The Language of the Green The Language of the Green IndustriesIndustries

Category E Turf and Ornamentals

Pesticide Applicator Training Manual Chapter 1

IntroductionIntroduction

• In order to communicate with other professionals you need to understand:– Plant structure.– How plants grow.– Plant nomenclature and classification.

TermsTerms• Angiosperm—plant that produces seeds within the pistil

(ovary).• Corm—a type of a bulb that develops from a swollen base

of a main stem e.g. gladiolus and crocus.• Fruit—the mature or “ripened” ovary and ovules of an

angiosperm.• Gymnosperm—a plant that produces seeds in open

scales, usually in cones, such as pine, fir, and spruce.• Herbaceous plants—any annual or perennial plant with a

non-woody stem that dies back to the roots in winter.• Hybrid—a plant produced by controlled cross-fertilization of

two related angiosperms.

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TermsTerms• Organ—a unique combination or arrangement of plant

tissues that performs a major function in a plant.• Organelle—a structure within an individual plant cell that

performs a major function within the cell.• Pollination—the sexual propagation of a plant, resulting

when pollen (sperm) enters the pistil (ovary) of a flower.• Rhizome—an underground stem that spreads to produce

new above ground shoots.• Woody plants—plants whose basic stem structures are

perennial with annual growth rings visible in cross section of the stem.

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TermsTerms• Translocation—the movement of water and nutrients

through the organs of a plant.• Microclimate—a small area with a climate distinctly

different from the surrounding climate, caused by slight differences in exposure, elevation, slope, shade, or even soil mulch.

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The Parts of a Plant The Parts of a Plant The Cells The Cells

• The cell is the building block for plants.

• Structures within cells that perform a major function are organelles.

The Parts of a Plant The Parts of a Plant TheThe CellsCells

• Tissues—groups of cells related by structure or function.

• Tissues form organs– Roots– Stem– Leaves– Reproductive structures

The Parts of a Plant The Parts of a Plant The StemThe Stem

• Nodes—the leaf attachment points on the stem.

• Internode—the portion of stem between two leaves.

The Parts of a Plant The Parts of a Plant TheThe MeristemsMeristems

• Meristems—cells that retain the ability for rapid cell division (growth).

• Areas of the plant that contain meristems:– Root apex – Terminal and lateral

shoots– Vascular cambium– Leaf margins

• Apical meristem—the growing tip at the end of the stem.

The Parts of a Plant The Parts of a Plant TheThe Vascular CambiumVascular Cambium

• Vascular cambium—divides and is responsible for the increase in caliper (girth). Is a secondary meristem.

• The vascular cambium produces the tissues which become:– Xylem—conducts water and nutrients, the dead inner

layers of xylem are ‘sapwood.’– Phloem—translocates carbohydrates produced in the

leaves and other mobile inorganic nutrients.

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a Plant TheThe Cork CambiumCork Cambium

• Cork cambium—spongy, cells outside the secondary phloem containing suberin, a water repellant substance.

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a PlantTheThe LeavesLeaves

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a PlantLeaf ArrangementsLeaf Arrangements

• A simple leaf consists of a blade, a petiole, and stipules.

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a PlantLeaf ArrangementsLeaf Arrangements

• A compound leaf consists of 2 or more leaflets.

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a PlantCompoundCompound Leaf Veination Leaf Veination

Palmate Pinnate

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a PlantRoots

• The roots anchor the plant to the ground and absorb nutrients and water from the soil.

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a PlantRoot SystemsRoot Systems

Taproot---one main root from which branch roots extend

Fibrous roots---many branching roots

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a PlantFlowersFlowers

• Typical flower parts:– Receptacle– Sepals (collectively

calyx)– Petals (collectively

corolla)– Stamen – Pistil

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a PlantFlowersFlowers

• Flowers that contain both stamens and pistils are said to be perfect or complete.

• Species that have incomplete flowers on different parts of the same plant are monoecious.

• Species that male and female parts on different plants are dioecious.

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a PlantFruit and SeedsFruit and Seeds

• In botany fruit means a ripened ovary.• Seed consists of:

– Seed coat– An dormant embryo– Stored food (usually)

• Food is stored in the cotyledon/s/ and in endosperm.

• Monocots (monocotyledonous) seeds that have 1 seed leaf (cotyledon) e.g. grass.

• Dicots (dicotyledonous) seeds that have 2 seed leaves.

The Parts of a PlantThe Parts of a PlantFruit and SeedsFruit and Seeds

• Monocots (monocotyledonous) seeds that have 1 seed leaf (cotyledon) e.g. grass.

• Dicots (dicotyledonous) seeds that have 2 seed leaves.

Example of ‘seed leaves’ on a tomato

How Plants GrowHow Plants GrowSeed Germination and CuttingsSeed Germination and Cuttings

• Propagation—the reproduction of plants by sexual or asexual means.

• Sexual reproduction by seeds– Germination—begins when specific light, temperature, moisture,

and pre-germination requirements are met. Seeds begin to take up moisture.

– Germination is complete when the embryonic root (radical) and the primary shoot are visible.

• Asexual (vegetative) reproduction from cuttings– Cuttings—portions of root, stem, or leaf tissue used for asexual

reproduction (vegetative). – Shoots arising from root, stem, or leaf portions are called

adventitious because they arise from an “unexpected” location.

How Plants GrowHow Plants GrowPhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis

• Photosynthesis—the conversion of light to energy.• Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts the organelles that

contain chlorophyll.• Pigments in the chloroplast

– Chlorophyll ‘A’ captures light (antennae chlorophyll) and converts light to chemical energy (photosensitive chlorophyll).

– Chlorophyll ‘B’ helps capture light for Chlorophyll ‘A’ does not convert light.

– Carotenes help capture light and protect light destruction of chlorophyll.

How Plants GrowHow Plants GrowPhotosynthesis and RespirationPhotosynthesis and Respiration

• Photosynthate—the products of photosynthesis, primarily glucose.

• Glucose can be converted to starch in the chloroplast or it may be transformed into sucrose.

• Sucrose is the major sugar translocated via the phloem.• Aerobic respiration

– All cells continuously convert glucose, sucrose or starch into energy needed to maintain the plant’s metabolism and growth

– The process is aerobic because oxygen is consumed.– Carbon dioxide and water are produced in this process.

How Plants GrowHow Plants GrowCell GrowthCell Growth

• Cell division—mitosis increases the numbers of cells in meristems (shoots, roots, buds, leaf margins).

• Cell enlargement—new cell growth increases length (elongation) or girth.

• Cell differentiation—new cells change structure or function to produce organelles e.g. chloroplasts or xylem.

How Plants GrowHow Plants GrowPlant Growth HormonesPlant Growth Hormones

• Plant growth hormones—regulate and control plant growth. They are effective in very small concentration and are translocated from the site of production to where they are used.

• 5 groups of plant hormones:– Auxins are responsible for apical dominance, when the

apical meristem is removed lateral buds will begin active growth.

– Gibberellins promote cell enlargement, can stimulate seed germination for some species.

How Plants GrowHow Plants GrowPlant Growth HormonesPlant Growth Hormones

• 5 groups of plant hormones:– Cytokinins are translocated from roots—promote cell

division, help regulate stomatal closure, and may prevent senescence (aging) in some plant parts.

– Ethylene inhibits, is naturally produced by ripening fruits. Synthetic ethylenes are available.

– Abscisic acid inhibits growth, keeps seeds dormant.

How Plants GrowHow Plants GrowEnvironmental FactorsEnvironmental Factors

• Plant growth can controlled (to a degree) by modifying light, water, temperature and nutrients.

• The 3 essential nutrients to plant growth– Nitrogen—is responsible for vigorous growth and dark

green color. The 2 forms of nitrogen for plant uptake are nitrate and ammonium.

– Phosphorous—is important for root growth, flowering, and plant vigor.

– Potassium—is important for protein production (synthesis), metabolic functions, water relations.

• Perform soil tests to determine actual fertilizer needs.

Plant Nomenclature and Classification

• System of nomenclature was developed in the 1700’s by Carl Linneaus. – A specific plant can have only one scientific name.– Latin binomial (two part) scientific names—

• Genus (capitalized) and • species (not capitalized).

• The system also includes categories with the species– variety (abbreviated var.) – subspecies (abbreviated ssp.)

• Cultivar (abbreviated cv.) derived from ‘cultivated variety.’• Hybrids are genetic crosses of 2 or more species. In most

cases hybrids are shown as genus X cultivar.

Plant Nomenclature and Classification Examples

Genus Species Common NameViburnum trilobum American Highbush Cranberry

Genus Species Botanical variety Common NameClematis dioscoreifolia var. robusta Sweet Autumn Clematis

Genus Species Cultivar Common NameAcer rubrum ‘Northwood’ ‘Northwood’ Red Maple

Genus Species Cultivar Common NameMalus X ‘Radiant’ ‘Radiant’ Flowering Crabapple

Plant Nomenclature Legal Protection to Plant Breeders

• Contracts—producers produce and sell a cultivar under the contract name and pay royalties.

• Patents—legal monopolies (17 years) that prohibit propagation or sale unless royalties are paid to the breeder.

• Trademarks—producers/seller must pay a royalty to use the trademark. Trademarks do not expire.

Plant ClassificationPlant ClassificationLife Cycles and Growth HabitsLife Cycles and Growth Habits

• Annuals complete their lifecycle in 1 year.

• Biennials produce vegetative growth the 1st year and bloom the 2nd year.

Plant ClassificationPlant ClassificationLife Cycles and Growth HabitsLife Cycles and Growth Habits

• Perennials live more than 2 years– Woody perennials have persistent stems– Herbaceous perennials die back to the ground

• Growth habit—how a plant tends to grow– Groundcovers present horizontal effect– Shrubs—more than 1 stem and height less than

20 feet– Trees—usually a single stem and height more

than 20 feet.