the learning-proiect engleza martie 2013

8/13/2019 The Learning-Proiect Engleza Martie 2013

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The Learning

Classical conditioning (also Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is a form of learning in

which the conditioned stimulus or CS, comes to signal the occurrence of a second stimulus, the

unconditioned stimulus or US. (A stimulus is a factor that causes a response in an organism.) The

conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.The US is usually a

biologically significant stimulus such as food or pain that elicits a response from the start; this is called

the unconditioned response or UR. The CS usually produces no particular response at first, but after

conditioning it elicits the conditioned response or CR. Classical conditioning differs from operant or

instrumental conditioning, in which behavior emitted by the subject is strengthened or weakened by its

consequences (i.e. reward or punishment).

Conditioning is usually done by pairing the two stimuli, as in Pavlovs classic experiments.Pavlov

presented dogs with a ringing bell followed by food. The food elicited salivation (UR), and after repeated

bell-food pairings the bell also caused the dogs to salivate. In this experiment,the unconditioned stimulus

is the dog food as it produces an unconditioned response, saliva. The conditioned stimulus is the ringing

bell and it produces a conditioned response of the dogs producing saliva.

It was originally thought that the process underlying classical conditioning was one where the conditioned

stimulus becomes associated with, and eventually elicits, the unconditioned response. But many

observations do not support this hypothesis. For example, the conditioned response is often quite different

from the unconditioned response. Learning theorists now more commonly suggest that the CS comes to

signal or predict the US. In the case of the salivating dogs in Pavlov's experiment, the bell tone signaled

and predicted the arrival of the dog food, thus resulting in the dog salivating.Robert A. Rescorla provided

a clear summary of this change in thinking, and its consequences, in his 1988 article "Pavlovian

conditioning: It's not what you think it is."

I. P. Pavlov provided the most famous example of classical conditioning.During his research on the

physiology of digestion in dogs, Pavlov noticed that, rather than simply salivating in the presence of food,the dogs began to salivate in the presence of the lab technician who normally fed them. Pavlov called this

anticipatory salivation psychic secretion. From this observation he predicted that, if a particular stimulus

in the dog's surroundings was present when the dog was given food, then this stimulus would become

associated with food and cause salivation on its own. In his initial experiment, Pavlov used a bell to call

the dogs to their food and, after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the bell.

Pavlov called the bell the conditioned (or conditional) stimulus (CS) because its effect depended on its

association with food. He called the food the unconditioned stimulus (US) because its effect did not

depend on previous experience. Likewise, the response to the CS was the conditioned response (CR) and

that to the US was the unconditioned response (UR). The timing between the presentation of the CS and

US is integral to facilitating the conditioned response. Pavlov found that the shorter the interval between

the bell's ring and the appearance of the food, the more quickly the dog learned the conditioned response

and the stronger it was.

As noted earlier, it is often thought that the conditioned response is a replica of the unconditioned

response, but even Pavlov noted that saliva produced by the CS differs in composition from that produced

by the US. In fact, the CR may be any new response to the previously neutral CS that can be clearly

linked to experience with the conditional relationship of CS and US.It was also thought that repeated


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consequences, with the addition of a fifth procedure known as extinction (i.e. no change in consequences

following a response).

Reinforcementis a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with greater frequency.

Punishmentis a consequence that causes a behavior to occur with less frequency.

Extinction is caused by the lack of any consequence following a behavior. When a behavior is

inconsequential (i.e., producing neither favorable nor unfavorable consequences) it will occur less

frequently. When a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced with either positive or negative

reinforcement, it leads to a decline in that behavior.

Four contexts of operant conditioning

Here the terms positive and negative are not used in their popular sense, but rather: positive refers to

addition, and negative refers to subtraction.

What is added or subtracted may be either reinforcement or punishment. Hence positive punishment is

sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes the "addition" of a stimulus or increase in the intensity of a

stimulus that is aversive (such as spanking or an electric shock). The four procedures are:

Positive reinforcement (Reinforcement): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus

that is appetitive or rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior. In the Skinner box experiment, a

stimulus such as food or a sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such

as pressing a lever.

Negative reinforcement (Escape): occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an

aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative

reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target

behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.

Positive punishment(Punishment) (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation"): occurs when a

behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a

decrease in that behavior.

Negative punishment (Penalty) (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal"): occurs when a

behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following

an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

Operant conditioning to change human behavior

State Goal (aims for the study)

Monitor Behavior (log conditions)

Reinforce desired behavior (give reward for proper behavior)

Reduce incentives to perform undesirable behavior


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Also:

Avoidance learning is a type of learning in which a certain behavior results in the cessation of an

aversive stimulus. For example, performing the behavior of shielding one's eyes when in the sunlight (or

going outdoors) will help avoid the aversive stimulation of having light in one's eyes.

Extinctionoccurs when a behavior (response) that had previously been reinforced is no longer effective.

In the Skinner box experiment, this is the rat pushing the lever and being rewarded with a food pellet

several times, and then pushing the lever again and never receiving a food pellet again. Eventually the rat

would cease pushing the lever.

Noncontingent reinforcement refers to delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organism's

(aberrant) behavior. The idea is that the target behavior decreases because it is no longer necessary to

receive the reinforcement. This typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining

aberrant behavior, which serves to decrease the rate of the target behavior.As no measured behavior is

identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent

"reinforcement".

Token economy is an exchange system using the principles of operant conditioning where a token is

given as a reward for a desired behaviour. Tokens may later be exchanged for a desired prize or rewards

such as power, prestige, goods or services.

Shapingis a form of operant conditioning in which the increasingly accurate approximations of a desired

response are reinforced.

Chaining is an instructional procedure which involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a

sequence to form a complex behavior.

Response Cost is a form of punishment in which the annihilation of an appetitive stimulus alwaysfollows the reducing in the occurrence of a response.

Biological correlates of operant conditioning

The first scientific studies identifying neurons that responded in ways that suggested they encode for

conditioned stimuli came from work by Mahlon deLong and by R.T. Richardson. They showed thatnucleus basalis neurons, which releaseacetylcholinebroadly throughout thecerebral cortex,are activatedshortly after a conditioned stimulus, or after a primary reward if no conditioned stimulus exists. Theseneurons are equally active for positive and negative reinforcers, and have been demonstrated to cause

plasticity in manycortical regions. Evidence also exists thatdopamine is activated at similar times. Thereis considerable evidence that dopamine participates in both reinforcement and aversive learning.

Dopamine pathways project much more densely ontofrontal cortex regions. Cholinergicprojections, incontrast, are dense even in the posterior cortical regions like theprimary visual cortex.A study of patients

with Parkinson's disease, a condition attributed to the insufficient action of dopamine, further illustratesthe role of dopamine in positive reinforcement. It showed that while off their medication, patients learnedmore readily with aversive consequences than with positive reinforcement. Patients who were on theirmedication showed the opposite to be the case, positive reinforcement proving to be the more effectiveform of learning when the action of dopamine is high.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuronhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleus_basalishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylcholine#Neuromodulatory_Effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine#Functions_in_the_brainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal_cortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholinergichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_visual_cortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_visual_cortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cholinergichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontal_cortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine#Functions_in_the_brainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroplasticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylcholine#Neuromodulatory_Effectshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleus_basalishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron


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Operant conditioning in advertising

In operant conditioning, the term "contingency," which Skinner used frequently in his explanations ofoperant conditioning, is clearly relevant to such advertisements. Whether explicitly or implicitly, through

words or images, the purpose of these ads is to communicate an "if then." statement: if we use theproduct, we will receive the specified benefit.

Positive Reinforcement

This is a type of operant conditioning in which consumers are rewarded for buying a product or service.The reward acts to reinforce the behavior, making the consumer more likely to continue buying the

product. For example, coupons are a form of operant conditioning. Consumers use coupons to buy a

product for money off, then continue to buy the product even when the coupons are no longer available,because they become conditioned to buying the product. Free offers are another form of operantconditioning. One operant conditioning strategy is to offer consumers a free sample, then a coupon goodfor a large discount, then a coupon for a smaller discount. At the end of this, the consumer may be so usedto using the product that they continue to buy it at full price. Offers such as Buy 10, get one free are

another form of operant conditioning.

Negative Reinforcement

This type of operant conditioning may be used to get consumers to stop doing something. For example,electricity companies may charge more for electricity used during peak hours. This is a way to get peopleto use less electricity during peak hours. Salespeople who call at inconvenient times or use pressure toconvince you to buy a product or service are also using negative conditioning. The idea is that you will

buy the product in order to stop the pestering. Another form of negative conditioning is a threat to void a

warranty if the consumer does not use the company's repair and maintenance products. For example,voiding the warranty of a printer if you do not use the manufacturer's branded ink cartridges.

Observational learningis the learning that occurs through observing the behavior of other people. Albert

Bandura, who is best known for the classic Bobo doll experiment, discovered this basic form of learningin 1986. Bandura stressed the importance of observational learning because it allowed children especially,to acquire new responses through observing others' behavior. This form of learning does not needreinforcement to occur; instead, a model is required. A social model can be a parent,sibling,friend,orteacher,but particularly in childhood a model is someone of authority or higher status. A social model is

significantly important in observational learning because it allows one to cognitively process behavior,encode what is observed, and store it in memory for later imitation. While the model may not beintentionally trying to instill any particular behavior, many behaviors that one observes, remembers and

imitates are actions that models display. A child may learn to swear, smack, smoke, and deem otherinappropriate behavior acceptable through poor modeling. Bandura claims that children continually learn

desirable and undesirable behavior through observational learning. Observational learning suggests thatan individual's environment, cognition, and behavior all integrate and ultimately determine how onefunctions.Through observational learning, behaviors of an individual can spread across a culture through

a process known as diffusion chain, which basically occurs when an individual first learns a behavior byobserving another individual and that individual serves as a model through whom other individuals willlearn the behavior and so on so forth.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siblinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siblinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parent


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Culture and environment also play a role in whether observational learning will be the dominant learningstyle in a person or community. In some cultures, children are expected to actively participate in their

communities and are therefore exposed to different trades and roles on a daily basis. This exposure allowschildren to observe and learn the different skills and practices that are valued in their communities.Incommunities where children's primary mode of learning is through observation, the children are rarelyseparated from adult activities. This incorporation into the adult world at an early age allows children to

use observational learning skills in multiple spheres of life. Culturally, they learn that their participationand contributions are valued in their communities. This teaches children that it is their duty as members ofthe community to observe contributions being made in order to gradually become involved and participatefurther in the community.

Observational learning in advertising

ModelingModeling is the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.For example, this womancould be modeling the behavior of picking out and eating healthy fruit.Because she is attractive, it

makes you want to imitate her behavior

Reinforcement:Subjects are more likely to model behavior if the person doing the behavior is attractive and is beingreinforced by something good happening after doing the behavior

Punishment:Subjects are less like to model a behavior if the person doing the behavior is punished by something

bad happening after doing the behavior.

Modeling in AdvertisingAdvertising tends to use attractive people.Who are modeling use of a product that the advertiserwants to sell.And use of that product is reinforced by something good happening.For example, drinkthis soda and an attractive person will fall in love with you.

Negative advertisingIf you want to use advertising to decrease a behavior, you would show unattractive people modelingthe behavior you want to decrease.And that behavior is being punished by something bad happening

after the behavior.For example, this ad would make people not want to smoke cigarettes and drinkbeer so they could avoid being fat and dumpy.

Problem-based learning(PBL) is a student-centeredpedagogy in which students learn about a subject

through the experience of problem solving. Students learn both thinking strategies and domainknowledge. The goals of PBL are to help the students develop flexible knowledge, effective problemsolving skills, self-directed learning, effective collaboration skills and intrinsic motivation. Problem-based

learning is a style ofactive learning.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture


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Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what they need to know, and how andwhere to access new information that may lead to resolution of the problem. The role of theinstructor

(known as the tutor in PBL) is to facilitate learning by supporting, guiding, and monitoring the learningprocess. The tutor must build students confidence to take on the problem, and encourage the students,while also stretching their understanding. PBL represents a paradigm shift from traditional teaching andlearning philosophy,which is more oftenlecture-based. The constructs for teaching PBL are very different

from traditional classroom/lecture teaching.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_learning

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learning

http://www.marketingteacher.com/lesson-store/lesson-internal-influences-learning.html

http://www.consumerpsychologist.com/intro_Consumer_Behavior.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teacher

the learning-proiect engleza martie 2013

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