THE NEXUS OF SOIL, WATERAND WASTE

Rattan LalCarbon Management and Sequestration CenterThe Ohio State UniversityColumbus, OH 43210 USA

Look again at that blue pearl in the space. That’s here. That’s home. That’s us. On it is everyone you love, everyone you know, everyone you ever heard of, every human being who ever was, lived out their lives. The aggregates of our joy and suffering, thousands of confident religions, ideologies, and economic doctrines, every hunter and forager, every hero and coward, every creator and destroyer of civilization, every king and peasant. Every young couple in love, every mother and father, hopeful child, inventor and explorer, every teacher of morals, every aspiring politician, every “super leader”, every saint and sinner in the history of our species lived there- on a mote of dust suspended in a sunbeam.

~Carl Sagan

THE EARTH

-38

18,000 BC6,000 BC 14,000 BC10,000 BC2,000 BCAD 2,000-42-40

-36-34

Warm & Wet

Cold & Dry

δ18

(0%

)

8,000 BCBeginning of Agriculture

1750Anthropocene

EARTH’S HISTORIC TEMPERATURE AND

THE EVOLUTION OF AGRICULTURE(Fagan, 2004)

Time

THE LONG SUMMER

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION: CENTERS OF ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE

Region 1000 Yr BPCrops Domesticated

1. Near East/Fertile Crescent 9-14 Eincorn, Emmer, Barley, Pea,

Vetch, Lentil2. Northern China 9 Rice3. Papua New Guinea 6-9

Sugarcane, root crops4. Central Mexico 7-8

Maize, squash, gourds, beans, (Aztecs, Mayans)cocoa5. Indus Valley 7.5-11

Wheat, Barely, Jujuba6. West Africa 4.5

Yam, Cassava7. Horn of Africa 5-7

Teff, Coffee, Cucumber tree, Yeheb nut

8. Eastern North America 4-5Cranberries, Chenopod, Marsh (Cherokees)

Elder, Maple Sugar, Tobacco,

Squash, Sunflower, Knotweed, Little

barely, Maygrass9. Western North America 6 Amaranth,

Pine Nuts(Pueblo Dwellers)

10.South America (Incas) 7Potato, Beans, Coca

LAST ICE AGE AND ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE

Two factors responsible for origin of agriculture were:(i) Increase in global temperature, and(ii) Increase in atmospheric concentration of CO2 from ~180

ppm to 280 ppm.

Increase in CO2 concentration then enhanced:• Biomass production of C-3 plants (wheat, barley, potato,

sugarbeet) drastically and that of C-4 plants (corn) moderately.

• BNF by legumes

Settled or the intentional agriculture 10-12 millenia ago • was the defining moment in human history

1.01800

1.31850

1.71900 1.8

1910 1.91920

2.11930

2.31940

2.51950

3.01960

3.71970

4.419805.3

1990

6.12000

7.02011

7.52020

8.12030

8.62040

9.22050

102100

I = P x A x T

P = Population A = Affluence T = Technology

THE ANTHROPOGENIC DRIVER

SOIL, WATER, WASTE NEXUS

Soil

NaturalResources

Water Waste

Runoff Percolation

Soil WaterStorage

GreenWater

GreyWater

BlackWater

Waste WaterUse

CompostSludge

Crop/Animal/Tree Residues

THE CENTURY DROUGHT OF 2012

nj.com

Drought decreased production in 2012 by 30-60% in the U.S.

+ 1°C = 10-17% decline in grain yields in the world

Reduction in crop yield in SSA by 8-22%

TYPES OF DROUGHTMeteorological: Long-term deficiency of precipitation

Hydrological: Decline of water in rivers, reservoirs, aquifers, etc.

Pedological: Reduction in soil water storage

Agronomic: Low availability at critical stages of crop growth

Ecological: Low water availability because of land use conversion

Sociological: Demand of a community exceeding supply due to water deficit

ON-SET OF ANTHROPOGENIC EMISSIONS(Ruddiman, 2005)

A trend of increase in atmospheric CO2

concentration began 8000 years ago, and that in CH4 5000 years ago, corresponding with the dawn of settled agriculture with attendant deforestation, soil cultivation, spread of rice paddies and raising cattle.

ANTHROPOGENIC EMISSIONS (Pg) BY CARBON CIVILIZATION

I. Land use(i) Prehistoric :320(ii)1750-2010 :136(iii)2010-2030 :30

II. Fossil Fuel combustion(i) 1750-2010 :200

(ii) 2010-2030 :190

These emissions have and will affect the ecosystems from which we derive food, feed, fiber, fuel and shelter.

II. Oil Consumption• 87.4 m bbl/day• 0.6 gallons/day (3 gallon/day USA)

III. Gas Use• 8.1 b m3/day

THE CARBON CIVILIZATION

Drinking water need = 0.6 gallon/day

Beer consumption in Ohio: 0.1 gallon/day

I. Coal Production (Mt/yr) • 1860: 132 Mt/yr

• 2010: 3731 Mt/yr

DEGRADED LAND (BAI et al., 2008)

Category QuantityDegrading Area 3.5 BhaTerritory 23.54 (%)

GLOBAL SOIL DEGRADATION (109ha)• Water Erosion : 1.09 (Oldeman, 1994)• Wind Erosion : 0.55 (Oldeman, 1994)• Salinization : 0.85 (FAO, 2005)

• Survival and desperation.

• Purposely overuse of resources (subsidies).

• Human greed and corruption, desire to produce and consume in a “world without limit” and expectations: competition, territory and power.

• Ignorance and misunderstanding about functioning of soil ecosystems: unsustainable soil use and management based on lack of knowledge (The Groundnut Scheme of Tanganyka in the 1950s)

CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION

GLOBAL SOIL EROSION & DYNAMICS OF SOIL ORGANIC CARBON

1500 x 1015C

1.1 x 1015 g/yr

5.7 x 1015 g/yr C

3.99 x 1015 g/yr

0.57 x 1015 g/yr

decomposition and emission to the atmosphere

Stored within the terrestrial ecosystem

Displaced due to erosion

Transported to the ocean

In world soil

Desperateness Increase in erosion risks between 1980s and 2090:

Africa….+36%World....+14%

THE GULLIED LAND IN WEST AFRICA

Urbanization and Land

• It takes 40,000 ha to provide accommodation and infrastructure to 1 million people

• Annual increase of 75 million people, takes ~3 Mha of prime land out of production

• By 2015, 236 cities in the world will be ≥ 10 million people

• A city of 10 million requires 6000 tones of food/day

USING TOP SOIL FOR BRICK MAKING IN ASIA TO ACCOMMODATE RAPID

URBANIZATION

• Feeding 7 billion in 2010 takes cropland area size of South America

• Feeding 9.2 billion in 2050 would take the land area of South America & Brazil

+ • Land grabs in 2011 mostly in Africa: 57 Mha (140 million acres)

FUTURE FOOD DEMAND

REQUIRED CEREAL YIELDS AND PRODUCTION TO MEET FUTURE

DEMANDS(WILD, 2003)

Year Yield (Mg/ha) Total Production (106M)200520252050

3.27 3.60 4.30

2240 2780 3255(6.00)

(4.40)(4553)(3629)

(with change to animal-based diet)

DISTRIBUTION OF GLOBAL WATER(REDRAWN FROM SHIKLOMANOV, 1993)

Total WaterSalt

Water97.5%

Fresh Water 2.5%

68.9% Glaciers and permanent snow cover (24,060,000 km3)

29.9% Fresh ground water (10,530,000 km3)

0.3% Fresh lakes and river flows (93,000 km3)

0.9% Other: soil moisture, ground ice/permafrost and swamp water(342,000 km3)

Distribution of Global Fresh & Salt Water

Distribution of Global Fresh Water Only (2.5% Global Water)

Blue

GreenGrey/Black

Virtual

WaterResources

TYPES OF WATER

GLOBAL WATER USE(Kondratyev et al., 2003)

Year Total Agricultural Industrial Urban Agriculture as------------------------109m3/yr------------------------ % of Total

1900 430 350 30 20 81.42000 6000 3400 1900 440 56.7

Increase 14.0 9.7 63.3 22

….. Thenkabail et al. (2010)

TOP TEN NET VIRTUAL WATEREXPORTERS AND IMPORTERS (Km3/yr)

Country Amount Country AmountExporters Importers

64Australia60Canada

53USA

45Argentina45Brazil

33Ivory Coast

28Thailand

25India18Ghana17Ukraine

92Japan

51Italy

47U.K.

35Germany32South Korea

29Mexico

27Hong Kong

15Iran14Spain13Saudi Arabia

WASTE WATER GENERATEDBY SOME WATER DEFICIT COUNTRIES

….. Qadin et al. (2007)

CountryWaste Water

(106m3/yr)

600Algeria10012Egypt3075Iran546Libya650Morocco730Saudi Arabia825Syria2400Turkey881UAE

TUBEWELL IRRIGATION IN PUNJAB, INDIA

Rapid depletion of the ground water in the Indo-Gangetic Plains is partly attributed to subsidies and free electricity.

No one protectsor safeguards an

undervalued resource.

GLOBAL FERTILIZER USE(IFDC, 2004)

YearFertilizer Use (106 Mg)

TotalN P K1950 <10 - - 101960 11.6 10.9 8.7 31.22000 80.9 32.5 21.8 135.22020 135.0 47.6 - -2050 236.0 83.7 - -

• Five countries (Morocco, China, SA, USA and Jordan) control 90% of the P reserves• High P causes anoxia in coastal ecosystems

Is there a peak soil? Are there endangered soils?

HUBERT CURVE

1. Reduce post-harvest losses

: 10-40% (Developing countries)

2. Minimize food waste (farm fork landfill)

: 20-40% (Developed countries)

3. Reduce diversion of food to biofuels

: ~1/3 of corn in U.S.

4. Prefer plant-based diet : 6-8 kg grain/kg of meat on grain-fed livestock

5. Per capita grain consumption

: India= 170 kg/yrUSA = 635 kg/yr Diet

STRATEGIES OF FEEDING 10 BILLION

1. Promote an efficient use of food produced:

2. Adopt climate-resilient sustainable intensification of agriculture

More than one-fourth of all the water we use worldwide is taken to grow over one

billion tons of food that no one eats (Global Water Week, 2012)

WASTED RESOURCES

WASTED FOOD GRAINS DUE TO LACK OF STORAGE FACILITIES

Wasted Morsels

SUSTAINABLE SOIL MANAGEMENT

• Replace what is removed,

• Respond wisely to what is changed, and

• Predict what will happen from anthropogenic and natural perturbations

Country/ Region Crop

Yield (Mg/ha)Present Potential Gap

India Wheat 3 7.5 4.5Rice 5 8.8 3.8

SSA Maize 0.7 4.5 3.8Lobell et al. (2009)

YIELD GAP OF MAJOR CROPS

RESIDUE REMOVAL FOR COMPETING USES

N 36 15 51

NUTRIENTS REMOVED PER MgOF CORN GRAINS AND STOVER (kg/ha)

….. Calculated from Bundy ( 2012 )

Nutrient Grains Stover TOTAL

TOTAL 58.4 71.8 130.2

P 8 2 10K 9 37 46

“Soil biota is the bioengine of the Earth”

There is no such thing as a free biofuel from crop residues.

ECONOMICS OF RESIDUE REMOVAL FOR BIOFUEL

ALCOHOL OR HUMUS

“I am arguing against indiscriminant conversion of biomass and organic wastes to fuels. The humus capital, which is substantial, deserves being maintained because good soils are a national asset”.

……Hans Jenny (1980)

ATMOSPHERIC BROWN CLOUD CAUSED BY TRADITIONAL BIOFUELS

(NYT 4-16-09)

TRADITIONAL BIOFUEL FROM ANIMAL MANURE

More plant nutrients are burnt in dung as household fuel than chemical fertilizers

used/yr in India.

Crop Yield Increase (Kg/Ha/Mg C) Maize 100 - 300Soybeans 20 - 50Wheat 20 - 70Rice 10 - 50Sorghum 80 - 140Millet 30 - 70Beans 30 - 60

30-50 million tons/yr in developing countries

CROP YIELD INCREASE WITH INCREASE IN SOCBY 1 Mg C/Ha

(LAL, 2005)

ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

It involves any activity that reduces the negative impacts of climate change through anticipatory or reactive strategies

take advantage of new and beneficial opportunities that may be presented.

and/or

BT

N, P, K, Zn, H2O

Delivering nutrients of improved and water directly to roots plants

TOWARDS C-NEUTRAL AGRICULTURE

Nano-enhanced Materials

Plants which emit molecular-based

signals

BTBT

No-till Farming

NPP

5 x

10-9 P

g C

/ha

12.5 x 10-12 Pg C/ha/y v

NPP

5 x

10-9 P

g C

/ha/

y

+ 2

ppm

CO

2/y

THE NPP OF A CORN FIELD IS 400 TIMES THE ANNUAL INCREASE IN ATMOSPHERIC C POOL

NBP≅3PgC/yr

Most cost effective option

SOIL AND CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION

Sustainable Soil

Management

1. Causes of Soil

Degradation

• The biophysical process of soil degradation is driven by economic, social and political forces. • Vulnerability to degradation depends on “how” rather than “what” is grown.

1. Causes of Soil

Degradation

2. SoilStewardship

& HumanSuffering

• When people are poverty stricken, desperate and starving, they pass on their sufferings to the land.

Sustainable Soil

Management

1. Causes of Soil

Degradation

2. SoilStewardship

& HumanSuffering 3.

Nutrient,Carbon, &

Water Bank

4.Marginality

Principle

5. Organicvs. Inorganic

Nutrients6. Soil Carbon

& GHG Effect

8. Soil asSink for

Atmospheric CO2 7.

Soilvs.

Germplasm

9. Engine of EconomicDevelopment

10. Traditional Knowledge &

Modern Innovations

• It is not possible to take more out of a soil than what is put in it without degrading its quality. • Only by replacing what is taken can a soil be kept fertile, productive, and responsive to inputs.

Sustainable Soil

Management

1. Causes of Soil

Degradation

2. SoilStewardship

& HumanSuffering 3.

Nutrient,Carbon, &

Water Bank

4.Marginality

Principle

5. Organicvs. Inorganic

Nutrients6. Soil Carbon

& GHG Effect

8. Soil asSink for

Atmospheric CO2 7.

Soilvs.

Germplasm

9. Engine of EconomicDevelopment

10. Traditional Knowledge &

Modern Innovations

• Marginal soils cultivated with marginal inputs produce marginal yields and support marginal living. • Recycling is a good strategy especially when there is something to recycle.

EX NIHILO NIHIL FIT (NOTHING COMES FROM NOTHING)

1. Nothing is appropriated: There are always trade offs (give and take). Law or Concept Implications

2. Nothing is permanent: Everything is in a dynamic equilibrium and a transient state.

3. Nothing is absolute: All processes, properties and values are relative to a baseline.4. Nothing is a panacea: There is no silver bullet, there is a multitude/ menu of options.5. Nothing is universal: Soil/site/region specificity is an important consideration which cannot be overlooked. 6. Nothing tangible is free: Under valuing a commodity leads to “Tragedy of the Commons”.7. Nothing is empty (vacuum) in nature: All space is occupied, pores in solid rock contain water or air and injecting something (liquid CO2), fracking solutions can create shock waves.8. Nothing is given or for granted: It is the judicious use and management which produce goods and services.

9. Nothing is a waste: Everything in nature has a use.10. Nothing is nothing: There is no such thing as nothing.

Restore, Improve, Sustain, and Enhance

Science

Practices Religionand

Culture

Policy

INTEGRATING SCIENCE, PRACTICES AND POLICY FOR SUSTAINABLE SOIL

MANAGEMENT AND RESTORATION

Natural Resources

R. I. S. E.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS IN AGRICULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

Judaism : The word “homo” (man) is derived from the Latin word “humus” or the decomposed

organic matter in soil, which is the essence of all terrestrial life. The Hebrew phrase

“Tikkun Olam” means “repairing restoring the world”.

Hinduism : Human body is made of “Kshiti (soil), Jal (water), Pawak (energy), Gagan (sky/space), Sameere (air)” (Prasna Upanishad)

Sikhism : Air is the Guru, water is the Father, and soil is the Great Mother of all. (Gurbani)

Buddhism: “One should not break even the branch of a tree that has given one shelter”(Petavatthu II, 9, 3)

Christianity: The word “Adam” (man) is derived from the Hebrew word “adama” meaning “earth” or “soil”

Greek : The daughter of Earth goddess “Gaea” named Themis (goddess of Law), andher descendent Demeter was the goddess of agriculture and fertility

Romans : The Earth goddess (Tellus) was related to the goddess of fertility and harve(Ceres)

Islam : “He created the man of clay like the potters” (Suhrah Al-Rhman, verse 14)

“We made from water every living thing” (Quŕan 25:54)

“Do not overuse water even if you are on a running river” (Prophet Mohammad)

Khalil : Trees are poems (rubbiat) that earth writes upon the sky. We fell them downGibran and then turned them into paper, so that we may record our emptiness.

1. Wealth without work

GANDHI’S 7 SINS OF HUMANITY

7. Science without humanity

6. Religion without sacrifice

5. Politics without principle

4. Commerce without morality

3. Knowledge without character2. Pleasure without conscience

TRILEMMA OF OF SOIL DEGRADATION (Rates per Minute)

Causes• Population increase: 150 people (births 250, deaths 100)• CO2 carbon increase: 6150 ton• Tropical deforestation: 25 ha• Urban encroachment: 5.5 ha

Effects• Soil degradation: 10 ha• Deaths from hunger: 16 people (incl. 12 children)

Consequences• 540 Mg municipal waste (USA)• Political instability• Civil strife

10. Humanity without conscience

GANDHI’S SINS OF HUMANITY Continued…

8. Technology without wisdom

9. Education without relevance