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THE MIDCONTINENT EXPOSED: PRECAMBRIAN BASEMENT

TOPOGRAPHY, AND FAULT-AND-FOLD ZONES, WITHIN

THE CRATONIC PLATFORM OF THE UNITED STATES

BY

STEFANIE L. DOMROIS

THESIS

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Master of Science in Geology

in the Graduate College of the

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2013

Urbana, Illinois

Adviser:

Professor Stephen Marshak

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ABSTRACT ______________________________________________________________________________

The Midcontinent region of the United States is part of the cratonic platform of the North

American craton. This region is underlain by Precambrian basement formed dominantly during

Proterozoic accretionary orogenies. It was modified by Proterozoic anorogenic felsic

magmatism and was cracked by several episodes of rifting. Subsequently, when North America

was part of a supercontinent, the region underwent extensive Late Precambrian erosion and

exhumation. Marine transgressions during the Phanerozoic buried the region with sequences

Phanerozoic sedimentary strata. The continent-wide contact between Precambrian crystalline

rock and the overlying cover of Phanerozoic strata is known as the "Great Unconformity."

Though the cratonic platform has been relatively stable, tectonically, for over a billion

years, it has been affected by epeirogenic movements that produced regional-scale basins, domes

and arches. Also, faults within the region have been reactivated, displacing crustal blocks and

warping overlying strata into monoclinal folds—these faults may be relicts of Proterozoic rifting.

How can this Phanerozoic tectonism be represented visually in a way that can provide a basis for

interpreting new lithospheric features being revealed by EarthScope's USArray seismic network?

In the Appalachian and Cordilleran orogens, ground-surface topography provides insight into the

character and distribution of tectonic activity, because topography is structurally controlled. This

is not the case in the Midcontinent, a region of broad plains where surface topography does not

reflect the structure beneath. Fortunately, the Great Unconformity makes an excellent marker

horizon for mapping intracratonic structures.

In order to create an intuitive visual image of the basement topography and of fault-and-

fold distribution in the cratonic platform of the United States, I constructed two maps of the

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region using ArcGIS software. My study area extends from the Wasatch front on the west to the

Appalachian front on the east, and from the Ouachita front and Gulf coastal plain on the south to

the southern edge of the Canadian Shield on the north. The first map portrays the top of the

Precambrian basement surface in shaded relief, and the second map portrays the distribution of

major faults and folds within the region. Production of the maps required compiling and

digitizing a variety of data, which was imported into ArcGIS and processed to produce a 3-D

surface. The shaded-relief map provides new insight into the crustal architecture of the cratonic

platform, by visually emphasizing that the region consists of distinct provinces: the Midcontinent

Sector (a broad area of low relief, locally broken by steep faults); the Rocky Mountain Sector

(with structural relief of up to 10 km, and relatively short distances between uplifts), the

Colorado Plateau Sector (a moderate-relief area containing fault-bounded crustal blocks), and the

Bordering Basins Sector (deep rift basins, linked at crustal bridges, and locally amplified by

flexural loading). Overlaying the fault map and a map of earthquake epicenters over the shaded

relief map emphasizes that seismicity is concentrated in the bordering basins, particularly where

steep gradients in basement topography coincide with major faults.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ______________________________________________________________________________

First of all, I would like to express my warmest gratitude to my adviser, Prof. Stephen

Marshak, for his guidance and support throughout the research, and for his editing of the

manuscript. I would have never completed the ArcGIS maps without the expertise of Curt Abert

at the Illinois State Geological Survey. Tim Larsen of the Illinois State Geological Survey also

provided valuable criticism of my presentation and maps. Hersh Gilbert, Michael Hamburger,

Gary Pavlis, and the others from the EarthScope team helped to make my research possible, and

I extend my heartfelt thanks to them. Partial funding for this research was provided by NSF

grant EAR 10-53551, through the EarthScope 'OIINK' project. Additional funding was provided

by the College of Liberal Arts & Sciences of the University of Illinois.

My research would have never been completed without help from University of Illinois

library staff, especially from Jenny Johnson and Jim Cotter from the Map and Geography

Library and Mary Schlembach and Lura Joseph from the Geology Department Library. I would

also like to thank the following people for their help in providing me the necessary maps and

literature for my research: Julie Chang (Oklahoma Geological Survey), Sigrid Clift (University

of Texas Bureau of Economic Geology), Ray Anderson and Bob McKay (Iowa Geological

Survey), Tom Evans and Linda Deith (Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey), Ranie

Lynds (Wyoming State Geological Survey), Dale Bird (for the USGS basement maps), and

others. I greatly appreciate the moral support and friendship with my two Structural Geology

office mates: Stephanie Mager and Pragnyadipta (Deep) Sen, and the other graduate and

undergraduate students at the University of Illinois. Lastly, I thank my parents and extended

family, who always encourage me to achieve my goals in life.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

______________________________________________________________________________

CHAPTER 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………1

CHAPTER 2: Methodology……………………………………………………………….10

CHAPTER 3: Observations………………………………………………………………..55

CHAPTER 4: Discussion and Conclusions………………………………………………..65

REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………….73

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— CHAPTER 1 —

INTRODUCTION ______________________________________________________________________________

1.1 Geology of the Cratonic Platform of the United States

The craton of North America includes the Canadian Shield, where Precambrian igneous

and metamorphic rocks are exposed at the surface, and the cratonic platform, where Precambrian

igneous and metamorphic rocks (basement) are buried beneath Phanerozoic sedimentary strata

(cover). The thickness of sedimentary strata range from 0 km (where basement is exposed) to

over 7.5 km. North America’s cratonic platform extends from the Wasatch Front in the west to

the Appalachian front in the east, and from the Ouachita front and Gulf coastal plain in the south

to the southern edge of the Canadian Shield in the north (Fig. 1.1). Between the Wasatch front

and the Rocky Mountain front, the cratonic platform has been uplifted and deformed by

Mesozoic and Cenozoic faulting and folding, and now comprises the Rocky Mountains (to the

north) and the Colorado Plateau (to the south). East of the Rocky Mountain front, the cratonic

platform forms a broad region of low relief, known as the Great Plains or the Midcontinent. The

region outside of the cratonic platform includes the Appalachian, Ouachita, and Cordilleran

orogens, and the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains.

In the Midcontinent, the only exposure of Precambrian basement south of the Canadian

Shield occurs in the St. Francis Mountains of the Ozark Plateau in eastern Missouri, in the

Adirondack Dome of northeastern New York, and in isolated exposures of exhumed

Precambrian islands in Wisconsin and Minnesota. Surface exposures of the Phanerozoic cover,

west of a longitude of about 97°W, consist dominantly of Mesozoic and Cenozoic strata. East of

this longitude line, surface exposures consist of Paleozoic strata. Variations in thickness of

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Phanerozoic strata define broad basins, domes, and arches; these structures formed by

epeirogenic uplift and subsidence during the Paleozoic. The major intracratonic basins of the

Midcontinent are the Michigan basin, the Illinois basin, and the Williston basin. Locally, strata

of the Midcontinent have been warped into monoclinal folds and/or have been cut by localized

high-angle faults.

The basement of the North American craton assembled during the Proterozoic (Fig. 1.2).

According to the synthesis by Whitmeyer and Karlstrom (2007), the earliest stage of craton

assembly involved growth of several Archean lithospheric blocks. These Archean nuclei sutured

together during the Paleoproterozoic (2.0 to 1.8 Ga). Later in the Proterozoic, progressively

younger terranes accreted to the outer edges of the Paleoproterozoic continent, forming two

distinct accretionary orogenic belts that have a general northeast trend. The older of this, which

fringes the Archean cratonic nucleus, is the Yavapai terrane, which was accreted between 1.71

and 1.69 Ga. The Mazatzal terrane accreted to the edge of the Yavapai between 1.65-1.60 Ga.

Subsequently, intracratonic magmatism between 1.5 and 1.3 Ga produced anorogenic granites

and rhyolites; the region affected by this magmatism is known as the Granite-Rhyolite Province.

Rocks of the Llano-Grenville province attached to North America during the Grenville orogeny

(1.3 and 0.9 Ga). By the end of the Grenville orogeny, North America lay in the interior of a

large supercontinent, Rodinia, which broke apart and reassembled as Pannotia. Pannotia

survived until the end of the Precambrian, when it broke apart leaving Midcontinent North

America as part of Laurentia.

Rifting occurred at several times during the Precambrian, and produced distinct, narrow

rift basins filled with sediments, and in some cases, volcanics. The largest rift is the 1.1 Ga

Midcontinent Rift System, consisting of one arm of which cuts NW from Kansas across Iowa to

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Lake Superior, and another arm which cuts SE across Michigan. Other, younger rifts associated

with the breakup of the late Precambrian supercontinent include the Oklahoma aulacogen, the

Reelfoot Rift and the Rome Trough (e.g., Whitmeyer and Karlstrom, 2007; Marshak et al.,

2003). Extensional tectonism led to widespread intrusion of dikes and normal faulting, even in

areas outside of the particularly distinctive rifts.

While in the interior of the supercontinent, North America was emergent, and thus its

surface was eroded and rocks that had been kilometers below the surface were exhumed. This

erosion may have stripped away the fill of smaller rifts, though the associated basement-

penetrating normal faults still remained. Though the craton of North America’s Midcontinent

has been relatively tectonically stable and unmetamorphosed for the past 1 billion years, it has

not been totally inactive. Rather, structures within it have undergone pulses of reactivation that

are roughly coeval with Paleozoic orogenic events in the Appalachian/Ouachita orogens. During

these events, domes and arches have gone up, basins have undergone subsidence pulses, and

faults have been reactivated (Marshak and Paulsen, 1997). At the end of the Paleozoic, hot

brines migrated though the sedimentary basins causing mineralization, anthracitization, and

dolomitization (Bethke and Marshak, 1990).

1.2 Statement of Purpose

Topography can be used as a tool for identifying and characterizing tectonic features, for

the geologic structures they yield can control the shape of landforms directly and/or can control

erosion over time, so that the shapes of structures stand out in the landscape. Digital Elevation

Maps (DEMs) increasingly have been used to study landforms, for by using shading to simulate

shadows cast by the Sun, they can convey a sense of the 3-D shape of the land surface. The

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1:3,500,000-scale DEM map, Landforms of the Conterminous United States (Thelin and Pike,

1991) serves as an example. This map portrays topography in shaded relief by varying tints of

gray. More recent versions of this map add colors (usually a palette ranging from green through

tan, to white) to add visual information about relative elevation. A shaded-relief DEM can

clearly show tectonically controlled textures of the terrain, if the map has sufficient resolution.

For example, on Thelin and Pike's map, the Valley and Ridge Province in the Northern

Appalachians stands out and its morphology allows interpretation of the wavelength and

amplitude of the underlying folds and even inference of principle stress directions at the time the

folds formed (Fig. 1.3). Similarly, the distribution and orientation of Laramide basement-cored

uplifts in the United States can be delineated by the morphology of the Rocky Mountains, and

the area and extension direction of Cenozoic rifting in the Cordillera is indicated by the

topographic characteristics of the Basin and Range Province.

Geologic maps can provide additional perspective on continent-scale tectonic features.

For example, one can identify continental-interior basin or domes based on the bulls-eye pattern

of stratigraphic units—in a dome, older units crop out in the center, whereas in a basin, younger

units crop out in a center. The Tapestry of Time and Terrain map, published by the United States

Geological Survey in 2000, combines a DEM and the geologic map of King and Beikman (1974)

to emphasize the relationships between bedrock distribution and landforms. Notably, however,

in the Midcontinent, the landforms are largely independent of the distribution of geologic

formations. Tectonic maps (e.g., P.B. King's 1969 Tectonic Map of North America, and W.

Muehlberger's 1992 Tectonic Map of North America) provide further insight grouping geologic

map units according to their tectonic meaning and by including contours on the top of the

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Precambrian, but these maps include many types of data that create a clutter that makes it hard,

in some cases, to focus on basement data, and they do not show features in shaded relief.

Digital elevation maps, geologic maps, and existing tectonic maps do not provide a clear

picture of tectonic movements across the Midcontinent. Specifically, DEMs of the Midcontinent

display primarily plains, locally incised by Cenozoic drainage or covered by Cenozoic fans and

glacial deposits, so intracratonic domes and basins, with few exceptions (e.g., the Ozark Plateau)

do not control the details of landscape features. In other words, they do not provide insight into

the aerial extent of upwarped or downwarped crust resulting from epeirogenic movements.

Similarly, while geologic and tectonic maps clearly outline epeirogenic structures and display the

surface manifestation of faults in the Midcontinent, they do not provide direct insight into the

magnitudes of differential vertical movements.

How, then, can the tectonic character of the Midcontinent be portrayed on a map to give a

clear visual impression of differential movements, localization of deformation, and the role that

Precambrian tectonic features have played in controlling Phanerozoic structure? To address this

question, I have developed two digital maps of the Midcontinent region that display the tectonic

character of the Midcontinent visually. The first map is a shaded-relief map of the depth to the

Precambrian surface. The map was first produced as a 2-D image, but with additional processing

it can be converted into a 3-D surface that provides an excellent visual tool for interpreting

structures (both surface and subsurface). The second map shows the distribution of major faults

and folds in the region. I provide examples of how my new maps can be merged with other

digital data sets (e.g., distribution of seismicity; geophysical potential field; crustal and mantle

tomography) to provide a basis for interpreting relationships among lithospheric features and to

provide insight into how pre-existing crustal structures in the cratonic platform.

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1.3 Strategy and Organization of this Thesis

In this thesis, I first present a brief outline of published maps that show the depth to the

Precambrian basement within the study area. I will then discuss the reasons why I chose the

depth to the Great Unconformity (the Precambrian/cover contact) as a marker horizon for my

maps. Following these two sections, I provide greater detail on the procedure of constructing my

maps. In the procedure section, I outline how I acquired the data necessary for developing the

maps, and then show how I constructed both the 2-D and 3-D versions of the shaded relief map.

Section 2.4 illustrates how I produced the map of faults and folds, and of other features discussed

in this thesis.

My next chapter (Chapter 3) incorporates observations for both maps. I will first discuss

visual observations based on examination of the shaded-relief map, and show how different

tectonic domains of the Midcontinent can be delineated based on the morphology of the Great

Unconformity surface. Next, I provide observations on the different structures within the study

area, and introduce the data spreadsheet that I developed for analyzing these structures.

Following this section, I discuss the dominant trends of Midcontinent structures. The final

chapter (Chapter 4) provides the discussion and conclusions of this thesis, with a focus on the

relationships among basement topography, structure, and seismicity.

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Figure 1.1: Visual of the study area (area not in color), including the cratonic platform and the

Colorado Plateau.

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Figure 1.2: Precambrian tectonic assembly map of North America (Whitmeyer and Karlstrom

2007).

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Figure 1.3: Digital Elevation Map of the United States, showing sample topographic provinces

(Thelin and Pike, 1991).

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— CHAPTER 2 —

METHODOLOGY ______________________________________________________________________________

2.1 Previous Precambrian Basement Maps

The first step of my research involved determining what maps are already available that

characterized Midcontinent tectonic features. There have been many attempts to portray the role

of the Precambrian basement surface in influencing later Phanerozoic tectonics. Two of the

earliest maps produced of the Precambrian basement are the 1:5,000,000-scale Basement Map of

North America, published by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists and the USGS

in 1967, and the 1:2,500,000-scale Basement Rock Map of the United States by Bayley and

Muehlberger (1968). Both maps provide a generalized interpretation of the Precambrian

basement surface. On the Basement Rock Map of the United States, the different Precambrian

rock types are clearly emphasized, and while depth to the top of the Precambrian data are

indicated by hard-to-see contour lines. Major faults that are expressed at the surface are also

drawn and labeled in some cases, but major subsurface faults are not shown due to the lack of

seismic-reflection data available at the time the map was produced.

The Generalized Tectonic Map of North America by King and Edmonston (1972)

provides a very simplified contour map of the top-of-Precambrian surface. Major basins are

clearly visible, but the map is generalized and doesn't offer any data that was not already shown

by the Basement Rock Map of the United States. Muehlberger et al.'s (1992) Tectonic Map of

North America, published by the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, provides an

update of the Basement Rock Map of the United States. Muehlberger et al.'s map (actually, a

series of 4 plates) shows significantly more detail than earlier versions of tectonic maps of North

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America. The contours on the Precambrian surface are better constrained as they utilize

additional data from seismic-reflection profiles and new drilling data. The map not only shows

more faults, but the depiction of the faults clearly shows how they offset the structural contours

on the Precambrian surface. The colors and shades of colors used on the map also make the

major basins stand out.

The Precambrian Basement Structure Map of the Continental United States by Sims et

al. (2008) is one of the most current maps of major structures within the Precambrian basement.

This map uses an interpretation of magnetic anomaly maps to delineate major structures such as

suture zones and large, continental-scale faults. Sims and others (2008) emphasizes that most of

the major structures have been reactivated when stress fields within the region changed. The

suture zones and other large faults within the region behave as zones of weakness within the

Precambrian basement. Sims et al.'s map does not, however, display contours on top of the

Precambrian basement.

Maps portraying one state, or several adjacent states, have been prepared for portions of

the cratonic platform, and these reveal the local form of the Precambrian top surface in greater

detail. Most of these maps are based on well data, though some also include evidence from

seismic-reflection profiles. Faults shown on these maps are based on stratigraphic separations,

vertical displacements of seismic reflectors, or Bouguer gravity or magnetic anomaly maps.

Examples of state-scale maps (maps showing contours on top of the Precambrian basement in

one state) are the Configuration of the Top of Precambrian Rocks in Kansas by Cole (1978) and

the Precambrian Structure Map of North Dakota by Heck (1988). In these two maps (and maps

similar to these for other states), the contours and faults stop abruptly at the state boundaries.

Examples of regional basement-surface maps include the Precambrian Basement Map of the

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Northern Midcontinent, USA by Sims (1990), and the Precambrian Basement Map of the Trans-

Hudson Orogen, USA by Sims et al. (1992). Both maps illustrate faults and contours on the

Precambrian top surface in detail but, like many state-scale maps, do not show the regional

associations of the Precambrian surface across the Midcontinent, and do not cleanly link to maps

of adjacent states. Notably, most state-scale maps are decades old, and have not been updated to

a digital form.

2.2 Identifying a Marker Horizon

The top of the Precambrian surface is marked by a continent-wide unconformity—known

as the Great Unconformity—that formed due to extensive erosion during the Late Precambrian,

prior to the deposition of Paleozoic strata (Peters and Gaines, 2012). The Great Unconformity is

exposed at the Earth’s surface in at many locations along the edges of basement-cored uplifts in

the Rocky Mountains, as well as at the top of the inner gorge in the Grand Canyon and at the top

of the gorge in Black Canyon of the Gunnison. In the Midcontinent, it is almost completely

covered except at localities along the boundary between the Canadian Shield and the continental-

interior platform in Minnesota and Wisconsin. South of the Canadian Shield, the unconformity

is exposed at only a few localities, such as the Baraboo Syncline, in southern Wisconsin, and the

St. Francis Mountains in eastern Missouri. Elsewhere, the Great Unconformity exists tens of

meters to more than several thousand meters below the Earth’s surface, and has been sampled

only in drill holes.

The Great Unconformity is an excellent marker horizon for characterizing intracratonic

tectonic features (basins, domes, and faults), for it exists everywhere in the Midcontinent, can be

recognized definitively on seismic profiles and in drill cores, and has not been affected by

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surface erosion since the Late Precambrian. Further, all geologists tend to interpret the surface in

the same way, so there isn't uncertainty in correlating the surface across the Midcontinent—

younger stratigraphic features, in contrast, may be interpreted differently by different authors.

The depth to the unconformity can also be referred to as "depth to basement" or "depth to the

cover/basement contact," or "depth to the top of the Precambrian."

2.3 Data Acquisition for the Shaded Relief Map

Data for the shaded relief map was primarily acquired by a basic literature research on

the internet and through on-line reference systems, such as GeoRef, available through the

University of Illinois Library. Maps showing structure contours on the Precambrian basement

were mostly found as images on the internet through state geological survey websites. In some

states, contour data representing the shape of the Precambrian surface were already available in

downloadable packages. I called many state geological surveys directly to acquire information

that was not available on the internet or through the library system. I also contacted libraries at

other universities, as well as individuals on the faculty of other universities, throughout the

country to try to obtain additional information. Maps that were not in a digital format were

scanned on a large-format scanner at the Illinois State Geological Survey. However, a couple of

maps were either in too poor condition to be scanned (meaning that the map had too many

creases, or ripped easily) or only a small area needed to be scanned, so a smaller scanner was put

into use. To obtain data in areas for which existing structural contour maps were not available, I

used either drillhole data, which was added as point data to my data base, or point data extracted

from published cross sections.

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Cross sections were of particular use to constrain depth to basement along the southern

and eastern borders of my map area, where the basement and its platformal cover were

overlapped by thrust faults in the foreland of the Appalachian/Ouachita orogen. To obtain this

data I pasted a scan of the cross section into Adobe Illustrator, and then set up a vertical scale,

which I scrolled across the section, measuring depth to basement at regular intervals. I stopped

data acquisition at the forelandward-most fault that thrust basement up over Phanerozoic cover. I

also marked the location of points where basement-penetrating faults intersected the line of

section. Finally, I plotted the strings of resulting point data on a map, hand-contoured the data,

and then transferred the resulting map into the digital data base.

2.4 Production of the Shaded-Relief Map

I used ArcGIS, a software product produced by ESRI (www.esri.com), for creating the

maps described in this thesis. This work was done under the supervision of Curt Abert, and

utilized the facilities of the GIS laboratory of the Illinois State Geological Survey. ArcGIS can

be used to geo-reference spatial data sets, and to draw the results in both 2-D (ArcMap) and 3-D

(ArcScene). A map showing the outline of the states within the conterminous United States

provided serves as the "base map" on which I projected my depth-to-basement and structural

trace data. The map projection of this base map is NAD 1983, UTM Zone 14N.

Use of Preexisting Digital Maps: The geological surveys of several states (Illinois,

Iowa, Missouri, Kentucky, South Dakota, Indiana, Nebraska, and Ohio) have prepared ArcGIS-

based maps showing depth to basement for the entire state. (The Texas Bureau of Economic

Geology has produced a map for a portion of west Texas, but not for the whole state.) On such

maps, the contour lines are shapes with each point on the line representing a geo-referenced

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point; the data set representing this line is called a “shapefile.” I converted the shapefiles to the

map projection mentioned above and added it as an overlay to the map (Fig. 2.1). Shapefiles for

other areas, including small map areas represented in research publications and/or continent-

scale maps, were also added where available.

Using Archival Non-Digital Maps: The majority of the maps that showed the depth to

the Precambrian surface for the continental interior are available only as a raster image (bitmap)

in the form of a JPEG, TIFF, or PDF file, or as a paper copy that needed to be scanned and

turned into a digital raster image. Regardless of its origin, the raster image or "source map" was

placed as an overlay into ArcMap and was georeferenced by distorting it so it registered as

closely as possible to the base map's orientation and projection (Fig. 2.2a). Specific lines or

points on the source map image that I used to align the image to the base map include state

boundaries, county boundaries, and latitude or longitude lines.

Once the source map was aligned to the base map, I digitized the raster map by "hands-on

digitizing," which involves tracing out contours on the computer by using the computer mouse

(Fig. 2.2b). I first created a new line shapefile and set the projection to the one I used for

producing the maps. I added a contour field to the attribute table so that I could record the depth

to the Precambrian that the line represented. I then overlaid the contour shapefile onto the

georeferenced map and I started an edit session, in which I drew straight-line segments over the

map image for each contour line. For curving lines, I increased the number of vertices, which

are points at the end of each line segment, and the number of line segments, so that the drawn

lines would closely follow the map’s curving contour lines. The above procedure was repeated

numerous times for each source map. If lines were too close to resolve at the scale of the entire

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study area, I queried a contour interval (usually 1000 ft. contour interval) so that individual

contour lines can be visualized.

Unfortunately, my digitizing procedure introduces some error into the map compilation.

Part of this error comes from scanning (for the scanning lenses do not reproduce images exactly),

part comes from stretching and distorting within ArcGIS to fit the source map to the base map

(for the process does not produce a perfect match across the entire area of the map, especially if

the source map was not the same projection as the base map), and part comes from the process of

tracing contour lines (since the inherent inaccuracy of hand motions means that the tracing is not

exact). Also, contour maps, by their nature, are not unique solutions to point data. Effort was

made to keep the amount of error to a minimum, and I estimate that tracings as it appears on the

base map is no more than approximately 500 m off of the "true" tracing on the source map.

Use of Drill-Hole and Cross-Section Data: To constrain depth to basement in areas for

which map data do not exist, I used drill-hole data and/or data extracted from cross sections. To

use drill-hole data, I prepared a spread sheet in Microsoft Excel that contains latitude, longitude,

and depth. This data can be entered directly to the ArcMap document, for ArcGIS software

converts longitude and latitude into X (north-south) and Y (east-west) coordinates, respectively,

and depth into a Z coordinate, which then becomes a shapefile that shows the wells or drill hole

locations as points on the map. To extract depth data from cross sections, I scanned the cross

section to produce a JPEG of the cross section, or obtained an existing JPEG image of the cross

section. I exported the JPEG into Adobe Illustrator as a base layer. Then, I created a new layer

on which I drew a horizontal sea-level reference line as an overlay, and created an accurate

vertical (i.e., depth) scale. I then moved the scale along the sea-level reference line, and

measured the depth to the basement/cover contact (the Great Unconformity) at regular intervals.

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In places where the change in depth was rapid (e.g., at basement-penetrating faults), I added

additional points for extra control. I then produced a map-view image showing the trace of the

cross sections and the points of measurement along it. This trace was then geo-referenced onto

the map document. Next, I extracted the latitude and longitude for each measured point along

the cross section, and entered into a Microsoft Excel document, along with the depth to basement

data for the point. The Excel document was then placed into the ArcMap document and

subsequently made into a point shapefile. Once the depth points were visualized, I hand

contoured the subsequent area, along with adding faults where needed, to produce the

Precambrian surface in that area.

The Trace of Precambrian Outcrop: To depict the trace of the basement/cover contact

(the Great Unconformity or the top of the crystalline Precambrian) where it intersects the ground

surface, I produced a shapefile outlining areas where the Precambrian rocks are the bedrock at

the Earth’s surface. Some of these areas include: Minnesota, Wisconsin, northern Michigan,

northern New York (the Adirondack Mountains), the Blue Ridge and its along-strike equivalents

(the "Blue-Green-Long Axis") in the Appalachians, the basement of the basement-cored uplifts

in the Rocky Mountain region, and the floors of deep canyons in the Colorado Plateau.

Elevation data, which was derived from a 30 arc-second DEM of North America produced by the

U.S. Geological Survey’s Center for Earth Resources Observation and Science, was downloaded

from ArcGIS’ online data repository and exported directly into the ArcMap document. An

‘Extract by Mask’ tool was used to clip the elevation data to fill in the Precambrian outcrop

shapefile. The clipped elevation data was then changed from raster data to point elevation data

using tools in the ArcGIS toolbox. The resulting shapefile was then used to create the

Precambrian surface along with the other contour and point elevation data.

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Data Compilation in ArcGIS: The shapefiles of the depth to the Precambrian surface

contours and points were added to the ArcMap document to create a "primary data contour layer"

for the entire study area. Most of the reference maps provided contours measured in feet, but

some provided contours in meters. The contours provided in meters were converted to feet by

multiplying the number of meters by 3.2808. I also checked to insure that all depths on the map

represented depth below sea level, not depth below the ground surface. I accomplished this task

by conducting a literature search on the source maps, identifying any additional texts provided

by the author of the source map. For source maps with no additional information, I visually

judged the source maps by the contours’ continuity with other surrounding data/source maps that

had more precise information.

Due to inherent errors made during georeferencing, or due to errors on source maps

themselves, contours did not all line up across state boundaries. The non-matching contours

were adjusted by hand on the primary data contour layer so that the contours would be smooth

lines, and would not give the false impression that faults exist at state borders. I also hand

corrected places where contours appeared to cross one another, and hand-adjusted contours along

or near faults, so that they were aligned as closely as possible to the faults. In the ArcMap

document, the contours were actually ‘snapped’ to the fault lines (Fig. 2.3).

Transformation of the Contour Map into the Shaded-Relief Map: Production of the

shaded-relief image of the Precambrian surface required two steps. First, I used the "Topo-to-

Raster" tool in the Spatial Analyst toolbox of ArcGIS to transform point and line shapefiles into a

raster image on which variations in color represent depth. Initially, I created a colored

topographic map with a cell size (the size of the area assigned a particular elevation) at the

default setting of 2000 meters on a side. This setting did not produce a clear-enough image, so

19

subsequently, I used a cell size of 500 meters, which greatly enhanced the sharpness of the map

(Fig. 2.4). The map employed a stretched color scheme, ranging from light yellow to dark

brown—lighter colors represent higher areas and the darker colors represent deeper areas. Thus,

the tops of domes and arches are lighter colored, whereas the floors of basins are darker colored.

Second, I applied the "Hillshade tool" to the completed Topo-to-Raster image to create a shading

affect giving the impression that if the surface of the Precambrian was lit by the Sun positioned

at 315° at an angle of 45° above the horizon. Depth values were multiplied first by 0.3048 to

adjust the measured units to meters, and then were multiplied by 10 to produce a vertical

exaggeration of 10X. The Hillshade image was made 50% transparent and then was placed over

the Topo-to-Raster color image, to create the digitally rendered shaded-relief map of the Great

Unconformity (Fig. 2.5). Areas of Precambrian outcrop were colored red, so that they stand out.

After producing several preliminary versions of the map, I produced the final version (Fig. 2.6).

To create the 3-D look of the map, the map was exported as a georeferenced TIFF image

file. The image file was then placed into ArcScene, which transforms the map from a 2-D

surface to a 3-D surface that can be viewed at any angle the viewer desires. The georeferenced

map image was assigned the base heights of the Topo-to-Raster image to create the 3-D aspect of

the map. To make variations in elevation stand out, the image was produced with a vertical

exaggeration of 10X (Fig. 2.7).

2.5 Production of the Fault-and-Fold Map and Other Shapefile Maps

The second map that I produced is a map that shows the traces of major faults and folds

in the Midcontinent. Obtaining data for this map proved to be a challenge, for structures in the

Midcontinent are not well exposed, and in many cases can only be inferred from subsurface data

20

(e.g., structure-contour maps of reference horizons), and literature about these structures is

sparse. Nevertheless, I was able to find sufficient information by using preexisting maps and

cross sections at a variety of scales, available in journals, USGS or state-survey publications and

open-file reports, field guides, and theses. Data were difficult to correlate; however, because

some source maps show entire regions, some show individual states, and some show only

relatively small portions of states. Compilation problems also occurred because different data

sources portray the structures at different levels of detail, structures mapped in one area were not

necessarily mapped in adjacent areas, one map depicts a given structure as fault while another

map of the same area depicts it as a fold or as a fault-fold pair, and existing portrayals of

structures on maps do not all depict cross-cutting relationships correctly. Because of the nature

of source data, the map that I have produced should not be viewed as having the same level of

accuracy as a surface-geology map, but it can be used to help visualize the distribution and trend

of structures.

To produce my ArcGIS map, I first created digital shapefiles of faults and folds by

scanning and then digitizing the faults and folds. A separate shapefile was created for each

structure. These were added directly to a base map, the same base map that I used for the

shaded-relief map of basement topography (Fig. 2.8). Once all of the faults and folds were

added to the map, I reviewed available descriptions of each structure, and then produced a

summary description which was entered in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, which ended up being

21 pages long (Table 2.1). Examples of data collected include the age of the formation of the

structure, the age of the last known activity along that structure, the sense of displacement on the

structure, and references that describe the structure. Faults and folds that were found to not

intersect at the Great Unconformity (based on the literature research) were removed from the

21

final shapefile. I determined which basement-involved structures to include in the study by

examining how much data I collected from a detailed literature research on all of the faults and

folds I could find references to. I classified the faults and folds by the amount of confidence I

had that the structures existed based on this literature research, with a scale from 0 to 3, in which

0 indicates no confidence and no information available other than the drawn structure on the map

and 3 indicates great confidence that the structure exists based on a large amount of data

available. I also simplified some of the major structures, meaning that I removed the subsidiary

faults and folds so that the structure lines appear relatively smooth at a page-size scale of the

map. The updated Excel spreadsheet was attached to the final fault and fold shapefile (Fig. 2.9)

to create a more detailed attribute table for the dataset (see Table 2.1).

Additional shapefiles were created to further analyze both the shaded-relief map and the fault-

and-fold map. The shapefile labeled ‘Cordillera’ defines the foreland edge of the region that lies

to the west of cratonic-platform crust. Thus, the trace of this line corresponds with the eastern

edge of the Basin-and-Range Province, the region of crust that has undergone significant

stretching and thinning in the Cenozoic, and had undergone stretching and thinning at the end of

the Precambrian. The Ouachita orogen shapefile shows the foreland edge of the Ouachita fold-

thrust belt in Oklahoma and Arkansas, the Appalachian shapefile shows the western edge of the

Appalachian fold-thrust belt, and the ‘Coastal Plain’ outlines the northern edge of the region that

was submerged when sea level was high during the Cretaceous and early Cenozoic. The

subsurface of the coastal plain was not included in my study, because it has undergone stretching

and faulting due to Atlantic Ocean opening, so the region is not considered part of the

continental-interior platform.

22

In general, the area of my study included only areas inboard of the Cordilleran, Ouachita,

Appalachian, and Coastal plain shapefiles (see Fig. 1.1). There are two exceptions to this rule,

however. The first exception is the area beneath Mississippi Embayment, a region where

coastal-plain sediments extend north, up the Mississippi Valley to the southern end of Illinois. I

included this area because it has not undergone significant tectonic subsidence due to Atlantic

Ocean opening, even though it was buried by Cretaceous/Cenozoic sediment. By including the

area beneath the Mississippi Embayment, my map can depict the important New Madrid Seismic

zone, as well as the Oklahoma-Alabama transform fault. The second exception is the area of the

Appalachian foreland between the foreland edge of the Appalachian fold-thrust belt and the

exposed basement thrust slices of the Blue-Green-Long Axis. I included this region because it

encompasses the deeper portion of the Appalachian Basin as well as relict rifts, such as the

Montgomery Rift. Leaving these features out would give the false impression that basement

gradually got shallower progressively from the western edge of the Appalachian basin up to the

Blue-Green-Long axis.

My map also includes several other shapefiles that can be useful for tectonic

interpretation (Fig. 2.10). A shapefile labeled ‘Precambrian Outcrop’, as noted earlier, which

outlines areas within the study area where Precambrian rocks exist at the Earth’s surface.

Another shapefile, called ‘Rift Zones’, indicates where the failed rift zones (e.g., aulacogens) that

have filled with significant sediment and/or volcanics are located. I constructed this shapefile

based on the literature search and the major rift bounding faults that I mapped. The final

shapefile that I produced is labeled ‘Domes and Basins’, which outlines the borders of

intracratonic domes, arches, and basins (Fig. 2.11). Data used to construct the Domes and

Basins shapefile comes from the literature research (especially the source maps).

23

Table 2.1: Attributes of Midcontinent Structural Features. ______________________________________________________________________________

The table that follows was constructed in conjunction with the fault-and-fold map produced in

this study. Information collected for the attribute table was collected between September 2011

and May 2013, and was entered into an Excel document for readability. The fields are filled

according to the varying degrees of information available for each structure. The following title

column descriptions will attempt to provide an explanation for the information entered into the

attribute table:

• FID: The FID, or Feature Identification number is a distinctive number provided by ArcGIS

for each line or structure on the map.

• Type of Feature: The Type of Feature column provides a choice of fourteen different types of

structures that could be present in the Precambrian basement, including faults and folds.

• Structure Name: The Structure-name column indicates the recognized name of the structure, if

one is available in the literature.

• Trend/Strike: This description provides a generalized map trend and measured strike (if

available) of the structures.

• Dip/Plunge: This description provides a generalized or measured (if available) explanation of

the vertical motion of the structure.

• Age formed: The Age formed column indicates a timing of when the structure began to

experience movement or deformation (if available).

• Last Activity: The Last Activity column provides a timing of the last movement or

deformation experienced by the structure (if available).

• Const.: The Const. (Constraint) column attempts to assign a number between 1 and 3 based

on the level of confidence from the literature research that the structures are true on the map,

with 1 being the lowest level of confidence and 3 being the highest level.

• Other: The Other column provides a more detailed description of the structure, regarding to

the deformation history, type of structure, displacement measurements, and other important

information.

• References: The References column includes the references used in the map layout and

informative descriptions of the structures. The full citations for the references are provided in

the references section at the end of this thesis.

24

Table 2.1: Attribute table for the Midcontinent structures.

FID

typ

e o

f fe

atu

rest

ructu

re_

nam

etr

end

/str

ike

dip

/plu

nge

age fo

rmed

last

activity

co

nst

.o

ther

refe

rences

0right la

tera

l st

rik

e s

lip

fault

Verm

illio

n fault

WN

W-E

SE

steep

dip

3sp

lits

into

Wo

lf L

ak

e a

nd

No

rth

Kaw

ishiw

i fa

ults,

merg

es

with

Quetico

fault a

t C

anad

ian

bo

rder

Bunk

er

eta

l 1

985

, B

auer

et al 2

011

, S

ims

19

72

,

Sim

s eta

l 1

991

1hig

h a

ngle

fault

Burn

sid

e L

ak

e fault

NE

-SW

S s

ide d

ow

n,

steep

ly d

ipp

ing

or

vert

ical

3in

itia

lly d

om

inant st

rik

e s

lip

mo

tio

n,

revers

e fault a

nd

rig

ht

late

ral st

rik

e s

lip fault

Bauer

et al 2

011

2le

ft late

ral st

rik

e s

lip

fault

Waasa

fault

NE

-SW

vert

ical?

2S

ims

19

72

3re

vers

e fault

Hale

y fault

NW

-SE

S s

ide d

ow

n,

steep

ly d

ipp

ing

or

vert

ical

3in

itia

lly d

om

inant st

rik

e s

lip

mo

tio

n

Bauer

et al 2

011

4th

rust

fault

Wo

lff L

ak

e fault

E-W

S?

3d

om

inantly s

trik

e s

lip s

ense

of

mo

vem

ent

Bauer

et al 2

011

5th

rust

fault

Rain

y L

ak

e-S

ein

e R

iver

fault

NE

-SW

NP

recam

brian

3b

oth

dextr

al sh

ear

and

ductile

shear

zone

Bauer

et al 2

011

6th

rust

fault

Rauch fault z

one

NE

-SW

N2

Sim

s 1

972

7th

rust

fault

Bear

Riv

er

fault

NE

-SW

S2

Sim

s 1

972

8th

rust

fault

Mud

Cre

ek

shear

zone

N7

0E

N3

Bauer

et al 2

011

9sh

ear

zone

Murr

ay s

hear

zone

NE

-SW

2S

ims

19

72

10

left late

ral st

rik

e s

lip

fault

Cam

p R

ivard

fault

NE

-SW

2S

ims

19

72

11

thru

st fault

Do

ugla

s fa

ult

NE

-SW

vert

ical, S

E s

ide

up

?

3W

part

of M

idco

ntinent R

ift

syst

em

Van S

chm

us

19

92

, S

ims

and

Mo

rey 1

972

12

hig

h a

ngle

thru

st fault

Malm

o S

tructu

ral

dis

co

ntinuity

NE

-SW

S2

south

ern

part

of G

reat L

ak

es

tecto

nic

zo

ne,

poss

ible

age

co

rrela

tio

n w

ith N

iagara

fault

zone

So

uth

wic

k a

nd

Mo

rey

1991

13

thru

st fault

Hin

ck

ley fault

NE

-SW

E2

Bauer

et al 2

011

14

thru

st fault

Pin

e fault

NN

E-S

SW

E3

para

llels

Do

ugla

s fa

ult

Van S

chm

us

19

92

15

transf

er

fault

Belle

Pla

ine fault z

one

NW

-SE

po

st E

arly

Ord

ovic

ian

3d

eflects

Mid

co

ntinent R

ift to

the

SE

, st

rik

e s

lip a

nd

dip

slip

mo

vem

ent ,

reactivate

d a

s th

rust

fault

Bunk

er

eta

l 1

985

,

Chand

ler

eta

l 2

007

,

Gib

bs

eta

l 1

984

,

Cra

dd

ock

197

2

16

shear

zone

Yello

w M

ed

icin

e s

hear

zone

E-N

EN

26

00

Ma

3se

vera

l p

erio

ds

of d

uctile

defo

rmatio

n,

reactivate

d a

s

thru

st fault?

Bic

kfo

rd e

tal 2

006

,

Chand

ler

eta

l 2

007

17

shear

zone

Sp

irit L

ak

e tecto

nic

zo

ne

E-N

E

SY

avap

ai-

age

stru

ctu

re

3N

bo

und

ary

of Y

avap

ai o

rogen,

truncate

s m

ain

Peno

kean s

utu

re

Chand

ler

eta

l 2

007

, H

olm

eta

l 2

007

, S

chulz

and

Canno

n 2

007

, V

an

Schm

us

19

92

, V

an

Schm

us

eta

l 1

989

25

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

18

shear

zone

Gre

at L

ak

es

tecto

nic

zo

ne

E-N

ES

and

N2

600

Ma,

Late

Arc

hean

Late

Cre

taceo

us

2ap

pare

nt vert

ical o

ffse

t ~

75

-

95

m,

dom

inantly d

ip s

lip

mo

vem

ent w

ith late

r re

vers

e d

ip

slip

Chand

ler

eta

l 2

007

,

Gib

bs

eta

l 1

984

, H

olm

eta

l 1

998

, H

olm

eta

l

20

07

, S

ims

eta

l 1

980

19

thru

st fault

Gre

at L

ak

es

tecto

nic

zo

ne

NE

-SW

N2

600

Ma,

late

Arc

hean

late

Cre

taceo

us

2m

ajo

r cru

stal b

ound

ary

,

reactivate

d m

ultip

le tim

es

with

no

rmal and

revers

e s

ense

Chand

ler

eta

l 2

007

,

Gib

bs

eta

l 1

984

, H

olm

eta

l 1

998

, H

olm

eta

l

20

07

, S

ims

eta

l 1

980

20

thru

st fault

Arg

yle

fault

EN

E-W

SW

NW

2B

auer

et al 2

011

21

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Lancast

er

fault

E-W

2V

an S

chm

us

19

92

22

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Mid

dle

Riv

er

fault

WN

W-E

SE

2S

ims

19

72

23

thru

st fault

Fo

urt

ow

n fault

NE

-SW

NW

2B

auer

et al 2

011

24

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Quetico

fault

NE

-SW

2m

erg

es

with V

erm

illio

n fault b

y

Canad

a

Sim

s 1

972

25

right la

tera

l st

rik

e s

lip

fault

Rese

rvatio

n fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E,

steep

dip

3w

rench m

ovem

ent, r

eactivate

d

severa

l tim

es

McC

orm

ick

201

0, S

ims

eta

l 1

991

26

no

rmal fa

ult

Pie

rre fault

mo

stly

NE

-

SW

do

wnth

row

n to

N

Quate

rnary

3alig

ned

with G

reat L

ak

es

tecto

nic

zo

ne

Cro

ne a

nd

Wheele

r

20

00

, M

cC

orm

ick

201

0,

Nic

ho

ls e

tal 1

989

, S

ims

eta

l 1

991

27

no

rmal fa

ult

Phill

ip fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

N,

55 N

dip

3M

cC

orm

ick

201

0, S

ims

eta

l 1

991

28

no

rmal fa

ult

Ced

ar

Cre

ek

fault

NN

W-S

SE

do

wnth

row

n to

NE

3W

bo

und

ary

of T

rans-

Hud

son

oro

gen,

900

ft v

ert

ical

dis

pla

cem

ent

McC

orm

ick

201

0, S

ims

eta

l 1

991

29

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Hart

vill

e-R

aw

hid

e fault/

Fanny P

eak

mo

no

clin

e

NN

E-S

SW

vary

ing d

ip,

steep

lim

b to

the

W

3W

bo

und

ary

of T

rans-

Hud

son

oro

gen,

mo

no

clin

e a

t su

rface

McC

orm

ick

201

0,

Bla

ck

sto

ne 1

993

, W

ick

s

eta

l 1

999

, S

ims

eta

l 1

991

30

no

rmal fa

ult

Plu

m R

iver

fault z

one

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

3b

rittle

cata

cla

stic

defo

rmatio

n

zones,

70m

vert

ical

dis

pla

cem

ent

And

ers

on 2

006

, B

unk

er

eta

l 1

985

, C

rone a

nd

Wheele

r 2

000

31

no

rmal fa

ult

Fayette s

tructu

ral zo

ne

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

3A

nd

ers

on 2

006

, B

unk

er

eta

l 1

985

32

no

rmal fa

ult

Thurm

an-R

ed

field

stru

ctu

ral zo

ne

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

3re

peate

d P

hanero

zoic

activity,

rift b

ound

ing fault

And

ers

on 2

006

, B

unk

er

eta

l 1

985

33

no

rmal fa

ult

Thurm

an-R

ed

field

stru

ctu

ral zo

ne

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

3re

peate

d P

hanero

zoic

activity,

rift b

ound

ing fault

And

ers

on 2

006

, B

unk

er

eta

l 1

985

34

no

rmal fa

ult

Thurm

an-R

ed

field

stru

ctu

ral zo

ne

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

3re

peate

d P

hanero

zoic

activity,

rift b

ound

ing fault

And

ers

on 2

006

, B

unk

er

eta

l 1

985

26

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

35

no

rmal fa

ult

Des

Mo

ines

Riv

er

fault

zone

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

3A

nd

ers

on 2

006

, S

ims

1990

36

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Sheed

er

Pra

irie

fault z

one

N-S

2A

nd

ers

on 2

006

37

no

rmal fa

ult

Perr

y-H

am

pto

n fault z

one

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

3w

ithin

Mid

co

ntinent R

ift sy

stem

in I

ow

a

And

ers

on 2

006

38

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

10

2 fault z

one

N-S

2A

nd

ers

on 2

006

39

no

rmal fa

ult

No

rthern

Bo

und

ary

fault

zone

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

W

3N

bo

und

ary

of M

idco

ntinent

Rift sy

stem

And

ers

on 2

006

,

VanS

chm

us

19

92

40

left late

ral st

rik

e s

lip

fault

Hum

bo

ldt fa

ult z

one

NN

E-S

SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

1.1

Ga

Pale

ozo

ic3

vert

ical o

ffse

t as

much a

s 9

15m

,

series

of anast

om

osi

ng faults

Baars

and

Watn

ey 1

991

,

Bere

nd

sen 1

997

41

no

rmal fa

ult

Sand

wic

h fault z

one

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

3B

unk

er

eta

l 1

985

, S

ims

1990

42

hig

h a

ngle

no

rmal

fault

Wauk

esh

a fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

3d

isp

laces

Pre

cam

brian b

y

10

00

ft

Bunk

er

eta

l 1

985

, S

ims

19

90

, B

rasc

hayk

o 2

00

5

43

no

rmal fa

ult

Kew

eenaw

fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

3si

nuo

us

trend

Van S

chm

us

19

92

, S

ims

1992

44

no

rmal fa

ult

Lak

e O

wen fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

3S

part

of M

idco

ntinent R

ift

syst

em

Van S

chm

us

19

92

, S

ims

1990

45

shear

zone

Sp

irit L

ak

e tecto

nic

zo

ne

EN

EY

avap

ai-

age

stru

ctu

re

3N

bo

und

ary

of Y

avap

ai o

rogen,

truncate

s m

ain

Peno

kean s

utu

re

Chand

ler

eta

l 2

007

, H

olm

eta

l 2

007

, S

chulz

and

Canno

n 2

007

46

sutu

re z

one

Nia

gara

fault z

one

E-W

S s

ide u

p,

steep

S d

ip,

near

vert

ical

18

50

Ma

3se

para

tes

Sup

erio

r cra

tonic

rock

s to

the N

fro

m a

rc-r

ela

ted

rock

s to

the S

Canno

n e

tal 1

991

,

Chand

ler

eta

l 2

007

,

So

uth

wic

k a

nd

Mo

rey

1991

47

shear

zone

Eau P

lein

e s

hear

zone

E-W

N s

ide u

p,

steep

ly d

ipp

ing

to the N

18

60

-18

40

Ma

3b

ound

ary

betw

een P

em

bin

e-

Wausa

u terr

ane a

nd

Mars

hfield

terr

ane,

inte

rpre

ted

to

be a

pale

osu

ture

Canno

n e

tal 1

991

, H

olm

eta

l 2

007

, R

om

ano

eta

l

20

00

, S

chulz

and

Canno

n

2007

48

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Ste

. G

enevie

ve fault z

one

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

NE

Late

Pro

tero

zoic

-

Early C

am

brian

po

st-P

enn-

sylv

ania

n

3b

oth

revers

e a

nd

no

rmal fa

ults,

mo

no

clin

e,

poss

ible

left late

ral

mo

vem

ent, tra

nsf

er

fault?

McC

rack

en 1

966

,

Cle

nd

enin

eta

l 1

989

,

Busc

hb

ack

and

Ko

lata

19

90

, N

els

on 1

990

49

no

rmal fa

ult

Big

Riv

er

fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

W

Late

Pro

tero

zoic

-

Early C

am

brian

3m

erg

es

with S

imm

s M

ounta

in

fault to

fo

rm P

alm

er

fault z

one

McC

rack

en 1

966

,

Cle

nd

enin

eta

l 1

989

50

transf

er

fault

Elli

ngto

n fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W,

steep

dip

(7

0-8

0)

to

NE

Late

Pro

tero

zoic

-

Early C

am

brian

Po

st-

Ord

ovic

ian

3m

ad

e u

p o

f S

weetw

ate

r and

Sue's

Bra

nch fault s

egm

ents

,

reactivate

d a

s re

vers

e/thru

st

faults

McC

rack

en 1

966

,

Cle

nd

enin

eta

l 1

989

27

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

51

transf

er

fault

Sim

s M

ounta

in fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

NE

, d

ip <

20

to

>80

NE

Late

Pro

tero

zoic

-

Early C

am

brian

3m

erg

es

with B

ig R

iver

fault to

form

Palm

er

fault z

one,

left

late

ral, n

orm

al, a

nd

revers

e

mo

vem

ent

McC

rack

en 1

966

,

Cle

nd

enin

eta

l 1

989

52

left late

ral st

rik

e s

lip

fault

Bo

livar-

Mansf

ield

fault

zone

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

3le

ft late

ral m

ovem

ent b

y ~

15

mM

cC

rack

en 1

966

,

Cle

nd

enin

eta

l 1

989

53

no

rmal fa

ult

Palm

er

fault z

one

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

3M

cC

rack

en 1

966

54

transf

er

fault

Shanno

n C

ounty

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

SW

Late

Pro

tero

zoic

-

Early C

am

brian

3le

ft late

ral st

rik

e s

lip m

ovem

ent

Cle

nd

inin

eta

l 1

989

55

transf

er

fault

Bla

ck

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W,

dip

to

the N

E

Late

Pro

tero

zoic

-

Early C

am

brian

35

0m

zo

ne o

f in

tense

defo

rmatio

n,

revers

e,

no

rmal,

and

left late

ral m

ovem

ent

Cle

nd

inin

eta

l 1

989

56

no

rmal fa

ult

Chesa

peak

e fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

3M

cC

rack

en 1

966

, S

ims

1990

57

anticlin

eL

inco

ln fo

ldN

W-S

Ed

ow

n to

SW

thro

w,

N4

5W

2p

art

nere

d w

ith C

ap

au G

res

mo

no

clin

e,

en e

chelo

n p

air

McC

rack

en 1

966

,

Harr

iso

n a

nd

Schultz

2002

58

anticlin

eL

a S

alle

anticlin

al b

elt

NN

W-S

SE

2se

vera

l p

erio

ds

of up

lift d

uring

Pale

ozo

ic

Bunk

er

eta

l 1

985

, B

ear

eta

l 1

997

, B

usc

hb

ack

and

Ko

lata

19

90

59

hig

h a

ngle

no

rmal

fault

Wab

ash

Valle

y fault

syst

em

N-N

E

Late

Pale

ozo

ic-

Early M

eso

zoic

Late

Quate

rnary

(<15

Ka)

3d

ip s

lip d

isp

lacem

ent at le

ast

0.6

km

, la

tera

l o

ffse

ts 2

-4k

m,

strik

e s

lip a

nd

revers

e m

otio

n

Bunk

er

eta

l 1

985

, C

rone

and

Wheele

r 2

000

,

Ko

lata

and

Nels

on 1

997

60

mo

no

clin

eD

u Q

uo

in m

ono

clin

eN

-Sd

ips

to E

, st

eep

sid

e o

n the E

late

Cam

brian

Penn-s

ylv

ania

n2

base

ment in

vo

lved

, exte

nd

s

NN

E fro

m C

ottage G

rove fault

zone

Ko

lata

and

Nels

on 1

997

,

Nels

on 1

990

61

anticlin

eS

ale

m-L

oud

en a

nticlin

es

N-S

asy

mm

etr

ical

steep

W lim

b

2b

ase

ment in

vo

lved

fo

r S

ale

m

anticlin

e

Ko

lata

and

Nels

on 1

997

,

Nels

on 1

990

62

anticlin

eW

ate

rlo

o-D

up

o a

nticlin

eN

-NW

steep

W lim

b,

gentle E

lim

b

Late

Mis

s-

issi

pp

ian/ E

arly

Penn-s

ylv

ania

n

2exte

nd

s in

to M

O,

exte

nsi

on o

f

Cap

au G

res

stru

ctu

re?

Ko

lata

and

Nels

on 1

997

,

Harr

iso

n a

nd

Schultz

20

02

, N

els

on 1

990

63

right la

tera

l st

rik

e s

lip

fault

Co

ttage G

rove fault

syst

em

E-W

Late

Penn-

sylv

ania

n/ E

arly

Perm

ian

3b

oth

majo

r and

min

or

faults

with

no

rmal, r

evers

e,

strik

e s

lip,

and

ob

lique m

ovem

ent

Ko

lata

and

Nels

on 1

997

,

Busc

hb

ack

and

Ko

lata

19

90

, N

els

on 1

990

64

no

rmal fa

ult

Lusk

Cre

ek

fault z

one

NE

-SW

SW

dip

pin

g

mast

er

fault

Late

Pre

cam

brian to

Early C

am

brian

Mid

-Late

Quate

rnary

(<75

0K

a)

3N

W b

ound

ary

of R

eelfo

ot R

ift,

revers

e fault d

uring A

lleghenia

n

oro

geny,

no

rmal in

Cam

brian

Cro

ne a

nd

Wheele

r

20

00

, K

ola

ta a

nd

Nels

on

1997

65

hig

h a

ngle

no

rmal

fault

Ro

ugh C

reek

-

Shaw

neeto

wn fault

syst

em

NE

-SW

dip

to

SL

ate

Pre

cam

brian to

Early C

am

brian

po

st P

enn-

sylv

ania

n

3b

raid

ed

hig

h a

ngle

faults,

flo

wer

stru

ctu

res,

max v

ert

ical up

lift at

least

11

00

m

Ko

lata

and

Nels

on 1

997

,

Nels

on 1

990

28

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

66

hig

h a

ngle

no

rmal

fault

Pennyrile

fault s

yst

em

EN

E-W

SW

hig

h a

ngle

dip

to

N

Late

Pale

ozo

ic-

Early M

eso

zoic

po

st P

enn-

sylv

ania

n

3en e

chelo

n,

inte

rtw

inin

g faults,

som

e r

evers

e faultin

g a

nd

left

late

ral o

ffse

t

Ko

lata

and

Nels

on 1

997

,

Nels

on 1

990

67

synclin

eM

oo

rman s

ynclin

eE

-W2

directly u

nd

erlain

by R

ough

Cre

ek

Gra

ben

McD

ow

ell

19

86

68

hig

h a

ngle

no

rmal

fault

Flu

ors

par

are

a fault

co

mp

lex

EN

E-W

SW

65

or

steep

er

3P

erm

ian d

ikes,

sill

s, a

nd

dia

trem

es,

no

rmal, r

evers

e,

strik

e s

lip,

and

obliq

ue s

lip

mo

vem

ent

Cro

ne a

nd

Wheele

r

20

00

, B

usc

hb

ack

and

Ko

lata

19

90

69

no

rmal fa

ult

Tab

b fault s

yst

em

E-W

to

E-S

E

steep

dip

, N

sid

e

do

wn

3m

ajo

r d

isp

lacem

ent to

the S

Ko

lata

and

Nels

on 1

997

,

Nels

on 1

990

70

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Ro

yal C

ente

r fa

ult

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

2B

unk

er

eta

l 1

985

71

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Fo

rtvill

e fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

2B

unk

er

eta

l 1

985

72

no

rmal fa

ult

Mo

unt C

arm

el fa

ult

NN

W-S

SE

64

W d

ip to

vert

ical

Early P

enn-

sylv

ania

n

3antith

etic n

orm

al fa

ult s

pla

ys

co

mm

on

Bunk

er

eta

l 1

985

, K

ola

ta

and

Nels

on 1

997

, N

els

on

1990

73

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Bo

wlin

g G

reen fault

NN

W-S

SE

near

vert

ical

Late

Ord

ovic

ian to

pre

sent

3fa

ult b

end

fo

lds,

fault

pro

pagatio

n fo

lds,

and

im

bricate

fans

co

mm

on,

no

rmal, r

evers

e,

and

thru

st faults

Bunk

er

eta

l 1

985

,

Onasc

h a

nd

Kahle

19

91

74

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Outlet fa

ult

NW

-SE

vary

ing d

ip

directio

n

2su

bsu

rface,

may r

each

Pre

cam

brian

Bara

no

ski 2

002

75

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Mario

n fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

2su

bsu

rface,

may r

each

Pre

cam

brian

Bara

no

ski 2

002

76

revers

e fault

Kentu

ck

y R

iver

fault

syst

em

E-N

E2

5-8

0 in S

W

and

NE

Quate

rnary

(1.6

Ma)

3N

bo

und

ary

of R

om

e T

rough,

45

0m

offse

t, left late

ral

co

mp

onent

Cro

ne a

nd

Wheele

r

20

00

, D

raho

vza

l and

No

ger

19

95

, G

ao

eta

l

2000

77

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Irvin

e-P

ain

t C

reek

fault

syst

em

E-N

Ed

ow

nth

row

n to

the S

E

3either

revers

e o

r no

rmal m

otio

nD

raho

vza

l and

No

ger

1995

78

no

rmal fa

ult

Ro

ck

Cast

le R

iver

fault

N-S

to

NE

-

SW

to

E-N

E

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

W

2m

ark

s S

bo

und

ary

of R

om

e

Tro

ugh

Dra

ho

vza

l and

No

ger

1995

79

no

rmal fa

ult

Lexin

gto

n fault/G

renvill

e

fro

nt

N-N

Ed

ow

n to

E a

nd

W

Quate

rnary

2W

bo

und

ary

of R

om

e T

rough,

60

0m

offse

t o

f P

recam

brian

base

ment, p

art

of G

renvill

e fro

nt

Cro

ne a

nd

Wheele

r 2

000

80

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Wic

hita fault z

one

NW

-SE

(N5

0W

)

30

-40

S-S

WL

ate

Pro

tero

zoic

to C

am

brian

Quate

rnary

3co

mp

rise

d o

f M

ounta

in V

iew

fault,

Duncan-C

riner

fault,

Meers

fault,

and

Co

rdell

fault,

vario

us

mo

vem

ent d

irectio

ns

Burc

hett e

tal 1

985

,

Ram

elli

and

Sle

mm

ons

19

86

, L

uza

eta

l 1

987

,

Perr

y 1

989

, N

UR

EG

-

2115 2

012

29

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

81

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Nem

aha fault z

one/u

plif

tN

-S/N

NE

-

SS

W,

N1

6E

dip

s to

E a

nd

WL

ate

Mis

s-

issi

pp

ian/ E

arly

Penn-s

ylv

ania

n

po

st M

iss-

issi

pp

ian

3ab

rup

tly c

hanges

directio

n fro

m

NE

-SW

to

NW

-SE

, in

clu

des

an

anticlin

e

Burc

hett e

tal 1

985

,

Ro

bbin

s and

Kelle

r 1

992

,

Merr

iam

19

63

, B

row

n

eta

l 1

983

82

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Cap

au G

res

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

to

the S

W,

max

dip

s o

f 6

5 S

to

steep

ly

overt

urn

ed

Late

Mis

s-

issi

pp

ian/ E

arly

Penn-s

ylv

ania

n

2p

art

nere

d w

ith L

inco

ln fo

ld,

en

echelo

n p

air,

mo

no

clin

e w

ith

ass

ocia

ted

faults,

revers

e faults

McC

rack

en 1

966

, K

ola

ta

and

Nels

on 1

997

,

Harr

iso

n a

nd

Schultz

20

02

, N

els

on 1

990

83

anticlin

eK

irk

svill

e-M

end

ota

anticlin

e

NW

-SE

2M

cC

rack

en 1

966

84

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Cub

a fault

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

NE

2M

cC

rack

en 1

966

85

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Leasb

urg

fault

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

2M

cC

rack

en 1

966

86

anticlin

eP

rocto

r anticlin

eN

W-S

E2

McC

rack

en 1

966

87

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Ritchey fault

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

2M

cC

rack

en 1

966

88

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Seneca fault

NE

-SW

2M

cC

rack

en 1

966

89

left late

ral st

rik

e s

lip

fault

Lak

e B

asi

n fault z

one

W-E

3B

erg

antino

and

Cla

rk

1985

90

no

rmal fa

ult

Cat C

reek

fault z

one

WN

W-E

SE

dip

s to

SP

rote

rozo

ic3

bo

th n

orm

al and

revers

e

dis

pla

cem

ent, s

ub

surf

ace fault

Berg

antino

and

Cla

rk

19

85

, W

oo

dw

ard

eta

l

1997

91

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Nye-B

ow

ler

fault z

one

NW

-SE

3B

erg

antino

and

Cla

rk

1985

92

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Fro

mb

erg

fault z

one

NE

-SW

2B

erg

antino

and

Cla

rk

1985

93

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Scap

ego

at-

Bannaty

ne

fault z

one

NE

-SW

3B

erg

antino

and

Cla

rk

1985

94

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Weld

on/B

rock

ton F

roid

fault z

one

NE

-SW

Quate

rnary

3

W b

ound

ary

of T

rans-

Hud

son

oro

gen,

either

no

rmal o

r re

vers

e

fault

Berg

antino

and

Cla

rk

19

85

, S

ims

eta

l 1

991

,

Cro

ne a

nd

Wheele

r 2

000

95

thru

st fault

Big

ho

rn e

ast

ern

bo

und

ary

thru

st

NW

-SE

up

thro

wn to

the

W

3E

bo

und

ary

of B

igho

rn

mo

unta

ins

Bla

ck

sto

ne 1

993

96

thru

st fault

Med

icin

e L

od

ge fault

zone

E-W

2S

bo

und

ary

of B

igho

rn b

asi

nB

lack

sto

ne 1

993

, S

tone

1993

97

revers

e fault

Meers

fault

W-N

W,

N6

0-

64W

do

wn to

SW

thro

w (

30

-

40

SW

),

mo

dera

te N

dip

(55

N,

56N

E)

Late

Pre

cam

brian/

Early C

am

brian

Quate

rnary

3vert

ical d

isp

lacem

ent o

f 5

m,

late

ral d

isp

lacem

ent o

f 1

2m

,

po

ssib

ly p

art

of A

lab

am

a-

Ok

laho

ma tra

nsf

orm

Cro

ne a

nd

Wheele

r

20

00

, R

am

elli

and

Sle

mm

ons

19

86

, C

rone

and

Luza

19

86

, L

uza

eta

l

19

87

, P

err

y 1

989

, C

ox

2010

30

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

98

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Wilz

etta fault

NN

E-S

SW

2B

urc

hett e

tal 1

985

99

no

rmal fa

ult

Criner

fault

NW

(N

45

W)

do

wn to

SW

thro

w

pre

-Quate

rnary

3S

E e

nd

of M

eers

Fault,

term

inate

s at O

uachita fo

ld

thru

st b

elt

Cro

ne a

nd

Wheele

r 2

000

100

revers

e fault

Wash

ita V

alle

y fault

NW

-SE

near

vert

ical,

do

wnth

row

n to

N

34

.3km

of le

ft late

ral

dis

pla

cem

ent, b

egan a

s no

rmal

fault

Cro

ne a

nd

Wheele

r

20

00

, P

err

y 1

989

, C

ox

and

Van A

rsd

ale

19

88

101

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Ap

ishap

a fault

NW

-SE

Pre

cam

brian

3su

bsu

rface (

infe

rred

)S

ims

eta

l 2

001

, H

em

bo

rg

1996

102

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Go

re fault

NW

-SE

vert

ical

Pre

cam

brian

3m

ylo

nite z

one,

origin

ate

d a

s

strik

e s

lip fault

Sim

s eta

l 2

001

, T

weto

1980

103

thru

st fault

Win

d R

iver

thru

st fault

NW

-SE

to

WN

W-E

SE

up

thro

wn o

n N

E

sid

e,

dip

s 4

0N

E

3th

rust

s up

Win

d R

iver

Range

Bla

ck

sto

ne 1

993

,

Yo

nk

ee a

nd

Mitra

19

93

104

thru

st fault

E-W

to

NE

-

SW

up

thro

wn o

n S

E

sid

e

2B

lack

sto

ne 1

993

105

thru

st fault

NW

-SE

up

thro

wn o

n the

NE

sid

e

2B

lack

sto

ne 1

993

106

hig

h a

ngle

thru

st fault

Ore

go

n b

asi

n fault

N-S

to

NW

-

SE

up

thro

wn o

n the

W s

ide

2S

tone 1

993

, B

lack

sto

ne

1993

107

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NN

E-S

SW

up

thro

wn o

n E

sid

e

2B

lack

sto

ne 1

993

108

thru

st fault

Ow

l C

reek

up

lift

NN

W-S

SE

up

thro

wn o

n N

sid

e

2B

lack

sto

ne 1

993

109

thru

st fault

E-W

up

thro

wn o

n S

sid

e

2N

of S

weetw

ate

r up

lift

Bla

ck

sto

ne 1

993

110

thru

st fault

NE

-SW

up

thro

wn o

n S

E

sid

e

2B

lack

sto

ne 1

993

111

thru

st fault

E-W

up

thro

wn o

n N

sid

e

2up

lifts

S e

nd

of S

weetw

ate

r

up

lift

Bla

ck

sto

ne 1

993

112

thru

st fault

NW

-SE

up

thro

wn o

n N

E

sid

e

2B

lack

sto

ne 1

993

113

thru

st fault

N-S

up

thro

wn o

n E

sid

e

2W

bo

und

ary

of R

ock

Sp

rings

up

lift

Bla

ck

sto

ne 1

993

114

thru

st fault

Ho

gsb

ack

thru

st fault

N-S

up

thro

wn o

n W

sid

e

2b

ound

ary

of S

evie

r o

rogeny

Bla

ck

sto

ne 1

993

115

thru

st fault

NW

-SE

up

thro

wn o

n N

E

sid

e

2up

lifts

Gro

s V

entr

e R

ange

Bla

ck

sto

ne 1

993

116

thru

st fault

NW

-SE

up

thro

wn o

n the

W s

ide

2B

lack

sto

ne 1

993

117

thru

st fault

Wash

ak

ie r

ange

thru

sts/

Ow

l C

reek

fault

NW

-SE

to

NE

-SW

up

thro

wn o

n the

N s

ide

2d

ips

in d

iffe

rent d

irectio

ns,

sinuo

us

trend

Bla

ck

sto

ne 1

993

31

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

118

thru

st fau

ltN

-Sup

thro

wn

on

the

W s

ide

2to

the

E o

f B

eart

oo

th m

oun

tain

sB

lack

sto

ne 1

993

119

thru

st fau

ltN

W-S

Eup

thro

wn

on

E

sid

e

2up

lifts

W e

nd o

f S

wee

twat

er

rang

e

Bla

ckst

one

19

93

120

thru

st fau

ltE

NE

-WS

Wup

thro

wn

on

S

sid

e

2b

etw

een

Win

d R

iver

and

Sw

eetw

ater

ran

ges

Bla

ckst

one

19

93

121

thru

st fau

ltN

E-S

Wva

ryin

g d

ip

direc

tion

2m

ark

s E

bo

und

ary

of F

ront

Ran

ge

Bla

ckst

one

19

93

,

Hem

bo

rg 1

996

122

thru

st fau

ltN

E-S

W to

E-

W

upth

row

n o

n S

sid

e

2N

bo

und

ary

of L

aram

ie r

ange

Bla

ckst

one

19

93

123

thru

st fau

ltN

W-S

E to

N-

S to

E-W

upth

row

n o

n N

sid

e

2E

bo

und

ary

of S

ierr

a M

adre

mo

unta

ins

Bla

ckst

one

19

93

,

Hem

bo

rg 1

996

124

norm

al fau

ltE

-Wd

ow

nthr

ow

n o

n

S s

ide

2cu

ts thr

oug

h R

ock

Sp

ring

s up

lift

Bla

ckst

one

19

93

125

thru

st fau

ltE

-Wup

thro

wn

on

S

sid

e

2m

ark

s N

bo

und

ary

of U

inta

mo

unta

ins

Hem

bo

rg 1

996

126

norm

al fau

ltE

-Wd

ow

nthr

ow

n to

the

S

1so

uth

of U

inta

up

lift

Wo

odw

ard

198

4

127

thru

st fau

ltE

-Wup

thro

wn

to the

N

1si

nuo

us tre

nd,

infe

rred

bas

emen

t

thru

st

Wo

odw

ard

198

4

128

thru

st fau

ltN

W-S

Eup

thro

wn

on

E

sid

e

2W

bo

und

ary

of fr

ont

ran

ges

Hem

bo

rg 1

996

129

thru

st fau

ltN

W-S

Eva

ryin

g d

ip2

with

in N

ort

h P

ark

bas

inH

emb

org

19

96

130

norm

al fau

ltN

-S to

NW

-

SE

do

wnt

hro

wn

to

the

W

2H

emb

org

19

96

131

thru

st fau

ltN

NW

-SS

Eup

thro

wn

to the

NE

2H

emb

org

19

96

132

thru

st fau

ltN

-S to

E-W

upth

row

n to

the

NE

2H

emb

org

19

96

133

norm

al fau

ltN

W-S

Ed

ow

nthr

ow

n to

the

SW

2m

ark

s S

W b

oun

dar

y o

f

Unc

om

pag

re u

plif

t

Hem

bo

rg 1

996

134

norm

al fau

ltS

angr

e d

e C

rist

o fau

ltN

W-S

E6

0 to

the

WL

ate

Qua

tern

ary

2to

the

W o

f S

angr

e d

e C

rist

o

mo

untia

ns

Klu

th a

nd S

chaf

tena

ar

19

94

, C

rone

eta

l 20

06

135

infe

rred

bas

emen

t

faul

t

N-S

2su

bsu

rfac

e H

emb

org

19

96

136

infe

rred

bas

emen

t

faul

t

NW

-SE

2H

emb

org

19

96

137

thru

st fau

ltN

-Sup

thro

wn

to the

W

2m

ark

s E

bo

und

ary

of S

angr

e d

e

Crist

o R

ange

Hem

bo

rg 1

996

138

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

W to

N-

S

do

wnt

hro

wn

to

the

W

1W

oo

dw

ard

198

4

32

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

139

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Peco

s-P

icuris

fault/T

ijera

s-

Cano

ncito

fault z

one

N-S

, to

NE

d

ow

nth

row

n to

NW

and

SE

Pre

cam

brian

Ceno

zoic

2m

ajo

r st

rik

e s

lip fault w

ith left

late

ral o

bliq

ue m

ovem

ent,

anast

om

osi

ng e

n e

chelo

n h

igh

angle

faults

Ald

rich 1

986

, C

hap

in a

nd

Cath

er

19

94

, L

ew

is a

nd

Bald

rid

ge 1

994

, B

arr

ow

and

Kelle

r 1

994

,

Saly

ard

s and

Ald

rich

1994

140

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Nacim

iento

up

lift

N-S

to

NN

E-

SS

W

1W

bo

und

ary

of A

lbuq

uerq

ue

basi

n

Lo

zinsk

i 1

994

141

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Rio

Puerc

o fault

zone/L

ucero

up

lift

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

E

1W

bo

und

ary

of A

lbuq

uerq

ue

basi

n,

num

ero

us

faults

and

fo

lds

Lo

zinsk

i 1

994

, S

lack

and

Cam

pb

ell

19

76

142

revers

e fault

Manza

no

-Lo

s P

ino

s up

lift

N-S

S d

ip,

do

wnth

row

n to

W

Pro

tero

zoic

(1.6

5-1

.60G

a)

1right la

tera

l co

mp

onent, E

bo

und

ary

of R

io G

rand

e R

ift

Magnani eta

l 2

004

,

Lo

zinsk

i 1

994

, M

ay e

tal

1994

143

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NN

E-S

SW

1su

bsu

rface (

infe

rred

)H

em

bo

rg 1

996

144

thru

st fault

NN

E-S

SW

up

thro

wn to

the

W

1W

oo

dw

ard

198

4

145

no

rmal fa

ult

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

1p

art

of R

io G

rand

e R

ift

Wo

odw

ard

198

4

146

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

N-S

1p

art

of R

io G

rand

e R

ift

Wo

odw

ard

198

4

147

no

rmal fa

ult

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the W

1si

nuo

us

trend

Wo

odw

ard

198

4

148

anticlin

eC

had

ron A

rch

NW

-SE

2C

arlso

n 1

970

149

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

1P

recam

brian c

rust

al b

ound

ary

?S

ims

eta

l 1

991

150

right la

tera

l st

rik

e s

lip

fault

NE

-SW

2S

ims

eta

l 1

991

151

right la

tera

l st

rik

e s

lip

fault

NW

-SE

2S

ims

eta

l 1

991

152

no

rmal fa

ult

Unio

n fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

Mid

dle

Pale

ozo

ic?

2S

bo

und

ary

of M

idco

ntinent rift

in N

E

Carlso

n 1

970

, C

arlso

n

1997

153

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2p

art

of C

entr

al K

ansa

s U

plif

tC

ole

19

76

154

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2p

art

of C

entr

al K

ansa

s U

plif

tC

ole

19

76

155

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2p

art

of C

entr

al K

ansa

s U

plif

tC

ole

19

76

156

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NN

E-S

SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the W

2p

art

of C

entr

al K

ansa

s U

plif

tC

ole

19

76

157

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2p

art

of C

entr

al K

ansa

s U

plif

tC

ole

19

76

33

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

158

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2p

art

of C

entr

al K

ansa

s U

plif

tC

ole

19

76

159

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NN

E-S

SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

2re

aches

Pre

cam

brian r

ock

sC

ole

19

76

160

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2re

aches

Pre

cam

brian r

ock

sC

ole

19

76

161

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Waurik

a A

rch

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2re

aches

base

ment

Cam

pb

ell

and

Web

er

20

06

, E

win

g 1

990

162

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Centr

al O

kla

ho

ma fault

zone

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

and

W

3re

aches

base

ment

Cam

pb

ell

and

Web

er

2006

163

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2re

aches

base

ment

Cam

pb

ell

and

Web

er

2006

164

thru

st fault

Sulp

hur

fault?

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

2re

aches

base

ment

Cam

pb

ell

and

Web

er

20

06

, E

win

g 1

990

165

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2re

aches

base

ment

Cam

pb

ell

and

Web

er

2006

166

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

1no

rmal fa

ult?

Sim

s 1

990

167

no

rmal fa

ult

Hurr

icane fault

NE

-SW

steep

ly W

active to

day

2B

asi

n a

nd

Range s

tructu

re (

Late

Mio

cene)

Davis

19

99

168

hig

h a

ngle

no

rmal

fault

Sevie

r fa

ult

NE

-SW

W2

Davis

19

99

169

no

rmal fa

ult

Pausa

ugunt fa

ult

NE

-SW

75W

late

Tert

iary

to

Ho

locene

2exte

nd

s as

a m

ono

clin

e to

the N

Davis

19

99

170

no

rmal fa

ult

NN

E-S

SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the W

1W

oo

dw

ard

198

4

171

no

rmal fa

ult

NN

E-S

SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the W

1W

oo

dw

ard

198

4

172

mo

no

clin

eW

ate

rpo

ck

et fo

ldN

W-S

Est

eep

sid

e to

the

E

2D

avis

19

99

173

mo

no

clin

eS

an R

afa

el m

ono

clin

eN

E-S

Wst

eep

sid

e to

the

E

2W

oo

dw

ard

198

4

174

mo

no

clin

eE

ast

Kaib

ab

mo

no

clin

eN

-SE

dip

pin

g?

Pre

cam

brian

2m

ax o

ffse

t o

f 7

50m

, re

activate

d

Pre

cam

brian fault u

nd

er

mo

no

clin

e

Hunto

on 1

993

175

mo

no

clin

eN

E-S

W to

E-

W

steep

sid

e to

the

E

1W

oo

dw

ard

198

4

176

shear

zone

Shylo

ck

shear

zone

N-S

1B

erg

h a

nd

Karlst

rom

1992

177

mo

no

clin

eN

-Sst

eep

sid

e to

the

E

1W

oo

dw

ard

198

4

178

mo

no

clin

eN

E-S

W to

E-

W

steep

sid

e to

the

S

1W

oo

dw

ard

198

4

34

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

179

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

2N

bo

und

ary

of R

om

e T

rough

Saylo

r 1

999

180

no

rmal fa

ult

Ak

ron-S

uffie

ld-S

mith

To

wnsh

ip fault z

ones

WN

W-E

SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2se

t o

f 3

en e

chelo

n faults

Bara

no

ski 2

002

181

no

rmal fa

ult

Hig

hla

nd

tow

n fault

WN

W-E

SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2in

clu

des

part

of P

itts

burg

-

Wash

ingto

n c

ross

str

ike

stru

ctu

ral d

isco

ntinuity

Bara

no

ski 2

002

182

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Sta

rr fault s

yst

em

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

2B

ara

no

ski 2

002

,

Bra

nno

ck

199

3

183

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Cam

brid

ge C

ross

Str

ike

Str

uctu

ral d

isco

ntinuity

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2no

rmal fa

ult?

Bara

no

ski 2

002

184

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

2N

bo

und

ary

of th

e R

om

e

Tro

ugh

Patc

hen e

tal 2

006

185

no

rmal fa

ult

Cla

rend

on-L

ind

en fault

syst

em

N-S

E a

nd

WL

ate

Pro

tero

zoic

to C

am

brian

3b

road

zo

ne o

f sm

all

dis

pla

cem

ent fa

ults

Fak

und

iny a

nd

Po

mero

y

20

02

, R

ick

ard

197

3,

Cro

ne a

nd

Wheele

r 2

000

186

no

rmal fa

ult

Do

lgerv

ille fault

NN

E-S

SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the W

3Ja

co

bi 2

002

, R

ick

ard

1973

187

no

rmal fa

ult

No

se fault

NE

-SW

to

N-

S

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

3Ja

co

bi 2

002

, R

ick

ard

1973

188

no

rmal fa

ult

Ho

ffm

ans

fault

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

2R

ick

ard

197

3

189

no

rmal fa

ult

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

2R

ick

ard

197

3

190

no

rmal fa

ult

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

2R

ick

ard

197

3

191

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

to

E-

W

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

1E

win

g 1

990

192

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

1E

win

g 1

990

193

no

rmal fa

ult

Big

Lak

e fault

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

2E

win

g 1

990

194

no

rmal fa

ult

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2E

win

g 1

990

195

no

rmal fa

ult

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

2E

win

g 1

990

196

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

N-S

to

E-W

vary

ing d

ip

directio

n

1E

win

g 1

990

197

no

rmal fa

ult

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

2E

win

g 1

990

198

no

rmal fa

ult

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the E

2E

win

g 1

990

35

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

199

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Huap

ache fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

1E

win

g 1

990

200

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

1E

win

g 1

990

201

thru

st fault

Ap

ache M

ounta

in fault

NW

-SE

vary

ing d

ip

directio

n

2E

win

g 1

990

202

no

rmal fa

ult

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2E

win

g 1

990

203

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the W

1E

win

g 1

990

204

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

to

NW

-

SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

1E

win

g 1

990

205

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

1E

win

g 1

990

206

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

1E

win

g 1

990

207

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

1E

win

g 1

990

208

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

1E

win

g 1

990

209

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

1E

win

g 1

990

210

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

1E

win

g 1

990

211

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

1E

win

g 1

990

212

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

vary

ing d

ip

directio

n

1E

win

g 1

990

213

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

1E

win

g 1

990

214

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

1E

win

g 1

990

215

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

E

1E

win

g 1

990

216

thru

st fault

E-W

up

thro

wn to

the

N

2E

win

g 1

990

217

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

1E

win

g 1

990

218

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

1E

win

g 1

990

219

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

1E

win

g 1

990

220

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

1no

rmal fa

ult?

Ew

ing 1

990

36

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

221

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Cart

a V

alle

y fault z

one

E-W

to

NW

-

SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

1no

rmal fa

ult?

Ew

ing 1

990

222

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

1no

rmal fa

ult?

Ew

ing 1

990

223

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

N-S

do

wnth

row

n to

the W

1no

rmal fa

ult?

Ew

ing 1

990

224

no

rmal fa

ult

Maso

n G

rab

en

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

2E

win

g 1

990

225

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

2E

win

g 1

990

226

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

Lam

pasa

s arc

hN

E-S

Wd

ow

nth

row

n to

the S

E

1E

win

g 1

990

227

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

1E

win

g 1

990

228

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

1E

win

g 1

990

229

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

2E

win

g 1

990

230

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

1co

ntinuatio

n o

f W

aurik

a a

rch?

Ew

ing 1

990

231

right la

tera

l st

rik

e s

lip

fault

NE

-SW

1W

oo

dw

ard

198

4

232

no

rmal fa

ult

Reelfo

ot F

ault

NN

W-S

SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2C

sonto

s eta

l 2

008

233

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

White R

iver

fault z

one

NW

-SE

2cuts

acro

ss M

issi

ssip

pi V

alle

y

Gra

ben

Cso

nto

s eta

l 2

008

234

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

2N

W b

ound

ary

of R

eelfo

ot R

ift

Cso

nto

s eta

l 2

008

235

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

W

2S

E b

ound

ary

of R

eelfo

ot R

ift

Cso

nto

s eta

l 2

008

236

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NE

-SW

2centr

al p

art

of R

eelfo

ot R

ift

Cso

nto

s eta

l 2

008

237

transf

er

fault

NW

-SE

2p

art

of R

eelfo

ot R

ift

Cso

nto

s eta

l 2

008

238

no

rmal fa

ult

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2G

rosh

ong e

tal 2

010

239

no

rmal fa

ult

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2G

rosh

ong e

tal 2

010

240

no

rmal fa

ult

NW

-SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

W

2G

rosh

ong e

tal 2

010

241

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

2T

ho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

242

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

NW

2S

bo

und

ary

of R

om

e T

rough

Patc

hen e

tal 2

006

243

transf

er

fault

NW

-SE

1S

aylo

r 1

999

244

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

NW

2S

bo

und

ary

of R

om

e T

rough

Saylo

r 1

999

245

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Mo

nic

o fault

NE

-SW

1fa

ult intr

ud

ed

by n

arr

ow

dik

eS

ims

19

92

37

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

246

hig

h a

ngle

fault

Ow

en fault

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

W

2S

ims

19

92

, S

ims

19

89

247

shear

zone

Jum

p R

iver

shear

zone

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

W

2S

ims

19

92

, S

ims

19

89

248

shear

zone

Ath

ens

Shear

zone

NE

-SW

dip

s 7

2 N

W,

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

E

2S

ims

19

92

249

revers

e fault

Min

era

l L

ak

e fault

WN

W-E

SE

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

Mid

dle

Pro

tero

zoic

2in

itia

ted

as

a n

orm

al fa

ult a

nd

late

r re

vers

ed

, right la

tera

l

co

mp

onent

Sim

s 1

992

250

hig

h a

ngle

thru

st fault

Fla

mb

eau F

low

age fault

E-W

to

NE

-

SW

up

thro

wn to

the

S

Early

Pro

tero

zoic

2in

ferr

ed

to

fla

tten a

t d

ep

th,

offse

t

by M

inera

l L

ak

e fault

Sim

s 1

992

251

hig

h a

ngle

thru

st fault

NW

-SE

up

thro

wn to

the

S

Early

Pro

tero

zoic

1in

ferr

ed

to

fla

tten a

t d

ep

thS

ims

19

92

252

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NW

-SE

1S

ims

19

92

253

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NW

-SE

1S

ims

19

92

254

hig

h a

ngle

thru

st fault

Bush

Lak

e fault

E-W

up

thro

wn to

the

S

Early

Pro

tero

zoic

2in

ferr

ed

to

fla

tten a

t d

ep

thS

ims

19

92

255

hig

h a

ngle

thru

st fault

So

uth

Range fault

E-W

up

thro

wn to

the

S

Early

Pro

tero

zoic

2in

ferr

ed

to

fla

tten a

t d

ep

thS

ims

19

92

256

hig

h a

ngle

fault

NE

-SW

1in

trud

ed

by n

arr

ow

dik

eS

ims

19

92

257

hig

h a

ngle

fault

E-W

1p

art

of M

arq

uette I

ron R

ange

Sim

s 1

992

258

right la

tera

l st

rik

e s

lip

fault

NE

-SW

2S

ims

eta

l 1

991

259

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NN

E-S

SW

1S

ims

eta

l 1

991

260

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

N-S

1S

ims

eta

l 1

991

261

mo

no

clin

eE

cho

Clif

fs m

ono

clin

eN

-S2

Hunto

on 1

993

262

right la

tera

l st

rik

e s

lip

fault

Ro

me tra

nsv

ers

e

base

ment fa

ult

NW

-SE

2tr

ansf

er

fault o

f th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

263

right la

tera

l st

rik

e s

lip

fault

Annis

ton tra

nsv

ers

e

base

ment fa

ult

NW

-SE

2tr

ansf

er

fault o

f th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

264

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

NW

2S

E b

ound

ary

of th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

265

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2N

W b

ound

ary

of th

e

Birm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

266

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2N

W b

ound

ary

of th

e

Birm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

38

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

267

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

NW

2S

E b

ound

ary

of th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

268

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

NW

2S

E b

ound

ary

of th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

269

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2N

W b

ound

ary

of th

e

Birm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

270

left late

ral st

rik

e s

lip

fault

NW

-SE

2tr

ansf

er

fault o

f th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

271

no

rmal fa

ult

N-S

W2

E b

ound

ary

of th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

272

no

rmal fa

ult

NN

E-S

SW

SE

2W

bo

und

ary

of th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

273

transf

er

fault

WN

W-E

SE

2tr

ansf

er

fault o

f th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

274

transf

er

fault

NW

-SE

2tr

ansf

er

fault o

f th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

275

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2N

W b

ound

ary

of th

e

Birm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

276

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

NW

2S

E b

ound

ary

of th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

277

no

rmal fa

ult

N-S

W2

E b

ound

ary

of th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

278

no

rmal fa

ult

N-S

E2

W b

ound

ary

of th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

279

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2W

bo

und

ary

of th

e B

irm

ingham

Base

ment gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

280

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

WN

W-E

SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

281

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

39

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

282

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

283

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

284

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

285

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

286

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

287

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

288

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

289

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

290

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

291

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

292

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

293

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

294

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

295

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

296

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

297

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

298

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

N-S

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

299

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

300

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

N-S

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

301

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

302

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

303

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

N-S

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

40

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

304

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

305

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

N-S

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

306

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

307

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

308

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

WN

W-E

SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

309

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

310

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

311

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

312

sutu

re z

one

NE

-SW

Pre

cam

brian?

1p

art

of C

heyenne b

elt?

Bad

er

20

08

, 20

09

313

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

314

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

315

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

WN

W-E

SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

316

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

317

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

318

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

319

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

E-W

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

320

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

321

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

WN

W-E

SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

322

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

323

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

324

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

325

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

41

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

326

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NE

-SW

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

327

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

N-S

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

328

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

329

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

NW

-SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

330

infe

rred

base

ment

fault

WN

W-E

SE

1b

ase

d o

n lin

eam

ent m

ap

Esc

h 2

010

331

sutu

re z

one

Cheyenne b

elt

EN

E-W

SW

Pre

cam

brian

2P

ale

op

rote

rozo

ic s

utu

re z

one

Bad

er

20

08

, 20

09

332

no

rmal fa

ult

EN

E-W

SW

S1

N p

art

of R

om

e T

rough/ R

ough

Cre

ek

Gra

ben

Hic

km

an 2

011

333

no

rmal fa

ult

EN

E-W

SW

N1

S p

art

of R

om

e T

rough/ R

ough

Cre

ek

Gra

ben

Hic

km

an 2

011

334

sutu

re z

one

N-S

Pre

cam

brian

2G

renvill

e s

utu

re z

one

Hic

km

an 2

011

335

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

NW

1S

part

of R

om

e T

rough,

sub

surf

ace

Hic

km

an 2

011

336

mo

no

clin

eN

NW

-SS

E2

part

of L

a S

alle

Anticlin

al b

elt

Busc

hb

ack

and

Ko

lata

1990

337

mo

no

clin

eN

-S2

part

of L

a S

alle

Anticlin

al b

elt

Busc

hb

ack

and

Ko

lata

1990

338

mo

no

clin

eN

-S2

part

of L

a S

alle

Anticlin

al b

elt

Busc

hb

ack

and

Ko

lata

1990

339

mo

no

clin

eB

lack

Hill

s m

ono

clin

eN

-Sst

eep

lim

b to

the

W

2W

ick

s eta

l 1

999

340

no

rmal fa

ult

Osb

orn

e s

tructu

ral zo

ne

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

3S

ims

19

90

341

no

rmal fa

ult

Eld

ora

str

uctu

ral zo

ne

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

3S

ims

19

90

342

no

rmal fa

ult

Deco

rah s

tructu

ral zo

ne

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the S

3S

ims

19

90

343

no

rmal fa

ult

No

rthern

Chic

kasa

w

stru

ctu

ral zo

ne

NE

-SW

do

wnth

row

n to

the N

3S

ims

19

90

344

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2p

art

of B

irm

ingham

Base

ment

Gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

345

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2p

art

of B

irm

ingham

Base

ment

Gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

346

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2p

art

of B

irm

ingham

Base

ment

Gra

ben

Bayo

na e

tal 2

003

,

Tho

mas

and

Bayo

na

2005

42

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

347

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WN

W2

par

t o

f B

irm

ingh

am B

asem

ent

Gra

ben

Bay

ona

eta

l 20

03

,

Tho

mas

and

Bay

ona

2005

348

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WN

W2

S p

art o

f B

irm

ingh

am b

asem

ent

grab

en

Bay

ona

eta

l 20

03

,

Tho

mas

and

Bay

ona

2005

349

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WN

W2

par

t o

f B

irm

ingh

am B

asem

ent

Gra

ben

Bay

ona

eta

l 20

03

,

Tho

mas

and

Bay

ona

2005

350

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

par

t o

f B

irm

ingh

am B

asem

ent

Gra

ben

Bay

ona

eta

l 20

03

,

Tho

mas

and

Bay

ona

2005

351

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

par

t o

f B

irm

ingh

am B

asem

ent

Gra

ben

Bay

ona

eta

l 20

03

,

Tho

mas

and

Bay

ona

2005

352

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

par

t o

f B

irm

ingh

am B

asem

ent

Gra

ben

Bay

ona

eta

l 20

03

,

Tho

mas

and

Bay

ona

2005

353

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

W p

art o

f B

irm

ingh

am

Bas

emen

t G

rab

en

Bay

ona

eta

l 20

03

,

Tho

mas

and

Bay

ona

2005

354

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

W p

art o

f B

irm

ingh

am

Bas

emen

t G

rab

en

Bay

ona

eta

l 20

03

,

Tho

mas

and

Bay

ona

2005

355

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

W p

art o

f B

irm

ingh

am

Bas

emen

t G

rab

en

Bay

ona

eta

l 20

03

,

Tho

mas

and

Bay

ona

2005

356

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

par

t o

f B

irm

ingh

am B

asem

ent

Gra

ben

Bay

ona

eta

l 20

03

,

Tho

mas

and

Bay

ona

2005

357

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sec

tions

in A

rko

ma

bas

in

Arb

enz

20

08

358

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sec

tions

in A

rko

ma

bas

in

Arb

enz

20

08

359

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sec

tions

in A

rko

ma

bas

in

Arb

enz

20

08

360

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sec

tions

in A

rko

ma

bas

in

Arb

enz

20

08

361

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sec

tions

in A

rko

ma

bas

in

Arb

enz

20

08

362

norm

al fau

ltE

NE

-WS

WS

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing

cro

ss s

ectio

ns

in A

rko

ma

bas

in

Arb

enz

20

08

43

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

363

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

364

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

365

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

366

no

rmal fa

ult

EN

E-W

SW

S2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

367

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

368

no

rmal fa

ult

E-W

S2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

369

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

370

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

371

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

372

transf

er

fault

N-S

unk

no

wn

1in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

373

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

374

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

375

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

376

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

377

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

378

no

rmal fa

ult

NE

-SW

SE

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

379

transf

er

fault

NN

E-S

SW

unk

no

wn

1in

terp

rete

d u

sing c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

380

no

rmal fa

ult

WN

W-E

SE

S2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

381

no

rmal fa

ult

WN

W-E

SE

S2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

382

no

rmal fa

ult

E-W

S2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

383

no

rmal fa

ult

E-W

S2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

384

no

rmal fa

ult

E-W

S2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sectio

ns

in A

rko

ma b

asi

n

Arb

enz

20

08

44

Table 2.1 (cont’d)

385

norm

al fau

ltE

-WS

2in

terp

rete

d u

sing

cro

ss s

ectio

ns

in A

rkom

a bas

in

Arb

enz

20

08

386

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sec

tions

in A

rkom

a bas

in

Arb

enz

20

08

387

norm

al fau

ltN

E-S

WS

E2

inte

rpre

ted

usi

ng c

ross

sec

tions

in A

rkom

a bas

in

Arb

enz

20

08

388

infe

rred

bas

emen

t

faul

t

Eas

t T

enne

ssee

Sei

smic

Zo

ne

NE

-SW

unk

now

nac

tive

today

1in

ferr

ed fro

m s

eism

icity

, m

ultip

le

smal

l fau

lts tre

ndin

g N

and

E

Po

wel

l eta

l 19

94

389

infe

rred

bas

emen

t

faul

t

Ok

laho

ma-

Ala

bam

a

tran

sfo

rm

NW

-SE

unk

now

n1

mar

ks

the

S e

dge

of th

e N

ort

h

Am

eric

an c

rato

n

Tho

mas

20

11

390

norm

al fau

ltN

W-S

ES

W1

infe

rred

in B

lack

War

rio

r B

asin

Gro

sho

ng e

tal 2

010

391

norm

al fau

ltN

W-S

ES

W1

infe

rred

in B

lack

War

rio

r B

asin

Gro

sho

ng e

tal 2

010

392

norm

al fau

ltN

W-S

ES

W1

infe

rred

in B

lack

War

rio

r B

asin

Gro

sho

ng e

tal 2

010

45

Figure 2.1: Outline of the United States overlaid by existing digital contour data (in red), with a

contour interval of 1000 ft.

46

Figure 2.2a: Georeferenced image of the Precambrian Structure Map of North Dakota (Heck

1988).

Figure 2.2b: Precambrian contours (in blue) drawn over the georeferenced Precambrian

Structure Map of North Dakota, with contour interval of 1000 ft.

a

b

47

Figure 2.3: Outline of the United States showing depth to the Precambrian basement contours;

contours in red are measured in feet and have a 1000 ft contour interval, and contours in blue are

measured in meters and have no set contour interval.

48

Figure 2.4: Topo-to-Raster image of the Precambrian basement in the United States, with darker

areas representing basins and lighter areas representing domes and arches.

Figure 2.5: Second version of the Precambrian surface map of the United States, with the

Hillshade raster overlying Topo-to-Raster image (see Figure 2.4).

49

Figure 2.6: Final version of the shaded relief map of the Precambrian surface, with the

following overlays: Cordillera, Appalachians, and Ouachitas in purple, coastal plain in yellow,

and Precambrian outcrops in red.

50

Figure 2.7: A 3-D perspective of the Precambrian shaded relief of the Midcontinent. Basin in

foreground is the Arkoma basin.

51

Figure 2.8: Overlay of all of the faults and folds collected in the study. Not all of the faults and

folds reach the Precambrian.

52

Figure 2.9: The final fault and fold map, showing the major faults and folds known to interact

with the Precambrian basement (in black).

53

Figure 2.10: United States outline map with overlays of ‘Precambrian Outcrops’ (in red) and

‘Rift Areas’ (in green): MCR=Midcontinent Rift system, OA=Oklahoma Aulacogen, RF=

Reelfoot Rift, RCG=Rough Creek Graben, RT=Rome Trough, and BBG=Birmingham Basement

graben.

54

Figure 2.11: United States outline map overlain by the ‘Domes and Basins’ shapefile:

AB=Appalachian Basin, AnB=Anadarko Basin, ArB=Arkoma Basin, BWB=Black Warrior

Basin, IB=Illinois Basin, MB=Michigan Basin and WB=Williston Basin.

55

— CHAPTER 3 —

OBSERVATIONS

______________________________________________________________________________

3.1 Observations of the Shaded Relief Map

An initial examination of the shaded-relief map of the basement topography in the

Midcontinent reveals that the subsurface elevation the Great Unconformity varies significantly.

The central Midcontinent is a broad, low-relief surface, whereas the southern and eastern edges

of the Midcontinent have substantial structural relief. For example, the elevation of the basement

surface in the St. Francis Mountains in the Ozark Plateau is up to 500 m above sea level, whereas

the same surface in the southern end of the Illinois Basin, 100 km to the east, is as much as 7 km

below sea level. Thus, there is locally up to 7.5 km of structural relief on this surface in the

Midcontinent. Comparison of the Midcontinent to other sectors of the cratonic platform (namely,

the Rocky Mountains and the Colorado Plateau) indicates that the Midcontinent does have a

different character. In this chapter, I will discuss details of the shaded relief map, considering

each of the four sectors of the map (the Rocky Mountains; the Colorado Plateau; the

Midcontinent region; and the ‘bordering basins’) separately (Fig. 3.1).

The Rocky Mountains Sector: The Precambrian basement underneath the Rocky

Mountains shows evidence of intense episodes of past tectonic activity. Many of the high,

elongate (50 to 200 km long by 20 to 50 km wide) ranges are cored by Precambrian rocks

brought up on reverse faults (e.g., Yonkee and Mitra, 1993), some of which are exposed at

elevations of up to 4.4 km above sea level. Between the ranges are basins that are down to 6 km

deep, creating extreme structure relief on the Great Unconformity over a relatively short

56

horizontal distance. In this region, the amplitude is high (about 10 km) and the wavelength, or

distance between uplifts, is relatively short (80 to 200 km). Notably, trends of ranges and

intervening basins occur in different orientations (north-south, west-east, and northwest-

southeast). The intensity of deformation of the basement, as indicated by structural relief and

relatively short distances between ranges, is greatest in Wyoming and Colorado, or the Laramide

Rocky Mountain province. The distance between Precambrian surface uplifts increases north of

Wyoming and south of Colorado.

The Colorado Plateau Sector: The Colorado Plateau of Arizona, Utah, New Mexico,

and Colorado lies south and west of the Rocky Mountains. Precambrian topography of the

Plateau differs significantly from that of the Rocky Mountains in that the Plateau’s Precambrian

surface displays relatively subdued structural relief, with gentler gradients of the surface. The

region contains monoclinal folds related to subsurface fault reactivation (e.g., Huntoon 1993),

but these are significantly smaller in amplitude (less than 1 km) than those of the Rocky

Mountains Province. The magnitude of structural relief appears to decrease progressively to the

south, toward the Mogollon Highlands of central Arizona, but the lack of structural relief may be

an artifact of lack of data.

The Midcontinent Sector: The basement surface in the interior of the Midcontinent

region is relatively smooth. In general, transitions between high areas (arches and domes) and

low areas (basins) occur relatively gradually, in that the distance between the centers of large

intracratonic basins (e.g., the Williston, Michigan, and Illinois basins) are on the order of 500 to

1000 km. Also, intracratonic basins of the Midcontinent are relatively equant (i.e., circular to

slightly elliptical) in comparison to elongate (very elliptical) basins of the Rocky Mountain

province. Notably, the Williston and Michigan basins are spoon-shaped structures, and the slope

57

of the basin surface from the margin of the basin to the interior is very gradual (e.g., a vertical

change of 3 km over a distance of 150 km for the Michigan Basin, in comparison to the Bighorn

Basin in which the basement depth changes by about 10 km over a horizontal distance of 80 km.

The basement topography map emphasizes that, of the intracratonic basins in the Midcontinent,

the Illinois basin appears to be unique, in that its character changes from north to south—the

northern portion of the basin is a broad, spoon-shaped depression, whereas the southern end is a

relatively narrow fault-controlled rift (the Rough Creek graben).

Through most of the Midcontinent (e.g., in Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, North Dakota,

South Dakota, Indiana, Kansas, and Nebraska), the basement surface has low-relief, locally cut

by steps that are associated with recognized major faults (Fig. 3.2). For example, the

Proterozoic-age (1.1 Ga) Midcontinent Rift system visibly extends from Minnesota to Kansas.

This feature, despite originating as an extension-related graben, now appears as a positive feature

on the shaded-relief map because its bordering normal faults were inverted during the Paleozoic

to become reverse faults that thrust Precambrian rocks up relative to bordering Paleozoic cover.

The Nemaha Ridge (or uplift) clearly appears as a fault-controlled step in the basement that, at

its north end, intersects the Midcontinent rift. The Ozark Plateau appears on the shaded-relief

map as a rectilinear feature whose northeast corner has been relatively uplifted. Another notable

feature within the Midcontinent region is the Manson impact structure in central Iowa, which

affected the Precambrian surface, producing a central peak in the center of a circular depression.

The ‘Bordering Basins’ Sector: The shaded relief map emphasizes that relatively

narrow, elongate basins (400 km long by 100 km across) border the southern and eastern part of

the Midcontinent region. In effect, these basins define a chain that outlines the Midcontinent

Sector. In order from southwest to northeast, they are: the Permian basin of the Texas/New

58

Mexico border, the Anadarko Basin of Oklahoma, the Arkoma Basin of the Oklahoma and

Arkansas, the Reelfoot Rift of eastern Arkansas and southeast Missouri, the Rough Creek

Graben of western Kentucky, and the Rome Trough, which extends from eastern Kentucky,

across West Virginia and Pennsylvania. These basins are locally very deep (up to 7.5 to 10.5

km), and their borders are relatively steep (7 to 10 km of relief over a horizontal distance of 100

km). Published studies indicate that the basins are bordered by and/or incorporate normal faults,

some of which have been inverted.

Along the foreland edge of the Appalachians, a second set of basins, parallel to the

Reelfoot Rift, has formed. This set includes the Birmingham Basement Graben of northern

Alabama (Thomas and Bayona 2005), and the interior portion of the Appalachian basin. The

Birmingham Basement Graben and the Reelfoot Rift together outline a crustal block spanning

Tennessee, and northern Alabama and Mississippi, that appears to have started separating from

the Midcontinent Sector, but did not succeed. This block is bounded on the southwest by the

Oklahoma-Alabama transform (Thomas 2011). The Black Warrior Basin, which is a triangular-

shaped basin in Mississippi and Alabama at the southeastern corner of this block, differs from

the other ‘bordering basins’, in that its border has a relatively gentle gradient that slopes towards

the Gulf of Mexico.

Notably, some of the bordering basins lie adjacent to uplifts where Precambrian rocks are

locally exposed at the surface. Two examples of this occurring are the Ozark Plateau, which lies

adjacent to the Illinois basin, and the Wichita-Arbuckle Mountains, which lies adjacent to the

Anadarko basin (see Figure 3.2). Also of note, some of the basins (e.g., the Arkoma and

Appalachian basins) lie adjacent to thrust belts, suggesting that some of their subsidence reflects

59

loading by the emplacement of thrust sheets. In other words, their great depth may reflect the

superposition of thrust-related subsidence on prior rift-related subsidence.

3.2 Observations of Structures, Based on the Attribute Table and Fault/Fold Map

To provide constraints on the orientation and location of faults and folds in the cratonic

platform, I collected data on the structures from the literature and compiled them into an attribute

table, using an Excel spreadsheet (see Table 2.1). The level of detail concerning the structures

varies significantly. Many of the structures exist in the subsurface, so direct measurements on

fault dip, sense of slip and displacement amount is not available. In some cases, the dip-slip

component can be estimated based on structure-contour maps, and in some cases, by study of

seismic-reflection profiles.

I classified the structures, based on their character, into 14 types. Specifically, I refer to

structures that are known only from subsurface data as "inferred basement faults", of which the

type of structure or the sense of slip on that structure is not well known. I estimate

approximately 20% to 30% of the structures involved both faulting and associated folding. If the

fault has known normal-sense displacement, it is classified as a ‘normal fault’, and if it has

known reverse-sense displacement, it is classified as a "reverse fault". Steep faults on which the

sense of slip is not known are called simply ‘high-angle faults.’ I have also distinguished

between left-lateral and right-lateral strike slip faults, suture zones, and shear zones. ‘Suture

zones’ are structures that formed due to two or more Proterozoic terranes or crustal blocks

colliding together.

A plot of fault traces on the map (see Fig. 2.9), indicates that Midcontinent faults and

folds cluster, defining distinct fault-and-fold zones. The distribution of faulting that appears on

60

the map could reflect, to some extent, lack of data. But more likely, it indicates that the

Midcontinent consists of relatively intact blocks bounded by fault-and-fold zones. Fault length

on the map varies. The longest faults are tens to hundreds of kilometers long, but some faults are

only a few kilometers long.

I measured the map trends of the structures in order to determine if there are dominant

trends of the structures in the Midcontinent, as had previously been suggested by previous

authors (e.g., Marshak and Paulsen, 1997; Marshak et al., 2003). I then used the StereoNet8

software to produce four rose diagrams for each group of structures (Almendinger et.al. 2013,

Cardozo and Almendinger 2013). The first group of structures involves the categorized normal,

reverse, thrust, high angle thrust, high angle normal, and high angle faults. This first rose

diagram, shown in Figure 3.3, shows two dominant trends in the NE and ENE directions. There

are also three notable trends that should be mentioned, which are in the NNE, NW, and WNW

directions. The second group of structures involves the designated strike slip faults, transform

faults, shear zones, and suture zones. Figure 3.4 reveals two dominant trends (NW and WNW),

and two notable trends (NE and ENE). The third group of structures includes the folds identified

in the study, involving anticlines, synclines, and monoclines. Two dominant trends that are

visible in this fold group (shown in Fig. 3.5) are in the NNW and NNE directions. The final

group of structures includes the ‘inferred basement faults’, which have two dominant trends in

the NW and WNW directions and two notable trends in the NNE and NNW directions (Fig. 3.6).

61

Figure 3.1: Precambrian shaded relief map of the United States, with an overlay of the four

domains described in Chapter 3: the Rocky Mountain Sector, the Colorado Plateau Sector, the

Midcontinent Sector, and the Bordering Basins Sector.

62

Figure 3.2: Precambrian shaded relief map of the Midcontinent, with overlays of the Cordillera,

Appalachians, and Ouachitas in purple, the coastal plain in yellow, and Precambrian outcrops in

red. MIS=Manson Impact Structure, MRS=Midcontinent Rift System, NR=Nemaha Ridge, and

WM=Wichita Mountains.

63

Figure 3.3: Half-Rose Diagram of the normal, reverse, high angle, and thrust faults, showing the

dominant trends (NE and ENE trends) and the notable trends (WNW, NW, and NNE trends).

Figure 3.4: Half-Rose Diagram of the strike slip faults, transfer faults, suture zones, and shear

zones, showing the dominant trends (NW and WNW trends) and the notable trends (NE and

ENE trends).

64

Figure 3.5: Half-Rose Diagram of the folds (anticlines, synclines, and monoclines, showing

dominant trends in the NNW and NNE directions.

Figure 3.6: Half-Rose Diagram of the inferred basement faults, showing dominant trends in the

NW and WNW directions and notable trends in the NNW and NNE directions.

65

— CHAPTER 4 —

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ______________________________________________________________________________

4.1 General Statement

The shaded-relief map of the Great Unconformity (i.e., on the top of the Precambrian

basement surface) provides a fresh image accentuating tectonic features and crustal character in

the Midcontinent. While the features that it shows have been recognized for decades, the

visualization emphasizes relationships that do not stand out so clearly in conventional depictions

of the basement top surface. In particular, is emphasizes that:

• The Midcontinent Sector is, overall, a coherent crustal block. It is delineated on the west by

the Rocky Mountain front, and on the south and east by rift basins, some of which have been

pushed down to greater depth by subsequent thrust-loading. The pattern of rifting stands out

on the map, and supports the hypothesis that during the Proterozoic separation of Laurentia

from Pannotia, a set of failed rifts formed inboard of the ultimately successful rift.

• In the Midcontinent Sector, basement topography is not controlled by the position of

Proterozoic sutures. Specifically, comparison of the Whitmeyer and Karlstrom map (see Fig.

1.2) with the basement topography map shows that there is little if any correlation between the

major Precambrian province boundaries and basement topography. This implies that sutures,

whose development is accompanied by prograde metamorphism and associated

recrystallization, do not behave as long-lived weaknesses.

• Proterozoic rifts do influence basement topography in the Midcontinent Sector. This is evident

by the structural relief associated with the Midcontinent Rift, the Nemaha Ridge, and the major

basins bordering the Midcontinent block. Therefore, the normal faults generated by rifting do

66

remain as long-lived weaknesses as suggested by Marshak et al. (2003). The dilation during

normal faulting may provide access of water to mid-crustal rocks, leading to retrograde

metamorphism and the production of weak phyllosilicates (e.g., chlorite); these zones have

never annealed.

• The distance between sedimentary basins in the Midcontinent Sector and the gentle slope

gradients of basement leading into the basins contrasts markedly with that of the Rocky

Mountain Sector, but is not that different from the Colorado Plateau Sector. Clearly, the crust

of the Rocky Mountains region has behaved differently than other regions of cratonic platform

crust during convergent tectonism. Specifically, the Laramide shortening of the Rocky

Mountains Sector had significantly different consequences than the Alleghanian shortening of

the Midcontinent block. This either reflects the difference between the consequences of

shallow subduction and the consequences of continental collision, or a difference between the

character of the crust of the two regions prior to shortening.

• The Bordering Basins on the south and east of the Midcontinent Sector are discontinuous, in

that they are separated along strike by distinct crustal bridges of unrifted crust between them.

4.2 Implications of the Shaded-Relief Map to Interpreting Intraplate Seismicity

Using data collected from the U.S. Geological Survey, I constructed a shapefile showing

the most recent earthquake epicenters (from January 1979 to April 2013) throughout the cratonic

platform. To emphasize the spatial distribution of events, rather than the energy release by

cumulative earthquakes in an area, all epicenters are shown by the same dot size. I overlaid the

earthquake epicenter shapefile over the shaded relief map to see if any correlation exists between

epicenter distribution and basement structure (Fig. 4.1). The map clearly shows that the vast

67

majority of events occur in the Bordering Basins Sector. Relatively few events occur in the

Midcontinent Sector. Those events that do occur in the Midcontinent Sector appear to be aligned

in semi-distinct zones that generally do not coincide with known basement-penetrating faults.

The three areas with the greatest concentration of earthquake epicenters (i.e., areas with

the most seismicity) are in central Oklahoma, in the New Madrid seismic zone/Reelfoot Rift

area, and in the East Tennessee seismic zone. The central Oklahoma seismic zone coincides

with several major faults (e.g., the Central Oklahoma fault zone and the Meers/Criner fault

system). The Central Oklahoma fault zone, which trends north-south, appears to be the southern

extension of the Nemaha uplift and delineates the steep gradient in basement topography at the

western edge of a crustal bridge between the Arkoma and Anadarko basins. Both the Criner and

Meers faults trend northwest-southeast and lie in the deepest part of the Anadarko basin. The

New Madrid seismic zone in the Reelfoot Rift occurs in the eastern boundary of the western

Tennessee crustal block, and appears continuous with a line of seismicity that extends northeast

to Lake Ontario. The zone also coincides with the steepest gradient in the slope of the basement

surface. The difference in Precambrian topographic relief from the deepest part of the Illinois

basin to the top of the Ozark Plateau is about 7.5 km. This is also the area where the Precambrian

topography is very steep, although the faulting patterns are not well known. The East Tennessee

seismic zone, in contrast, does not appear to correlate with a steep basement gradient. In fact,

structure associated the East Tennessee seismic zone is relatively subtle; the zone follows the

trend of the New York-Alabama Lineament (Powell et.al., 1994).

Notably, there are distinct gaps in seismicity within the Midcontinent region, even in

places where there are faults. One example is the central part of the Arkoma basin, which is the

region that lies between central Oklahoma and the New Madrid seismic zones. According to

68

cross-sections and maps of this region (Arbenz, 2008; Csontos et.al., 2008), an extensional fault

system exists in the subsurface. Another example lies between the Rough Creek Graben and the

Rome Trough, in central Kentucky. This area is a crustal bridge between the two rift systems,

and contains the Grenville suture. Using information from Hickman (2011), I have extended the

rift-bounding faults to connect the two rift systems.

4.3 Implications of the Shaded Relief Map to Interpreting Crustal Inhomogeneities

Both gravity and magnetic anomaly maps provide insight into crustal differences within a

region. The use of both of these maps can help to identify small-scale and large-scale structures,

in the subsurface and at the land surface. Comparing the gravity and magnetic anomaly maps to

the Precambrian basement shaded-relief map can enhance interpretation of where basement

structures are located and possibly how they are derived. Gravity maps, in particular isostatic

gravity maps, provide images of mass anomalies within the crust—where positive gravity

anomalies occur, there is an excess in mass, and where negative gravity anomalies occur, there is

a deficit in mass. Figure 4.2 compares the isostatic gravity map of the United States to the

shaded-relief map of the basement top surface, and reveals clear correlations. For example, the

Midcontinent Rift System and the Meers/Criner faults appear as a strong positive anomaly

relative to the surrounding area. Another example is the western part of the Arkoma basin,

which is a strong negative anomaly in the isostatic gravity map.

Magnetic anomaly maps can highlight areas where rocks contain a relatively large or

relatively small concentration of magnetic minerals. A comparison between the magnetic-

anomaly map and the shaded-relief map of the basement top surface is shown in Figure 4.3.

69

One clear positive anomaly in the magnetic map is a portion of the Midcontinent Rift System

(from Minnesota through Iowa).

4.4 Conclusions

The construction in ArcGIS of a 3-D shaded relief map of the Great Unconformity, and of

faults and folds, in the cratonic platform is challenging because the data necessary to produce

these maps is not easily accessible, and occurs in a variety of different forms. The maps provide

useful insight into architecture of regional-scale structures and suggest relationships among the

Precambrian basement topography, faulting, and seismicity. Specifically, the shaded-relief map

emphasizes that the cratonic platform includes distinct sectors that differ from one another in

terms of structural relief, gradients in the slope of the basement surface, and the wavelength of

uplifts and basins. The map of fault-and-fold zones emphasizes that the structures are not

randomly oriented, but concentrate in distinct sets. Comparison of the maps to the distribution of

earthquake epicenters emphasizes that most seismicity of the cratonic platform east of the Rocky

Mountain front concentrates in the rift-controlled basins that lie along the southern and eastern

margins of the low-relief Midcontinent sector.

70

Figure 4.1: Precambrian shaded relief map of the Midcontinent showing earthquake epicenters

(red circles). ETSZ=East Tennessee Seismic Zone and NMSZ=New Madrid Seismic Zone.

71

Figure 4.2: Comparison of an Isostatic Gravity map (above) to the Precambrian shaded relief

map (below).

72

Figure 4.3: Comparison of a magnetic map (above) to the Precambrian shaded relief map

(below).

73

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