2).

1 S. Veaetation

The major vegetation types of the NBR are presently in a range of seral stages due to the influences of modem humans and developmental activities. However the following typical types can be readily identified.

1.5.1. Evergreen forests

These forests are found along the western slopes and valleys of the NBR usually in areas where the annual rainfall is not less than 2000 mm. These forests are further

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve (hdja)

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distinguished by altitude and thus we have low elevation evergreen forests (0 - 600 m) characterized by dominant trees in the genera Dipterocarpus, Mesua and Palaquium. Remnants of these forests are found in New Amarambalam and Muthikulam-Palghat Hills. Higher up are the medium elevation evergreen forests (600 - 1400 m) consisting of dominants such as Cullenia, Mesua and Palaquium. These forests occur in Silent Valley, New Amarambalam, Attapadi and Nilambur. A third altitudinal category of evergreen forests viz., the high elevation forest (1400 - 1800 m) is often recognised. This type is however not very distinct in floristic composition as the former two. The last category is the montane or shola forests which appear in patches above 1800 m. These are characterized by their low stature and montane species such as ScheMera. Shola forests are found on the slopes of almost all the higher hills especially within the Nilgiris district. Secondary stages of evergreen forests and mixed forests are often classified as semi- evergreen forests.

1.52. Montane grasslands

This vegetation type is found on the higher hills of the southern Western Ghats and is a common feature of the NBR too. Extensive cover of short grass all over the slopes dotted with occasional Rhododendron trees is a characteristic. Grasslands surround most sholas and the ecotones thus created are important habitats for a variety of organisms especially plants.

1.5.3. Deciduous forests

Deciduous forests are the most prevalent of vegetation types in the NBR. Moist deciduous forests cover areas where the rainfall is around 1500 mm. However over most of the NBR where rainfall is around 1000 mm, dry deciduous forests dominate, often thinned down to form tree savanas by human interference. Climax moist deciduous forests may be seen in the Rajiv Gandhi National Park (Nagarhole) and the western parts of Mudumalai. Much of the Bandipur Tiger Reserve shows a typical stand of dry deciduous forests.

1.5.4. Scrub

The eastern margin of the NBR and all along the Moyar River dense scrub jungles occur. These forests are characterized by stunted and thorny trees such as Hardwickia binata and Cassia. Rainfall is usually less than 1000 mm.

1.5.5. Plantations

A variety of exotic and native tree plantations cover the landscape of the NBR. The distribution of these artificial vegetation within the reserve is given in Table 2 in Annexes.

1.6. Biodiversitv

The NBR is known for its rich biodiversity. There are 3238 species of angiosperms, 71 species of gymnosperms, 134 species of pteridophytes, 300 species of butterflies and 684 species of vertebrates hitherto reported from this area (Daniels, 1992; Balakrishna and Ansari, unpublished data). Of the 285 species of vertebrates endemic to the Western Ghats, 156 occur within the NBR (Daniels, 1992). Several species of lower organisms are yet to be discovered and described.

Working Paper Ng 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Progtamm), Paris (France)

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1.6.1. Flora

Flora of the various forest types in the NBR have been studied by several authors; Subramanyam, 1959 & Subramanian, 1966, (Bolampatti); Naithani, 1966 (Bandipur); Sharma et al., 1978 & Stephen, 1994 (Mudumalai); Vajravelu, 1992 (palghat); and Manilal, 1988 (Silent Valley).

1.6.1.7. Endemic flora

According to Nayar (1980) there are 141 genera endemic to India, out of which 50 spread over 25 families are endemic to the Western Ghats, 11 genera occuring in the N&iris. At the species level, out of the estimated 2100 species of flowering plants endemic to peninsular India, 818 are to be found in the Nilgiris and adjoining areas (Mohanan & Balakrishnan, 199 1).

One hundred and thirty two species and 13 varieties of flowering plants are endemic to the NBR which amounts to 4.0% of its total angiosperm flora (Ahmedullah and Nayar, 1986). Of these, 28 are exclusive to the Kundah Range in the Nilgiris district (Nair and Daniel, 1986). The genus Baeolepis with a single species nervosa (Periplocaceae) is restricted to the Nilgiris (Ahmedullah and Nayar, 1986). Endemism is marked in the families Acanthaceae, Balsaminaceae, Poaceae and Orchidaceae within the NBR (Table 3 in Annexes).

7.6.1.2. 77veatened flora

Of the 168 species of flowering plants of Tamihnulu listed as endangered in the Red Data Books, 25 (15%) are exclusive to the Nilgiris. Some of the threatened orchids of this region are Bulbophyllum acutiflorum, B. nodosum, Habenaria denticulata, H. polyodon, Liparis biloba, Spiranthes sinensis, Thrixspennum musciflorum and Vanda wightii (Mohanan and Balakrishnan, 1991).

1.6.1.3. Economically important flora

Sanjappa (1991) recorded 80 species of legumes from Western Ghats and a majority of these are from the NBR and adjacent areas.

A large number of medicinal plants also occur in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. About 200 species of medicinal plants have been reported from the NBR of which 24 species are commercially exploited. Due to over exploitation certain species such as Rauvolfia serpentina and Saraca asoca have become rare. A list of over-exploited medicinal plants of NBR is given in Table 1.3.

7.6.1.4. New Taxa

In addition, Nilgiris is an important centre of speciation and many plants new to science have been discovered and described from the region making it the type locality for a number of species. Silentvalleya (Poaceae), and Kanjaram (Acanthaceae) are two genera recently discovered from this region. Curcuma silentvalleyi, Eria tiagii, Hedyotis silentvalleyensis, Hydnocarpus pendulus, Liparis indiraii, Oberonia bisaccata, Porpax chandrasekharanii, Robiquetia josephiana, Sauropus saksenianus and Silentvalleya nairii are newly described species.


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Table 1.3: Certain over-exptoiied and rare medicinal plants of NBR

FAMILY SPECIES LOCALITY

Araceae Menispermaceae Zinziberaceae DroseraCeae Liliaceae Ophioglossaceae Asclepidaiaceae Apiaceae hmiaceae Apocynaceae Caesalpiniaceae

Acorus calamus Coccinium fenestratum Curcuma zeoaria Drosera peltata Gloriosa superba Helminthostachys zeylanica Hemiaksmus indicus Hera&urn candolkanum Plectranthus barbatus Rauvolfia serpentina Saracaasoca

Nil&is Silent valley Nilgiris Nilgiris Nil&is Nihmbur N&iris Attapadi Nilgiris Nilgiris Palghat and Pal&at

1.6.2. Fauna

We know very little about the invertebrates of the NBR except butterflies. Almost all the butterfly species endemic to the Western Ghats also occur within the reserve (Daniels, 1992). The best known animals are however the vertebrates, especially the larger mammals. There are already efforts made towards the protection of endangered and endemic mammals such as the Asian elephant (EZephas maximus), tiger (Panthera tigris), Nilgiri tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius), Nilgiri 1angu.r (Presbytis johnii) and liontailed maccaque (Macaca silenus) within the biosphere reserve. A number of little known bats (Chiroptera) and smaller mammals including the clawless otter (Aonyx cinerea), Nilgiri marten (Martes gwatkinsi), civets (Viverra sp.) and the lesser cats (FeZis sp.) exist within the reserve. There is however very little information on their current range and status in the Western Ghats itself. Twelve species of mammals endemic to the Western Ghats are also found here; Mus famulus a rodent being exclusive to this reserve (Daniels, 1992).

Over 300 species of birds are known from the NBR and of the 15 species endemic to the Western Ghats, except the whitebreasted laughing thrush (GarruZax jerdoni), all species are found in the biosphere reserve (Daniels, 1992). And of the 14 species, the Nilgiri laughing thrush (Garrulax cachinnans) is exclusive to the higher hills of the Nilgiris. The Nilgiri wood pigeon (Columba elphinstonii) listed as globally endangered is found frequently within the reserve.

Some of the uncommon migratory birds that visit the Western Ghats during winter from the Himalayas such as the woodcock (Scolopax rusticola), bluechat (Erithacus brunneus) and brownbreasted flycatcher (Muscicapa muttui) are found most often within the NBR.

Amongst the lower vertebrates a number of little known amphibians, reptiles and fish exist in the NBR. 39 species of fish, 31 species of amphibians and 60 species of reptiles endemic to the Western Ghats also occur within the biosphere reserve. Of these, 24 are hitherto known only from the NBR (see Table 1.4).

There are at least 300 marsh crocodiles (CrocodyZus palustris) distributed in the major water courses of the reserve. Of these the Moyar river has the most substantial population. It must also be emphasized that this is the largest intact naturally breeding population of crocodiles anywhere in south India. Other endangered reptiles viz., the Indian

Working Paper NQ 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South Co-ope~fion Programme), Paris (France)

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rock python (Python molurus) and king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) are frequently sighted within the NBR.

Table 1.4: A list of fish, amphibians and reptiles hitherto known only from the NBR

FISH AMPHIBIANS REPTILES

Danio neilghetiensis Ichthyophis longicephalus Cnemaspis wynadensis Hypelobarbus dubius Ansonia rubigina Cnemaspis sisparensis Pun tius bovanicus Bufo silentvalleyensis Scincella bilineatus Puntius melanostigma ikiicrixalus thampii Trphlops tindalli Neolissochilus wynaadensis Rhabdops olivaceous Gan-a mcclellendi Melanophidium bilineatum Noemacheilus sinuatus Plecturus guentheri Noemacheilus striatus Mystus punctatus Silurus wynaaaknsis Clanks dayi Glyptothorax anandalei

Source: Daniels, I992 and F Davis Singh (Fish) pers. commn.

1.7. Human diversity

The NBR is also the home of several human communities such as the Cholanaickas, Todas, Paniyans, Kurichiyans, Mullukurumbans, Adiyans, Kurumbas, Jenukurumbas, Kadu Kurumbas, Betta Kurumbas, Urali Kurumbas, Edanadan Chettis, Wynaadan Chettis, Mandatan Chettis, Kurichyans, Karimpalans, Kaders, Pathiyans, Kanaladis, Adiyans, Kattunayakans, Paniyas, Aranadans, Mudugas, Sholagas, Kotas, Panjari Yeravas, Pani Yeravas, hulas, Alars and Paniyans (Anon., 1987; Anon., 1989).

According to Prabhakar and Gadgil (1994) the pastoral Todas immigrated into the Nilgiris during the 2nd century BC. Along with them probably came the first domestic cattle and buffaloes. (It is believed that some of the currently free ranging ferral buffaloes in the Upper Nilgiris are those left behind by the Todas). During the 8th century AD, hunter- gatherers and shifting cultivators including Kotas, Kurumbas and Irulas entered the biosphere reserves. However, the most important event of human immigration that has had a permanent bearing on the landscape of the Nilgiris is that of the Badagas during the 15th century AD. Further infilteration of humans from the plains of Coimbatore and Mysore have added to the population of the biosphere reserve. As per the 1991 census, there are 704,827 people in the Nilgiris district alone, which is equivalent of just about half the area of the entire biosphere reserve. Their impact on the adjoining areas has been significant.

Kerala part of NBR, especially the Wynaad district gives shelter to the maximum number of tribes both scheduled and unscheduled followed by Tamil Nadu and Kamataka. The approximately 2,00,000 tribal population within the NBR is distributed as follows: Kerala 1,500,000, Tamil Nadu 330,000 and Karnataka 170,000 (Table 4 see Annexe).

Table 1.5 gives a summary of the population of tribals within the NBR that has been declared as ‘scheduled’. Table 1.6 shows the growth rate of the scheduled tribal population over a 20 year period within the Kerala side of NBR. (These figures however seem to be incorrect suggesting that these statistics are not carefully compiled).

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The Ni/gkis Biosphere Reserve (India)

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Table 1.5: The populafion of scheduled tribes in NBR

NAME POPULATION (Census 198 1) Adiyan 8152 Aranadan 95 Irtllar 18698 Kader 1503 Kattunaicken 8803 Kurichian 22215 Kuruman 2074 1 Kurumbas 1203 Malamalasar 9 Malasar 967 Mudugar 11213

1.8. Documentation

The history of NBR is one of the most well-documented in Asia. Hockings (1978) has compiled a list of 2829 publications (including maps) which cover the period between 1602 and 1978 describing both the history and geography of the Nilgiris area. More recently, the Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science has developed a computerized bibliography of the NBR itself including 707 records published between 1822 and 1986. A detailed history of ecological changes that took place within the reserve during the past 200 years has been documented by Prabhakar (1994).

Table 1.6: Growth rate of scheduled tribal population in the Keraia pa19 of NBR

Name of the tribe Population Population growth (%)

1961 1971 1981 1961-71 1971-81

Adiyan Aranadan Irular Kader Kattunaicken Kurichian Kurumbas Kurumans Malamalasar Malasar Mudugar Paniyan

5691 7073 8152 24.28 15.25

11454 14852 18698 29.66 957 1120 1503 17.03 3907 5565 8803 2.43 11849 15700 22215 32.50 999 1319 1283 32.03 13377 15166 2074 1 12.99

25.89 34.19 58.18 41.49 -2.72 37.21

89 312 967 5069 7972 11213 37068 45562 56953

250.56 57.26 22.91

209.93 40.80 24.99

Total 157280 173900 320967 10.56 84.56 (Source: KIRTfi, Calicut)

Working Paper N9 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

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2. CURRENT STATUS OF THE NBR

2.1. Manaclement deficiencies

A careful analysis of the overall management of the NBR and after discussions with the concerned state departments of forests the following major shortcomings have been brought to light.

a) Almost all the committees nominated towards coordinating the NBR/MAB Programme have largely remained non-functional during the past.

b) There has been little inter-departmental cooperation towards managing the biosphere reserve.

c) The state Forest Departments have been managing the NBR in the same way as they have been doing forestry. The programme has not been in any way different than the routine forestry operations with little inputs from agencies other than the Forest Departments.

d) The proposed ecodevelopment and human community participation in the overall management of NBR have remained on paper and never got to the ground.

e) The NBR (no biosphere reserve in India) has not been recognised by the UNESCO/MAB Programme.

Photo 2: A Badga village on Nilgiris Plateau

2.2. Threats

The continued functioning of the NBR is threatened by a number of factors in the absence of appropriate management. These may broadly be grouped under intrinsic - those from within and extrinsic - that from external sources.

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The Ni/giris Biosphere Reserve (India)

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2.2.1. Intrinsic threats

Intrinsic threats include the growing resident human and cattle populations and the subsequent demand on land for settlement, agriculture and pasture. Associated with the rise in human and cattle population are hazards such as spread of diseases, exotic species, fire, erosion, siltation, poaching, fodder, food and fuel gathering within the reserve. A large number of estates, factories and small industries which functioned within the NBR before it was declared a biosphere reserve, continue to exist and operate causing considerable ecosytem damage largely through inorganic pollution to air, soil and water. Major industries such as a needle factory, Hindustan Photo Films and the Cordite (explosives) factory in the Nilgiris district are permanent threats to the NBR. (Fortunately, the electroplating unit proposed by the needle industry has been withdrwan by the company itself (Anon., 1990)).

2.2.1.7. Human population

The Nilgiris plateau covers an area of about 800 km2. Within this area there is currently a human population of at least 704,827; a density of c., 900 people per km2. Of these not less than 70% are immigrants from the plains of Coimbatore and Mysore. As per a recent analysis, while in 1891 the native:immigrant ratio was unity, in 1981 it is about a third (Prabhakar, 1994). Such has been the rise in human immigration into the Nilgiris.

Human activities in the Nilgiri plateau comprising the Nilgiris district has the most impact on the biosphere reserve. The 3 hill towns viz., Uthagamandalam, Coonoor and Kotagiri are located in this area. Due to their situation up on the hills any adverse impact to the ecosystem that they may create locally, spreads over a considerable distance downhill (Daniels, 1992).

2.2.7.2. Cattle

Masinagudi, the main stay of cattle has about 15,000 humans and an equal number of cattle. Ten thousand tonnes of cow dung is removed from this area every year for commercial purposes (Anon, 1992). These cattle freely graze within the protected areas often competing with the native herbivores such as gaur, sambar and deer. A crude estimate suggests that the daily removal of natural biomass by these cattle would amount to about 100 tonnes or 12 lorry loads, considering that an average bovine consumes at least 5 kg food per day (Anon., 1990).

Important animal corridors like the Sigur Plateau have played a signifiacnt role in the mixing of elephant populations in the Western and Eastern Ghats. It has been felt that there is a considerable gene flow between the nearly 2000 elephants in the reserve and the 1800 in the Eastern Ghats especially Satyamangalam. Thanks to this corridor, the entire tract becomes the most heavily elephant populated part within the country. However, even this important natural area of scrub is under pressure of cattle.

2.2.7.3. Hyde/ projects

Many river valley projects in NBR, like Upper Bhavani, Kundha, Pykara have not only affected the river and stream flow but also submerged vast stretches of forests. The grasslands of Silent valley, habitat of many rare and interesting plants other than important grasses were considered insignificant by the supporters of the hydro-electric project in this area. The submergible area of the Silent valley is found to harbour 84 species, which are not present anywhere else in the region. This includes 23 rare/new species also, which would have been lost completely by the flooding waters of the dam (Manila& 1988). The rediscovery

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of the ground orchid Ipsea malabarica after 135 years shed light on the importance of the above area.

The elimination of species like Eriochrysis rangacharii (Poaceae) and Ophiorrhiza pykarensis (Rubiaceae) from Pykara are largely due to dam construction.

A major threat to the important elephant corridors is the Pykara Ultimate Stage Power Project, the formal clearance for which has been made by the government. It is even feared that human influx brought about by the project would be creating pressure on the existing scrub jungle on the Sigur plateau for firewood. Some estimates have put the existing demand as 2-3 tonnes per day. It has been reported that the project authorities (the Tamilnadu Elictricity Board) have not indicated the presence of any wildlife sanctuary in the proposed site, whereas the the Dr J Jayalalithe Wildlife Sanctuary is just a “stone’s throw” from the project site. Moreover, this lies well within the manipulation forestry zone of the NBR. The Union Planning Commision had approved the project in August 1988 itself. The ministry of Environment and Forests (GOI) has also cleared the project (Anon., 1990).

2.2.1.4. Faulty land use

The steep terrain of the NBR has been unscientifically utilized for cultivating exotic vegetables including potatoes, cabbage, carrot, etc. One of the major impacts on the Nilgiris ecosystem was caused by the Indo-German potato farming project. Growing potatoes extensively on the steep slopes has led to a number of permanent disasters such as landslides and siltation of the existing water bodies.

Hundreds of hectares of forest land was cleared for tea plantations to employ the Srilankan repatriates by the government sponsored TANTEA corporation. Several small tea growers, especially amongst the Badagas, have continually encroached forest and revenue lands for the cultivation of tea. (Incidentally, to process a kilogram of tea, two kilograms of wood is required).

The precipitous topography and the added high rainfall coupled with the faulty land use have resulted in severe land slides year after year; the most recent and significant being the one that happened during the monsoons of 1993 between Coonoor and Udhagamandalam, which was about a kilometer wide and over nearly 5 km distance downhill.

2.2.2. Extrinsic threats

Extrinsic threats are more severe. Transport and tourism have adversely influenced the NBR. They are continuing to put pressure on land within the biosphere reserve. Organized poaching of sambar (Cervus unicolor) and chital (Axis axis) is rampant in the remoter parts of the reserve, especially on the eastern side of the Moyar river. An occasional tusker is still poached on the periphery of the sanctuaries. Dynamiting the deeper pools for fish is common in many parts of the Moyar river - the main habitat of crocodiles, a variety of fish including the now very rare mahsheer (Tor spp) and the greyheaded fishing eagle. Much of these poaching is encouraged by ‘visitors’ largely from Coimbatore. And since this takes place during the nights (well organized with battery operated search lights, etc.), they tend to go unnoticed.

Large-scale transportation of cattle through the biosphere reserve has been a cause for spread of epidemics to both local cattle and wildlife. While steps have been taken to curb epidemic outbreaks amongst resident cattle, there is no check on the cattle that go on foot through the protected areas towards Kerala.


2.2.2.1. Transport

Roads have spread all over the NBR even through sanctuaries. All vehicular traffic between Coimbatore/Uthagamandalam and MysoreBangalore runs through the protected areas of Mudumalai and Bandipur. Vehicular traffic is so high during the summer months, especially at the time of the flower show in Uthagamandalam. Night drivers frequently knock down animals, including large pythons on the roads.

2.2.2.2. Commercial Tourism

In order that the revenue through commercial tourism is maximized, the NBR has been subjected to thoughtless pressure from tourists. There is little restriction on the number and kinds of vehicles that are let into the protected areas, especially in Mudumalai. Tourists have led more enterpreuners to invest on fancy hotels wherever possible within the reserve thereby constantly putting pressure on the Forest Department and Ministry of Environment and Forests to approve their projects. There has even been the thoughtless proposal of launching adventure tourism along the Moyar river.

2.2.2.3. Introduction of exotic plants

Estimates in 1938 found that the Nilgiri plateau was 80 percent grasslands and 20 percent sholas. Black wattle and pine were planted in the grasslands to meet the fuelwood requirements of human settlemets as well as the industrial needs. Many generations of farmers, gardeners and foresters have introduced the temperate and ornamental plants from other parts of the world into Nilgiris. Spread of exotics such as Eupatorium odoratum, Sorathomnus scoparius, Lantana camara, Ulex europeus and Parthenium hysterophorus is extensive even currently.

3. STATUS AND PRESERVATION OF THE TRIBALS OF NBR

3.1. Tribal occupation and way of life

At present Cholanaicken is the only tribe which lives exclusively by food gathering, hunting and fishing though a few decades ago there were a number of tribes who subsisted by collecting food and hunting (Table5 in Annexes).

The tribal artisans were slightly different for the artisans found among the Hindu peasantry in that the tribal artisans combined their skills with food gathering, hunting or shifting cultivation. Like artisans pastoralists have to have close association with agriculturists for their food supply. However, there were only a few tribal pastoralists. Todas being the most unique of them for not only continuing their traditional occupation but also for being very exclusive. The Todas mainly depend upon their buffaloes.

Kanaladis (not a scheduled tribe) of Wynaad are oracles and firewalkers. Edanadan chettis, Wayanadan chettis and Mandatan chettis are agriculturists, while Kotas are skilled artisans.

Paniyas are the principal Wynaad agriculturists. Being a large tribe, they provide valuable service to the landowners as agricultural labourers.

Most of the other tribes also work as agricultural labourers, occasionally engaging themselves in cultivation, collection of Minor Forest Products (MFP) and fishing. A large number of tribals are involved in livestock, plantation and forest work.

Working Paper Ne 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South Co-opersfion Pmgrmme), Paris (France)

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Food gatherers and hunters do not exist now. Some of them still collect tubers and leaves, but for such people their main subsistence comes from picking minor forest produce for the private forest contractors.

Photo 3: Buffaloes being headed through N5R

3.2. Present dav rxoblems of Tribals in NBR

The problems of tribals in NE3R do not vary much from the tribals of the other parts of the country.

3.2.1. Destruction of habitat

Since time immemorial tribals depended exclusively on forests for their livelihood by utilizing the biodiversity in a sustainable way. The tribal regions of Kerala and Tamilnadu have over the years attracted highly capital intensive plantations. Forests were indiscriminately destroyed, wildlife was disseminated and water sources polluted.

90% of the land belonging to tribals are not assigned to them legally by giving title deed. Settlers from the plains either encroached upon these lands or purchased them. Government development works also take their toll of tribal land. This problem is acute in Wynaad part of Kerala and Nilgiris. Once land is lost, a tribal becomes an agricultural or daily wage labourer.

Tribals living in wildlife sanctuaries and national parks are under constant threat of displacement. There are 28 villages and over 1200 families in the Rajiv Gandhi National Park (Nagarhole). The recent promulgation by the Karnataka government to displace these people has created considerable resentment amongst them.

Nutritional needs of tribals were met by products obtained from their own agriculture, by hunting animals or collecting edible wild plants. Due to habitat destruction,

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tribals are a impoverished lot today, being susceptible to various diseases. Recent outbreak of sickle cell anaemia and TB amongst the tribals of Wynaad has taken hundreds of life.

Either due to increase in wild animal population or due to the habitat destruction, wild animals turn to the water sources and crops of tribals. Occasional killings of both humans and animals occur in different areas within the NBR.

3.2.2. Implementation of welfare schemes by government agencies

More often than not the benefits of well intended welfare schemes of government do not reach the tribals. Several schemes such as construction of houses have failed. Though there is a Government of India directive that all the developmental activities which are meant for generating employment for the tribals should be in a phased manner, it is hardly followed resulting in the employment of outsiders at the expense of employment opportunities to tribals.

In order to benefit the tribals, tribal cooperative societies were formed for the collection of MFP. However, too many agencies are involved in the final marketing of MFPs and the plight of the tribal is the same as before.

4. CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN THE NBR

4.1. Industrial development in the towns located in and around the NBR

NBR is spread over eight districts, namely Nilgiris, Coimbatore and Erode in Tamilnadu, Palakkad, Malappuram and Wynaad in Kerala, and Coorg and Mysore in Kamataka. Of all the eight districts, Coimbatore and Nilgiris have respectively the maximum industrial and agricultural development. The major industries which have an impact on the local economy and environment are described below.

Photo 4: Coonor township - Nilgiris

Working Paper NQ 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South Co-operation Ptagmnme), Paris (France)

4.1.1. Nilgiris District

There are seven major industries in the Nilgiris district. In addition there are 175 tea and several other small scale industries.

A chemical factory located at Sandinella producing gelatine for the manufacture of capsules has a daily effluent output of 4300 kilo litres. The treated effluent immediately joins the Pykara flume channel joining the River Rykara.

A defence establishment at a cost of Rs 33 13 lakhs is located at Aravangadu producing chemical propellants. This has an effluent output of 2000 kilo litres per day. The treated effluent is released into a nearby nallah and it joins the River Coonoor after running downhill about 10 to 12 km.

The biggest industry in the Nilgiris district is a photo film manufacturing unit located at Ooty. A variety of chemicals, such as silver nitrate, potassium bromide, soda ash, methylene chloride and a few acids are used. Roughly 1200 kilo litres of effluent is generated every day and released after treatment into Sandinella division wier down stream, finally joining the River Moyar.

An industry which produces various kinds of needles (including surgical) and other knitting accessories is located at Keti near Ellanelli. The factory’s daily effluent discharge is roughly 107 kilo litres. It joins a nearby stream and finally the River Coonoor. Solid waste of about 850 kg per day is also generated by this factory.

An instant tea manufacturing factory at Cherambadi releases nearly 120 kilo litres of effluent and the treated effluent joins the River Choladi.

It is worth mentioning that an industry at Masinagudi in the Dr J Jayalalitha Wildlife Sanctuary which was expected to release effluent containing cyanide was prevented through court orders.

4.1.2. Thanthai Periyar District (Erode)

The major industries in Erode district are situated in three taluks namely, Gopichettypalayam, Sathyamangalam and Bhavani which are closer to the Western Ghats.

4.7.2.7. Satyamangalam taluk

There are five major industries in this tahtk. A paper factory situated on the bank of the River Bhavani near Bhavani Sagar dam releases 1300 kilo litres of effluent. Approximately 600 kilo litres of the effluent is reported to be used for irrigation and the rest recycled.

A sugar factory at Satyamangalam located on the bank of the River Bhavani releases effluent of 800 kilo litres per day and it is reported to be used for irrigation after treatment in the factory’s own land.

A co-operative milk chilling plant located at Sathyamangalam with a capacity of 30000 litres per day discharges about 20 kilolitres of effluent every day.

4.1.2.2. Gopichettypalayam taluk

A textile processing unit at Akkaraikodiveri is a major industry in Gopi taluk. This uses caustic soda, sodium silicate, soda ash, sodium hypochloride and a considerable quantity of dyes. The daily effhtent discharge is about 300 kilo litres. The factory draws water from the River Bhavani and the treated effluent is reported to be used for irrigation in the factory’s own land of six acres.


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4.1.2.3. Bha vani taluk

The number of major industries in this taluk is four. A sugar factory releases around 1750 kilo litres of effluent daily. It is said to be used for irrigation after treatment. Adjacent to the sugar factory, a distillery unit is also located, The distillery’s effluent, about 1200 kilo litres per day, is reported to be used for irrigation.

The boiler unit of Tamilnadu News Print and Paper Ltd, discharges daily 350 kilo litres of effluent. A chemical industry in Periapuliyar discharges 800 kilo litres of effluent every day.

Although all the major industries in Erode district are reported to have effluent treatment plants and the water is reused after treatment or for irrigation, certain quantity of factory effluents joins the River Bhavani and Cauvery and contaminate the river water. Apart from the major industries there are about 60, 400 and 60 small scale dyeing and bleaching units in and around Bhavani, Erode and Chennimalai respectively. The small scale units let out their effluent as it is without any treatment into the nearby nallahs and finally they fmd their way into either Bhavani or Cauveri.

In Erode there are more than 85 tanneries. A rough estimate of the untreated effluent from these units, puts the figure as 2000 kilo litres per day. The Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board has taken earnest steps to set up common treatment plants for these textile bleaching and tannery wastes in Bhavani, Chennirnali and Erode.

4.1.3. Coimbatore District

In Coimbatore district, there are 5 taluks namely Coimbatore, Avinashi, Mettuppalayam, Tirupur and Pollachi. Of the five talks, Coimbatore and Mettuppalayam are the taluks located closer to the Western Ghats and part of them fall within the NBR. Hence industrial development in these two tahtks alone is discussed.

4.1.3.1. Mettuppalayam taluk

A rayon yam factory situated on the bank of the River Bhavani is one of the major industries in this tahik. The factory releases more than 40000 kilo litres of effluent after treatment into the River Bhavani. A textile processing unit releases around 1600 kilo litres of effluent daily and the effluent joins the River Bhavani.

Mettuppalayam has one of the few wattle industries extracting vegetable tanning agent. The wattle extract is mainly used in tanning of leather which is not as harmful as chrome tanning.

In the village Jadayampalayam, an industrial hamlet, there are a few dyeing and bleaching industries releasing effluents in the range of 40 to 800 kilo litres per day. Further, there are around 6 similar units proposed to be established in the same locality

4.1.3.2. Coimbatore taluk

The city with 175 spinning mills, 40 medium and more than 100 small scale mills is one of the biggest textile centres of India. The other major industrial sector is foundry. There are 700 of them at present in the city. They emit fumes with sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide and create air pollution. The other industry which creates considerbale air pollution is the cement factory located at Madukkarai. The installation of electrostatic precipitator at the chimney is a good sign towards mitigating the level of air pollution. Siltation in the Walayar

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Dam is reportedly due to the lime stone quarrying in the foot hills of the Western Ghats in the main catchment area of the dam.

Unlike Mettupalayam, in Coimbatore taluk there are only a few industries which generate large quantities of effluents. They are mainly small scale dyeing industries which release between 20 and 45 kilo litres of eMuent into the nearby nallahs. Further there are a few lead refineries creating some lead pollution.

4.1.4. Palakkad District

Of the four taluks of Palakkad district, only two taluks namely, Palakkad and Mannaarkkaad are close to NBR. On the whole there are 25 large scale industries in this district and around 5000 small scale industries of various nature. The major industries are in and around Palakkad and in the Walayar-Kanjikkode industrial belt. There are a few flour mills in Walayar and the effluent from these factories cause organic pollution. In addition companies manufacturing fertilizers, chemicals, pesticides and tread rubber located in between Walayar and Kanjikkode are also of concern. The cement industry located in Walayar causes air pollution and the limestone quarrying in the foot hills of Western Ghats which is the main catchment area of the River Malampuzha causes siltation.

The co-operative sugar factory at Menonpara discharges effluents into the River Korayar and a paper mill located in Meenkara pollutes the River Gayathri. Similarly a rubber factory at Mannaarkkaad causes pollution to the River Ku&a. The coir industry in this belt is also a matter of concern.

4.15 Malappuram District

There are four taluks in the district namely, Manjeri, Perintalmanna, Tirur and Ponnani. Of the four tal&s Perintalmanna and Manjeri are closer to the forest ranges. There are about 10 large and medium scale industries and notable among them are the chemical factory and the Wood Complex at Nilambur.

4.1.6. Wynaad District

There are no large scale industries in this district. However two medium scale units viz., one edible oil company and one rubber industry are present. Two small scale electroplating units are present in Sultan Battery. Further, more than 500 small scale industries which fall under various categories such as brick works, tyre retreading units, granite crushing units, sandal and eucalyptus oil extraction units are thriving in this district.

4.1.7. Mysore District

Of the 11 taluks of Mysore only three, namely Chamrajnagar, Gundlupet and Heggdadevankote come within or close to NBR boundary. Chamrajnagar has 1000 small scale units and a couple of medium scale spinning mills. In Gundlupet, the number of small scale units is around 750.

4.1.8. Kodagu District

Of the three taluks of Kodagu district only part of Virarajendrapet tahtk falls under NBR. There are around 1500 small scale industries in this district of which 250-300 are in Virarajendrapet taluk. On the whole the district has not seen any major industrial development. Coffee cultivation is the back bone of the district’s economy. Coffee plantation

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The N&Ms Biosphere Reserve (India)

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in Coorg district is to the extent of 286 ha and the production is around 700 tonnes per year. There are about 50 to 60 coffee pulping units, 25 hulling units and almost the same number of curing units in this district. The wastes from these units are released into the nearby streams and finally they fmd their way into the River Cauvery and cause organic pollution.

4.1.9. Pollution ‘hot spot’ in NBR

Of all the River systems present in the NBR, the River Bhavani, one of the major tributaries of the River Cuavery is highly contaminated. The water at several places is deep black in colour and rich in organic wastes due to the huge quantity of effluent let into the river at several points along the course of the river. The water quality is very poor with biological oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) several hundred times more than the tolerable limits. The levels of sulphates, nitrates, chlorides are also reported to be much higher than permitted. There are instances of fish mortality due to the high contamination levels and according to the local fishermen the fish catch has gone down over a period of time in the river. The masonry in Bhavani Sagar dam is also reported to be corroding due to the chemical pollution. (This however, requires verification).

Photo 5: Cleared wattle plantation on Mgiris Plateau

4.2. Pesticide contamination in NBR

The indiscriminate use of pesticides and fertilizers in agriculture to enhance the production, also contaminates the ecosystem to a great extent. The biocidal properties of pesticides used are not only restricted to the target organisms but they also seriously interfere with the biological balance in soil, air and water. Hence a circle of poison or what is referred to as the ‘pesticide treadmill’ is created within the system. As the effect of pesticides on the environment is insidious barring the instances of poisoning, it is being overlooked. While this being the national scenario, the situation in and around the NBR is not very different. An

Working Paper N’ 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South Co-opetafion Pmgtmme), Paris (France)

enormous quantity of chemical pesticides is used to control the pest in all the crops. The major crops in this region are cotton, tobacco tea, coffee, vegetables, fruits, millet and paddy. For example, in the Nilgiris district pesticides to the tune of around 600 metric tonnes in the form of granules and powder and around 28,000 litres in the form of liquids are used per year. It is important to note that all the pesticides used and also the industrial effluents released in this hill district ultimately find their way into the plains. The pesticide consumption in Coimbatore district which has extensive area under cotton cultivation is also huge.

From the above discussion it is quite evident that around NBR industrial and agricultural pollution is quite striking. An unchecked progress in these lines of development will insulate NBR totally affecting the free flow of biodiversity, especially the riverine in the near future.

5 . STATUS OF PROTECTED AREAS WITHIN THE NBR

The NBR is unique in that it comprises 6 major protected areas (National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries) and other extensive Reserved Forests. The management problems faced by these protected areas are also varied due to the administrative and political environment within which each falls. The following is a summary of the problems faced by each of these protected areas (Table 5.1). Table 5.1: Major problems that need immediate consideration while managing

the protected areas and reserved forests within the NBR

State Protected Area/Reserve Forest

Problems

Kamataka Bandipur National Park

Kerala

Rajiv Gandhi National Park (Nagarhole) Nilambur Reserved Forest, Silent Valley National Park, Wynaad Wildlife Sanctuary

Tamilnadu Coimbatore Central Forest Division

Appropriate weed management, Cattle grazing Fire, Human-wildlife conflict Cattle grazing, Fire, Managing wildlife corridors, Human-wildlife conflict, Tourism Habitat management, Human encroachment, Fire, Habitat monitoring, Tourism, Weed management plantations, fire Human-wildlife conflict, Veterinary care Tourism Elephant habitat Riverine habitat

Human-wildlife conflict, Ecodevelopment, Research Dr. J. Jayalalitha Wildlife &actuary Eastward extension of sanctuaq, wildlife corridors management, Bamboo restoration, Cattle grazing,

Fire, Tourism A4ukurti Wildlife Sanctuary Wattle-Pine management, wildlife corridor, Cattle grazing, Trout fishery, Tourism Nilgiri South Forest Wildlife corridors, Habitat fi-agmentation, Grasslands management, Human-wildlife conflict Satyamangalam Forest Division Habitat protection, Bamboo restoration Cattle grazing, Fuel wood alternatives.


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6. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR BETTER MANAGEMENT AND PROTECTION OF THE NBR:

6.1. A review of recommendations made in the Dast

6.1 .l. Land use

The Nilgiri Wildlife and Environmental Association (NWLEA) has for the past 22 years been recommending the handing over of the forested revenue lands to the Forest Department. After 2 decades of perseverence and finally, the Government of Tamilnadu notified under section 26 of the Tamilnadu Forest Act of 1982 to declare an area of 4595.71 acres of revenue lands in Masinagudi and Sholur villages to the care of the Forest Department. This was even published in the Nilgiris District Gazette dt 1.11.88. Following this by December 1988,2169.61 acres of land in Masinagudi village and another 150 acres on Sholur village were transferred to the Forest Department from the Revenue Department by an order dated 9.3.1989. However, according to a report, this whole issue was ‘torpedoed’ by the State Government’s letter in October 1989 to the Chief Conservator of Forests about its plan to drop this transfer of lands (Anon., 1990).

Dr P Samraj, Principal Scientist and Officer in Charge of the Central Soil and Water Conservation, Research and Training Centre had recommended that areas with more than 33% slope should be under perimreal vegetation (Anon, 1992). These areas are not suitable for potato growing. Contour-cultivation with deep trenches is the best suited for such hill slopes.

Photo 6: Freshly cut wattle plantation on Niigiris slopes

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6.1.2. Cattle grazing

The NWLEA has made the following recommendations regarding the control of cattle menace within the reserve. a) Cattle entry into the forests should be discouraged. b) Removal of cattle dung from the area should be banned. c) Cattle should be improved and their numbers reduced. d) Cattle owners should be encouraged to buy fodder from the existing farms and not let loose their cattle into the forests (Anon., 1990).

6.1.3. Management

The NWLEA has suggested the following as ‘remedies to salvage the (Sigur elephant) corridor’. They are a) A special range and survey team should be set up to protect and survey the revenue lands already handed over to the Forest Department. b) The Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary should be extended eastwards (including the Singara RF., Bokkaparam RF., and Sigu.r RF.) to include the Sigur plateau by which the traditional animal corridor can be saved. c) The NBR should be the first area to be brought under the proposed Project Elephant (Anon., 1990).

6.1.4. Proposal for the constitution of a high powered agency for hill areas

In a letter (DO Letter No CH/PA/87 dt 23.4.87) the then Chairman of the Tamilnadu Electricity Board Shri B Vijayarhagavan had proposed the constitution of a high powered agency for hill areas to the Special Commisioner and Secretary to Government, Personnel and Administrative Reforms Department and Agricultural Production Commisioner, Madras. The salient points made in this proposal are as follows:

An over-concern with the needs of “development” in the narrow sense in which the term is commonly understood has brought about ecological disaster. The economic and ecological development of the Western Ghats calls for a multi-disciplinary approach which encompasses the activities of many diferent Government departments and agencies. This can be done only if there is a seperate high powered agency clothed with sufficient statutory powers more or less on the model of the Madras Metropolitan Development Authority. This may be called the Nilgiris Development Authority or the Hill Areas Development Authority (HADA). The HADA should integrate and co-ordinate all activities impinging on the ecology of hill areas. This will include wildlife management, forestry, agriculture, agricultural engineering, horticulture, land use planning, siting of industries, town planning, pollution control, regulation of tourism, etc. No activity which has degrading effect on the environment, whether in the short run or in the long run should be undertaken by any Government agency or by any private agency without obtaining clearance of HADA.

The HADA should have a Board of Management presided over by the Chief Secretary or an officer of the rank of Chief Secretary. It should have on it the heads of departments and of agencies who are primarily concerned with the activities in the hill areas. It should also have scientists and local representatives who are committed to the conservation of the environment.

The HADA should broadly speaking have two wings, one for monitoring environmental impact of human intervention and the other for the formulation and implementation of a Master Plan for the Eco-Development of Hill Areas.

The following are the major aspects of the Master Plan.

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve (India)

i 1 _-.. .~

6.1.4.1. A ban on clear felling of natural forests to raise plantations or for other purposes.

6.1.4.2. Massive afforestration of already degraded tracts of reserve forests, preferably by polyculture-afforestration of catchments and slopes. If growing trees is not possible, fodder grass should be grown.

6.1.4.3. Ban on vegetable cultivation, especially potato, on steep slopes. There will be a case for the acquisition by Government of patta lands on steep slopes so that further damage to such vulnerable lands can be avoided and the owners also compensated.

6.1.4.4. The present practice of lands remaining under ownership of various departments and agencies even when they are not immediately required for their purposes has resulted in neglect, lack of effort for afforestation of those lands and encouragement of encroachment of such lands. The primary task of protecting, preserving and improving the Government lands should be entrusted to the Forest Department. Lands classified as ‘revenue lands’ which are not required for strictly communal purposes should be transferred to the Forest Department to facilitate better management since revenue lands which are virtually “no man’s lands” have suffered heavily at the hands of encroachers. Similarly the lands in the possesseion of different departments and organisations like the Electricity Board which are not strictly required for their purposes within resonable time-frame should be got transferred to the Forest Department. It is understood that the lands placed at the disposal of the Hindustan Photo Films are far in excess of their requirements. The surplus lands with such institutions should also be identified and resumed/acquired and vested with the Forest Department.

6.1.4.5. Re-appraisal of Government policies towards forest based industries. There should be no further expansion of forest based industries which will only be the detriment of the ecology of the hills. Forest based industries should be expected to grow their own plantations of pulp-wood on degraded lands which can be made available to them on lease or licence basis.

6.1.4.6. A programme for soil conservation in catchment areas. Heavy soil erosion in the Kundah catchment and consequent siltation of the reservoirs have greatly readuced the useful life of the reservoirs and power houses built at a great cost. Hydrological surveys have shown that Kundahpalam, Pegubuhalla and Pillur reservoirs have been heavily silted up. A technical committee constituted by the Government in 1978 to study the siltation problems in the Nilgiris reservoirs have already pointed out the inadequacies in the soil conservation programme. Even though soil conservation measures were initiated in the Nilgiris 3 112 decades back, the work has been done by fits and starts and has been grossly inadequate considering the dimensions of the problem. Also the works executed have suffered from poor maintenence. The Kundah catchment has 22,000 ha of reserve forests and 10,000 ha of revenue lands described as waste lands, grazing lands, village poramboku, etc. and most of this 32,000 ha need a programme of soil conservation.

6.1.4.7. De-siltation of the Kundah reservoir. 6.1.4.8. Restoration of the Ooty lake and other water sources. 6.1.4.9. Banning ingress of domestic cattle into wild life preserves like Mudumalai.

Besides competition for grazing with wild hebivores, domestic cattle were responsible for the spread of rinderpest which almost wiped out the gaur population of Mudumalai twenty years ago.

Working Paper N* 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South Co-opemfion Pmgmnme), Paris (France)

6.1.4.10. Massive social forestry schemes should be initiated to meet the resl needs of the villagers for fuel, fodder and construction materials.

6.1.4.11. Re-appraisal of tourism policies. There is need to recognise a qualitative difference between tourism promotion in places of historical interest and in places of natural beauty. Nothing should be done in areas which will in any manner compromise with the conservation of natural beauty or the compulsions of the ecosystem.

6.1.4.12. A re-examination of the existing legislation governing hills. Acts like the Tamilnadu Hill Stations (Preservation of Trees) Act, 1955, have not been effective enough for various reasons. There is need for more competent legislation in this regard.

6.2. More recent action Dlans

Each state has made its own plan of management for the biosphere reserve. There has been a rather detailed plan drafted for the period 1994-1999 for the the Tamilnadu part of the NBR. The most important component of the action plan is the considerable allocation of funds towards rural/tribal welfare within the NBR. About Rs 80 lakhs have been alloted for this purpose and the objectives are the following.

6.2.1. Conducting field trips for villagers. 6.2.2. Setting up a mobile health unit for tribal villagers including drugs,

employment of driver, etc. 6.2.3. Provision of drinking water and irrigation 6.2.4. Community gobar gas plants. 6.2.5. Solar lights to tribal settlements. 6.2.6. Community hall with TV, etc. 6.2.7. Distributing fuel saving stoves. 6.2.8. Construction of trekking sheds. 6.2.9. Raising tree species in villages. 6.2.10. Construction of huts. 6.2.11. MFP collection, processing and marketing through tribals on select areas. 6.2.12. Documentation of tribal traditions/knowledge/skills and tapping

ethnobotanical information. 6.2.13. Engaging fire watchers. 6.2.14. Awareness programmes in buffer zones in villages.

6.3. A DroDosed action Dlan for effective manaaement of the NBR

The various plans and proposals discussed above have only highlighted the fact that there has been no dearth of recommendations. However, there have been serious (often unexplained) hinderances in the implementation of these recommendations (please see section 3.1). Since the lack of appropriate inter- state, inter-departmental and inter-citizen coordination has apparently played the most significant role in the NBR being rather non- operational, a discussion meeting was organized between 30th and 31st August 1994 at the Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore jointly by the host institution and the M S Swaminathan Research Foundation to chalk out an action plan for the NBR. About 30 Foresters, scientists, environmental NGOs, tribal welfare/social workers/representatives and volunteers participated in the 2 day dialogue (please see appendix for list of participants). The result of this discussion was a short proposal of what might be


- . 1

29

immediately done to improve the management of the NBR. These have also been grouped as that which the government departments, NGOs, local humans, institutions should undertake either exclusively or in coordination with each other.

6.3.1. Government Departments:

Areas adjacent to the NBR viz., parts of Palghat, Gudalur and the Moyar Valley hitherto not included in the reserve are to be made part of NBR for management purposes.

Shola forests existing on revenue lands are to be brought under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department.

6.3.2. Government Departments-Wildlife Research Institutions:

The overall management can be divided into a) species-specific, b) habitat-specific, c) watershed based and d) ethnic-specific.

There should be periodic short training programmes for Conservators and Foresters locally in the field of wildlife and biosphere reserve management.

6.3.3. Government Departments-Local Humans:

Cattle within the NBR are to be managed jointly by the Veterinary Department, milk co-operatives, villagers and the Forest Departments. Grazing sheep is to be encouraged over goats which are more destructive to saplings.

Fire protection to be done with the assistance of local humans effectively by paying appropriate monetary incentives. The use of audio-visual aids in educating the local people on the destructiveness and control of fire is to be attempted.

Tribal co-operatives managed by the Forest Department should be established within the biosphere reserve for efficient harvest of non-timber and MF produces.

Photo 7: An intensively cultivated tea estate in Nilgiris

Working Paper Ng 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

6.3.4. Government Departments-Local Humans-NGOs

Human-wildlife conflict has to be studied and mitigated. Appropriate compensations are to be paid for crop and life damages caused by wild animals to the local villagers within and around the reserve limits.

Educating the public is very important. The Forest Department with the help of environmental NGOs should organize trekking programmes and eco-tourism within the protected areas. Nature education within the reserve can be undertaken by the NGOs as that being done by the Nilgiri Wildlife and Environmental Association.

6.3.5. NGOs:

For better involvement and co-operation of the NGOs, it was suggested that an NGO Apex Body be constituted. This Apex Body will with the help of local NGOs identify the management and development needs in NBR and offer advice to the concerned government authorities.

7. REFERENCES

AHMEDULLAH, M. AND NAYAR, M. P. (1986) Endemic plants of the Indian region Vol 1 Botanical Survey of India, pp26 1.

ANON. (1980) Establishment of Biosphere Reserves in India: Project Document - I, The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, Indian National Man and Biosphere Committee, Department of Environment, New Delhi.

ANON. (1985) Report of the committee constituted by the Department of Environment, Government of India to demarcate the various zones of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (Unpublished Document).

ANON., (1987) Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve: an overview report, Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

ANON. (1989) Biosphere Reserves in India, GOI: Ministry of Environment and Forests, New Delhi.

ANON., (1990) Tahr - The Newsletter of the Nilgiri Wildlife and Environmental Association l(2).

ANON., (1992) Tahr - The Newsletter of the Nilgiri Wildlife and Environmental Association, 3 (2).

BALAKRISHNAN, N.P. & ANSARI, R. (Unpublished) Enumeration of flora of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Report submitted to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India.

BALAKRISHNAN, N.P. & MOHANAN, M. (unpublished) Endangered plants of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Botanical Survey of India.

DANIELS, R J. R (1992) The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and its role in conserving India’s biodiversity Current Science 64: 706- 708.

HOCKINGS, P. (1978) A bibliography for the Nilgiri Hills of southern India Vol I & II, HIL4Flex Books, Connecticut, ~~303.

MANILA& KS. (1988) Flora of Silent Valley Tropical Ram Forests of India. The Mathrubhumi press, Calicut.

MOHANAN, M. & BALAKRISHNAN, N.P. (1991) Endangered orchids of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India. In: Proceedings of the symposium on rare, endangered and endemic plants of the Western Ghats. Kerala Forest Department-Wildlife Wing, Thimvananthapuram.

NAIR, N.C. & DANIEL, P. (1986) The floristic diversity of the Western Ghats and its conservation, a review. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci./Plant Sci.) Suppl., 127- 163.

NAITHANI, B.D. (1966) Studies on the flora of Bandipur Reserve Forest, Mysore State. Bull. Bot.Surv. India 8 (3 & 4): 252-263.

NAYAR, M.P. (1983) Endemic flora of Peninsular India and its significance. Bull. Bot. Survey of India 22: 12- 23.

PRABHAKAR, R. (1994) Resource use, culture and ecological change: a case study of the Nilgiri Hills of southern India, PhD Thesis (Unpublished), Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The Ni/gitk Biosphere Reserve (India)

7 ---7 --

31

PRABHAKAR, R. & GADGIL, M (1994) Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve: Biodiversity and population growth Survey of the Environment 1994 (The Hindu): 3 l-37.

SANJAPPA, M. (1991) Endemic legumes of Western Ghats, In: Proceedings of the Symposium on rare, endangered and endemic plants of the Western Ghats. Kerala Forest Department- Wildlife wing, Thiruvananthapuram.

SHARM& B.D., SHETTY, B.V, VIVEKANANDAN, IL, & RATEAKRISHNAN, N.C. (1978). Flora of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamilnadu. J.Bombay Nat. Hist. Sot. 75: 13-42.

STEPHEN, D. (1994) Studies on the flora of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Nilgiris, Tamilnadu. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, Bharathiar University Coimbatore.

SUBRAMANYAM, K. (1959) Observations on the flora of Boluvampatti Forest, Coimbatore Tahrk. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 1 (1): 127-137.

SUBIWWIANYAM K. & NAYAR, M.P. (1974) Vegetation and phytogeography of the Western Ghats. In: Ecology and biogeography in India pp 178-196 (cd) Mani, M. S. The Hague.

SUBRAMANIAN, K.N. (1966) Further contribution to the flora of Boluvampatti Valley forests, Coimbatore District, Madras state. Indian Forester 92: 39-50.

VAJRAVELU, E. (1992) Flora of Palghat district (including the Silent Valley National Park). Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to acknowledge the field investigations done by Dr (Mrs) Lalitha Vijayan, Dr S N Prasad, Dr N Sivaganesan, Dr Mathew K Sebastian, Dr C P Geevan, Dr F Davis Singh, Dr P Balasubramanian and Mr S Muralidharan, all of SACON, while preparing this report.

We also acknowledge the help and cooperation extended by the following people and organizations.

Prof Madhav Gadgil Dr R Prabhakar Dr R Sukumar (Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore) Directorate of Census, Trivandrum Dr S Sankar, KFRI, PeechShri K V Mohankumar, KIRTADS, Calicut Shri ShivalingamDARES, Coimbatore SWRC, Wayanad

Solidarity, Wayanad Malayaga Makkal Marumalarchi Mandram, Kotagiri Nilgiri Wildlife and Environmental Association, Ooty Metupalayam Wildlife Preservation Society, Metupalayam

Working Paper W 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South Co-operation Programme), Paris (France)

32

Annexe Table 1: Statewise breakup of the various forest administrative units forming part of the NBR

Division/Range Area in km2 Area in km2 State: Tandnadu 2537.6 Dr. .I Jqalalitha Wildlife Sanctuav (uudumalai) Kargudi Range 54.6 Theppakadu Range 89.5 Mudumalai Range 96.6 Masinagudi Range 80.4 Satyamangalam Division Talamalai Range 545.9 Satyamangalam Range 200.0 Erode Division Bhavauisagar Range 49.3 Nilgink North Division Sigur Range 257.3 Coonoor Range 176.7 Udhagai North Range 14.3 Nilgiris South Division & Nilgiri Tahr Sanctuary

- Udhagai South Range 20.8 Pykara Range 45.5 Parson’s Valley Range 47.0 Komkundah Range 163.5 Coimbatore Division Mettupalayam Range 194.3 Perianaickenpalayam Range 04.2 Bolampatty Range 197.7

Sate: Kerala Wynaad Sanctuary Kudrakote RF 14.3 Begur RF 61.9 Warn RF 0.8 Edakode RF 0.7 Kurichiyat RF 7.4 Kuppady RF 32.0 Alathur RF 4.8 Edattar RF 2.4 Kallur RF 8.4 Mavinhalla RF 32.4

1455.4

Source: Anon., 1985.

Division/Range Area in km2 Rampur RF Naminad RF Nulpuzha RF Nilambur Divkion New Arambalam RF Karimpuzha RF Silent Valley National Park Attapadi RF Siruvani Hi& RF Nilambur vested Forests Chakkhzbi malavaram Kozhippara Punjakolli ex. Gwalior Rayon’s Area Nilambur Kovilakam Palghat Division Attapadi Block I Attapadi Blocks II-IV Attapadi Block V Attapadi Block VI

State: Karnataka Uunsur Division Periyapatna Range Hunsur Range Thittimathi Range Kallahalla Range Nagarhole Range Kakankote Range Heggadedevanakote Range AinlmnaringudiRange Project Tiger-Bandipur Bandipur Range Gundlupet Range Hediyala Range Begur Range Chamarajanagar Division Gundhrpet Range

Area in km2 72.8 3.7 15.8

249.3 16.2 89.5 140.0 22.5

6.0 17.4 32.0 122.2 100.0

75.1 11.7 55.2 63.9

1527.4

17.0 48.9 73.2 111.2 104.1 151.6 142.3 168.8

179.5 265.4 128.5 116.1

20.8

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The Mgiris Biosphere Reserve (hfia)

33

Annexe Table 2: Localities and areas under manipulation zone (forestry) of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

SL .NO .

LOCALITY MAJOR NATURE OF AREA VEGETATION PLANTATION (SQ. KM)

TYPE (APPROX.) 1.

2.

3.

4.

5. 6. 7.

Coorg Wynaad (Tittimati Arakeri Hotgot Nalkeri) Kerala Wynad (Begur Kudrekode Kattikulam Edakode Kurchiyat) Nilgiri Wynaad (Mudmnalai Kumbarkolli) Nilambur vested forests (Gwalior Rayon plantations) New Amarambalam Silent Valley Upper Nilgiri Plateau

8. Attapadi valley RF 9. Attapadi plateau

10.

11.

12. 13.

14.

15.

Siruvani hills (Muthikulam

Sigur plateau (Avarhalla Sigur)

Chenatnayar Bolampatti) Nilgiri south-eastern slopes (Gopanari Pillur slopes Melur slopes Jakkanare RF) Nilgiri eastern slopes

Mysore plateau south

Mysore plateau north (Kakankote, Mettukuppem, Veeranhosahalli, Kachuvanhalli)

Moist deciduous Teak 350

Moist deciduous Teak 325

Moist deciduous

Semi-evergreen

Moist deciduous Wet evergreen Shola-grasslands

Wet evergreen Scrub forest Wet evergreen

Scrub forest Semi-evergreen Dry deciduous Wet evergreen Scrub forest Dry deciduous Moist deciduous

Wet evergreen

Moist deciduous

Scrub forest Dry deciduous

Scrub forest

Teak 195

Blue gum 100

Teak 10 0

Wattle Blue 60

Teak fruit trees 10 COfftX, 200 Cardamom, Pepper, Arecanut Teak Blue gum 280

Blue gum 220

Blue gum 0

260

0

Teak 280

Source: Anon, 1980.

Working Paper IF 16,1996, UNESCO (South-South Co-operation Pmgtmme), Paris (France)

Annexe Table 3: A /ist of Angiosperm plants hitherto known only from the NBR

ANNONACEAE Goniothalamus wynaadensis LAURACEAE Actinodaphne lanata* A. lawsonii* A. salicina Litsea stocksii f. var. glabrescens RANUNCULACEAE Clematis theobromina URTICACEAE Pouzolzia wightii f. var.

nilghirensis AMARANTHACEAE Achyranthes aspera f. var.

rubrofirsca SAPOTACEAE Isonandra perrottetiana SYMPLOCACEAE Symplocos microphylla s. pulchra MYRSMACEAE Embelia gardneriana Maesa velutina PITTOSPORACEAE Pittosporum viridulum CHRYSOBALANACEAE Atuna indica MIMOSACEAE Acacia hohenackeri FABACEAE Crotalaria bidei c. formosa C. obtecta Dalbergia gardneriana Tephrosia wynaadensis MYRTACEAE Eugenia argentea Meteoromyrtus wynaadensis Sytigium malabaricum Melastomataceae Memecylon flavescens* M. lawsonii M. sisparense* Sonerila versicolor var. axillaris s. wyllaadensis UMBELLIFERAE Bupleurum plantaginifolium Heracleum hookerianum GENTIANACEAE Swertia lawn ASCLEPIADIACEAE Brachystehna maculatum Caralluma nilagiriana PERIPLOCACEAE Baeolepis nervosa CONVOLVULACEAE Argyreia coonoorensis LABIATAE

Anisochihrs dysophylloides var purpureus

Leucas pubescens L. rosmarinifolia Pogostemon nilagiricus* P. paludosus* Teucriurn wightii ACANTHACEAE Andrographis lobelioides A. stelhrlata Leptacanthus amabilis Mackenziea homotropa M. violacea Nilgirianthus papillosus N. wighteanus Phlebophyllum lanatum Plecaulis sessilis Rhinacanthus nasutus var.

montanus Thelepaepale bicolor RUBIACEAE Hedyotis hirsutissima* Lasianthus ciliatus Oldenlandia hirsutissima 0. sisparensis Ophiorrhiza bruuois var brunois 0. pykarensis* Pavetta brunois P. hohenhackeri P. wightii* Loranthaceae Dendrophthoe memecylifolia D. neelghexrensis var clarkei Loranthus recurvus VISCACEAE Viscum orbiculatum CELASTIWCEAE Microtropis de&flora AQUIFOLIACEAE Ilex gardnehna* EUPHORBIACEAE Dalechampia velutina Glochidion sisparense Mallotus subramanyamii Reidia timbriata RUTACEAE Melicope indica Oxalidaceae Biophytum polyphylhnn BALSAMINACEAE Impatiens clavicomus I. debilis I. denisonii I. laticornis I. levengei I. munronii I. neo-barnesii* I. nilagirica* I. orchioides

CARIFOLIACEAE Viburnum hebanthum ASTERACEAE Anaphalis neelgeiryana A. notoniana Helichrysum wightii Senecio kundaicus* S. lawsonii S . lessigianus s . polycephalus Vemonia saligina var nilghirensis Youllgia ni1girriensis* APIACEAE Bunium nothum* ARECACEAE Calamus gamblei var

sphaerocarpa Arisaema auriculatum A. pulchrum A. transluscens A. tuberculatum A. tylophorum COMMELINACEAE Commelina tricolor* ERIOCAULACEAE Eriocaulon christopheri E. gamblei E. pectinatum E. robustum Cypel-aCeZ Carex &&ii* C. pseudo-asperata C. vicinalis* C. curvibracteatus Fimbristylis latinighunifera F. latinucifera F. rectifolia POACEAE Andropogon longipes A. polyptychus -dinella purpurea A. setosa var nilgiriana Brachiaria semiundulata Eriochrysis rangacharii* Garnotia schmidii Isachne deccanensis I. oreades I. nilagiricum Ochlandra beddomei 0. setigera Panicum fischeri Poa gamblei ORCHIDACEAE Aerides elatoir Bulbophyllum acutitlorum* B. aureum B. fusco-purpureum B. kaitiense* B. nodosum

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The /Ui/giris Biosphere Reserve (India)

35

Coelogyne odoratissima var angustifolia

Corymborkis veratifolia* Eria nana E. polystachya Habenaria cephalotes

H. denticulata Thrixspermum muscaeflorum var H. polyodon IlilagiliCm Liparis biloba* vaIldawightii* Malaxis crenulata Smilacaceae Spiranthes sine&s var wightiana smilax wightii*

* Listed in the Red Data Books. Source: Ahmedullah and Nayar, 1986.

Annexe Table 4: Statewise and communitywise breakup of the tribal population in the NBR

Kerala (Source - EURTADS, Calicut)

1. Allar 2. Malayan 3. Kunduvadiyan 4. Pathiyan 5. Thatchanadan Moopan 6. Wayanaden Kader 7. Kanaladi 8. uranadavan

NA 1400 NA 1500 1700 800 NA

9. Cholanaickens NA

Tamil Nadu (Source - Malayaga Makkal Marumalarchi Mandram, Kotagiri)

1. Kotas 1500 2. To&s 1250 3. Irulars 9000 4. Paniyar 5200 5. Kattunaicken NA 6. Uralis NA 7. Sholigas NA

Karnataka

1. Edanadan Chettis 2. Adiyans 3. Paniyas 4. Panjari Yeravas 5. Pani Yeravas 6. Solingas

NA NA NA NA NA NA

Working Document No 16,1996, Unesco (South-South Cooperation Programme), Paris (France)

36

Annexe Table 5: Distributional and Occupational Details of Tribes of NBR

Allar

Adiyans Aranadans

Eranad tahtk of Malappuram district Wynaad, Mysore Nilambur Hills

Cholanaickens

Edanadan Chettis hulas

Nilambur valley

Wynaad plateau Gopichettipalayam, Coitnbatore, Attapdi & adjacent slopes

Kader Wynaad Katunaicken Wynaad

Kanaladis Wynaad, Mysore Karimpalans North Malabar

Kurichians Wynaad Kurumbas (including Eastern Wynaad western Mullu-Jenu-, Betta-, Urali Gudalm, Attapadi, Begur - kurumbas) Kakanthode, Ainurumanigudi

Murkali, Nagarhole Kotas Nilgiris Mar&tan Chettis Veliyembam Pulpati area of

wyn=d Mudugar . Attapadi Malamalasar wynaad Malasar Wynaad Malayan Mannarkad

Paniyas Pani Yeravas Panjani Yeravas Pathiyan Sol&as

Todas Thatchanadan Unmdavan

Uralis

Wynaad, Coorg Mysore, Nilgiris Southern hilly region of coorg Coorg, Kakankote Wynaad Sathyamangalam plateau Chamrajnagar Nilgiri plateau Sultan’s Battery Wynaad

Satyamangalam

NAME OF TRIBE LOCALITY OCCUPATION

Agricultural labour

Field labour Hill cultivation Hunting (monkeys) Labourer, Forest Cultivation Hunting, Food gathering, Fishing (poisoning) Agriculture Agricultural labour collection of wild yams, artisan Cultivation, labour Collecting tubers, Hunting (monkeys) Oracles, Firewalkers Shifting cultivation axemen, collection of wild pepper Agriculture, Hunting Agriculture, Hunting, Fishing, food gathering

Artisan Agriculture Agriculture

Agriculture

Collection of wild products Agricultural labour Agricultural labour Hunting Collecting MFP Agricultural labour Collecting MFP Cultivation Herdsmen Pastoral Collecting MFP Agricultural labour Collecting MFP Collecting MFP Agricultural labour

Wayanadan kader Vythiri (Wynaad) Collecting MFP

R.J. RANJIT DANIELS : The Mgitis Biosphere Reserve (India)

The Programme is publishing its Newsletter South-South Perspectives,

which can be received free of charge on request.

In the Newsletter, its editors would be glad to write short notes

about books received and other kind of publications

on environment conservation, biodiversity,

sustainable management of renewable resources and

South-South co-operation.

We would also reflect information on present

South-South co-operation activities in these fields.

All comments are welcome.

_.. - ----

Working Papers

No l(l995) : The Mafa AtlGntim B-here Reserve (Brazil : An overview Antonio Carlos DIEGUES

No 2 (1995) : The Xishuangbanna Biosphere Reserve (China) : A Tropkzal Land of Natural and Cultural Diversity WU Zhaolu, OU Xiaokun

N” 3 (1995) : The Mae Sa-Kog Ma Biosphere Reserve (Thailand) Benjavan RERKASEM, Kanok RERKASEM

N” 4 (1995) : La R&serve de la Biosphere de Dimonika (Congo) Jean DlAMOUANGANA

No 5 (1995) : Le pan: national de Tai (C&e d’lvoire) : un mail/on essentiel du programme de consetva tion de la, nature Yaya SANGARE

N” 6 (1995) : La R&serve de la Biosph&re de Mananara-Nerd (Madagascar) 1987-1994 : bilan et perspectives No&line RAONDRY, Victor Solo RAKOTONIRINA, Martha KLEIN

No 7 (1995) : A study on the Homegarden Ecosystem in the Mekong River Delta and Hochiminh City( tiet Nam) Nguyen Thi Ngoc AN

No 8 (1995) : The Manu Biosphere Reserve (Peru) Gustav0 SUAREZ DE FREITAS

No 9 (1995) : The Beni Biosphere Reserve (Bolivia) Carmen MIRANDA L.

N” 10 (1995) : La Resewa de la biosfera Sierra del Rosario (Cuba) Maria HERRERA A., Maritza GARCIA Garcia

No 11 (1995) : The Omo Biosphere Reserve (Nigeria) Augustine 0. ISICHEI

No 12 (1995) : Environnement nature1 et socio-economique de la for&t c/as&e de la Lama (Benin) Marcel A. BAGLO, P. COUBEOU, B. GUEDEGBE, B. SINSIN

N” 13 : (1995) : The Cahkmul Biosphere Reserve (Mexico). Eckart BOEGE

N” 14 : (1996) : Conservation de la biodiversite aux Comores - Le Pare National de Moheli. A. S. ALI & A. YOUSSOUF

No 15 : (1996) : Resource-use patterns: The case of coconut-based agrosystems in the coastal zones of Kern.& India, and Alagoas, Brazil. Vicinius NOBRE LAGES

N” 16 : (1996) : The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve: a review of conservation status with recommendations for a holistic approach to management (India). R. J. RANJIT DANIELS

N” 17 : (1996) : Kinabalu park and the surrounding indigenous communities (Malaysia). Jamili NAIS

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