the law of war

8/7/2019 The law of war

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The law of war is a body of lawconcerning acceptable justifications to engage in war(jus adbellum) and the limits to acceptable wartime conduct (jus in bello). The law of war is considered

an aspect ofpublic international law (the law of nations) and is distinguished from other bodiesof law, such as the domestic law of a particular belligerent to a conflict, that may also providelegal limits to the conduct or justification of war.

Among other issues, modern laws of war addressdeclarations of war, acceptance ofsurrender

and the treatment ofprisoners of war; military necessity, along with distinction andproportionality; and the prohibition of certain weapons that may cause unnecessary suffering.[1]

Early sources and history

Attempts to define and regulate the conduct of individuals, nations, and other agents in war andto mitigate the worst effects of war have a long history. The earliest known instances are found

in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament).[citation needed] For example, Deuteronomy 20:19-20 limits theamount of acceptable collateral and environmental damage:

When thou shalt besiege a city a long time, in making war against it to take it, thou shalt notdestroy the trees thereof by forcing an axe against them: for thou mayest eat of them, and thou

shalt not cut them down (for the tree of the field is man's life) to employ them in the siege: Onlythe trees which thou knowest that they be not trees for meat, thou shalt destroy and cut them

down; and thou shalt build bulwarks against the city that maketh war with thee, until it be

subdued.[2]

Similarly, Deuteronomy 21:10-14 requires that female captives who were forced to marry the

victors of a war could not be sold as slaves.[3]

In the early 7th century, the first Caliph, Abu Bakr, whilst instructing his Muslim army, laiddown the following rules concerning warfare:

Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in the battlefield. Do not committreachery or deviate from the right path. You must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child,

nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially

those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely topass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services; leave them alone. [4][5]

These rules were put into practice during the early Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8thcenturies.[citation needed] After the expansion of the Caliphate, Islamic legal treatises oninternational

law from the 9th century onwards covered the application of Islamic military jurisprudence tointernational law,[6][verification needed] including the law of treaties; the treatment ofdiplomats,hostages, refugees and prisoners of war in Islam; the right of asylum; conduct on the battlefield;
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protection of women, children andnon-combatant civilians; contracts across the lines of battle;the use ofpoisonous weapons; and devastation of enemy territory. These laws were put into

practice by Muslim armies during the Crusades, most notably bySaladin and Sultan al-Kamil.For example, after al-Kamil defeated theFranks, Oliverus Scholasticus praised the Islamic laws

of war, commenting on how al-Kamil supplied the defeated Frankish army with food:[7]

Who could doubt that such goodness, friendship and charity come from God? Men whoseparents, sons and daughters, brothers and sisters, had died in agony at our hands, whose lands wetook, whom we drove naked from their homes, revived us with their own food when we were

dying of hunger and showered us with kindness even when we were in their power.[8][verificationneeded]

Inmedieval Europe, the Roman Catholic Church also began promulgating teachings on just war,

reflected to some extent in movements such as the Peace and Truce of God. The impulse torestrict the extent of warfare, and especially protect the lives and property of non-combatants

continued with Hugo Grotius and his attempts to write laws of war.

Modern sources

See also:Sources of international law

The modern law of war is derived from two principal sources:[1]

Lawmakingtreaties(or conventions)see the section below called "Internationaltreaties on the laws of war".

Custom. Not all the law of war derives from or has been incorporated in such treaties,which can refer to the continuing importance of customary law. (seeMartens Clause).

Such customary international law is established by the general practice of nationstogether with their acceptance that such practice is required by law.

Positive international humanitarian lawconsists oftreaties (international agreements) whichdirectly affect the laws of war by binding consenting nations and achieving widespread

consentsee the section below called "International treaties on the laws of war".

The opposite of positive laws of war is customary laws of war,[1] many of which were exploredat theNuremberg War Trials. These laws define both thepermissive rights of states as well as

prohibitions on their conduct when dealing with irregular forces and non-signatories.

Historian Geoffrey Best has called the period from 1856 to 1909 the law of wars epoch ofhighest repute.[9]The defining aspect of this epoch was the establishment, by states, of a

positive legal or legislative foundation (i.e., written) superseding a regime based primarily onreligion, chivalry, and customs.[10] It is during this modern era that the international conferencebecame the forum for debate and agreement between states and the multilatera l treaty served

as the positive mechanism for codification.
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In addition, the Nuremberg War Trial judgment on "The Law Relating to War Crimes andCrimes Against Humanity"[11] held, under the guidelines Nuremberg Principles, that treaties like

the Hague Convention of 1907, having been widely accepted by "all civilised nations" for abouthalf a century, were by then part of the customary laws of war and binding on all parties whether

the party was a signatory to the specific treaty or not.

Interpretations of international humanitarian law change over time and this also affects the lawsof war. For example Carla Del Ponte, the chief prosecutor for theInternational Criminal Tribunalfor the former Yugoslavia pointed out in 2001 that although there is no specific treaty ban on the

use of depleted uranium projectiles, there is a developing scientific debate and concern expressedregarding the effect of the use of such projectiles and it is possible that, in future, there may be a

consensus view in international legal circles that use of such projectiles violate general principlesof the law applicable to use of weapons in armed conflict.[12] This is because in future it may bethe consensus view that depleted uranium projectiles breaches one or more of the following

treaties: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights; the Charter of the United Nations; theGenocide Convention; the United Nations Convention Against Torture; the Geneva Conventions

including Protocol I; theConvention on Conventional Weaponsof 1980; the Chemical WeaponsConvention; and the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material.[13]

Purposes of the laws

Some of the central principles underlying laws of war are:

Wars should be limited to achieving the political goals that started the war (e.g.,territorial control) and should not include unnecessary destruction;

Wars should be brought to an end as quickly as possible; People and property that do not contribute to the war effort should be protected against

unnecessary destruction and hardship;

To this end, laws of war are intended to mitigate the evils of war by:

Protecting bothcombatants andnoncombatants from unnecessary suffering; Safeguarding certain fundamental human rights of persons who fall into the hands of the

enemy, particularly prisoners of war, the wounded and sick, andcivilians; Facilitating the restoration ofpeace.

Example substantive laws of war

To fulfill the purposes noted above, the laws of war place substantive limits on the lawfulexercise of a belligerents power. Generally speaking, the laws require that belligerents refrainfrom employing violence that is not reasonably necessary for military purposes and that

belligerents conduct hostilities with regard for the principles of humanity andchivalry.
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However, because the laws of war are based on consensus, the content and interpretation of suchlaws are extensive, contested, and ever-changing.[14] The following are particular examples of

some of the substance of the laws of war, as those laws are interpreted today.

Declaration of war

Main article:Declaration of war

Some treaties, notably the UN charter (1945) Article 2, and some other articles in the charter,seek to curtail the right of member states to declare war; as does the older Kellogg-Briand Pactof 1928 for those nations who ratified it.

Lawful conduct of belligerent actors

Modern laws of war regarding conduct during war (jus in bello), such as the 1949 GenevaConventions, provide that it is unlawful for belligerents to engage in combat without meeting

certain requirements, among them the wearing of a distinctive uniform or other distinctive signsvisible at a distance, and the carrying of weapons openly. Impersonating soldiers of the otherside by wearing the enemy's uniform is allowed, though fighting in that uniform is unlawful

perfidy, as is the taking ofhostages.

The Red Cross, Red Crescent, & the white flag

Modern laws of war, such as the 1949 Geneva Conventions, also include prohibitions onattacking doctors,ambulances orhospital ships displaying aRed Cross, aRed Crescent or other

emblem related to theInternational Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. It is also prohibitedto fire at a person or vehicle bearing awhite flag, since that indicates an intent to surrender or a

desire to communicate.

In either case, persons protected by the Red Cross/Crescent or white flag are expected tomaintain neutrality, and may not engage in warlike acts; in fact, engaging in war activities undera protected symbol is itself a violation of the laws of war known asperfidy. Failure to follow

these requirements can result in the loss of protected status and make the individual violating therequirements a lawful military target.

Applicability to states and individuals

The law of war is binding not only upon States as such but also upon individuals and, inparticular, the members of their armed forces. Parties are bound by the laws of war to the extentthat such compliance does not interfere with achieving legitimate military goals. For example,

they are obliged to make every effort to avoid damaging people and property not involved incombat, but they are not guilty of a war crime if a bomb mistakenly hits a residential area.
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By the same token, combatants that intentionally use protected people or property as shields orcamouflage are guilty of violations of laws of war and are responsible for damage to those that

should be protected.

Remedies for violations

During conflict, punishment for violating the laws of war may consist of a specific, deliberate

and limited violation of the laws of war in reprisal.

Soldiers who break specific provisions of the laws of war lose the protections and status affordedasprisoners of war, but only after facing a "competent tribunal" (GC IIIArt 5). At that point theybecome anunlawful combatant but they must still be "treated with humanity and, in case of trial,

shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial", because they are still covered byGCIVArt 5. For example in 1976 foreign soldiers fighting for FNLAwere captured by theMPLA

in the civil war that broke out when Angola gained independence from Portugal in 1975. In theLuanda Trial, after "a regularly constituted court" found them guilty of being mercenaries, three

Britons and an American were shot by afiring squadon July 10, 1976. Nine others wereimprisoned for terms of 16 to 30 years.

Spies andterrorists may be subject to civilian law or military tribunal for their acts and inpractice have been subjected totorture and/or execution. The laws of war neither approve nor

condemn such acts, which fall outside their scope. However, nations that have signed theUNConvention Against Torturehave committed themselves not to use torture on anyone for anyreason. Citizens and soldiers of nations which have not signed the Fourth Geneva Convention are

also not protected by it (Article 4: "Nationals of a State which is not bound by the Conventionare not protected by it".), whether they are spies or terrorists. Also, citizens and soldiers of

nations which have not signed and do not abide by the Third and Fourth Geneva Conventions are

not protected by them. (Common Article 2: "[The High Contracting Parties] shall furthermorebe bound by the Convention in relation to [a Power which is not a contracting party] , ifthe

latter accepts and applies the provisions thereof" (emphasis added).)

If someone is (or is suspected to be) a citizen or soldier of a nation which has signed or abides bythe Fourth Geneva Convention (see Art. 2 and Art. 4 citations above), or is (or is suspected to be)

a "prisoner of war" (POW) per the definitions of such " protected persons" in the Third GenevaConvention (see Art. 4 and Art. 5), the following applies: A POW who breaks specific provisionsof the laws of war may be penalized, but not penalized worse than the tribunal would penalize its

own soldiers for the same offense (and usually a disciplinary, not judicial, punishment if its ownsoldiers normally wouldn't be brought to trial for a particular offense) and POW's may not be

penalized based on rank or gender, nor with corporal punishment, collective punishments forindividual acts, lack of daylight, or torture/cruelty (GC IV, Art. 82 through Art. 88).

After a conflict has ended, persons who have committed or ordered any breach of the laws of

war, especially atrocities, may be held individually accountable forwar crimes through processoflaw. Also, nations which signed the Geneva Conventions are required to search for, then tryand punish, anyone who has committed or ordered certain "grave breaches" of the laws of war.

(see GC III, Art. 129 and Art. 130)
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History has shown that the laws of war are traditionally more strictly applied to those defeated,as the victorious faction are placed in the role of policing themselves.[citation needed] While it can be

argued that the victors may be less strict on their own forces, it can also be argued that thesigning of the treaties involved in the laws of war implies a good-faith promise to adhere to them

equally.[citation needed] As with many facets of war, the aftermath and subsequent legal proceedings

depend heavily on circumstance, and are different for each conflict.

There is an emerging trend in the US to hold private corporations civilly liable for aiding andabetting in war crimes, by knowingly providing substantial assistance in the commission of the

crimes. Under international law, themens reaelement is knowledge, not intent that the crimes becarried out. This opens the door not only to hold private security contractors liable, but also other

kinds of corporations which employ violent mercenary or terrorist groups as private securityforces. Although conflict zones often lack functioning legal systems, and government may evenhave passed laws immunizing private mercenaries from criminal liability, aiding and abetting a

war crime can still be the basis for civil liability in a foreign court with jurisdiction over thedefendant corporation.

Role of the United States

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent aworldwide view ofthe subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on thetalk page.(September 2010)

Many point to theLieber Code, which was promulgated by the Union during the American CivilWar, as critical in the development of the laws of land warfare,[15]

International treaties on the laws of warsee alsoList of international declarations

List of declarations, conventions, treaties and judgements and on the laws of war:[16][17][18]

1856Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Lawabolished privateering 1864First Geneva Convention "for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded

and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field" 1868St. Petersburg Declaration Renouncing the Use, in Time of War, of Explosive

projectiles Under 400 grams Weight 1874 Project of an International Declaration concerning the Laws and Customs of War

(Brussels Declaration).[19] Signed in Brussels 27 August. This agreement never enteredinto force, but formed part of the basis for the codification of the laws of war at the 1899Hague Peace Conference.[20][21]

1880 Manual of the Laws and Customs of War atOxford. At its session in Geneva in1874 the Institute of International Lawappointed a committee to study theBrussels

Declaration of the same year and to submit to the Institute its opinion and supplementaryproposals on the subject. The work of the Institute led to the adoption of the Manual in
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1880 and it went on to form part of the basis for the codificat ion of the laws of war at the1899 Hague Peace Conference.[21]

1899Hague Conventions consisted of four main sections and three additionaldeclarations (the final main section is for some reason identical to the first additional

declaration):o

I - Pacific Settlement of International Disputeso II - Laws and Customs of War on Lando III - Adaptation to Maritime Warfare of Principles of Geneva Convention of 1864o IV - Prohibiting Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloonso Declaration I - On the Launching of Projectiles and Explosives from Balloonso Declaration II - On the Use of Projectiles the Object of Which is the Diffusion of

Asphyxiating or Deleterious Gases

o Declaration III - On the Use of Bullets Which Expand or Flatten Easily in theHuman Body

1907Hague Conventions had thirteen sections, of which twelve were ratified and enteredinto force and two declarations

oI - The Pacific Settlement of International Disputes

o II - The Limitation of Employment of Force for Recovery of Contract Debtso III - The Opening of Hostilitieso IV - The Laws and Customs of War on Lando V - The Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers and Persons in Case of War on Lando VI - The Status of Enemy Merchant Ships at the Outbreak of Hostilitieso VII - The Conversion of Merchant Ships into War-Shipso VIII - The Laying of Automatic Submarine Contact Mineso IX - Bombardment by Naval Forces in Time of Waro X - Adaptation to Maritime War of the Principles of the Geneva Conventiono XI - Certain Restrictions with Regard to the Exercise of the Right of Capture in

Naval Waro XII - The Creation of an International Prize Court [Not Ratified]*o XIII - The Rights and Duties of Neutral Powers in Naval Waro Declaration I - extending Declaration II from the 1899 Conference to other types

of aircraft

o Declaration II - on the obligatory arbitration 1909London Declaration concerning the Laws of Naval Warlargely reiterated existing

law, although it showed greater regard to the rights of neutral entities. Never went intoeffect.

1922 The Washington Naval Treaty, also known as the Five-Power Treaty (6 February) 1923 Hague Draft Rules of Aerial Warfare[22] 1925Geneva protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous

or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare[23] 1927-1930Greco-German arbitration tribunal 1928Kellogg-Briand Pact(also known as the Pact of Paris) 1929Geneva Convention, Relative to the treatment of prisoners of war 1929Geneva Convention on the amelioration of the condition of the wounded and sick 1930 Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament (London Naval Treaty

22 April)
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1935Roerich Pact 1936Second London Naval Treaty (25 March) 1938 Amsterdam Draft Convention for the Protection of Civilian Populations Against

New Engines of War.[24]

1938League of Nations declaration for the "Protection of Civilian Populations AgainstBombing From the Air in Case of War"

[25]

1945United Nations Charter (entered into force on October 24, 1945) 1946 Judgment of the International Military Tribunal at Nuremberg 1947Nuremberg Principles. formulated under UN General Assembly Resolution 17721

November 1947 1948United NationsConvention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of

Genocide.

1949Geneva Convention I for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded andSick in Armed Forces in the Field

1949Geneva Convention II for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick andShipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea

1949Geneva Convention III Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War

1949Geneva Convention IV Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time ofWar

1954Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of ArmedConflict

1971 Zagreb Resolution of the Institute of International Law on Conditions ofApplication of Humanitarian Rules of Armed Conflict to Hostilities in which the UnitedNations Forces May be Engaged

1977 United Nations Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Useof Environmental Modification Techniques

1977Geneva Protocol IAdditional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, andRelating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts

1977Geneva Protocol IIAdditional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, andRelating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts

1978 Red Cross Fundamental Rules of International Humanitarian Law Applicable inArmed Conflicts

1980 United Nations Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of CertainConventional Weapons Which May be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to Have

Indiscriminate Effects (CCW)o 1980 Protocol I on Non-Detectable Fragmentso 1980 Protocol II on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-

Traps and Other Deviceso 1980 Protocol III on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Incendiary

Weaponso 1995 Protocol IV on Blinding Laser Weaponso 1996 Amended Protocol II on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines,

Booby-Traps and Other Deviceso Protocol on Explosive Remnants of War (Protocol V to the 1980 Convention), 28

November 2003, entered into force on 12 November 2006[26] 1994 San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea.[27]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roerich_Pacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roerich_Pacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roerich_Pacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_London_Naval_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_London_Naval_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_London_Naval_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Charterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Charterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Charterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Tribunalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Tribunalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Principleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Principleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Principleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_General_Assembly_Resolution_177http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_General_Assembly_Resolution_177http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_Military_or_Any_Other_Hostile_Use_of_Environmental_Modification_Techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_Military_or_Any_Other_Hostile_Use_of_Environmental_Modification_Techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_Military_or_Any_Other_Hostile_Use_of_Environmental_Modification_Techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Certain_Conventional_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Protocol_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_Military_or_Any_Other_Hostile_Use_of_Environmental_Modification_Techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_Military_or_Any_Other_Hostile_Use_of_Environmental_Modification_Techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Geneva_Conventionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prevention_and_Punishment_of_the_Crime_of_Genocidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN_General_Assembly_Resolution_177http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Principleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Tribunalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Charterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_London_Naval_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roerich_Pact


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1994 ICRC/UNGA Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection ofthe Environment in Time of Armed Conflict[28]

1994 UN Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel[29] 1996 The International Court of Justice advisory opinion on theLegality of the Threat or

Use of Nuclear Weapons

1997Convention on the Prohibition of the Use, Stockpiling, Production and Transfer ofAnti-Personnel Mines and on their Destruction (Ottawa Treaty)

1998Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court entered into force on 1 July 2002. 2000Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, entered into

force on 12 February 2002.

See also List of Articles of War Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project (RULAC) Command responsibility Debellatio International Humanitarian Law International law Islamic military jurisprudence Lawfare Law of occupation Law of the Sea Roerich pact Nuremberg Principles Right of conquest Total war Journal of International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict Targeted killing

References

Roberts, Adam and Guelff, Richard (Editors); Documents on the Laws of War; ThirdEdition; Oxford University press; ISBN 0-19-876390-5

Texts and commentaries of 1949 Geneva Conventions & Additional Protocols

External links

International Law of War Association The European Institute for International Law and International Relations The Program for Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research at Harvard University,

"Brief Primer on IHL"

Further reading
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advisory_opinionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advisory_opinionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legality_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Nuclear_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legality_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Nuclear_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legality_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Nuclear_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legality_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Nuclear_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_the_Use,_Stockpiling,_Production_and_Transfer_of_Anti-Personnel_Mines_and_on_their_Destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_the_Use,_Stockpiling,_Production_and_Transfer_of_Anti-Personnel_Mines_and_on_their_Destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_the_Use,_Stockpiling,_Production_and_Transfer_of_Anti-Personnel_Mines_and_on_their_Destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_the_Use,_Stockpiling,_Production_and_Transfer_of_Anti-Personnel_Mines_and_on_their_Destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Statutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Statutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Statutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Courthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Courthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Courthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optional_Protocol_on_the_Involvement_of_Children_in_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optional_Protocol_on_the_Involvement_of_Children_in_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optional_Protocol_on_the_Involvement_of_Children_in_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Articles_of_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Articles_of_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_Law_in_Armed_Conflicts_Project_(RULAC)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_Law_in_Armed_Conflicts_Project_(RULAC)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_responsibilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_responsibilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debellatiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debellatiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Humanitarian_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Humanitarian_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawfarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawfarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_occupationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_occupationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roerich_pacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roerich_pacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Principleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Principleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_of_conquesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_of_conquesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_International_Law_of_Peace_and_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_International_Law_of_Peace_and_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targeted_killinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targeted_killinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198763905http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198763905http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/CONVPRES?OpenViewhttp://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/CONVPRES?OpenViewhttp://lawofwar.org/http://lawofwar.org/http://www.eiil.eu/http://www.eiil.eu/http://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=2083http://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=2083http://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=2083http://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=2083http://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=2083http://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=2083http://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=2083http://www.eiil.eu/http://lawofwar.org/http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/CONVPRES?OpenViewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198763905http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targeted_killinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_International_Law_of_Peace_and_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_of_conquesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuremberg_Principleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roerich_pacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_occupationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawfarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Humanitarian_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debellatiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_responsibilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_Law_in_Armed_Conflicts_Project_(RULAC)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Articles_of_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optional_Protocol_on_the_Involvement_of_Children_in_Armed_Conflicthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Criminal_Courthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rome_Statutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_the_Use,_Stockpiling,_Production_and_Transfer_of_Anti-Personnel_Mines_and_on_their_Destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_the_Prohibition_of_the_Use,_Stockpiling,_Production_and_Transfer_of_Anti-Personnel_Mines_and_on_their_Destructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legality_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Nuclear_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legality_of_the_Threat_or_Use_of_Nuclear_Weaponshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advisory_opinionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Court_of_Justicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_war#cite_note-27


10/11

1976: Death sentence for mercenaries (source BBC). The Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project A Brief History Of The Laws Of War. Crimes, Trials and Laws. For the Sake of Warriors: Accepting the Limits of the Law of War.

The Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law and free access to a DocumentationDatabase of primary source materials..

Trial of Otto Skorzeny and Others, General Military Government Court of the U.S. Zoneof Germany, 18 August to 9 September, 1947.

When the Law of War Becomes Over-lawyered, JURIST. International Law on the Bombing of Civilians(Gene Dannen). A Brief Primer on International Law, 2007. With cases and commentary. (Nathaniel

Burney). What is a war crime? BBC online 31 July 2003 (Tarik Kafala). Sharon cannot be tried in Belgium, says courtThe Guardian 15 February 2002 (Andrew

Osborn).

reviews of Michael Byers, War Law, and David Kennedy, Of War and Law,Democratiya, Autumn 2007 (Irfan Khawaja). UN Charter

Footnotes

1. abcThe Program for Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research at Harvard University, "BriefPrimer on IHL," Accessed athttp://ihl.ihlresearch.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=2083

2. ^http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=KjvDeut.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=20&division=div1

3. ^http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=KjvDeut.sgm&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=21&division=div1

4. ^Al-Muwatta; Book 21, Number 21.3.10.5. ^Aboul-Enein, H. Yousuf and Zuhur, Sherifa, Islamic Rulings on Warfare, p. 22, Strategic

Studies Institute, US Army War College, Diane Publishing Co., Darby PA,ISBN 1-4289-1039-56. ^Kelsay, J. (March 2003), "Al-Shaybani and the Islamic Law of War",Journal of Military Ethics

(Routledge)2 (1): 6375,doi:10.1080/150275703100000277. ^Judge Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997), Justice Without Frontiers , Brill Publishers,

pp. 136,ISBN90411024188. ^Judge Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997), Justice Without Frontiers , Brill Publishers,

pp. 1367,ISBN90411024189. ^GEOFFREY BEST, HUMANITY IN WARFARE 129 (1980).10.^2 L. OPPENHEIM, INTERNATIONAL LAW 67-69 (H. Lauterpacht ed., 7th ed. 1952).11.^Judgement : The Law Relating to War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanitycontained in the

Avalon Projectarchive atYale Law School.12.^The Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO

Bombing Campaign Against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: Use of Depleted UraniumProjectiles
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13.Ê/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/38 Human rights and weapons of mass destruction, or with indiscriminateeffect, or of a nature to cause superfluous injury or unnecessary suffering(backup)

14.^Jefferson D. Reynolds. "Collateral Damage on the 21st century battlefield: Enemy exploitationof the law of armed conflict, and the struggle for a moral high ground". Air Force Law ReviewVolume 56, 2005(PDF) Page 57/58 "if international law is not enforced, persistent violations canconceivably be adopted as customary practice, permitting conduct that was once prohibited"

15.^See e.g., Grant R. Doty, "THE UNITED STATES AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THELAWS OF LAND WARFARE" in 156 Military Law Review 224 (1998) -https://www.jagcnet.army.mil/JAGCNETINTERNET/HOMEPAGES/AC/MILITARYLAWREVIEW.NSF/20a66345129fe3d885256e5b00571830/6d99151e5dc7d05085256e5b00577b0d/$FILE/ATTR2A48/Volume156Doty.pdf.

16.^Roberts and GuelffReferences17.ÎCRCTreaties & Documents by date18.^Joan T. Phillips. List of documents and web links relating to the law of armed conflict in air

and space operations, May 2006. Bibliographer, Muir S. Fairchild Research Information CenterMaxwell (United States) Air Force Base, Alabama.

19.^Project of an International Declaration concerning the Laws and Customs of War. Brussels, 27August 1874

20.^Brussels Conference of 1874 - International Declaration Concerning Laws and Customs of WarStockholm International Peace Research InstituteProject on Chemical and Biological Warfare21. abBrussels Conference of 1874ICRCcites D.Schindler and J.Toman, The Laws of Armed

Conflicts, Martinus Nihjoff Publisher, 1988, pp.22-34.22. '^The Hague Rules of Air Warfare, 1922-12 to 1923-02,this convention was never adopted

(backup site)23.^Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of

Bacteriological Methods of Warfare. Geneva, 17 June 1925.24.^Draft Convention for the Protection of Civilian Populations Against New Engines of War.

Amsterdam. The meetings of forum were from 29.08.1938 until 02.09.1938 in Amsterdam.25.^Protection of Civilian Populations Against Bombing From the Air in Case of War, Unanimous

resolution of the League of Nations Assembly, 30 September 1938

26.Êxplosive remnants of war and international humanitarian lawon the website of theInternational Committee of the Red Cross 27.^by Louise Doswald-BeckSan Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed

Conflict at Sea 31 December 1995International Review of the Red Crossno 309, p.583-59428.^Guidelines for Military Manuals and Instructions on the Protection of the Environment in

Times of Armed Conflict30 April 1996International Review of the Red Crossno 311, p.230-23729.^Convention on the Safety of United Nations and Associated Personnel
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