THE LAW OF TORT

1. INTRODUCTION

A. What is a Tort?

A tort is a civil wrong. Its exact definition is a matter of great difficulty because torts encompass many different types of behaviour e.g.

- assault- false imprisonment- trespass- conversion- defamation of character- negligence- nuisance.

In order for an act to be a tort there must be 3 elements:

(i) wrongful behaviour, i.e. by intentional wrongdoing or negligent conduct (exceptions to this is behaviour where the defendant is liable without fault – these are torts of STRICT LIABILITY);

(ii) the wrongful behaviour must infringe another human being’s interest which the law regards as being worthy of protection. Some interests, such as security of the person and property, are considered so important that they receive protection against both intentional and negligent infringement; and

(iii) the Claimant is entitled to obtain compensation from the defendants in the form of damages by taking action in a civil court.

It is the compensatory function of the Law of Tort which distinguishes it from criminal law, which exists to satisfy the public interest in the suppression of crime.

Many torts arise out of behaviour which is also criminal and it is possible for two sets of proceedings, criminal and civil, to be brought in relation to the same wrongful act.

B. Action in Tort

The reason for taking action in tort is to obtain COMPENSATION. If legal rights have been infringed the Claimant can sue for compensation. The RIGHTS are the key not the INJURY because there is no automatic right to compensation if the Claimant has suffered injury, a right must have been infringed. There are certain rights which the law takes so seriously that if they are infringed an action can be brought without showing any injury.

Bradford Corporation v Pickles [1895] AC 587 HL. In this case a certain Pickles excavated a hole in his land which caused the reduction of the water supply to the corporation waterworks at the bottom of the hill. Held: he caused injury but he infringed no legal right as he was working on his own land.

This case highlights a general principle of tort which is that MOTIVE does not matter. The courts will consider what a defendant did and not why he did it.

C. Types of Injury

Injury, except for cases of strict liability, is usually present in tortious behaviour and there are protections at law.

- Interests in land are well protected by the law of tort, whether against deliberate intrusions (trespass), careless damage (negligence) or interference with the Claimants rights to enjoy the land (nusisance);

- interests in other forms of property are less well protected. Deliberate taking of tangible property is caught by the tort of conversion, careless damage by the tort of negligence;

- interests in the person. Plaintiffs are protected from deliberate injury by the torts of assault and battery, from careless injury by the tort of negligence and many other dangers by the tort of breach of statutory duty;

- economic interests are not well protected by tort law and the protection that exists is against deliberate or negligent harm;

- reputation is protect by tort through “defamation”.

D. Basic Concepts

(a) Negligence

Much of tort law is concerned with the variations on the tort of negligence. The tort of negligence covers a very wide variety of situations and is therefore uneven. In general if a Claimant wishes to establish negligence against a defendant he must demonstrate:

(i) that the defendant owed him/her a duty of care;(ii) that the defendant broke the duty of care; and(iii) that the breach of duty caused loss to the Claimant.

(1) Duty

The most famous statement about duty was made by Lord Atkin in Donoghue V Stevenson [1932] AC 562, 580. In this case the Claimant (Mrs Donoghue) was trying to show that the defendant (Mr Stevenson), a manufacturer of a soft drink, owed her a duty to make the drink reasonably safe. The drink had been bought for her by a friend in a restaurant. On pouring out the drink she was overcome by the dreadful smell and it was discovered that there was a decaying snail in it. Mrs Donoghue claimed she became ill as a result of the experience. It was found that a duty of care did exist and Lord Atkin made the following statement

“You must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which you can reasonablyforsee would be likely to injure your neighbour. Who then, in law, is my neighbour? The answer seems to be – persons who are so closely and directly affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called into question”.

However real life is not so simple and the “neighbour “ rule will not always help especially when trying to distinguish the different types of loss.

(2) Liability for others

Usually the defendant is responsible only for his/her own actions and not for what others do, however through the doctrine of vicarious liability the defendant can be responsible for the wrongdoing of others

Kirkham v. Greater Manchester Chief Constable[1990] 2 QB 283 CA

Kirkham was a depressed alcoholic who committed suicide while in police custody because the arresting officer had not passed on a warning of his condition so no precautions were taken for his safety. The police were held liable to his widow.

(3) Breach of duty

If a duty is established then it must be proved that the defendant had broken it. What must be examined is the reasonableness of the defendant’s behaviour in the particular circumstances. It is for the Claimant to prove that the defendant broke the duty of care and the standard of proof is on the balance of probabilities.

Bolton v Stone[1951] AC 850 HL

A cricket ball hit the Claimant who was standing in the street outside her house. Balls had been driven off the pitch on average once every five years. Held no negligence was established.

Overseas Tankship (UK) v Miller SS Co Pty Ltd, The Wagon Mound (No 2)[1967]AC 388 PC

Furnace oil was spilled in Sydney Harbour from Miller’s ship. The flash point of the oil was very high, so reasonable engineers would consider a fire very unlikely. However a fire was started because welding was going on on the wharf. Held Miller was liable.

(b) Tort and Statute

Many statutes modify tort liability, whether by expanding or contracting it. There are three main ways in which the infringement of a statute may result in an action in tort(i) torts where it is necessary to show that the defendant’s conduct was unlawful and breach of statute may apply; (ii) there is a distinct tort of breach of statutory duty and (iii) a statutory duty may form part of a case that the defendant was under a duty in the tort of negligence to look after the Claimants interests. These torts are all distict from one another.

2. HARM TO THE PERSON

A. Assault and Battery

If a defendant deliberately inflicts force on a Claimant, the defendant has committed the tort of battery, unless the defendant has a defence. To threaten immediate force constitutes the tort of assault. Both torts are actionable without proof that any financial loss resulted from the defendant’s activities. The distinction between the torts is clear in theory but it is really not important, in practice it is common to refer to instances of assault and battery as “assault”.

It is now clear that merely careless harm is actionable only if negligence is proved.

Fowler v Lanning [1959]1 QB 426

While hunting Fowler was injured by a bullet from Lanning’s gun. Fowler argued that Lanning was guilty of trespass to the person, unless he could prove that it was a non-negligent accident. Held: Lanning would be liable if intent to wound or negligence could be shown but on either count the burden of proof was on Fowler.

Assault

A defendant commits assault if the defendant causes the Claimant to fear immediate personal violence, mere hostility is not enough.

Tuberville v Savage [1669] 1 Mod Rep 3

In the course of a furious argument Tuberville put his hand on his sword and said to Savage that if it was not assize time he would not take such language from him. Held: this did not amount to assault.

Read v Coker [1853] 13 CB 850

Coker demanded Read leave the premises where he was saying he would break Read’s neck if he did not go. Held: this was assault.

The fear of violence must be reasonable.

Thomas v National Union of Mineworkers (South Wales Area) [1985] 2 All ER 1 Mineworkers were bused into work passing through pickets who were making violent gestures and threats. Held: this could not be assault as there was no way in which the pickets could reach those in the bus.

Battery

A defendant is laible for battery if the defendant inflicts force on the Claimant. The force can be transmitted indirectly as well.

- Horn threw a bucket of boiling water over Pursell (Pursell v Horn [18388 Ad&El 602)

- Reeve deliberately drove his gig at a carriage which overturned. Hopper who was inside was hurt (Hopper v Reeve [1817] 7 Taunt 698)

- Burford hit dodwell’s horse which bolted and threw Dodwell (Dodwell v Burford [1670] 1 Mod 29)

- Fagan accidentally drove his car onto a policeman’s foot. He then refused to reverse and switched the engine off held Fagan was guilty of assault on a constable contrary to the Police Act 1964 (Fagan v Metropolitan police Commissioner [1969] 1 QB 439)

Assault and battery: the mental element

It is usually stated that intention on the defendant’s part is necessary if the Claimant’s action is to succeed. This is broadly true but certain qualifications must be made. It seems that “subjective recklessness” (conscious risk taking) is sufficient.

Wilson v Pringle [1986] 2 All ER 440 CA

Wilson and Pringle were both schoolboys. Pringle kicked Wilson causing him to fall over and injure himself. Held: the kicking was intentional and it was no defence that the consequential injury was not. Wilson would have to prove that Pringle acted with hostility.

B. Harassment

It has long been recognised that the defendant should be responsible for deliberate physical harm to a Claimant even where it would be difficult to describe the defendant’s conduct as battery.

Wilkinson v Downton [1897] 2 QB 57

As a practical joke Downton told Wilkinson that her husband had been injured and was in hospital. Wilkinson suffered nervous shock and was ill for some weeks. Held: she could sue Downton for the consequences of his unlawful and unjustifiable conduct even though there was no evidence that he intended her illness.

Other cases have recognised tort liability for something like unlawful harassment or deliberate humiliation

Khorasandjian v Bush [1993] QB 727 CA

Bush stalked Khorasandjian by following her and sending her unwanted messages and telephoning her and her relatives. Bush admitted he could be restrained from using vilent threats and acts but that he had committed no tort of harassment. Held: harassment was a tort whether it involved violence or not.

Bayliss and Barton v Home Office [1993] 137 Sol Jo 337

Bayliss and Barton were stripped searched while visiting relatives in prison. The searches were in private rooms but the windows were not totally covered. Held: assuming that the searches were unlawful, the searchers were acting tortiously.

These cases seem to suggest that there may be a tort of subjecting a Claimant to humiliation or some other embarassment.

Sexual Harassment

Tort is not the best method for controlling sexual harassment and is therefore little used. In practice sexual harassment is usually tried under employment law or in the criminal courts. Under the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 a course of conduct amounting to deliberate or negligent harassment is now forbidden.

C False Imprisonment

A defendant is liable for false imprisonment where the defendant has deprived the Claimant of the liberty to go where he or she wished. No special damage need be proved before the Claimant may recover damages.

The tort must totally deprive the Claimant of his or her liberty. It is not committed by mere obstruction of one route, so long as the others are reasonably open.

Bird v Jones [1845] 7 QB 742

Part of a bridge was unlawfully fenced off for watching a boat race. Bird climbed over the fence but was prevented from following his normal route. Held Bird was not falsely imprisoned because there were other routes open to him.

Some authorities suggest that if a Claimant enters a defendant’s premises knowing that the defendant will impose conditions, the Claimant cannot later complain about the conditions.

Robinson v Balmain New Ferry Co Ltd [1910] AC 295 PC

A ferry company ran ferries from its wharf across a river. It charged one penny to enter or leave the wharf. Robinson paid one penny to enter the wharf and then changed his mind and tried to leave, but refused to pay another penny. Held: the ferry company did not commit false imprisonment by refusing to let him pass.

This decision is based on the defence of consent but it can be applied more controversially to cases where the Claimant did not consent.

Herd v Weardale Steel, Coal and Coke Co Ltd [1915] AC 67 HL

Herd, a coal miner, decided that conditions in the pit were unsafe and demanded to be taken to the surface immediately. His employers refused even though it would have been possible to return him to the surface. Held: Herd had not been falsely imprisoned.

In the above case stress was placed on Herd’s contract of employment, but today this would probably not be decided in this way.

(i) Defendant’s responsibility

A defendant can probably only be liable for deliberately imprisoning the Claimant. However there are exceptions as for instance when someone else acts at the defendant’s instigation, but the defendant’s responsibility for the actions of the actual imprisonment must always be clear.

Davidson v Chief Constable of North Wales [1994] 2 All ER 597 CA

Yates, a store detective, observed Davidson in a shop and formed the inaccurate impression that Davidson had stolen a tape cassette. She told the police who arrested Davidson. Held: Yates was under no liability for false imprisonment, she had merely passed the information to the police.

The reasoning here is unsatisfactory. Yates would know what the police would do with the information and she seemingly encouraged them. However, the court found otherwise.

D. Invasion of Privacy

The orthodox view is that there is no tort of invasion of privacy at common law.

Kaye v Robertson [1991] FSR 62 CA

Kaye a famous comedy actor was in hospital after a road accident. A journalist and photographer acting on Robertson’s instructions, entered the private ward where Kaye was and took some photographs. Held: no tort was committed against Kaye, nor could they be restrained from printing the photographs, so long as they made it clear that they were taken without Kaye’s consent.

Nonetheless it has sometimes been possible to use other torts to remedy what amounts to invasion of privacy

- where the defendant publishes photographs of the Claimant or Claimant’s family, there may be a breach of copyright or

- surveillance of the Claimant or his property may amount to trespass or nuisance

2. NEGLIGENT HARM TO THE PERSON

A. DUTY

(i) Foresight

A Claimant can only sue for personal injury in negligence if the Claimant was a foreseeable victim of the defendant’s activities.

Wright v Lodge [1993] 4 All ER 299 CA

Mrs. Shepherd’s car came to a halt on a busy A road due to mechanical failure. She did not push her car onto the hard shoulder but simply sat in it and waited for help. Lodge, a lorry driver, who was going too fast in foggy conditions, swerved to avoid Mrs shepherd’s car, skidded across the central reservation and collided with cars on the opposite carriage way including Mr Wright’s car. Held: Wright was not a foreseeable victim of Shepherd’s misconduct.

The question always is whether the defendant ought to have foreseen danger to the Claimant. So even if the defendant’s behaviour was careless, and in fact causes the Claimant’s injury, a court may refuse to compensate the Claimant on the grounds that the Claimant was an unforeseeable Claimant, so that the defendant owed the Claimant no duty.

Haley v London Electricity Board [1965] AC 778 HL

Workers excavating an electricity cable made a large hole in the road, which they indicated to passers-by by leaving a long handled hammer in front of the hole. Haley, who was blind, did not realise that there was a hole and walked into it. Held: even though the precautions taken were adequate to warn sighted people of the danger, they were inadequate to protect Haley and other like him. Blind people are not so rare as to be unforeseeable.

It is always easy to be wise after the event and say the defendant “should have foreseen” certain events. The standard of care prescribed by the tort of negligence is far higher than anything most defendants can achieve in reality, so the judges have to use their discretion in declaring what events are foreseeeable or unforeseeable.

(ii) Omission

It was often thought that negligence law imposes no duty in respect of omissions but once it is established that the defendant owes the Claimant a duty, then that duty may be broken by omission as much as by action. However, there is a small kernel of truth in the “no liability for omissions” rule in that if a defendant’s behaviour has in no way added to the dangers which the Claimant faces, then, prima facie, the defendant is under no duty at all.. If a Claimant argues that the defendant is under a positive duty to save the Claimant from dangers created by others, then the Claimant must give a very specific reason for this. It is not enough that the defendant could easily have helped the Claimant. If a duty is found, it will be because the defendant had control over the source of danger to which the Claimant succumbed, or should have control over it.

- Where the defendant carelessly abandons his horse and it runs off, the defendant owes a duty to those who make reasonable attempts to re-capture it (Haynes v Harwood [1935] 1KB 146 CA)

- Where children at the defendant’s primary school escape and run across roads causing the Claimants lorry to swerve and crash, the defendant owes a duty to the Claimant to prevent his injuries (Carmarthenshire County Council v Lewis [1955] AC 549 HL)

- Where the Claimant seeks a divorce from her violent husband and the defendant, her husband’s solicitor, gives undertakings relating to her personal safety, breach of those undertakings may constitute actionable negligence (Al-Kandari v J R Brown & Co [1988] QB 655 CA

- Where the defendant admits hooligans to their football matches and the hooligans throw pieces of concrete left around through the poor state of the premises, injured spectators may sue in negligence (Cunningham v Reading Football Club [1991]157 LG Rev 481

- Where the defendant’s usually lock gates leading onto their railway line whenever there is a train coming, then their failure to do so on one occasion may constitute a breach of duty to the Claimant, who was misled into thinking it was safe (Mercer v South Eastern & Chatham Railway Co’s Managing Committee [1922] 2 KB 549)

- Where the Claimant is a mentally unstable prisoner lawfully in the defendant’s custody, the defendant may owe the Claimant a duty to prevent him from injuring himself (Kirkham v Chief Constable of the Greater Manchester Police [1991] 2QB 283 CA)

In all these cases the defendant was held liable for an omission on the ground that the defendant ought to have controlled some source of danger to the Claimant.

(iii) Public Policy

The courts are usually reluctant to impose liability on public authorities for misuse of statutory powers but the law is confused and each case is considered on its own merits.

X v Bedfordshire County Council [1995] 2 AC 633 HL

Children who suffered injury as a result of misconduct by their local authority in its role under the Children’s Act 1989 sued the authority. Held: in the light of the many remedies available under that Act a tortious duty of care was incompatible with the remedies provided by Parliament.

M v Newham Borough Council [1995] 2 AC 633 HL

Children complained that their special educational needs had not initially been diagnosed by their local authority and that when ultimately diagnosed they had wrongly been told that their existing schools were adequate. They sued in negligence. Held: a duty of care by the authority was owed to the children.

Stovin v Wise (Norfolk County Council third party) [1996] 3 All ER 801 HL

Wise negligently drove out from a side road onto the main road, causing injury to Stovin who was carefully driving down it. Wise sought to join the local transport authority as co-defendant, arguing that the poor road design had significantly contributed to the accident. Held: the highway authority did not owe a duty, or if it had, it had not broken it.

(iv) The Police

The police authorities are treated especially generously by the courts.

Hill v Chief Constable of West Yorkshire [1989]AC 53 HL

A serial killer, the “Yorkshire Ripper” murdered a number of women in the Wigan area of England before being caught by the police. The estate of his last victim sued the police authority, arguing that, with the exercise of reasonable care he would have been caught earlier. Held: the police owed no legal duty to individual members of the public who might be affected by their failure to catch the killer.

Ancell v Mc Dermott [1993] 4 All ER 355 CA

Ancell was involved in a road accident caused by a leaking oil tank. The accident would have been avoided if certain police officers had acted more promptly in reporting the leak. Held: the duty of the police to road users did not extend to a tortious right of action by injured parties.

However, if a dangerous line of conduct by the police can be shown, there might be liability.

Knightley V Johns [1982] 1 All ER 851 CA

A road crash occurred, blocking a road tunnel. However traffic was still entering the tunnel unaware of the crash. One officer, Johns, instructed his subordinate Knightley to ride his motor cycle against the flow of traffic to reach the head of the tunnel and to close it; Knightley was injured. Held: Knightley could sue for his injuries which resulted from this very dangerous manoeuvre.

Swinney v Chief Constable of the Northumbria Police [1996] 3 All ER 449 CA

Swinney passed on to the police information about a man who had killed a police officer. Relevant documents were left in a police car, in an area well known for theft. The documents were stolen and found their way into the hands of the killer, who terrorised Swinney and her family. Could Swinney sue the police? The police tried to strike out Swinney’s claim as showing no reasonable cause of action. Held: her case was arguable and should be allowed to proceed to trial.

(v) Concurrent liability

Liability may overlap with other areas of law. For instance private medical patients whose doctors are guilty of extreme carelessness may sue in breach of contract or in negligence as they wish.

Van Oppen v Clerk to the Bedford Charity Trustees [1990] 3 All ER 389 CA

van Oppen, a pupil at Bedford School, was injured in the course of a rugby game. No negligence in the running of the game was alleged on appeal but van Oppen claimed that the school should have insured its pupils against injury. Held: such a duty could only arise, if at all, under a contract with the school, not in tort.

B. BREACH OF DUTY

The question that should be asked in establishing whether a defendant was negligentIs whether the defendant was negligent in relation to a particular defendant. Each Claimant’s case is different even where the same negligence is in issue

Paris v Stepney Borough Council [1951] AC 367 HL

A garage worker lost the sight of one eye when a metal chip flew off the axel he was hammering. His employer had not provided him with safety goggles. His other eye, as his employers knew, was not good. Held: his employers knowledge that one eye was bad placed them under a higher duty than they owed to their other employees and they were liable.

Again in

Excelsior Wire Rope Co Ltd v Callan [1930] AC 404 HL

Children playing on the defendant’s machinery were injured when it was unexpectedly turned on. The risk of injury was the same to both adults and children but the House of Lords held that the children’s likelihood to fool around near machinery meant that the duty owed to them was greater.. Accordingly, the children recovered damages in circumstances where adults certainly would not.

This principle can work either for the Claimant or against the Claimant: the question is whether the defendant broke the duty owed to the Claimant.

Bourhill v Young [1943] AC 92 HL

Young drove his motorcycle recklessly, causing a collision from which he died. Bourhill, who was eight months pregnant, was some way away at the time of the accident, but saw the aftermath, including a lot of blood. She suffered nervous shock and miscarried. Held: she was not a foreseeeable victim of Young’s negligence and so could not recover.

A. Standard of care: “subjective” or “objective”

The standard of care is that of the reasonably experienced person in the defendant’s position.

Watt v Hertfordshire County Council [1954] 1 WLR 835 CA

A fire fighter was injured when a heavy jack loaded into the fire engine moved and fell on him. He sued the fire authority, arguing that a different engine, which was designed to transport the jack in safety, should have been used for the job. Held: the decision on which engine to use had not been unreasonable in the light of the short time in which the decision had to be made.

However, the duty is “objective” in the sense that the defendant’s own character is irrelevant. If reasonable people would regard the defendant’s conduct as rash and dangerous, it is no defence that the defendant was by nature a rash person and that, in his own estimation, he acted with restraint.

Furthermore, if the defendant undertakes a job requiring professional skill, the defendant will be judged by the standard of the reasonably competent professional, whether or not the defendant has that level of skill.

Philips v William Whitley Ltd [1938] 1 All ER 566

Philips arranged for her ears to be pierced by Whitley’s staff. The jeweller concerned sterilised his needle by putting it in a flame and in disinfectant, but did not take the precautions, which a surgeon conducting a similar minor operation would have done. Held: Whitley were not liable when Philip’s ear became inflamed, as they had never claimed to reach the standard, which a surgeon would have done.

C. NERVOUS SHOCK

It is common to say of someone hurt in an accident that they were “shocked” or “in shock” but this is not what is meant legally by the term “nervous shock”. A Claimant does not need to suffer any physical injury at all, but can emerge from an accident with psychiatric injuries of some gravity. Liability sometimes arises, but the law is not so generous to the Claimant as in cases of actual physical injury.

The Claimant’s case has to involve proof that the Claimant was mentally ill as a result of the shock – pain, grief or distress are not enough in themselves to constitute “nervous shock”.

Until recently the courts treated nervous shock as a distinct type of damage, distinct from other types of personal injury. However, the courts now recognise that this is unrealistic. The cases now distinguish between cases where the defendant ought to have foreseen physical injury to the Claimant (where the Claimant is a “primary” victim) and where the Claimant can only say that the defendant ought to have foreseen shock (where the Claimant is a “secondary” victim).

Page v Smith [1995] 2 All ER 736 HL

Page and Smith collided in a car accident which was wholly Smith’s fault. Page was physically unharmed, but subsequently suffered a recurrence of a pre-existing condition of myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME) as a result of the trauma of the accident.Held: Smith must take his victim as he found him and was accordingly liable for Page’s condition.

Where a defendant’s negligence creates a risk of physical injury to a group of people, then the main question for a Claimant suffering nervous shock is whether he or she was within the “zone of danger” which represented the limits of the defendant’s reasonable foresight. The Claimant can recover if within the zone but otherwise not.

McFarlane v EE Caledonia Ltd [1994] 2 All ER 1 CA

McFarlane witnessed the fire at the Piper Alpha oil rig, being about 100 metres away at the time. He felt considerable anxiety for his own personal safety at the time and later experienced psychiatric illness. Held: his fear for his own safety was unreasonable and his condition was not actionable.

(see Bourhill and Young above)

(a) “Secondary Victims”

Where a Claimant was not physically at risk from the defendant’s activities but suffers shock on witnessing them, then a duty may in principle be owed. But more is required than in cases of “primary victims”. This usually involves two aspects:

- a clear emotional connection between the traumatic event and the shock. So witnessing injuries to a close relation is more likely to result in a successful claim than witnessing a stranger suffer.

- a clear perception by the Claimant of the traumatic event. Seeing parents being crushed to death is more likely to lead to a successful claim than hearing via the radio that this has happened.

However, these are only factors in a larger question. There is only one question:Ought the defendant to have realised that a person of reasonable psychological firmness in the Claimant’s position might suffer shock as a result of the defendant’s activities? Once liability has been established then the defendant must take the victim as he/she finds them

Brice v Brown [1984] 1 All ER 997

Brice and her daughter were involved in a road accident which was wholly the fault of Brown. Brice already had a mild hysterical personality disorder. As a result of the injuries to herself and her daughter, Brice’s psychological condition worsened considerable, involving her in bizarre and unsocial behaviour and a number of suicide attempts. Held: Once liability for her nervous shock was established, damages were not to be reduced merely because Brice’s behaviour was of an unforeseen type. It was enough that it was the direct effect of the psychiatric injury done to her.

(i) close emotional link with the traumatic event. The usual “secondary victim” is the Claimant who sees a close relative suffer injury or death. The closer the emotional tie between the Claimant and the “primary victim” of the accident the more foreseeeable is the shock.

Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police [1991] 4 All ER 907 HL

Ten Claimants alleging nervous shock arising out of the Hillsborough Stadium disaster sued the police authority in charge of the incident. Nine were relatives of primary victims, one the fiancée of a primary victim. None of the Claimants were spouses or parents of the primary victims. Held: no duty was owed to any of the Claimants.

(ii) perception of the traumatic event

A Claimant’s chances of recovering damages improve with the clarity with which the Claimant was able to perceive the traumatic event. So shock caused by seeing a traumatic event at close hand may give rise to liability, even though hearing of the same incident by word of mouth may not. So in the Alcock case, it was made clear that Claimants who had seen the Hillsborough disaster on a TV screen but not in person could not possibly recover.

Most cases of “secondary victimhood” involve injuries to relatives but there is no rule of law restricting liability to such cases. All that is required is that the event has such a direct and obvious effect on the Claimant that any reasonable person in the defendant’s position must have foreseen shock.

Attia v British Gas plc [1987] 3 All ER 455 CA

Due to the negligence of British Gas employees, a fire started in Attia’s house. She arrived home to see it in flames. Held: her nervous shock was a foreseeable consequence of British Gas’s negligence and she could recover damages accordingly.

D. NEGLIGENCE AND THE FOETUS

(i) Injuries suffered in the womb

Where as a result of the defendant’s activities, a developing foetus suffers an injury can legal action be taken? Legal personality is not acquired until live birth, so there is no such thing as an unborn Claimant. Under the Congenital Disabilities (Civil Liability) Act 1976 an child has a right of action for injuries suffered while in the womb. The statutory right of action is derivative from the rights of the parents. A defendant is liable for conduct which affected the ability of either parent to have a normal healthy child, or affected the mother during pregnancy, which resulted in disability to the child. The rule is that if the parent could have sued had they suffered injury, then so can the child.

(ii) Wrongful life

Parents can sue If the defendant’s negligence resulted in a child being conceived at all.

Emeh v Kensington & Chelsea & Westminster Areas Health Authority [1985] QB 1012 CA

In consequence of a negligent sterilisation by the health authority, Emeh had an unplanned daughter. Held: she was entitled to damages for (i) pain and suffering involved in birth and (ii) the financial cost of bringing up the unplanned child. Emeh’s refusal to have an abortion was not considered a ground for reducing the damages.

Action also lies for negligent failure of a vasectomy on the father. However, remoteness may be an issue.

Goodwill v British Pregnancy Advisory Service [1996] 2 All ER 161 CA

MacKinlay underwent a vasectomy and afterwards received advice from the BPAS that it had been a success. Three years later he started a relationship with Goodwill. The couple assumed, relying on the BPAS advice, that contraception was not necessary. On becoming pregnant by MacKinlay, Goodwill sued BPAS in negligent misstatement. Held: there was no sufficient proximity between BPAS and Goodwill.

(iii) Deprivation of the chance to abort.

A different claim is when a foetus’s disabilities are not the fault of the defendant but if the defendant had acted properly the parents could have arranged for an abortion. Such claims can be brought by either the parents or the child. Claims by parents have occasionally succeeded.

Thake v Maurice [1986] 1 All ER 497 CA

On carrying out a vasectomy, Maurice negligently failed to warn Thake of the small risk of natural reversal of the process. It was found that if Thake had been aware of the risk , he and his wife would have recognised the pregnancy and would have been able to abort. Held: action lay in negligence.

E. RESCUERS

“Danger invites rescue”

Where a defendant’s negligence puts someone in danger, and the Claimant attempts a rescue but is injured in the process, the Claimant may be able to sue the defendant. If the creation of danger was foreseeeable, then equally it should be foreseeeable that someone will try to save others from it. If therefore, a defendant is responsible for the occurrence of an accident , very probably the defendant will be responsible for the fate of those who rush in to rescue, and will not be able to plead that the rescuers are the authors of their own misfortune.

Defendants who endanger themselves cannot be said to owe a duty to themselves but they may nevertheless be said to owe a duty to those who try and rescue them

Harrison v British Railways Board [1983] 3 All ER 679

Howard, a British Rail employee attempted to board a train just as it was leaving the station. Harrison the guard tried to stop the train, which failed, and then tried to pull Howard on board. They both fell on the track. Held: Harrison could sue Howard for his injuries, though with a 20% reduction for contributory negligence.

A more common situation is where a Claimant is hurt attempting to rescue a third party, from a danger created by the defendant. Although the defendant has broken a duty of care to X, the courts will extend the benefit of the duty to the Claimant as well.

Baker v T E Hopkins & Son Ltd [1959] 1WLR 966 CA

Employees of Hopkins were overcome by carbon monoxide fumes while at work, in circumstances which were held to be the result of negligence by Hopkins. Baker a doctor tried to rescue them but was himself overcome by the fumes and died. Held: his widow could sue Hopkins.

3. NEGLIGENT HARM TO THE PERSON – SPECIAL DUTIES

The major areas where litigation occurs in personal injury cases are:

- products liability- road accidents- occupiers liability- employers liability- medical care

A. Products Liability

(i) Who owes the duty?

One of the most famous and influential cases in the whole of the law of tort Donoghue v Stevenson was products liability case. Under common law there is nothing to confine the duty to the manufacturer and cases subsequent to Donoghue have allowed action against others with some influence on the state of the product when it finally reaches the consumer. So those who assemble goods or repair them owe a similar duty to the ultimate consumer. Even those who only distribute goods

may owe a duty if they should have made a safety check on the goods. There is no general duty on distributors to make a check but the following special circumstances have been held to lead to a duty

- where the goods came from another supplier with a dubious reputation (Watson V Buckley, Osborne Garrett & Co Ltd (1940) 1 All ER 174)

- where the manufacturer’s instructions are that there should be a check (Holmes v Ashford [1950] 2 All ER 76 CA)

It seems that even sellers of second hand cars generally may be under a duty to make at least a superficial check by a competent mechanic on cars before they sell them ( Andrews v Hopkinson [1957] 1QB 229)

(iii) the content of the duty

In Donoghue great stress was placed on the fact that the product in question ( a botle of defective ginger beer) was sealed in Stevenson’s factory. The bottle was opaque and there was no prospect of intermediate examination before the bottle arrived in from of Donoghue in the restaurant. This is an important point because manufacturers will rarely have control over what is done to the product after it leaves their hands and so can only be blamed for the most obviously foreseeable happenings thereafter. So if intermediate examination of the product seems likely, the manufacturer is not liable for any injuries, which this examination might have prevented.

Evans v Triplex Safety Glass Co [1936] 1 All ER 283

The windscreen of a car shattered for no apparent reason, injuring the occupants of the car. They sued the manufacturer. Held: the claim failed. There were various opportunities for intermediate examination after it left the factory and no evidence that the defect was caused by poor manufacture as distinct from poor fitting of the screen to the care.

Also, if the manufacturer issues a warning about the product’s safety, which ought reasonably to have put the consumer on his guard, then there would be no liability for injuries, which the reasonable Claimant would have then avoided.

Hurley v Dyke [1979] RTR 265 HL

Dyke sold a second-hand car to Hurley, the car being sold as “seen and with all its faults”. Hurely was then severely injured and rendered a paraplegic after the car went out of control on the road. Held: the warning that the car came with all faults discharged the seller’s duty and the subsequent injury to the buyer did not give rise to an action in negligence.

Kubach v Hollands [1937] 3 All ER 907

Chemicals used in a school laboratory exploded and injured Kubach, a 13 year old pupil. Held: as the manufacturer had warned retailers of the chemical that it should be tested before use, it was under no liability to Kubach in negligence.

Cases where liability will be found are likely to be ones where the consumer has used the product in a reasonable and foreseeable way leading to personal injury

Grant v Australian Knitting Mills Ltd [1936] AC 85 PC

Grant bought underwear in a shop and soon after began to suffer from skin irritation, which was caused by chemicals on the underwear left over from the manufacturing process. It was shown that there would have been no problem if Grant had washed the underwear once before wearing it. Held: as there was no warning when the product was sold that initial washing would be necessary, liability in negligence was found.

(iv) what claims can be made

Any foreseeeable victim of a defective product is within the scope of the duty and may accordingly sue for personal injuries suffered. Products such as cars carry risks not only to their users but also to others on the scene when they are used. So if a Claimant is injured in a car accident which can be traced to the poor state of another driver’s car, a Claimant may be able to sue the repairer of that car (Stennett v Hancock [1939] 2 All ER 578)

Haseldine v C A Daw and Son Ltd [1941] 2 KB 343 CA

Haseldine was injured when a lift in which he was riding fell. The defect in the lift was traced to poor repair work done the day before. Held: the repairers owed a duty to all who used the defective lift.

It appears that the manufacturer’s duty may even extend for some time after the product leaves the factory, so that there is a duty at common law to recall unsafe products. Those who suffer personal injury are well protected. However the claim does not extend to cover purely economic loss

Muirhead v Industrial Tank Specialities Ltd [1985] QB 507 CA

Industrial Tanks supplied Muirhead with electrical pumps, which he used for a tank containing lobsters. The pumps supplied were however designed to run at the wrong voltage. They cut out and the lobsters died. Held: Muirhead could recover for the loss of the lobsters (property damage) and loss of profit on them (economic loss consequential on property damage) but not for the cost of replacing the pumps (purely economic loss).

(v) Statute

A Directive on Liability for Defective Products 1985 85/374/EC was made part of UK law by the Consumer Protection Act 1987. The main feature is the new regime of strict liability for products, but there are many qualifications and defences so it does not make it easier for a Claimant though they no longer have to prove a duty or negligent behaviour.

The Act is concerned with consumer safety and the main type of claim envisaged is a claim for personal injury. The strict liability of the Act is aimed at the producer or manufacturer of the goods in question rather than intermediaries, but the act widens the definition of producer or manufacturer to include

- anyone who holds themselves out as a manufacturer (Supermarkets liable for “own brand” goods even though they do not actually manufacture them)

- anyone who imports goods into the EU- anyone who manufactured a defective component which was incorporated

into the product.

A mere supplier of goods is not usually liable.

B ROAD ACCIDENTS

The roads are a major source of accidents and these are very much the concern of tort law but the courts are very reluctant to lay down precise rules as to the standards applicable to drivers

Worsfold v Howe [1980] 1All ER 1028 CA

Howe was attempting to turn right out of a minor road onto a major road; a petrol tanker which had stopped just to his right obscured his view. Inching his car forward, Howe collided with Worsfold’s motorcycle which was passing the tanker at excessive speed. The trial judge considered both parties equally at fault but thought himself bound by a rule that all someone in Howe’s position could do is inch forward with all due care. Held: no such rule was in existence in the authorities and so the judge should have found the parties equally liable.

However there drivers have to be insured against possible tort claims that might result from poor driving so the emphasis from the courts is on compensation and not on deterrence.

C.LIABILITY OF OCCUPIERS TO THOSE ON THEIR LAND

In the 19th Century the common law developed an elaborate system of different classes of entrants onto property and the duty owed to each class. There has been amalgamation of some of the classes and now there are three classes of entrants:

- those to whom the Claimant has given permission to enter the land (“visitors”)

- those who have a legal right to be on the land, regardless of the Claimants permission

- those who entered with neither permission nor a legal right to enter (“trespassers”)

(1) Liability of occupiers to their visitors

The law has been much simplified by the Occupiers Liability Act 1957. The Act provides that the occupier of premises owes a “common duty of care” to all visitors. This duty is stated in terms which are very similar to the common law negligence duty.

The duty is imposed on the occupier of “premises”. This word includes everything which is within the ordinary meaning of the expression and more. It seems that any piece of real property is caught.

The “occupier” of the premises is the person who has the legal right of control over it. The Act imposes the duty on the person legally entitled to do something about the dangerous state of the premises or the activities carried out there.

Wheat v E Lacon & Co Ltd [1966] AC 552 HL

Lacon owned a pub, which it hired a manager to run. The premises included a private flat, which the manager was entitled to occupy and to use for paying uests. One guest fell down an unlit defective staircase in the flat. Held: as Lacon had the legal right to control the flat, it was the occupier and so was liable for the state of the premises.

The emphasis is on the legal right of control rather than actual control

Harris v Birkenhead Corpn [1976] 1 WLR 279 CA

As part of a slum-clearance scheme, Birkenhead Corporation served notice on a house, requiring the tenant to vacate the property. The tenant did so; however the corporation did not follow its usual policy of bricking up the premises. Harris, who was four and a half years old, entered the premises and fell out of a top story window. Acting through her mother, she sued the tenant, the landlord and the corporation. Held: only the corporation was “occupier” and therefore liable to Harris.

However, there is no rule that only one person may be occupier at any one time. The majority of the Lords in Lacon considered that the manager of the pub was also “occupier” for the purposes of the Act. Where occupancy is shared the rule seems to be that each occupier is under a duty though the duty is not the same and may be split

Collier v Anglian Water Authority [1983] Times 26 March CA

Collier was injured while walking along a seaside promenade, the injury being attributable to the state of repair of the promenade. The promenade was controlled joi8ntly by the water authority, as it formed part of the area’s sea defences, and the local authority, who swept up the accumulated rubbish. Held: as Collier’s injuries were attributable to the state of the promenade rather than to the rubbish, it was the water authority which was liable.

The most obvious class of “visitors” are those who have been given permission to come onto the land. It does not matter whether this permission was granted as part of a contract with the occupier, the duty is the same. Where the occupier places some limit on the permission, the visitor becomes a trespasser when the limit is exceeded.

Permission to enter need not be given in any particular form. In particular it will usually be assumed that anyone who wishes to talk to the occupier has implied permission to come onto the land. If certain types of enquiries are not welcome the occupier must make this clear in advance by notices.

Persons with a legal right to enter is to be considered a visitor, so if a defendant carelessly starts a fire on his land and the Claimant is a firefighter who is burned while putting it out, the defendant is liable to the Claimant for his injuries.

(i) Standard of care

The occupier of premises owes visitors the “common duty of care”. This is “a duty to take such care as in all the circumstances of the case is reasonable to see that the visitor will be reasonably safe in using the premises for the purposes for which he is invited or permitted by the occupier to be there”. The burden of proof is on the Claimant to show the duty of care has been broken.

Simms v Leigh Rugby Football Club Ltd [1969] 2 All ER 923

In the course of a rugby game Simms was tackled, breaking his leg, allegedly after coming into contact with a concrete wall slightly over seven feet from the touchline. Held: even if he in fact hit the wall, this was such an unlikely event as to be unforeseeeable by the occupier of the ground and so it was not liable to him.

The occupier is bound to take due care for the visitor but the visitor too is expected to exercise due care. The court will look to see what a visitor should reasonably do for himself. There are two special cases

- children; the occupier must be prepared for children to be less careful than adults, however, parents also have a duty

- workers; those who come onto premises to do work are expected to know the risks of their own job and how to minimise them

D. LIABILITY OF OCCUPIERS TO TRESSPASSERS

Until recently, the general position was that there was no duty owed to trespassers unless the occupier recklessly injured a trespasser they knew to be present. However, in 1972 the House of Lords decided that there was a duty owed to trespassers; this was not a common duty of care but a “common duty of humanity” which provided for a bare minimum of care (British Railways Board v Herrington [1972] AC 877 HL). This duty was re-stated and extended in the Occupiers Liability Act 1984 which is now the governing legislation.

The duty is similar to that owed to visitors but much less care is owed. Injuries caused to adult trespassers who well know they have no right to be on the defendant’s land are likely to receive little sympathy.

(i) Duty

The duty is owed to trespassers only if 3 conditions are satisfied

- the occupier knows of the danger, or has reasonable grounds to know it exists

- the occupier knows the trespasser is, or may in the future come into the vicinity of the danger

- it is reasonable to expect the occupier to offer some protection to the trespasser against the risk.

(ii) Standard of care

The duty owed to trespassers is specific to the danger. The Claimant will only have been able to establish a duty in respect of a particular danger. If the Claimant demonstrates this then the content of the duty is straightforward: it is to take “such reasonable care in all the circumstances of the case to see that the trespasser does not suffer injury on the premises by reason of the danger concerned”.

E. LIABILITY OF NON OCCUPIERS TO THOSE ON THE LAND

If a Claimant is injured by the activities of an independent contractor on the land, the Claimants action is the standard negligence action against those who engage in dangerous activities. The careless builder, for instance is liable for negligence even if the property has changed hands and has new owners or occupiers.

Rimmer V Liverpool City Council [1984] 1All ER 930 CA

Shortly after moving into his new council flat, the tenant complained of a dangerous panel of breakable glass, which he argued was a danger to his young son. He was told that it was a standard installation and could not be changed. Nineteen months later his son was injured when he put his hand through the glass. Held: the council was liable in negligence in its capacity as designer and builder of flats.

(i) Landlords

At common law it is almost impossible to sue landlords in tort for injuries to those on the premises. Today, action can be maintained in two situations:

- the landlord created the danger (see Rimmer above)- the landlord has a duty to repair. By statute a landlord who is bound to repair

has a duty to all who might reasonably be expected to be affected by defects in the premises (Defective Premises Act 1972). The duty applies in all cases where the landlord know of the defect or ought to have known of it. Even if the landlord is not bound to repair, nevertheless if the landlord has power to enter and repair a duty of care is owed to everyone, except the tenant.

F. EMPLOYERS LIABILITY

The liability of employers to their employees is ancient. However, for many centuries there were very broad defences. Since the 1940s these defences have been narrowed and in some instances abolished. Employers now also have to carry liability insurance under the Employers’ Liability (Compulsory Insurance) Act 1969. The total number of injuries at work is probably about 500 000 and about 10% of those obtain tort-based compensation.

The liability is in favour of employees only and not other grades of workers. The protection given to other workers is much less generous.

(i) The duty

Each employee is entitled to expect that his/her employer will take reasonable care to ensure his/her safety. The duty is imposed by the law of negligence and is not absolute. It is useful to consider the employer’s duty under four heads:

- the duty to provide safe premises- the duty to provide safe plant- the duty to provide competent staff and- the duty to institute safe work practices.

These are not distinct duties but are part of the same duty, which is to take reasonable precautions to ensure the Claimants safety. This duty is independent of statutory duties on the employer. If the employer is in breach of a common law duty, it is no defence that the employer has done everything that the statute requires in the matter, even if the statute addresses the danger to which the Claimant has succumbed.

(ii) The duty cannot be delegated

The Claimant is only entitled to a reasonably safe working environment, not an absolutely safe one. However, if the environment is not reasonably safe it is no defence that this was the fault of someone who was not the employer. This can be summed up by saying that the duty is not delegable. If the Claimant is injured by the acts of a fellow employee, it is usually possible to argue that the employer is directly liable, even if the employee is on secondment elsewhere.

McDermid v Nash Dredging and Reclamation Co Ltd [1987] AC 906 HL

McDermid was injured when the tug on which he was working as a deckhand started unexpectedly. He was pulled into the water, suffering a serious leg injury as a result. The accident was the fault of the tug’s master, who was employed not by McDermid’s employer but by the employer’s parent company. Held: McDermid’s employers were liable for his injury.

But courts are reluctant to find employers liable in a case where in reality they have no control over the Claimant’s safety

Square D Ltd v Cook [1992] IRLR 34 CA

Square D employed Cook as a electronic engineer. He was sent out to Saudi Arabia to work on a client’s computer control systems. In the course of his work, Cook injured himself through the poor state of the premises in which he was working. Held: his employers had no control over his conditions of work and were therefore not liable.

Nearly all cases involve threats to employees’ health through physical impact of some kind, as whether the Claimant accidentally comes into contact with dangerous machinery. In principle any threat to a Claimant’s physical health comes within the law and in exceptional cases it is even possible to sue for the consequences of extreme stress due to work conditions.

Walker v Northumberland County Council [1995] 1 All ER 737

Walker, a social services manager, suffered a nervous breakdown through overwork. He returned to work after his employers gave him specific promises of extra assistance. The promises were broken and six months after his return to work he suffered a second breakdown, which permanently disabled him from working. Held: the employers were liable for the consequences of the second breakdown.

(iii) The specific duties

Safe Premises

The place of work must be maintained in a reasonably safe condition. Where there is a known source of danger, the employer is required to act reasonably in the face of it and the court will pay attention to the practicality of the various options

Latimer v AEC Ltd [1953] AC 643 HL

The floor of a factory became wet and slippery through flooding. The owner put down sawdust but did not have enough to cover the entire floor. Latimer, an employee, slipped on a wet patch and injured himself. Held: the employer had done everything possible, short of shutting the factory, which would in the circumstances have been overreaction. Accordingly, Latimer could not sue for his injuries.

Often the nature of the job requires a Claimant to work in unsafe positions. In such cases the employer should provide instruction and safety equipment. If the danger is obvious and easy to avoid, it is possible that a court might be persuaded that any accident was the Claimant’s own fault, but an employer should not rely on that

General Cleaning Contractors v Christmas [1953] AC 180 HL

Christmas, an experienced window cleaner, was injured when the window he was cleaning suddenly and unexpectedly moved. He was not wearing a safety harness because there was nowhere to attach one. Various precautions his employers could have taken to prevent an accident were suggested. Held: failure to attach to the building hooks for a safety harness was not a breach of duty. However, his employers were in breach for (i) failure to warn their employees to test windows before cleaning them and (ii) failure to provide wedges to keep windows still.

It is necessary to remember that the duty in negligence is owed to each individual Claimant (Paris v Stepney Borough Council) and accordingly the duty to relatively inexperienced employees may be higher than that owed to the experienced.

Safe Plant, materials and equipment

Reasonable steps must also be taken to ensure that plant, materials and equipment also are reasonably safe. The common law is enhanced by the Employers Liability (Defective Equipment) Act 1969, which provides that the employer is liable for equipment which is defective through the negligence of third parties. “Equipment” is broadly defined in the Act as including “any plant and machinery, vehicle, aircraft and clothing”. The equipment must be “provided by the employer for the purposes of the employer’s business. Case law takes a broad view of this provision, making it clear that it covers whatever the Claimant was working on, not just the tools he/she was using.

Knowles v Liverpool City Council [1994] 1 Lloyds Reports 11 HL

Knowles, a labourer involved in mending pavements, was manhandling a flagstone into the shovel of a JCB mechanical digger. The flagstone broke, injuring Knowles. The cause was a negligent defect in the manufacturing process, which Knowles’ employers could not have reasonably discovered beforehand. Held: the flagstone was defective “equipment” so his employers were liable for his injuries.

It has also been held that a ship can be “defective equipment” under the Act (Coltman v Bibby Tankers [1988] AC 276 HL).

Competent Staff

Each employee is entitled to expect that reasonable ca re will have been taken in the selection and training of other employees. Where a Claimant is injured by the misbehaviour of a fellow employee, very often the Claimant may sue the employer on the basis of vicarious liability for the other employee’s tort. But equally, where necessary, the Claimant can plead that poor selection or control of the other employee constituted a breach of duty.

Hudson v Ridge Manufacturing Co Ltd [1957] 2 QB 348

Hudson was injured while fending off a mock (pretend) attack by Chadwick, another employee. Chadwick was a practical joker and this was well known, but the employers had taken no steps to discipline him. Held: Hudson’s employers were liable for his injuries.

Safe Work Practices

The final respect in which employers are bound to provide a reasonable level of safety is in the work practices that they maintain. This is traditionally called the duty to maintain a “safe system of work”. The content of the duty varies according to the type of work. It includes a duty to issue standing orders in safety matters and to supervise employees to prevent dangerous situations from developing. There is no conclusive rule but a number of considerations are relevant on a routine basis.

- where there is an obvious risk to the safety of employees, much will turn on whether it is reasonable to leave avoidance of risk to the employees themselves.

Nolan v Dental Manufacturing Co Ltd [1958] 1 WLR 936

Nolan was sharpening a tool on a grinder. A splinter of metal flew out and entered his eye. Nolan’s employer never issued goggles to workers in his position. Held: the employers should have issued goggles and enforced strict orders to use them and accordingly they were in breach of duty.

- workmen are not in the position of employers. Their duties are not performed in the calm atmosphere of a board room with the advice of experts. “They have to make decisions on narrow window sills or other places of danger and in circumstances in which the dangers are obscured by repetition (General Contractors v Christmas [1953] as per Lord Oaksey)

- Standard practice in the industry concerned is a heavy, though not a conclusive factor. If the danger to the Claimant could be avoided by taking precautions which few or no employers actually do, then a court will hesitate long before deciding that this particular employer should have done it. Nevertheless, the courts are prepared to hold even well-established industry practices to be negligent if the facts justify it (Brown v John Mills and Co (Llanidloes) Ltd [1970] 8 KIR 702 CA).

New dangers to employees

The employer’s duty includes a duty to keep up with new developments and knowledge which may reveal new threats to their workers, or improved ways of keeping up with old threats.

Where a danger has only recently emerged, it may be sometimes necessary for a court to identify the precise point at which the reasonable employer ought to have realised the problem and done something about it. Prominent examples of this type of litigation in recent y ears have included

- repetitive strain injury (RSI) (eg Pickford v Imperial Chemical Industries [1996] IRLR 622 CA)

- vibration white finger (VWF) (eg Bowman v Harland and Wolff [1992] IRLR 349)

- the effects of noise on ship building workers (Thompson v Smiths Ship Repairers (North Shields) Ltd [1984] 1 All ER 881 in which Mustill J said

“the employer is not liable for the consequences of apparently inescapable risks, although subsequent changes in social awareness, or improvements in knowledge and technology, may transfer the risk onto the category of those against which the employer can and should take care. It is impossible to give a comprehensive formula for identifying the line between the acceptable or unacceptable. Nonetheless the line does exist.

The armed forces

Until quite recently a common law immunity barred action by active service personnel for injuries suffered. This immunity was removed by the Crown Proceedings (Armed Forces) Act 1987. The quantity of litigation arising as a result has been surprisingly large. The “Gulf War Syndrome” action alone has resulted in the a large amount of litigation. This new head of liability has involved the courts being invited to apply concepts of employers’ liability to non-standard situations

Barrett v Ministry of Defence [1995] 3 All ER 87 CA

Barrett, a naval airman, drank heavily on the night he was celebrating his thirtieth birthday, while at a Royal Naval establishment in northern Norway. He choked to death on his own vomit. Held: no breach of duty by failure to control drinking at the base generally was established, but inadequate care had been taken of Barret after he had become unconscious through drink. Liability was established but reduced by two thirds for Barrett’s own contributory negligence.

Mulchay v Ministry of Defence [1996] WB 732 CA

While Mulchay was cleaning a howitzer with a mop and bucket, the gun commander ordered it to be fired at Iraqi troops. Mulcahy suffered various injuries, including substantial damage to his hearing. Held: a duty of an employer to provide a safe system of work did not extend to cover soldiers in the course of hostilities.

Statutory duties

Along with the general common law duty to take ca re is a wide array of statutory duties in relation to heath and safety of employees. The principles under which these statutory duties can sometimes give rise to a civil right of action have been discussed. The most important statutes for this purpose are the Factories Act 1961 and the Mines and Quarries Act 1954. But the whole area is in transition with the gradual implementation of the EC Framework Directive on Health and Safety (Directive 89/391), which should lead to a general code of rules applicable to all workplaces, as well as regulation of particular industries.

G. MEDICAL CARE

Actions for medical negligence form a substantial part of the overall total of tort claims. Injuries induced by medical care are as old as medicine itself. Nevertheless the current relatively high level of litigation has only been reached over the past half century and it seems that advances in medicine mean more dissatisfaction with medical care. Expectations are higher and it is more easy today to see what has gone wrong and who is at fault.

Breach of duty

The level of duty owed by doctors, surgeons and other health professionals is that they must act as a reasonable health professional would act in that situation. What is reasonable is judged by the standards current at the time, not by later knowledge and understanding. The level of duty has a peculiarity, normally known as the Bolam test . The test is not whether all health professionals would approve of what this particular health professional did. It is a defence if what they did was thought adequate by a significant number, even if most competent professionals would disapprove

“a doctor is not guilty of negligence if he acted in accordance with a practice accepted as proper by a responsible body of medical men skilled in that particular art” (Bolam v Friern hospital Management Committee [1957] 1WLR 582)

Subsequent cases have not only endorsed this but have gone further saying that it is not enough that some sort of error can be shown, if it is not of the requisite seriousness. A mere “error of judgement” is not necessarily negligence, even if the consequences are gruesome. The level of duty owed is therefore in practice rather low.

Will the Bolam test survive?

Attempts to water down the test have been resisted by the courts. The test was endorsed and extended in Whitehouse v Jordan [1981] 1 All ER 267 HL. The same thing happened in Sidaway v Board of Governors of the Bethlehem Royal Hospital [1985] AC 871 HL where the Claimant’s argument that her rights as a patient included a right to be informed of the risks of treatment was defeated on proof that current medical practice was to the contrary. The principle is subject to criticism. The courts do not allow such a high degree of autonomy to other professions and so allow doctors to continue to use outdated notions. In recent years the courts have shown increasing dissatisfaction with the Bolam test but seem reluctant to clash with the medical profession.

4. NEGLIGENCE: PROPERTY AND ECONOMIC LOSSES

Purely economic losses

“Purely economic” losses are economic losses which cannot be described as physical damage to the person or to property. All economic losses are either personal injuries or property damage or purely economic losses. Economic loss which is consequential on physical damage is not caught by this restriction: so if a Claimant is injured in the leg and has to take a less well-paid job as a result, the Claimant need not fear that this loss of wages will be thought “purely economic”: it results from a physical injury and the damages for the injury will include it.

The rule requires not merely damage to property but that the property must have belonged to the Claimant at the time when it was damaged. It does not seem to matter that the property was at the Claimants risk so that the Claimant must bear the loss if it is damaged, if the Claimant was not the owner.

Leigh & Sillavan Ltd v Aliakamon Shipping Co Ltd [1986] 2 All ER 145 HL

Alikmon Shipping injured a cargo of steel which they were carrying. The steel was at Leigh’s risk, though ownership had not passed to them at the time of damage. Held: Leigh’s loss was a purely economic loss and accordingly irrecoverable from Aliakmon.

This principle sometimes requires a very close analysis of the nature of the Claimant’s interest in some property, which has been damaged.

Candlewood Navigation Corporation Ltd v Mitsui OSK Lines Ltd. [1985] 2 All ER 1025 HL

Mitsui owned a ship, which they chartered (by demise charter) to Matsuoka; Matsuoka immediately chartered it (by time charter) back to Mitusi. The ship was then damaged through the negligence of Candlewood: Held: as a time charter, unlike a demise charter,did not give a property right to the charterer, Mitsui’s claim was for a purely economic loss and therefore could not succeed.

These cases show the rule against pure economic loss at its most technical. However, the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1992 has made the situation easier for Claimants which suffer economic loss even though they are not the “technical” owner.

Failure to provide proper services

Anns v Merton London Borough Council [1978] AC 728 HL

Anns bought a flat but later realised that its foundations were ruined. The builders had not dug deep enough for such soil and the local planning authorities had not checked up on the builders. Anns sued both the builder and the planning authority and succeeded. Lord Wilberforce, who delivered the leading judgment in the House of Lords declared that Ann’s loss was in fact physical rather than purely economic. He proposed a two-stage test for duty, under which the main question was whether loss to the Claimant was a foreseeeable consequence of a defendant’s action, but under which liability could be limited if there was something in the situation to require it. Whether a Claimant’s loss was physical or purely economic was not for him a matter of great importance.

However, the courts showed increasing dissatisfaction with this line of reasoning and Anns was overruled by Murphy v Brentwood District Council [1990] 2All ER 908 HL and the division between property damage and purely economic loss was reasserted as fundamental.

It is strange that Anns and other Claimants could be refused a claim in tort because their loss is purely economic rather than injury to property. Anns would have been quite different if they foundations has at one time been good and had then been ruined by the defendant. Here there were never any good foundations, so there was no claim for damage to property because there was nothing to damage.

In Muirhead v Industrial Tank Specialities Ltd [1986] the pumps failing in an aquarium caused the lobsters to die but Muirhead could only recover the value of the dead lobsters but not the purely economic loss of having to repair or replace defective pumps (even though the manufacturers were negligent.

The line is difficult to draw between property damage and purely economic loss and it is an area which is still fully defined.

Negligent Misstatement

Where a relationship between the Claimant and the defendant is such that the Claimant reasonably reposes a high degree of trust in the defendant’s advice, then bad advice to the Claimant resulting in loss may lead to an action in negligence against the defendant. It seems to be irrelevant here that the loss the Claimant suffers is purely economic.

Hedley Byrne & Co v Heller & Partners Ltd [1964] AC 465 HL

The Claimant had doubts about the credit worthiness of one of its clients and, through an intermediary, asked the defendant for a credit reference. The defendant responded that “we believe that the company would not undertake any commitments that they were unable to fulfill”, though they added that “your figures are larger than we are accustomed to see”. They added that their reference was for “your own private use and without responsibility on our part”. The Claimant lost a significant sum when the client went into liquidation and they sought to recover the loss by suing the defendant.

The action failed because of the way the defendant qualified their reference but a majority of the House of Lords made it clear that negligent misstatements of this sort could give rise to a liability in tort.

Clayton v Woodman & Sons (Builders) ltd [1962] 2 QB 533 CA

Clayton, a building worker, injured himself as a result of a careless instruction from the architects of the project. Held: the architects were liable for the injury.

Even in the Hedley Byrne case, which first recognised this type of liability, there were considerable disagreements as to its nature and it is impossible to reduce liability to a simple formula. In principle, the question should be whether the Claimant was entitled to rely on the defendant’s statement. In practice the more generally the defendant’s statement is broadcast, the less likely the court is to hold that there is a special relationship which gives rise to liability, but there is no ban on liability because the Claimant is not the person at whom the statement is primarily aimed

Smith v Erik E Bush [1990 1 AC 831 HL

Smith wanted a loan to buy a house. Bush surveyed the house for the mortgage company but failed to notice fundamental defects in the house. As Bush must have known was likely, Smith gained access to the survey and relied on it instead of having her won survey done. Held: Smith’s reliance was reasonable and Bush was liable to her.

It is difficult to be general about the nature of the relationship necessary to give rise to liability. The extent to which a Claimant relies and the reasonableness of this reliance and the defendant’s knowledge of this reliance are all relevant factors but there is no simple formula. One can contrast the two following cases.

Gran Gelato Ltd v Richcliff (Group) Ltd [1992] 1 All ER 865

Gran Gelato took a sub-lease of premises, having been assured by the landlord’s solicitor that the head lease was good for ten years. After five years the head lease was unexpectedly, but lawfully, terminated by the freehold owner. Held. Gran Gelato had no action against the landlord’s solicitors

Edwards v Lee[1991] NLJR 1517

Lee, a solicitor, gave Edwards a reference for Hawkes, his client, on the s tr ength of which Edwards allowed Hawkes to take away a Mercedes on credit. Hawkes absconded; he was, as Lee knew, on bail before trial for criminal dishonesty. Held: even though legal professional privilege would not have permitted Lee to mention the charges against Hawkes, nonetheless the reference was misleading and Edwards could recover damages.

If the relationship is purely social, then it is usually unreasonable to place much reliance on anything the defendant may say and so no duty is owed. But there is no hard rule on this

Chaudhry v Prabhakar [1988] 3 All ER 718 CA

Chaudry, who had just passed her driving test and knew little about cars, sought the advice of Prabhakar a close friend with some knowledge of cars. Prabhakar recommended a Volkswagon Golf making careless statements about it. The Gold turned out to be unroadworthy and useless. Held: a duty was owed to Chaudry which was broken.

Exclusion of liability

In the Hedley Byrne case, the claim failed because the defendant ahd made it clear that it accepted no liability for its statement. However, in modern conditions, this is no longer a very obvious conclusion. If a defendant knows that the Claimant will rely on the information and that it is reasonable to do so, can the defendant escape all liability merely by stating that the information is given without liability? This is not obvious even so far as common law is concerned. Legislation now forbids the exclusion of “business liability” for negligence except where the exclusion is reasonable (Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977)

3. DELIBERATE INFLICTION OF ECONOMIC LOSS

Various torts protect a Claimant’s economic interests against deliberate harm, such as deceit, intimidation and conspiracy.

A. Deceit

Where a defendant dishonestly misinforms a Claimant and the Claimant suffers loss as a result through relying on the misinformation, the Claimant may sue the defendant for the loss suffered. The defendant is said to have committed the tort of deceit. Deceit is a serious matter.

The distinguishing features of the tort of deceit are that (i) the defendant has misled the Claimant and (ii) the defendant’s behaviour is dishonest.

The defendant is liable for misleading the Claimant and it makes no difference what from the misrepresentation takes. The basic rule is that misrepresentation is actionable but silence is not. The borderline between the two is vague and many issues are a matter of degree e.g

- where the defendant takes active steps to mislead a Claimant, a court is likely to find misrepresentation. This is so whether the defendant does so by making true but misleading statements, or by actively concealing inconvenient facts (as in Gordon v Selico C (1984), where Selico deliberately hid patches of dry rot in a house to induce Gordon to take a tenancy there).

- where the defendant makes ambiguous statements, then the defendant is liable only if the defendant meant to mislead the Claimant and the Claimant was in fact misled (Smith v Chadwick 1879)

- where the defendant makes a statement to the Claimant and only later discovers that it is false, the defendant is treated as having made a false representation to the Claimant at the time when the defendant could have corrected the Claimants mistake (Briess v Woolley 1954). Conversely, if the defendant makes a statement fraudulently but by the time the Claimant acts on it circumstances have changed and it is the truth, no fraud is committed (Ship v Crosskill 1870)

- where a defendant makes a false statement of intention, this is deceit, but if the defendant has merely changed his mind at a later point, this is not deceit.

- Where a defendant makes a promise to buy land and then breaks it (usually breach of contract) , deceit will only be established where the defendant can be shown to have misrepresented some fact

The requirement that the defendant makes the representation dishonestly involves proof of either (i) that the defendant knew the representation was false or (ii) that the defendant made the statement without belief in its truth. This last case includes the case where the defendant does not know and does not care whether the statement is true.

The requirement that the defendant makes the misrepresentation “dishonestly” also involves proof that the defendant meant the Claimant to act on the statement

Peek v Gurney [1873] LR 6 HL 377 Gurney and others issued a company prospectus containing false statements. Held: those who subscribed to shares on the strength of the prospectus could sue for loss suffered, but Peek and others who had bought shares later had no claim as the prospectus was not intended to affect stock-market dealings.

Assessment of loss

The Claimant is entitled to recover the amount by which the Claimant would have been better off had the defendant not engaged in fraud. The Claimant may recover for any form of quantifiable loss cause by fraud including personal injury, but in practice the loss is almost always purely economic. Difficulties arise in cases where the defendant has fraudulently induced the Claimant to invest in a business and it is not clear what the Claimant would have done with the money if he/she had not invested it.

East v Maurer [1991] 2 All ER 733 CA

Maurer induced East to buy one of his hair dressing salons, falsely representing that he was going to discontinue the other one. He did not, and East’s business suffered as a result. Held: but for the misrepresentation East would have bought another salon elsewhere. The appropriate for damages was the amount the transaction cost East plus the estimated profit she would have made had she bought another, similar salon elsewhere.

Smith New Court Securities v Scrimgeour Vickers (Asset Management) [1996] 4 All ER 769 HL

Scrimgeour fraudulently induced Smith to buy a large block of share at 82 p per share. The shares were then trading at 78p per share on the stock market. Soon afterwards, another fraud (not related to Scrimgeour’s) was revealed, which took the trading price of the shares down to 44p. Held: Smith could recover for the entire drop in value from 82p to 44p, even though as a general rule it would fall on Smith as owners of the shares.

Downs v Chappell [1996] 3 All ER 344 CA

Downs bought a bookshop from Chappell for £120 000, after fraudulent representations as to its turnover. On discovering the truth, Downs tried to sell the business but refused two offers of £76 000, eventually being forced to accept an offer of £60 000. Held: on appeal, the truth was that the value was unknown at the time Downs bought, so this damages were assessed at £44 000 (ie £120 000 less 76 000)

B. Intimidation

Where a defendant makes an unlawful threat which induces someone else to harm the Claimant, the defendant has committed the tort of intimidation. Usually the defendant makes the threat to some third party who then harms the Claimant. It is usually always a three party affair, because an unlawful threat against a Claimant directly would be actionable in itself without the need for a distinct tort of “intimidation”.

The defendant’s threat is not actionable unless it was to do something contrary to the law.

Rookes v Barnard [1964] AC 1129 HL

Rooke’s employer sacked him, to avert a threat of strike action by Barnard and others, officials of a union seeking to impose a closed shop on the firm. Held:The threat of a strike, being a threat to b reach an employment contract, was sufficiently unlawful to found an action by Rookes, even though the sacking was lawful.

The definition of “unlawfulness” is therefore broad. Action only lies if the defendant intended to injure the Claimant. In Rookes v Barnard it was assumed that Barnard and his colleagues meant to injure Rookes, even though it appears that their sole motive was to dispose of an individual inconvenient for their scheme for a closed shop.

It is clear that the threat must place considerable pressure on the person to whom it is addressed, if it is to be the foundation of an action in intimidation. Mere idle abuse, however humiliating will not do.

C. Conspiracy

Where two or more people agree to act in a way which they know will injure a Claimant, then in certain circumstances the Claimant may sue any or all of them for the loss caused by the conspiracy.

There are two types of conspiracy

- conspiracy to injure; where the predominant purpose of the conspiracy was to injure the Claimant, the conspiracy is actionable whether or not unlawful means were employed.

Mogul SS Co v McGregor Gow & Co [1892] AC 25 HL

A shipping company, Mogul, was driven out of business by the concerted action of the others, including McGregor Gow. It used a variety of tactics including offering special rebates to customers not to deal with Mogul and arranging services and prices in such a way as to deprive Mogul of custom rather than to run at a profit Held: as no illegal means had been employed, no action lay.

The defence here was that the companies were motivated by self-interest and not spite; it is a strange case, but it still represents the common law situation today.

- intent to injure; the “pursuit of economic self interest” defence does not protect those whose behaviour has not rational economic basis

Gulf Oil (GB) Ltd v Page [1987] Ch 327 CA

Page was involved in a commercial dispute with Gulf in a case where Gulf ws found by a court to be in breach of contract. Page and others hired a light aircraft to two a banner saying “Gulf exposed in fundamental breach” over a race meeting where Gulf was entertaining clients. Held: even though the banner told the truth, nonetheless there was an actionable conspiracy to injure.

Unlawful means

Liability is easier to establish where the means employed by the conspirators are themselves illegal or unlawful. However, the leading case puts strict limits on liability under this variety of tort

Lonrho v Shell Petroleum (no 2) [1982] AC 173 HL

Lonrho constructed an oil pipeline running from Rhodesia to Mozambique. This stood idle for many years as a consequence of international sanctions imposed on Rhodesia after its declaration of independence. Lonrho alleged that Shell had illegally supplied oil to Rhodesia, thus prolonging the life of the regime and incidentally lengthening the time that Lonrho’s pipeline lay idle. Held: no action lay, first, Shell had no intention to harm Lonrho and second, because breach of the sanctions legislation did not count as unlawful means for this purpose.

D. Interference with contractual rights

This tort is defined as protecting a specific interest- that of the Claimants interest in the performance of any contract to which the Claimant is a party. Where the defendant intentionally interferes with performance, the Claimant may have an action for the loss which results. This tort had its origins in the mediaeval law of enticing away a Claimant’s servant or a member of the Claimant’s family.

Torquay Hotel Co v Cousins [1969] 2 Ch 106

Cousins and other members of the same union disrupted oil supplies to the Torquay Hotel, by persuading lorry drivers not to carry it. There was a force majeure clause in the oil supply contract so the supplier was not in breach of failing to deliver. Held: the hotel could nevertheless recover damages for the interference with the performance of the contract.

4. LAND USE

Various torts provide a series of protection in respect of land use:

- trespas to land;- private nuisance;- public nuisance- strict liability for dangerous activities

1. Trespass to land

A defendant commits trespass by any unjustified intrusion onto a Claimant’s land. The Claimant need not prove loss or damage, and the intrusion may be trivial, although a Claimant may also use the tort to remedy damage deliberately done by the defendant while trespassing. The tort catches not only intrusion by the defendant in person, but also intrusions for which the defendant is responsible. So a defendant may commit trespass if his/her animals stray onto the Claimant’s land, and if the defendants leaves property on the Claimant’s land, there is a continuing trespass, with a fresh cause of action every day, until it is removed.

a) Below and above

In principle, a Claimant may sue for an intrusion at any height or depth above or below the land; but some qualifications must be made. Different strata or levels may have different owners and so might need to be treated as separate territories e.g. different floors of the same building may be indifferent ownership and each owner can complain only of trespass to their own area. Intrusion below the surface of a Claimant’s land is actionable unless permitted by statute; though who is entitled to the minerals may be a complicated question. Intrusion above the surface is actionable as well, at least in the case where the intruder is still attached to the ground. So where a crane used for building on the defendant’s land swings its jib over the Claimant’s land, this is usually trespass (Woollerton & Wilson v Richard Costain [1970] 1 WLR 411). But where the intruder is not attached to the ground this is not always the case.

Bernstein of Leigh v Skyviews and General [1978] QB 479

Skyviews took aerial photographs of Bernstein’s mansion with a view to selling them to him. Instead, Bernstein sued in trespass. Griffiths J held that the action failed (i) because there was no evidence that the aircraft was ever directly above Bernstein’s land (ii) if it was, , Bernstein had no reasonable use for the air space at that height and so had no right to complain of a trespass and (iii) Skyviews were protected by statute.

The statutory provision (now embodied in the Civil Aviation Act 1982) gives a complete defence to trespass for an aircraft flying at a height which is reasonable in all the circumstances, though there is strict liability for any actual physical damage caused.

b) The land

A Claimant is entitled to complain of intrusions onto any land of which the Claimant is in possession, that is , land over which the Claimant has physical control. Where the Claimant is not in possession, but has a legal right to go into possession, then if the Claimant actually does go back into possession, he/she acquires the right to sue those who trepassed since that time (this is called “trespass by relation”).

Deliberate conduct by the defendant, which is in fact an intrusion, is actionable. It is no defence that the defendant did not realise that it was an intrusion or realise that it was unlawful. It is no defence, therefore, that the defendant had lost his/her way. The defendant only has a defence if the intrusion was involuntary as where the defendant is pulled onto the Claimant’s land despite protests and struggles. Where the intrusion is by the defendant’s property (usually animals), the courts ask whether the intrusion was the product of intention or carelessness on the defendant’s part, or whether the defendant was blameless.

League against Cruel Sports v Scott [1986] QB 240

In the course of hunting, Scott’s staghounds ran onto the League’s deer sanctuary. Park J held that Scott would be liable if he meant the hounds to trespass or had been negligent in failing to prevent trespass. Persistent hunting in circumstances where trespass was impossible to prevent was evidence on intention to trespass. £180 damages and an injunction were awarded.

c) Defences

The main defences open to a defendant are:

(i) exercise of a defendant’s won property rights, such as a private right of way (ii) putting right some wrong which is the Claimant’s responsibility, such as by

“abatement of nuisance”(iii) statutory authority to enter the Claimant’s land, such as under the Police and

Criminal Evidence Act 1984(iv) public right, such as the right to walk the highway(v) permission(vi) necessity.

These rights to enter land are very specific and the defendant must stay within their limits. Simply because the defendant has a right to walk the highway going over the Claimant’s land does not give a right to spy on the Claimant. If the defendant’s intrusion is initially justifiable but then the defendant does some positive and unlawful act, then the defendant is treated by fiction of law as having been a trespasser all along.

PermissionA Claimant cannot sue a defendant in trespass if the defendant had the Claimant’s permission to be on the land. Permission can be implied from circumstances: this is why the defendant does not usually commit trespass by walking onto the Claimant’s land and knocking on the front door, unless the Claimant has already made it clear that the defendant is unwelcome. The defendant will become a trespasser if the defendant acts in a manner not allowed by the terms of the permission.

Hurst v Picture Theatres [1915] 1 KB 1 CA

During a cinema show, Hurst, sitting in the audience was suddenly and unjustifiably told by one of the staff to leave. When he refused, he was forcibly ejected. Held: Hurst could sue in assault.

Necessity

Necessity is usually said to be a defence to an action in trespass, but the courts are not always very consistent in their treatment. So it has been held that a need for shelter, however desperate, cannot justify a defendant’s trespass, because to hold otherwise would be open to abuse (Southwark London Borough Council v Williams [1971] Ch 734 CA). Yet it has also been held that the defence is available to a police force using inflammable CS gas against a psychopath on a Claimant’s property, even though their use of it was held to be negligent (Rigby v Chief Constable for Northamptonshire [1985] 1 WLR 1242).

DamagesA Claimant may claim damages from a defendant for any trespass. A Claimant may recover any financial loss proved to flow from the trespass, or (if none) a nominal sum.

Other remediesIn certain cases, the Claimant may seek a court order evicting a defendant from the land. Self help to achieve the same result is tightly controlled by the Criminal Law Act 1977 s. 6: It is an offence to use or threaten force to enter premises occupied by another and a Claimant must use no more force than is the circumstances reasonably justify.

2. PRIVATE NUISANCE

A private nuisance consists of an unjustified interference by a defendant in the Claimant’s enjoyment of land. The remedy usually consists of an award of damages or an injunction to force the defendant to rectify the situation. The tort is “private” in the sense that it is a right of one private individual (a Claimant) against another (a defendant), a nuisance which affects a significant section of the public is “public” and so ma involve criminal proceedings against a defendant as well. It is not always clear where nuisance (interference) ends and trespass (intrusion) begins. The test isUsually said to be that of directness. So if a defendant deliberately throws a cricket ball into a Claimant’s garden, this is trespass but if a defendant organises a cricket match and a ball is hit over the boundary, this is nuisance (if it is anything – see Millerv Jackson below).

Variety of nuisance

Nuisance may take may take many forms. Land can be physically damaged by the emission of poisonous fumes from a defendant’s factory, or the smell and noise from a defendant’s farm can ruin a Claimant’s enjoyment without any physical damage. nuisance tends to involve continuing sources of annoyance, but one-off events can also be nuisance if sufficiently severe. In each case, however, the defendant’s behaviour must be unreasonable in view of the damage it does to the Claimant’s interests. In each case, the court balances the defendant’s right to act against the Claimant’s right not to be injured and decides whether the defendant has

overstepped the line which the court (retroactively) draws; the seriousness of the injury is a major fact in the balance.

Different types of injury are treated in different ways. Nevertheless a Claimant will have an easier time in private nuisance if physical damage can be proved. Property rights are much better protected than the right to leisure activities.

Hunt v Canary Wharf Ltd [1997] 2 All ER 426 HL

Several hundred Claimants complained that the Canary Wharf building development had created clouds of dust which deposited itself on their property and that the Canary Wharf Tower interfered with their television reception. Held: the dust was actionable if it could be shown to have damaged Claimant’s property but the interference with the TV reception was not actionable.

A defendant has a better chance of winning a case if the defendant’s activity has some obvious and significant use to the public.

Miller v Jackson [1977] QB 966 CA

The Millers complained that cricket balls from matches organised by Jackson often landed in their garden and that a few had done damage to their house. Held: an actionable nuisance had been committed and the Miller’s were entitled to damages but the majority in the Court of Appeal ruled that it would be against the public interest to issue an injunction to stop the cricket matches altogether.

LocalityThe less pleasant the area in which the alleged nuisance occurred, the worse must be the defendant’s behaviour if it is to be held a nuisance. Accordingly, what is permitted behaviour in one place might be nuisance in another.

Laws v Florinplace [1981] 1 All ER 659

Laws complained of the opening of a sex shop and a cinema club by Florinplace, in premises close to his home: he relied particularly on the adverse effect on property values and the attraction of undesirables to the previously placid residential area. Held: it was arguable whether or not nuisance had been committed, and restrained Florinplace from continuing its activities pending a full trial.

Conduct which might be unexceptionable in normal circumstances might be nuisance if intentionally used to provoke, annoy or harm a Claimant.

Who can sue?The traditional view is that a Claimant can only complain of private nuisance if the Claimant has either possession of the land or a property right in it. The typical Claimant will therefore be a freehold owner of a property, but those with subsidiary property rights can also sue if their interest is affected. But those with no property right may not sue, however good their right to be on the premises: a tenant’s spouse for example.

NegligenceIt is sometimes said that the liability in private nuisance is “strict” and therefore quite different from negligence liability, which requires proof of fault. There are, however, two qualifications to this

- it is true that a defendant may blunder into liability for private nuisance through ignorance of law, or through practical inability to meet the law’s standard of fault. If a defendant lights a bonfire which is a nuisance to a Claimant’s neighbouring land, it is irrelevant whether the defendant knew enough law to appreciate the possibility of liability. So nuisance in this sense is strict, but so too is negligence.

- where a Claimant is claiming an injunction to prevent or suppress a nuisance from a defendant’s land, it is irrelevant whether the nuisance is the defendant’s fault.

In cases where a Claimant complains of a nuisance from a defendant’s land and the defendant admits that the situation amounts to nuisance but denies fault, should the court investigate the defendant’s plea or should it regard the liability as “strict” ? Recent cases show that the courts tend to treat the liability as a negligence liability

Leakey v National Trust [1980] QB 485 CA

A mound of earth on the National Trust’s land collapsed onto Leakey’s land. Held: the Trust had anticipated the danger and because they had unreasonably done nothing about it, they were liable.

Defences

It follows that it will be a defence to an action in private nuisance that the defendant had not, and could not reasonably have had, control over the land from which the nuisance arose. So the Claimant will have to prove either intention or lack of care on the defendant’s part.

A defendant has a defence if he/she carried on the nuisance now complained of for at least twenty years (Prescription Act 1832). However, it is not enough that the defendant has been carrying on the same activity for twenty years if it is only more recently that it became a nuisance. Time only runs from the point at which the Claimant was first unlawfully affected, not from when the defendant began the activity.

A Claimant’s consent to a defendant’s activities is a defence and consent need only be tacit. Two major qualifications must be made. First, consent to a defendant’s activity being carried on at all is not the same as consent to a defendant’s running it carelessly. If a defendant was careless and the loss would not have occurred if the defendant had acted carefully, a defendant will have to prove consent to that carelessness, which may be difficult. Second, it is traditionally said that consent cannot be inferred merely from the fact that the Claimant has come to the nuisance by acquiring property near it, even with full knowledge of the defendant’s activities.

Remedies, Damages, Injunction, Self-help

Once nuisance is established, a Claimant may recover any proven financial loss, subject to a defence of remoteness. It will often be necessary to prevent a nuisance, or obtain an order to make the defendant stop and for this an injunction is often available. It was also said that the Claimant had the right, after giving a d efendant notice to “abate” the niusance, that is, to enter the defendant’s alnd and use the minimum force reasonably necessary to stop it, or curb its effects. However, a recent case suggests that the self-help remedy is narrow.

Burton v Winters [1993] 3 All ER 847 CA

The Winters’ garage, built by the people from whom they had brought the land, protruded some 4 ½ inches onto Burton’s land. Burton applied for, but was refused, an injunction to have it pulled down. Could Burton knock it down herself? The answer was that she could not.

D PUBLIC NUISANCE

Where a nuisance affects a substantial number of people, it is said to be a “public nuisance” . The nuisance need not interfere with the use of land as such, but may interfere with any aspect of the public’s rights, and may therefore take many forms. Cases include (i) obstructing the highway (Chaplin v Westminster Corporation (1901)) (ii) making obscene telephone calls (R v Norbury (1978)) and organising raves (R v Shorrock (1994)). The wide ambit of the tort allows for some judicial surprises for example in Thomas v National Union of Mineworkers (1985) Scott J ruled that picketing might amount to a public nuisance. This was on the ground that it was an unreasonable harassment of those at whom it was directed – even though it did not constitute an assault on them and had no prospect of preventing them from going to where they wanted to go. In each case the court goes through the same process of balancing a defendant’s rights against those of the others (as in private nuisance)

Who can sue?

If a Claimant is contemplating action for public nuisance the Claimant must show some loss resulting from the nuisance which goes beyond the loss suffered by all affected. Liability relating to the highway shows the need to give separate consideration to public and private aspects of nuisance. If a defendant blocks a Claimant’s access to a highway, this is an infringement of the Claimant’s private rights and the Claimant may sue in private nuisance. If a defendant blocks the highway just outside a Claimant’s land this is at most public nuisance and the Claimant will have to prove particular damage

Tate & Lyle Industries v Greater London Council [1983] 2 AC 509 HL

The GLC were responsible for the construction of ferry terminals on the Thames, causing silt. Tate & Lyle paid large sums to dredge the Thames, without which the silt would have prevented large vessels from reaching their jetty. Held: there was no private nuisance as there was no injury to Tate & Lyle’s jetty. However, as there was a hindrance to navigation generally there was a public nuisance from which Tate & Lyle had suffered an unusual degree of damage. Accordingly they had a right of action.

Liability

The test for liability is whether a defendant had control over the nuisance. The question whether liability in private nuisance is “strict” is similar to that under private nuisance. Ignorance of the law is no defence but if a defendant argues that he/she had no control over the events leading to the nuisance or could not reasonably have prevented them, the question must be whether or not he/she could reasonably have foreseen the nuisance, and if so, if they could have reasonably prevented it

E STRICT LIABILITY RELATING TO LAND

Liability for nuisance was often though as of being “strict”, though today it is increasingly being assimilated to negligence. At common law there were two cases where liability was by any definition “strict”: liability for damage caused by animals and liability for fire. In the famous case of Rylands v Fletcher (1868) the House of Lords generalised from the instances of the case to create a general principle of liability for the escape of dangerous things from a defendant’s land. Since that case though the courts have tended to stress negligence rather than strict liabilities.

Rylands v Fletcher [1868] LR 3 HL 330

Fletcher, a millowner, employed private contractors to build a reservoir on his land to supply water to his mill. In the course of excavating on Fletcher’s land, the contractors came across some disused mine-shafts, which unknown to them, connected with mines underneath the adjoining land. Rylands had taken a lease on that land in order to work the mines. The contractors negligently failed to seal up the mine-shafts and when the reservoir was flooded with water, the mines were also flooded.

There were certain requirements in Rylands v Fletcher if liability was to be established:

1) the defendant must bring the thing on his land and must do so for his own purposes

2) the thing must be likely to do mischief if it escapes3) the defendant’s use of the land must be non-natural4) the thing must escape

“Dangerous things”

It is usually said that a thing is “dangerous” for this purpose if it is likely to cause damage if it escapes, and the following have, at one time or another, been held to be dangerous: gas (Batchelor v Tunbridge Wells Gas Co (1901)); a poisonous yew tree (Ponting v Noakes (1894)); fumes from creosote (West v Bristol Tramways(1908)) and a fun-fair “chair-o-plane” ride (Hale v Jennings Bros (1938). However, the House of Lords now appears to have held that a thing cannot be “dangerous” if its escape was not foreseeeable at all

Cambridge Water Co v Eastern Counties Leather [1994] 1 All ER 53 HL

Eastern Counties Leather used a powerful toxic solvent in their tanning process, much of which was spilled on the factory floor. Over several years of use, a large quantity of this solvent seeped under their property, several thousand metres along an aquifer and into Cambridge Water’s bore-hole. New EU regulations on water quality meant that the solvent made the water legally undrinkable. Held: No action lay because the pollution was unforseeable.

In Crown River Cruises v Kimbolton Fireworks Ltd ([1996] 2 Lloyds Rep 533) where the defendant’s fireworks caused a fire on the Claimant’s river vessel, Potter J was reluctant to base liability on the Rylands v Fletcher principles, he based liability on nuisance instead.

Requirement of “non-natural use”

It is not clear what the requirement of non-natural use adds to the requirement of dangerousness. It probably means that the defendant must deliberately accumulate something, rather than fail to remove a pre-existing (natural) accumulation. Most modern cases assume that the test is one of how ordinary the defendant’s activity is and how justifiable. So activities such as erecting or demolishing buildings (Thomas and Evans v Mid-Rhondda Co-operative Society 1941) or mining in an ordinary way (Rouse v Gravelworks 1940) are not unnatural.

“Escape”It seems the meaning here is that something must escape as a result of an accumulation but it need not be the accumulation itself.

Who may sue?

The usual Claimant in these cases is a landowner (including anyone with an interest in the land) who has suffered property damage.

Who is liable and how strict is the liability?

The liability arises whenever a defendant has control over land where there is a dangerous accumulation. The liability is usually described as strict. However, various defences together drag tort in the direction of liability for fault

- if the immediate cause of the incident was the act of a trespasser, there is no liability unless the defendant ought reasonably to have foreseen and prevented the trespasser’s action (Perry v Kendricks Transport 1956).

- If the immediate cause of the incident was some unforseeable natural cause (Act of God), such as unforseeably heavy rainfall, the defendant is not liable (Nichols v Marsland 1876)

- A Claimant cannot complain of an escape which was the Claimant’s own fault. On the question whether a Claimant can complain of a loss which would not have happened but for the Claimant’s abnormal sensitivity, the authorities conflict.

- If damage of the type the Claimant suffers was not foreseeeable at all a Claimant cannot claim (Cambridge Water case)

Other defences

A defendant also has a defence on proof of any of the following:

- that the Claimant consented to the dangerous accumulation. Consent may often be inferred from the knowledge of the accumulation. However, if a Claimant knows of the accumulation but not that the defendant has acted negligently, then the defendant remains liable for negligence to which the Claimant has not consented (Peters v Prince of Wales Theatre (1943).

- If the accumulation was carried on for the common benefit of the Claimant and the defendant, it can usually be taken that the Claimant has consented to it (Prosser & Son v Levy 1955)

- That the defendant had a statutory duty or authority to make the accumulation despite the danger. It appears that if the statute places the defendant under a duty to act (as where a water company is placed under a duty to maintain pressure in its pipes), the defendant will probably not be liable for the unavoidable risk of escape unless negligence is proved.

Fire

Strict liability for fire pre-dates Rylands v Fletcher but it is usually discussed as an example of Rylands liability, which exists alongside negligence liability for fire. So where the carburettor of a defendant’s car caught fire in the plainitiff’s garage, the court applied Rylands (Musgove v Pandelis 1919).

By ancient statute (Fires Prevention Metropolis Act 1774) there is no liability for fires which start accidentally. But the courts have construed this narrowly, holding that no fire is accidental if it starts or is made worse by a defendant’s negligence (Goldman v Hargrave 1967) or falls within the Rylands’ principle (Mason v Levy Auto Parts of England 1967). A defendant is also liable for the negligence of all lawful visitors on the land, though who is a lawful visitor can be a difficult question.

H & N Emmanuel v Greater London Council [1971] 2 All ER 835 CA

The GLC hired contractors to remove two prefabricated bungalows, prohibiting them from burning any rubbish involved. The workers nonetheless did so and the fire spread to Emmanuel’s property. Held: As the GLC had done nothing to guard against the obvious risk that the workers would disobey their instructions, they could not plead that the workers were trespassers when they burned their rubbish and the GLC was liable for their actions.

LIABILITY FOR ANIMALS

By the Animals Act 1971 the “keeper” of animals is under a strict liability for damage caused by those animals in two situations described by the Act. “Keeper” is defined as an animal owned or possessed (though temporary possession is not included). If a defendant is head of a household he is keeper of all the animals in his household owned by members of the household under 16.

Animals of a dangerous species.

If the animal is of a dangerous species then the defendant is strictly liable for any damage or harm done by it. A species is dangerous if

- it is not commonly domesticated in the British Isles; and- fully grown members of the species either are likely to do severe damage

unless restrained, or are such that any damage they do is likely to be severe.

Individually dangerous animals

A defendant is also strictly liable as keeper of an animal from a non-dangerous species if

- the damage the animal caused was of the sort it was likely to cause unless restrained, or which was likely to be severe if that animal did it;

- that animal’s dangerous characteristics are not usually found in animals of that species

- the defendant knew of the danger or the person in charge knew of the danger.

The liability of a keeper under the Animals Act 1971 is strict and it is quite irrelevant whether the harm done by the animal has anything to do with its dangerous characteristics. The Act, however, recognises certain defences:

- The Claimants own fault: damage which is wholly the Claimant’s fault attracts no liability at all. Damage which is partly the Claimant’s fault may lead to a reduction in damages.

- The Claimant’s consent: a Claimant cannot sue where the Claimant earlier agreed to run the risk of harm.

- The Claimant is a trespasser: a Claimant cannot recover for an injury caused by a defendant’s animal if the defendant shows that it occurred when the Claimant was trespassing on the defendant’s land, except if the defendant keeps an animal deliberately to guard the land, in that case the defendant has a defence only if he/she can show that it was reasonable to use the animal in this way. (the Guard Dogs Act 1975 strictly regulates the use of guard dogs)

Special cases

Dogs harming livestockWhere the defendant is keeper of a dog which harms a Claimant’s livestock, the defendant is strictly liable to the Claimant. Livestock is precisely defined in the Act and means “cattle, horses, asses, mules, hinnies, sheep, pigs, goats and poultry and also deer not in the wild state, and while in captivity, pheasants, partridges and grouse” (s.11 Animals Act 1971).

Straying livestockWhere the defendants livestock strays onto another’s land, there is strict liability for property damage done as a result. There is also a statutory right to detain the offending animals to charge for their care while detained and ultimately to sell them off if not reclaimed (s.7 Animals Act) .

5. DEFAMATION

Defamation is not an easy tort to define. It has been defined as

“the publication of a statement which tends to lower a person in the estimation of right-thinking members of society generally; or which tends to make them shun or avoid that person”.

The tort falls into two categories: Libel and slander.

Libel is defamatory material published in a permanent form – like writing, photographs, films, waxworks, statues, records etc and broadcasting for general reception. Libel is actionable per se (i.e without proof of damage). If it tends towards a breach of the peace it could also be a crime (slander can never be a crime).

Slander is defamatory material published in a temporary or transient from like speech, gestures etc. It is regarded less seriously and damage must usually be proved.

A. Liability

(i) The meaning of statements

Much of the law of defamation assumes that a definite meaning can be given to what a defendant said or wrote, but can take any form so long as a defamatory impression is given.

Monson v Tussauds [1894] 1QB 671 CA

Monson was tried for murder by shooting: the Scottish court returned a verdict of “Not Proven”. Tussauds exhibited a waxwork of Monson, with a gun in his hand, near the entrance to the Chamber of Horrors. This was held, for defamation purposes, to amount to a statement that Monson was a murderer.

Where the meaning of a defendant’s statement is disputed it is the Claimant’s job to specify what the meaning is and the jury’s to say whether the Claimant is correct. The test is “What meaning would reasonable people give to the statement?”

English and Scottish Co-operative Society v Odhams Press [1940] 1 KB 440 CA

A newspaper story about incorrect tax returns was headlined “False Profit Return Charge Against Society”. The Society said that this amounted to an accusation that it had deliberately made false returns. Held: the headline could reasonably be read in that way, and the jury was entitled, having regard to the whole story to treat it as an accusation of fraud. (ii) Inferences

The defendant’s statement may not appear defamatory in isolation but reasonable listeners would nevertheless infer something against the Claimant. The defendant is responsible not only for the statement but also for reasonable inferences from it.

Tolley v J S Fry and Sons [1931] AC 333 HL

Tolley, a famous amateur golfer, was depicted in an advertisement for Fry’s chocolate, with a limerick praising both Tolley and the chocolate. Held: a reasonable reader might infer that Tolley had received money for allowing his name to appear in this way, and accordingly might believe that he had compromised his amateur status.

Gillick v British Broadcasting Corporation [1996] EMLR 267 CA

A participant in a live television broadcast commented that there were at least two reported cases of suicide by girls who were pregnant. Gillick, a prominent campaigner against contraceptive advice for young girls, claimed that these words accused her of being morally responsible for their deaths. Held: the words were capable of that meaning.

The courts however do not apply this rule to its fullest extent, because it could be oppressive.

Lewis v Daily Telegraph [1964] AC 234 HL

The Daily Telegraph reported, accurately, that the Fraud Squad of the City of London Police were investigating a particular firm. Lewis, its managing director, sued, arguing that readers might believe that “there was no smoke without fire” and would therefore infer that he was guilty of something. Held: many people might draw that inference, but nevertheless it was not a reasonable inference. Lewis would not be allowed to treat the story as an allegation of fraud against him.

(iii) Inference based on special facts

Sometimes the inference on which the Claimant relies could only have been drawn by someone with special knowledge. The Claimant must carefully plead this special meaning (known as innuendo), as well as the special knowledge on which it relies.

Cassidy v Daily Mirror Newspapers [1929] 2 KB 331 CA

The Daily Mirror published a photograph of Mr Cassidy with a woman, implying that they were engaged. Mrs Cassidy sued, saying that this gave her acquaintances the impression that she was not married to Mr Cassidy and so it amounted to a charge that she was “living in sin” with him. The Mirror argued that as they had not mentioned Mrs Cassidy, they could not have defamed her. Held: to those who knewMrs Cassidy the photograph would have conveyed the meaning she argued for, and so she was defamed in the eyes of those people.

E. Hulton v Jones [1910] AC 20 HL

The Sunday Chronicle published an account of a motor show in Dieppe, suggesting that one Artemus Jones, a married clergyman, was seen behaving immorally. A barrister called Artemus Jones sued, producing friends who swore they thought the story referred to him. The Chronicle pleaded that the account was light hearted, and that “Artemus Jones” was an invention. Held: the test was whether reasonable people would infer that the Claimant was meant; in view of the unusual name the jury was entitled to infer that the Claimant had been defamed.

(iv) Liability for publishing a statement

“Primary publishers” are those who make the statement and “secondary publishers” are those who repeat it.

Primary publishers are strictly liable and good motive is no defence, nor is a reasonable belief that the statement is true. Communication to a single person other than the Claimant is enough. If the Claimant shows that the defendant put the statement into general circulation, it is for the defendant to prove that no-one read or understood it.

Theaker v Richardson [1962] 1 All ER 229 CA

Richardson sent an abusive letter to Theaker, correctly addressed. Her husband opened it. Held: Richardson was liable for the publication to Theaker’s husband. While refusing to lay down a presumption that husbands read their wives’ letters, the Court of Appeal did not fault the jury’s verdict that this was a natural and probable consequence of Richardson’s behaviour.

At common law, those who merely repeat defamatory statements may have a defence if they neither knew or could reasonably have known that they were repeating defamatory matter. The common law rule has now been replaced by statute (Defamation Act 1996). The new rule is somewhat more precise but has the same general effect. “Authors, “editors” and “publishers” of statements are strictly liable; others have a defence if they can show they took all reasonable care in relation to the statement, and did not know, and had no reason to believe, that they were contributing to the publication of a defamatory statement.

Defamatory Nature

It is not enough that the statement annoys or embarrasses the Claimant. The statement must lower the Claimant’s reputation and stir up “hatred, ridicule or contempt against him/her and the test is whether such feelings are felt by “the reasonable person”.

To repeat the defamatory utterances of another is usually regarded as attracting liability for defamation in itself.

B. Defences

Apart from the defendant simply denying that the statement was defamatory, or that it referred to the Claimant, or that it had been published, there are certain special defences available in this tort.

Justification

The defendant produces evidence that the statements are true both in substance and in fact. Slight inaccuracies will not render the defence useless, provided that the bulk of the statement was true.

Alexander v North-Eastern Railway [1865] 34 LJ QB 152

The following statement was published “Caution. J. Alexander was charged before the magistrates of Darlington on 28 September for riding in a train from Leeds for which his ticket was not available and refusing to pay the proper fare. He was convicted in the penalty of £9 1s 10d, including costs, or three weeks imprisonment. Mr Alexander had actually only been ordered to spend two weeks in jail. He sued for libel and lost.

Fair Comment on a matter of Public Interest

Opinion is free and is expression (on matters of public interest) is not actionable, unless it is activated by malice. Lord Denning explained the need for and the nature of the defence in Slim v Daily Telegraph [1968] 2 QB 157

“The right of fair comment is one of the essential elements which go to make up our freedom of speech. We must ever maintain this right intact. It must not be whittled down by legal refinements. When a citizen is troubled by things going wrong, he should be free to “write to the newspaper”: and the newspaper should be free to publish his letter. It is often the only was to get things put right. The matter must, of course, be one of public interest. The writer must get his facts right. And he must honestly state his real opinion. But that being done, both he and the newspaper should be clear of any liability. They should not be deterred by fear of libel actions.

The requirement of honesty involves an absence of malice. In Thomas v Bradbury (1906) the Claimant published a book called “50 years of Fleet Street”. There appeared an extremely critical review in the magazine “Punch”, which was owned by the defendants. The Claimant successfully sued. The defence of fair comment failed, because on the evidence, the reviewer was seen to have been motivated by malice.

Privilege

This is a defence that certain statements made at certain times cannot amount to actionable defamation. The public interest in the statement is seen to outweigh the injury to the individual. Privilege might be absolute or qualified.

Absolute privilege is as wide as it sounds. Anything can be said or written. Nothing can be done about it. This complete freedom is closely confined to several occasions:

- statements made by members of either House within Parliament, reports, papers, votes and proceedings ordered to be published by either House.

- All statements made in the course of judicial proceedings, whether by the judge, barrister or solicitor, jury member, witness or a party to the case, provided that the statement relates to the proceedings.

- Communications between senior “officers of state”.- Fair accurate and contemporaneous reporting in newspapers and on radio

and television of judicial proceedings in the United Kingdom

The other defence is qualified privilege. It gives less protection than absolute privilege and there are a number of occasions when it can be relied upon. They have in common a quality of reciprocity, as Lord Atkin explained in Adam v War [1917] AC 309:

“Where the person who makes the communication has an interest or duty, legal social or moral , to make it to the person to whom it is made and the person to whom it is made has a corresponding interest or duty to receive it. This reciprocity is essential.”

So there has to be a relationship of this kind between the maker of the statement (a duty to make it) and the person to whom it is made (an interest to receive it). Where a statement is made in these circumstances then it is protected and is not actionable as defamation.

Fair and accurate reports of parliamentary proceedings, judicial proceedings and meetings of other public bodies (like local authorities) are also protected by qualified privilege. Most importantly however, is the fact that the defence can be defeated with evidence of malice in the maker of the statement.

Apology

The defendant can make an apology for what he has published. The statement must be shown to have been put into a newspaper or periodical without malice or gross negligence. Further, the defendant must show he published an apology before the action began or straight afterwards and the apology must be accompanied by a payment of money into court by way of amends.

6. PARTIES AND LIABILITY FOR OTHERS

A defendant may be liable for torts committed by others in a number of situations, these include

- where the defendant’s employee commits a tort;- where the defendant was under a duty to prevent others committing torts; and- where the defendant’s duty was non-delegable.

Most tort liability in practice is liability for the actions of others.

A. Vicarious Liability

This is the liability of one person for acts committed by someone else. In tort law the usual instance is the liability of an employer for the torts committed by his employee. It is important to note that the employer is not liable instead of the employee but as well as the employee. The justification for this liability have been various:

- the Claimant has a financially sound defendant (usually with insurers who will pay);

- the potential of vicarious liability will increase standards of training, supervision and safety within the enterprise;

- the employee is merely an extension of the employer, taken on as the business grew and so the torts are really those of the employer committed indirectly.

The employer will not be answerable for all the torts of everyone he employs. A distinction is drawn between servants and independent contractors, so the employer is not usually responsible for the torts of independent contractors.

Servants and independent contractors

There is no single test for the distinction. There are various guidelines which emerge from the cases and include the so called “control test” that is: the servant can be told what to do and how to do it but the independent contractor only what to do. Other tests are:

- the method of payment (servants by wage or salary, independent contractors by a lump sum;

- supply of tools, premises etc - taxation (PAYE for servants, independent contractors taking care of their own

tax),- pension schemes- power of appointment and dismissal- integration test (ie the work is an integral part of the business).

The lack of any single test leads to inconsistencies. In Morren v Swinton and Pendlebury UDC [1965] 1 WLR 576 an engineer was held to be the servant of the local authority despite the lack of control over his work because his contract of employment made him part of the organisation. In Market Investigations v Minister of Social Security [1969] a lady interviewer was held to b e a servant because the manner of her interviewing was controlled, yet she was not integrated into the business; she could work for other organisations if she wanted to.

Servants (Employees)

An employer is vicariously liable for the torts of his servants committed during the course of their employment. The question often put is whether the act which injured the Claimant occurred while the employee was within the course of employment or not.

Where an employee was outside the course of his employment he is often said to be off on “a frolic of his own”. The measure of the course of employment is visible in Hilton v Thomas Burton [1961] 1 WLR 705 where some demolition contractors decided to take the employer’s van (they had permission) to a café eight miles away to have tea: they left the site at about 3.30. When they reached the café it was time to finish work and then they drove back again. Due to the negligence of the driver one of the workmen was killed on the way back and his widow sued. The employer’s insurers claimed that the men had been outside the course of their employment and Diplock J had to agree

“Looking at the realities of the situation….the four men having taken the view that they had done enough work to pass muster, were filling in the rest of their time until their hours of work had come to an end….it seems to me to be a plain case of what, in the old cases was sometimes called going out on a frolic of their own. It had the most tragic consequences, but it does not seem to me that it is possible to hold (though I would like to do so if I could).. that on the course of the journey the second defendant was doing anything that he was employed to do.”

It is interesting to compare this to the decision in Rose v Plenty [1976] 1 WLR 141 where a Co-op milkman in Bristol, in the face of a strict prohibition from his employers used a boy, Leslie Rose, 13, to help him on his milk round. The boy’s leg was broken when the milk float was driven negligently. Despite the prohibition, the employers were held vicariously liable.

Independent Contractors

Vicarious liability here is rare and limited. It could arise where the tortious activity was authorised or done under the employers’ instructions, or where the instructions were carelessly given, or where the tort was one of strict liability.

7. GENERAL DEFENCES

There are a number of general defences available to the defendant when faced with allegations of many torts.

VOLENTI

This is one of the most important of the general defences. It is properly called “volenti non fit injuria” and means “to him who consents, no harm is done”

The defence sometimes falls into two parts: certain harm and accidental harm. If you climb into a boxing ring to fight a professional boxer, you are likely to be punched. If this takes place elsewhere this could be actionable as a tort but in the boxing ring this would not be actionable because you would have been taken to consent to the normal consequences of boxing. In Simms v Leigh Rugby Football Club [1969], a player had his leg broken in a tackle but lost his action because the accident was within the rules of the game (ie no foul). In Gilbert v Grundy [1978] the injury was as a result of foul play and the player was awarded damages.

The question of accidental harm is more subtle. Where a Claimant places himself in a position. Where the Claimant places himself in the position where if an accident were to happen he might well be injured, then in general he will be taken to have consented to run the risk of it happening. In Hall v Brooklands Auto Racing Club [1933] a spectator was badly injured when a car crashed off the track. The court was satisfied that reasonable precautions has been taken by the organisers. They took the Claimant to have consented to run the risk of accidental harm in attending a race-track and standing near the railings. There are two groups of people who are not generally taken to consent to run the risk of accidental harm in what they do – employees and rescuers.

Other defences are statutory authority, Act of God; Necessity and Inevitable Accident or contributory negligence.

Contributory negligence is when the defendant argues that the Claimant was also to some extent to blame for the injury. At common law it was a complete defence, however under the modern statute Law Reform (Contributory Negligence Act) 1945, there is a provision for a reduction in damages if the defence is established

8. REMEDIES

The main remedy available to a Claimant is damages, though there is also the remedy of injunction.

Injunction

An injunction is a court order instructing the defendant to behave in a particular way. Disobedience is a contempt of the court which issued the injunction: it is a criminal offence and can be punished by imprisonment or a fine. Most injunctions are prohibitory injunctions telling the defendant to abstain from doing something but there are also mandatory injunctions telling the defendant positively to do something.

Damages

Damages are usually compensatory. They represent the value of something to which the Claimant was entitled and which the defendant deprived them of. Where the Claimants rights have been violated but the court is unable to award any sum as compensation, the court may give nominal damages (currently £10).

The basic principle in compensatory damages is to compare the Claimant’s position before the tort and after the tort and the court will compensate for the difference between the two states. If the defendant destroys the Claimant’s property, the Claimant is entitled to the value of that property; if the Claimant suffers personal injury, the Claimant is entitled to the amount by which this injury makes the Claimant worse off.

The Claimant is entitled to all financial costs occasioned by the destruction of his/her property

Owners of Dredger “Liesbosch” v Owners of Steamship Edison [1933]

The Edison negligently sank the Liesbosch, which was engaged in profitable contract work. Held: the owners of the Liesbosch were entitled to the cost of a replacement dredger, plus the costs of adapting it and transporting it and for losses under the contract for the delay.

If there is only partial damage, without outright destruction, the court will have to choose between the diminution in value of the property and the cost of putting the damage right. Although if the cost of putting the damage right is too high the defendant can appeal against such unreasonable charges.

Causation

If there is no causal connection between the Claimant’s loss and the defendant’s conduct, then the defendant is not responsible for the Claimant’s loss

Performance Cars Ltd. V Abraham [1962]

The defendant damaged the Claimant’s car, necessitating a re-spray. However, the car already needed a new re-spray because of earlier damage for which the defendant was not responsible. Held: the defendant was not responsible for the Claimant’s loss.

The starting point in causation is usually assumed to be the “but for” test. The defendant is only liable to the Claimant if the Claimant would not have suffered the injury but for the Claimant’s tort.

Barnett v Chelsea and Kensington Hospital Management Committee [1969]

Barnett was admitted to hospital with stomach pains and vomiting. The duty officer negligently failed to diagnose his condition telling him to consult his own doctor if the symptoms continued. Barnett died from acute arsenic poisoning. Held: As Barnett’s death would have been a certainty even if the hospital had been accurate in its diagnosis, the hospital was not liable for his death.

Remoteness

Where the defendant’s tort has caused loss to the Claimant, a defendant may sometimes argue that the loss was too remote a consequence of the defendant’s conduct. Too many other causes may have intervened, or the injury may be very unexpected or it may simply be out of all proportion to the fault the defendant was guilty of.

In general torts involving deliberate wrongdoing by a defendant do not allow remoteness as a defence. This applies to assault and battery, deceit and economic torts. It is enough in these cases if the Claimant establishes a causal link between the defendant’s conduct and the Claimant’s loss

Doyle v Olby (Ironmongers) Ltd [1969]

Olby sold Doyle an ironmongery business, making various false statements about its accounts. Doyle put considerable money into the business, but ended up with a loss. Held: Doyle could recover all sums he had expended on the business.

The courts will also set a limit to the defendant’s liability for what he has actually caused. He will be called to account for the damage which is of a kind that a reasonable man should have foreseen. So his liability is not limited by the extent of the loss, provided that the kind of loss was foreseeable.

The Wagon Mound case is one in question, in which sparks from welding nearby set oil which the defendant’s had spilled on the sea alight and destroyed the Claimant’s wharf. The damage was a direct result of the spillage, but the kind of damage, fire damage, was not reasonably foreseeable. The case of Hughes v Lord Advocate [1963] post office workers were working on cables reached by a ladder down a manhole. They had a tent over the manhole. They put a tarpaulin over the entrance to the tent having lifted the ladder out. Two boys of eight and ten went exploring. They went down the manhole using the ladder and one of the paraffin lamps the men had set to mark the site. On the way out of the tent one of the boys knocked the paraffin lamp into the manhole. There was a violent explosion. Flames reached thirty feet. The boy fell into the manhole and was badly burnt. He was able to recover damages because it was foreseeable that a child might get onto the site, break a lamp and be burnt. The lamp exploding was not foreseeable but the type of injury was.

The point about the extent of injury enabling the defendant to escape liability, provided that the type of injury is foreseeable is nowhere clearer than in the so-called thin skull cases. In Smith v Leech Brain & Co [1962], the Claimant’s husband was burnt on the lip by molten metal. It was the defendant’s fault. The set off a latent cancer in him and he died. The kind of injury, the burn, was foreseeable, the extent was not, but the defendants were liable for all his injury.