The Mexica or Aztec: The Mexica or Aztec: A Predatory StateA Predatory State

Social, Political, and Economic Social, Political, and Economic OrganizationOrganization

Who Were the Aztec?Who Were the Aztec?

We know they came from somewhere up northWe know they came from somewhere up north—how far north is anyone’s guess—how far north is anyone’s guess

Mythically, they came from “Aztlan, the Land of Mythically, they came from “Aztlan, the Land of the Herons,” of which “Aztec” is a derivationthe Herons,” of which “Aztec” is a derivation

They were mercenaries of the Toltec centered They were mercenaries of the Toltec centered in Tula, although even that is bound up in mythin Tula, although even that is bound up in myth

When Tula fell, the Aztec migrated to an area of When Tula fell, the Aztec migrated to an area of five lakes dominated by Lake Texcocofive lakes dominated by Lake Texcoco

An area dominated by “Epigonal Toltecs”An area dominated by “Epigonal Toltecs”

Epigonal ToltecsEpigonal Toltecs The first were the Otomi-speaking Tepanecs, who The first were the Otomi-speaking Tepanecs, who

founded the city of Atzcapotzalco on the western founded the city of Atzcapotzalco on the western shores of Lake Texcocoshores of Lake Texcoco

The second was Xaltocan, an Otomi-speaking The second was Xaltocan, an Otomi-speaking state on the north shore of Lake Texcocostate on the north shore of Lake Texcoco

The third was the Acolhua who dominated the The third was the Acolhua who dominated the eastern shore of Lake Texcoco, organized also by eastern shore of Lake Texcoco, organized also by ChichimecaChichimeca

The fourth was ColhuacThe fourth was Colhuacán on the southwest part án on the southwest part of the Valley of Mexico, at the cusp between of the Valley of Mexico, at the cusp between Lakes Texcoco and Xochimilco.Lakes Texcoco and Xochimilco.

The fifth was a small state Xicco. The fifth was a small state Xicco.

Aztec NomenclatureAztec Nomenclature Initially, they did not settle at the site of Initially, they did not settle at the site of

Tenochtitlan Tenochtitlan Their names changed from “Chichimec from Their names changed from “Chichimec from

Aztlan” a contemptuous term that meant Aztlan” a contemptuous term that meant “Barbarian”“Barbarian”

To “Tenochca” after a patriarch by that name, To “Tenochca” after a patriarch by that name, who also gave the name to Tenochtitlwho also gave the name to Tenochtitláánn

To “Mexica,” which they adopted after To “Mexica,” which they adopted after attaching themselves to the Colhua of attaching themselves to the Colhua of Colhuacan as mercenaries, calling themselves Colhuacan as mercenaries, calling themselves “Colhua Mexica”“Colhua Mexica”

Formation of the AztecFormation of the Aztec Initially, they did not settle at the site of Initially, they did not settle at the site of

TenochtitlTenochtitlánán After numerous wanderings they settled at a After numerous wanderings they settled at a

swampy site mythically where an eagle was swampy site mythically where an eagle was perched on a nopal cactus devouring a snakeperched on a nopal cactus devouring a snake

First, they served as mercenaries of AtzcapotzalcoFirst, they served as mercenaries of Atzcapotzalco They then switched sides, allied themselves with They then switched sides, allied themselves with

the Acolhua of Texcoco, overthrew Atzapotzalco, the Acolhua of Texcoco, overthrew Atzapotzalco, and eventually formed a triple alliance between and eventually formed a triple alliance between themselves, the Acolhua, and a liberated part of themselves, the Acolhua, and a liberated part of Atzapotzalco called TlacopanAtzapotzalco called Tlacopan

Third, they established hegemony in 1500, 21 Third, they established hegemony in 1500, 21 years before the actual conquest. years before the actual conquest.

Formation and SocietyFormation and Society Bilateral descent does allow for flexibility.Bilateral descent does allow for flexibility. To enjoy a rapid rise from a muddy village settled To enjoy a rapid rise from a muddy village settled

in 1345 or so to an empire less than 200 years in 1345 or so to an empire less than 200 years later, you have to be flexible.later, you have to be flexible.

1427 saw the formation of the Triple Alliance1427 saw the formation of the Triple Alliance So to envision an “Aztec society,” the question So to envision an “Aztec society,” the question

arises just which society are we talking aboutarises just which society are we talking about Berdan describes society at it was on the eve of Berdan describes society at it was on the eve of

the Conquestthe Conquest But were they patrilineal groups in the past? We But were they patrilineal groups in the past? We

don’t know; records were often destroyed by the don’t know; records were often destroyed by the victorsvictors

What Were the Calpulli?What Were the Calpulli?

What is known for sure:What is known for sure: There were 20 “Big Houses” by that nameThere were 20 “Big Houses” by that name They were landholding groupsThey were landholding groups They were organized territoriallyThey were organized territorially They had their own councilsThey had their own councils They had their own templesThey had their own temples They comprised the macehual, or They comprised the macehual, or

commoner, generally peasantscommoner, generally peasants The debate: kin groups or peasant class?The debate: kin groups or peasant class?

Calpulli as Kin GroupsCalpulli as Kin Groups

Kin groups or clansKin groups or clans Reasoning: the Aztecs themselves Reasoning: the Aztecs themselves

were tribal groups at most 300 years were tribal groups at most 300 years beforebefore

What kind? Evidence is lacking?What kind? Evidence is lacking? Indication of a patrilineal bias among Indication of a patrilineal bias among

nobility: preference for “junior lines” in nobility: preference for “junior lines” in allocating economic assets and allocating economic assets and political favors. political favors.

Calpulli as Social and Economic Calpulli as Social and Economic ClassesClasses

Developed into administrative subclassesDeveloped into administrative subclasses Could have been units organizing not only Could have been units organizing not only

peasants but also craftspersons and peasants but also craftspersons and traderstraders

Example: in Texcoco under Hungry Coyote Example: in Texcoco under Hungry Coyote (Nezahualcoyotl), calpulli were organized (Nezahualcoyotl), calpulli were organized featherworkers and goldworkersfeatherworkers and goldworkers

Pochteca (luxury good traders) may also Pochteca (luxury good traders) may also have formed a calpulli; we do know they have formed a calpulli; we do know they were hereditarywere hereditary

Calpulli as Both Kin and Calpulli as Both Kin and ClassClass

Conical clans in which privileges are based Conical clans in which privileges are based on order of birthon order of birth

Kept wealth and privileges in the family, but Kept wealth and privileges in the family, but some members were more equal than otherssome members were more equal than others

Kin trace their ancestry to a founder, real or Kin trace their ancestry to a founder, real or fictivefictive

But through such justification as precedence But through such justification as precedence of birth, the lineal descendants (junior lines) of birth, the lineal descendants (junior lines) get preferential treatmentget preferential treatment

This suggests that unilineal descent might This suggests that unilineal descent might have been dominant at one timehave been dominant at one time

Calpulli and EthnicityCalpulli and Ethnicity As conquests proceeded, Tenochtitlan As conquests proceeded, Tenochtitlan

became more ethnically diverse.became more ethnically diverse. Thus calpulli included not only kin but also Thus calpulli included not only kin but also

“allies” from the conquered provinces“allies” from the conquered provinces Flexibility of kin thus allowed fictive Flexibility of kin thus allowed fictive

(fictional) ties as well(fictional) ties as well Thus, the European Catholic tradition of Thus, the European Catholic tradition of

compradrazgo fit in very well with compradrazgo fit in very well with indigenous society. indigenous society.

Thus their flexibility is not at issue; only Thus their flexibility is not at issue; only their “pristine” characteristics. their “pristine” characteristics.

Calpulli and Land TenureCalpulli and Land Tenure

Land was held in common in the Land was held in common in the calpullicalpulli

System was based on usufructSystem was based on usufruct Peasants “owned” their plot so long as Peasants “owned” their plot so long as

they used it and paid their taxesthey used it and paid their taxes Land reverted back to the commons if Land reverted back to the commons if

the peasant stopped using the land or the peasant stopped using the land or pay the taxespay the taxes

Land could be rented, but not bought or Land could be rented, but not bought or soldsold

Aztec: Kin ReckoningAztec: Kin Reckoning

Reckoned kinship bilaterally; traced Reckoned kinship bilaterally; traced relations through paternal and maternal relations through paternal and maternal side.side.

Kinship terms bilateral: e.g. Kinship terms bilateral: e.g. tlatli tlatli is an is an uncle, whether father’s or mother’s uncle, whether father’s or mother’s brotherbrother

Possibly reflected the extreme instability Possibly reflected the extreme instability one expects from a state in rapid one expects from a state in rapid formationformation

And one in which there are shifting And one in which there are shifting alliancesalliances

Marriage among the AztecMarriage among the Aztec

Marriage was endogamous by class: pipiltin to Marriage was endogamous by class: pipiltin to other pipiltin, macehuallin to other other pipiltin, macehuallin to other macehuallinmacehuallin

There was no other rule of exogamy outside There was no other rule of exogamy outside the immediate familythe immediate family

This meant that marriage could involve one’s This meant that marriage could involve one’s cousin; cross-cousin marriage was not cousin; cross-cousin marriage was not unknownunknown

Polygyny was common among nobility and tied Polygyny was common among nobility and tied in with social class; wives were put to work.in with social class; wives were put to work.

Marriage Alliances and Marriage Alliances and PowerPower

Nobility: Marriage had a political function: female Nobility: Marriage had a political function: female from Texcoco married a male from the from Texcoco married a male from the subordinate Teotihuacan to maintain a tiesubordinate Teotihuacan to maintain a tie

The son of the Teotihuacan ruler would then be The son of the Teotihuacan ruler would then be subordinate to Texcoco because of the “gift” of a subordinate to Texcoco because of the “gift” of a wife.wife.

Marriage was to man’s mother’s brother’s Marriage was to man’s mother’s brother’s daughter—his matrilateral cross-cousin. daughter—his matrilateral cross-cousin.

Failure to repay in Maussian terms means the Failure to repay in Maussian terms means the Teotihuacan nobility would be “beggar” to Teotihuacan nobility would be “beggar” to Texcoco nobility. Texcoco nobility.

This would persist for generations. This would persist for generations.

Aztec Markets: Common Aztec Markets: Common GoodsGoods

There were two kinds of marketsThere were two kinds of markets One dealt in ordinary goodsOne dealt in ordinary goods Markets usually met every five days Markets usually met every five days Trading outside the market was Trading outside the market was

illegal and one could be imprisoned illegal and one could be imprisoned or the goods confiscatedor the goods confiscated

Reason: market transactions were Reason: market transactions were subject to taxatisubject to taxati

Aztec Markets: Luxury Aztec Markets: Luxury ProductsProducts

Texcoco had been a market town long before the Texcoco had been a market town long before the Aztecs assumed powerAztecs assumed power

Markets were a daily affair in Texcoco; major markets Markets were a daily affair in Texcoco; major markets comprising up to 50,000 buyers and sellers met every comprising up to 50,000 buyers and sellers met every fifth day—they were the center of luxury productsfifth day—they were the center of luxury products

A hereditary class of merchants called A hereditary class of merchants called PochtecaPochteca were probably active long before the Aztecswere probably active long before the Aztecs

They occupied a precarious positionThey occupied a precarious position On the one hand, they were vital as sources of On the one hand, they were vital as sources of

military intelligence to the rulers and were protectedmilitary intelligence to the rulers and were protected On the other hand, their economic power were a On the other hand, their economic power were a

threat to the rulers; toward the end, they hid their threat to the rulers; toward the end, they hid their wealth. wealth.

Sociopolitical Organization of Sociopolitical Organization of the Aztecsthe Aztecs

Society: A Twofold DivisionSociety: A Twofold Division Pilli: The noblesPilli: The nobles Macehual: The peasantsMacehual: The peasants However, the peasants themselves were However, the peasants themselves were

stratifiedstratified Macehuales who excelled in battle could Macehuales who excelled in battle could

themselves become noblethemselves become noble This requires some background in the This requires some background in the

principles of political anthropologyprinciples of political anthropology

Social Class: OverviewSocial Class: Overview

General types (Fried)General types (Fried) Egalitarian societies:Egalitarian societies: Social systems with as many valued positions Social systems with as many valued positions

as person capable of filling themas person capable of filling them Exceptions: age, gender, special characteristicsExceptions: age, gender, special characteristics Ranked societiesRanked societies Social systems with fewer valued status Social systems with fewer valued status

positions than those capable of filling thempositions than those capable of filling them Stratified societiesStratified societies Minority control of strategic resourcesMinority control of strategic resources

Stratified SocietiesStratified Societies

Access to strategic resources is unequalAccess to strategic resources is unequal ExamplesExamples Water in irrigation societiesWater in irrigation societies Land in patrimonial (feudal) societiesLand in patrimonial (feudal) societies Claims to capital assets (stocks, bonds) in Claims to capital assets (stocks, bonds) in

capitalist societycapitalist society Capital: goods/services used for Capital: goods/services used for

productionproduction Money, stocks, bonds are also capitalMoney, stocks, bonds are also capital

Emergence of StratificationEmergence of Stratification

Manipulative Individuals/ Manipulative Individuals/ FamiliesFamilies

Form alliances (chimpanzee-Form alliances (chimpanzee-like)like)

Play one faction against anotherPlay one faction against another Form dynasties (bonobo-like)Form dynasties (bonobo-like) Control over Life-Sustaining Control over Life-Sustaining

ResourcesResources Water systems in semi-arid Water systems in semi-arid

regionsregions Agricultural landsAgricultural lands Mechanisms of TaxationMechanisms of Taxation LaborLabor TributeTribute

Political Organization: Basic Political Organization: Basic PrinciplesPrinciples

Power vs AuthorityPower vs Authority Power: compliance by coercion or forcePower: compliance by coercion or force Authority: compliance by persuasionAuthority: compliance by persuasion Legitimacy:Legitimacy: Beliefs rationalizing rule Beliefs rationalizing rule Examples: Divine Right, Peoples Consent Examples: Divine Right, Peoples Consent SanctionsSanctions: reinforcements of behavior: reinforcements of behavior Positive: rewards, recognitionPositive: rewards, recognition Negative: punishment Negative: punishment

Power versus AuthorityPower versus Authority Extreme examplesExtreme examples Power: concentration camps: Power: concentration camps:

Auschwitz (above); Guantanamo Auschwitz (above); Guantanamo (below)(below)

Authority: !Kung, Inuit, Authority: !Kung, Inuit, YanomamoYanomamo

Neither is absoluteNeither is absolute Dictatorships need to persuade: Dictatorships need to persuade:

Nuremberg rallies, Mayday Nuremberg rallies, Mayday paradesparades

Power is evenly distributed in Power is evenly distributed in nonstate culturesnonstate cultures

Legitimacy as Justification Legitimacy as Justification for Political Orderfor Political Order Justification necessary even in Justification necessary even in

authoritarian statesauthoritarian states Monarchies: the divine right to ruleMonarchies: the divine right to rule Soviet Union: Socialist transition to Soviet Union: Socialist transition to

communist economycommunist economy Nazi Germany: Racial purification; Nazi Germany: Racial purification;

delivery of full-employment delivery of full-employment (Nuremberg rallies, above)(Nuremberg rallies, above)

Democratic forms: consent by the Democratic forms: consent by the governed (below, State of the Union)governed (below, State of the Union)

One Myth Behind Mexica One Myth Behind Mexica PowerPower

War Against the Tepenacs of AtzcapotalzoWar Against the Tepenacs of Atzcapotalzo Nobles voted for war; commoners voted Nobles voted for war; commoners voted

for peacefor peace The declaration of the nobles (Wolf, p. 137)The declaration of the nobles (Wolf, p. 137) Commoners’ reply on agreement if the war Commoners’ reply on agreement if the war

were successful (Wolf, p. 137)were successful (Wolf, p. 137) Most likely, a mythical exchange, but this Most likely, a mythical exchange, but this

served as one part of legitimationserved as one part of legitimation

Sociopolitical Organizations: Sociopolitical Organizations: General TypologyGeneral Typology

Bands: Small, informal groupsBands: Small, informal groups Tribes: Segmentary groups Tribes: Segmentary groups

integrated by some unifying factorintegrated by some unifying factor Chiefdoms: Group organized under a Chiefdoms: Group organized under a

chief in a ranked societychief in a ranked society State: Centralized political system State: Centralized political system

with monopoly over legitimized force with monopoly over legitimized force and its use.and its use.

States: Force as Prime States: Force as Prime Mover Mover

Defining CharacteristicsDefining Characteristics A centralized political systemA centralized political system With power to coerceWith power to coerce The operating factor:The operating factor: Monopoly over the use ofMonopoly over the use of Legitimate physical forceLegitimate physical force Supports the apparatus of the stateSupports the apparatus of the state Bureaucracy --Army and policeBureaucracy --Army and police Law and legal codesLaw and legal codes

States: Derivative FeaturesStates: Derivative Features

Administrative structureAdministrative structure Public services --Tax collectionPublic services --Tax collection Resource allocation --Foreign affairsResource allocation --Foreign affairs Delegation of forceDelegation of force Police, all levels --Armed forcePolice, all levels --Armed force LawLaw Civil (dispute resolution)Civil (dispute resolution) Regulatory (trade, economy)Regulatory (trade, economy) Criminal (crime and punishment)Criminal (crime and punishment)

Law: Cross-Cultural Law: Cross-Cultural ComparisonComparison

Codified law: Formally defines wrong Codified law: Formally defines wrong and specifies remediesand specifies remedies

Customary law: Informal sanctions or Customary law: Informal sanctions or dispute resolutiondispute resolution

Restitution or Restorative law: Restitution or Restorative law: emphasizes dispute resolution, emphasizes dispute resolution, damage restitutiondamage restitution

Retributive law: emphasizes Retributive law: emphasizes punishment for crimes committedpunishment for crimes committed

Case Studies: RestitutionCase Studies: Restitution Nuer: Leopard-skin chiefNuer: Leopard-skin chief Function: mediate disputes; Function: mediate disputes;

leopard wrap identifies roleleopard wrap identifies role Cannot force or enforce an Cannot force or enforce an

agreementagreement Authority is spiritualAuthority is spiritual Zapotec in Talea, MexicoZapotec in Talea, Mexico Function: hear cases and Function: hear cases and

negotiatenegotiate Recommend settlementRecommend settlement Enforce agreement by Enforce agreement by

communitycommunity

Case Studies: RetributionCase Studies: Retribution

Criminal LawCriminal Law Murder, Robbery, Murder, Robbery,

OthersOthers Civil LawCivil Law Consumer Law and Consumer Law and

Small CourtsSmall Courts Final Say: Judge or Final Say: Judge or

ArbitratorArbitrator Limitation: Sheer Limitation: Sheer

Numbers of CasesNumbers of Cases

A Trisection of SocietyA Trisection of Society

Relations of Production form the Relations of Production form the basis of sociopolitical systems.basis of sociopolitical systems.

Political superstructure: Political superstructure: government, military, the lawgovernment, military, the law

Ideology: religion, myths, even Ideology: religion, myths, even psychologypsychology

When the base shifts, the rest of When the base shifts, the rest of society changessociety changes

Basic Political Structure of the Basic Political Structure of the MexicaMexica

The nobility expanded its privileges as the The nobility expanded its privileges as the empire developedempire developed

Privileges: Right to wear insignia, special Privileges: Right to wear insignia, special clothingclothing

Marital privileges: polygyny and the political Marital privileges: polygyny and the political and economic power it implied.and economic power it implied.

Had their own special courtsHad their own special courts Sent children to calmecatl, or schools of Sent children to calmecatl, or schools of

religious and ceremonial training, prerequisite religious and ceremonial training, prerequisite for entry into the bureaucracyfor entry into the bureaucracy

Commoners were tillers of the soilCommoners were tillers of the soil Slaves, who had their own privilegesSlaves, who had their own privileges

Aztec Society: A Study of Aztec Society: A Study of MobilityMobility

Remember that the Mexica were still Remember that the Mexica were still in a state of expansion when the in a state of expansion when the Spaniards cameSpaniards came

Unfinished business: The Tlaxcalans, Unfinished business: The Tlaxcalans, the Tarascans, the unconquered the Tarascans, the unconquered lands of southern Mexicolands of southern Mexico

Internally, they were a mobile societyInternally, they were a mobile society Rulers created a “nobility of service” Rulers created a “nobility of service”

as well as a nobility of lineageas well as a nobility of lineage

Nobility of ServiceNobility of Service Distinguished themselves in war or by Distinguished themselves in war or by

tradetrade Term: “Knights” or “Sons of the Eagle”Term: “Knights” or “Sons of the Eagle” Also divided the commoners from those Also divided the commoners from those

relative fewrelative few A source of tension with the nobility of A source of tension with the nobility of

lineage over bureaucratic positionslineage over bureaucratic positions An aristocratic reaction curtailed their An aristocratic reaction curtailed their

privilegesprivileges Stratification became more established Stratification became more established

on the eve of the Conqueston the eve of the Conquest

Religious IdeologyReligious Ideology

Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird of the Left): Huitzilopochtli (Hummingbird of the Left): the principal godthe principal god

Presided over a world that ended in Presided over a world that ended in cataclysmcataclysm

The last world ended in hurricanes, The last world ended in hurricanes, preceded by rain, sky falling on earth, and preceded by rain, sky falling on earth, and fire; the present one will end in fire; the present one will end in earthquakesearthquakes

To forestall the inevitable end would entail To forestall the inevitable end would entail the blood sacrifice of humansthe blood sacrifice of humans

Gods from the Gods from the PredecessorsPredecessors

Quetzalcoatl: The plumed serpent god who was Quetzalcoatl: The plumed serpent god who was banished to the east.banished to the east.

Tezcatlipoca, (smoking mirror), who displaced Tezcatlipoca, (smoking mirror), who displaced Quetzalcoatl, who demanded blood sacrificed in his Quetzalcoatl, who demanded blood sacrificed in his own right, and often identified with Huitzilopochtliown right, and often identified with Huitzilopochtli

Tlaloc, the rain god, He Who Makes the Plants Tlaloc, the rain god, He Who Makes the Plants Spring Up.Spring Up.

Xipe Totec, the Flayed One, whose skin symbolized Xipe Totec, the Flayed One, whose skin symbolized the old vegetation with the promise of renewalthe old vegetation with the promise of renewal

The pantheon became standardized after the first The pantheon became standardized after the first conquest over the Tepanecconquest over the Tepanec

Even so, one god might be merged with another, Even so, one god might be merged with another, as Huitzilopochtli with Tezcatlipocaas Huitzilopochtli with Tezcatlipoca

Self-Concept of the MexicaSelf-Concept of the Mexica

At the edge of cataclysmAt the edge of cataclysm Individuals were expected to Individuals were expected to

combine bravery with moderationcombine bravery with moderation The ideal Mexica did not drink to The ideal Mexica did not drink to

excess, spoke softly, was sexually excess, spoke softly, was sexually continent. continent.

The Eve of the Conquest: The Eve of the Conquest: Cracks in the Mexica StateCracks in the Mexica State

The Mexica exploited the provinces The Mexica exploited the provinces mercilessly for tribute and sometimes mercilessly for tribute and sometimes sacrificial victimssacrificial victims

Except for these, the provinces were left Except for these, the provinces were left on their own; their own customs, on their own; their own customs, languages, and religions were left alone.languages, and religions were left alone.

This, coupled with the still-independent This, coupled with the still-independent states, may have been their downfall.states, may have been their downfall.

The domination was never absolute, and The domination was never absolute, and the Mexica armies had their limitationsthe Mexica armies had their limitations

The Spaniards were able to exploit these The Spaniards were able to exploit these weaknesses, despite initial failures.weaknesses, despite initial failures.

Comparison with the MayaComparison with the Maya The Maya were competitive city statesThe Maya were competitive city states Even after the collapse, they were Even after the collapse, they were

relatively independentrelatively independent The conquest of the Aztec was largely a The conquest of the Aztec was largely a

one-time event in the Valley of Mexicoone-time event in the Valley of Mexico In contrast, the Spaniards would have to In contrast, the Spaniards would have to

conquer one Mayan state over a long conquer one Mayan state over a long period of attritionperiod of attrition

Even after 1692, there were constant Even after 1692, there were constant uprisings throughout Mexico and uprisings throughout Mexico and Guatemala well into the 19Guatemala well into the 19thth century. century.