TheKarmaofQuestions

EssaysontheBuddhistPath

by

ṬhānissaroBhikkhu(GeoffreyDeGraff)

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copyright 2002ṭhānissarobhikkhu, expandededit ion2016

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Introduction

There’snosuchthingasatotallyidlequestion.Everyquestion,eventhemostcasual,carriesanintention:thedesireforananswertofitacertainpurpose.Youmightthinkofaquestionasamoldforatool.Theemptinessofthemoldindicatesthedesiredbutmissingknowledge;theshapeofthemold,theusetowhichtheknowledgewillbeput.Mostpeople,whenlookingataquestion,focusontheemptinessofthemold.Thekarmaorpowerofthequestion,though,liesinitsshape.Ifyouask“Wheredidtheuniversecomefrom?”,theanswercan’tbe“jump.”Anyansweracceptabletothequestionhastoaddresstheideasaboutexistence,causality,andsourcesimplicitin“universe,”“comefrom,”and“where.”Andwhateverstancetheanswertakeswithregardtothoseideas,ithastofitintothemoldprovidedbythequestion.Evenifitweretostatethatthereisnouniverseorthattheuniversedidn’tcomefromanywhere,theactofgivingananswerwouldaffirmthatthemoldshapesausefultool:anideaimportantenoughtomerittalkingaboutandtakingastance.

Thedangerhereisthatifyouractualproblemrequiresascrewdriver,butyourquestionsaredesignedtomoldahammer,anyanswersthatfillthemoldmaydomoreharmthangood.Ifyoudon’tabandonthemold,thenevenifyou’regivenascrewdriver,you’llforceitintothemold,addscrapsofmetalfromhereandthere,andturnitintoahammer.

ThiswaswhytheBuddhaapproachedquestionswithgreatcare.Hedividedthemintofoursorts:thosedeservingastraightanswer,thosethatneedtheirtermsredefined,thosedeservingacounter-questioninresponse,andthosethatshouldbeputaside.Inotherwords,hesawthatsomemoldswereusefulasis,someneededadjusting,somewerebestcounteredwithanalternativemold,andotherswerebestthrownaway.Hiscriterionforclassifyingquestionsinthiswaywaswhethertheanswerswouldbeusefulinputtinganendtosufferingandstress.

Ashehadnoted,sufferingleadstotworeactions:bewilderment(“Whyisthishappeningtome?”)andsearch(“Isthereanyonewhoknowshowtoputanendtothispain?”).Thesetworeactionsareapotentcombination.Ifhandledunskillfully,bewildermentcanturnintoignorance,andsearchintocraving—asurefirerecipeforevenmoresuffering.Butifframedintoaskillfulstrategyofclearandthoughtfulquestions,theytakeyoutototalfreedom,beyondaginganddeath.So

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hedeliberatelyframedhisteachingstoansweronlytherightquestions.Andhewasespeciallycarefultoavoidquestionsthatwouldfostercravingorignorance,delayingorobstructingtheendingofstress.

TheessaysinthisbookareanattempttofollowtheBuddha’sexampleinapproachingquestions,tryingtotracebacktothequestionsthatmoldedhisteachings,andresistingthetemptationtofocusonquestionsthatwouldforcethoseteachingsintoadifferentshape.I’vegoneontheassumptionthathisscrewdriversweresowell-designedthattheyarerightforourneedstoday,andthatweshouldguardagainstturningthemintohammers.Ifyoufindthatthetoolsofferedinthisbookareusefulinendingyourownsufferings,thenI’vesucceededinmytask.

Someoftheseessays,inearlierincarnations,haveappearedinTricycle,Buddhadharma,InquiringMind,andInsightJournal.Thefactthattheywereoriginallyintendedfordifferentaudiencesexplainstheoverlapthatoccasionallyoccursamongthem.ItalsoexplainstheinconsistentuseofSanskritandPāliterms:dharma,karma,andnirvāṇainsomeessays;dhamma,kamma,andnibbānainothers.Ihopethatthispresentsnodifficulties.

ṬhānissaroBhikkhu(GeoffreyDeGraff)

MettaForestMonastery

ValleyCenter,CA92082-1409

September,2002

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LifeIsn’tJustSuffering

“Heshowedmethebrightnessoftheworld.”That’showmyteacher,AjaanFuang,oncecharacterizedhisdebttohis

teacher,AjaanLee.Hiswordstookmebysurprise.Ihadonlyrecentlycometostudywithhim,stillfreshfromaschoolwhereIhadlearnedthatseriousBuddhiststookanegative,pessimisticviewoftheworld.YetherewasamanwhohadgivenhislifetothepracticeoftheBuddha’steachings,speakingoftheworld’sbrightness.Ofcourse,by“brightness”hewasn’treferringtothejoysofthearts,food,travel,sports,familylife,oranyoftheothersectionsoftheSundaynewspaper.Hewastalkingaboutadeeperhappinessthatcomesfromwithin.AsIcametoknowhim,Igainedasenseofhowdeeplyhappyhewas.Hemayhavebeenskepticalaboutalotofhumanpretenses,butIwouldneverdescribehimasnegativeorpessimistic.“Realistic”wouldbeclosertothetruth.YetforalongtimeIcouldn’tshakethesenseofparadoxIfeltoverhowthepessimismoftheBuddhisttextscouldfindembodimentinsuchasolidlyhappyperson.

OnlywhenIbegantolookdirectlyattheearlytextsdidIrealizethatwhatIthoughtwasaparadoxwasactuallyanirony—theironyofhowBuddhism,whichgivessuchapositiveviewofahumanbeing’spotentialforfindingtruehappiness,couldbebrandedintheWestasnegativeandpessimistic.

You’veprobablyheardtherumorthat“Lifeissuffering”isBuddhism’sfirstprinciple,theBuddha’sfirstnobletruth.It’sarumorwithgoodcredentials,spreadbywell-respectedacademicsandDharmateachersalike,butarumornonetheless.Thetruthaboutthenobletruthsisfarmoreinteresting.TheBuddhataughtfourtruths—notone—aboutlife:Thereissuffering,thereisacauseforsuffering,thereisanendofsuffering,andthereisapathofpracticethatputsanendtosuffering.Thesetruths,takenasawhole,arefarfrompessimistic.They’reapractical,problem-solvingapproach—thewayadoctorapproachesanillness,oramechanicafaultyengine.Youidentifyaproblemandlookforitscause.Youthenputanendtotheproblembyeliminatingthecause.

What’sspecialabouttheBuddha’sapproachisthattheproblemheattacksisthewholeofhumansuffering,andthesolutionheoffersissomethinghumanbeingscandoforthemselves.Justasadoctorwithasurefirecureformeaslesisn’tafraidofmeasles,theBuddhaisn’tafraidofanyaspectofhumansuffering.And,havingexperiencedahappinesstotallyunconditional,he’snotafraidtopointout

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thesufferingandstressinherentinplaceswheremostofuswouldrathernotseeit—intheconditionedpleasuresweclingto.Heteachesusnottodenythatsufferingandstressortorunawayfromit,buttostandstillandfaceuptoit,toexamineitcarefully.Thatway—byunderstandingit—wecanferretoutitscauseandputanendtoit.Totally.Howconfidentcanyouget?

Afairnumberofwritershavepointedoutthebasicconfidenceinherentinthefournobletruths,andyettherumorofBuddhism’spessimismpersists.Iwonderwhy.Onepossibleexplanationisthat,incomingtoBuddhism,wesub-consciouslyexpectittoaddressissuesthathavealonghistoryinourownculture.Bystartingoutwithsufferingashisfirsttruth,theBuddhaseemstobeofferinghispositiononaquestionwithalonghistoryintheWest:istheworldbasicallygoodorbad?

AccordingtoGenesis,thiswasthefirstquestionthatoccurredtoGodafterhehadfinishedhiscreation:hadhedoneagoodjob?Hethenlookedattheworldandsawthatitwasgood.Eversincethen,peopleintheWesthavesidedwithoragainstGodonhisanswer,butindoingsotheyhaveaffirmedthatthequestionwasworthaskingtobeginwith.WhenTheravada—theonlyformofBuddhismtotakeonChristianitywhenEuropecolonizedAsia—waslookingforwaystoheadoffwhatitsawasthemissionarymenace,BuddhistswhohadreceivedtheireducationfromthemissionariesassumedthatthequestionwasvalidandpressedthefirstnobletruthintoserviceasarefutationoftheChristianGod:lookathowmiserablelifeis,theysaid,andit’shardtoacceptGod’sverdictonhishandiwork.

Thisdebatingstrategymayhavescoredafewpointsatthetime,andit’seasytofindBuddhistapologistswho—stilllivinginthecolonialpast—keeptryingtoscorethesamepoints.Therealissue,though,iswhethertheBuddhaintendedhisfirstnobletruthtoanswerGod’squestioninthefirstplaceand—moreimportantly—whetherwe’regettingthemostoutofthefirstnobletruthifweseeitinthatlight.

It’shardtoimaginewhatyoucouldaccomplishbysayingthatlifeissuffering.You’dhavetospendyourtimearguingwithpeoplewhoseemorethanjustsufferinginlife.TheBuddhahimselfsaysasmuchinoneofhisdiscourses.AbrahmannamedLong-nails(Dīghanakha)comestohimandannouncesthathedoesn’tapproveofanything.ThiswouldhavebeenaperfecttimefortheBuddha,ifhehadwanted,tochimeinwiththetruththatlifeissuffering.Instead,heattacksthewholenotionoftakingastandonwhetherlifeisworthyofapproval.Therearethreepossibleanswerstothisquestion,hesays:(1)nothingisworthyofapproval,(2)everythingis,and(3)somethingsareandsomethingsaren’t.Ifyoutakeanyofthesethreepositions,youenduparguingwiththepeoplewhotakeeitheroftheothertwopositions.Andwheredoesthatgetyou?

TheBuddhathenteachesLong-nailstolookathisbodyandfeelingsas

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instancesofthefirstnobletruth:they‘restressful,inconstant,anddon’tdeservetobeclungtoasself.Long-nailsfollowstheBuddha’sinstructionsand,inlettinggoofhisattachmenttobodyandfeelings,gainshisfirstglimpseoftheDeathless,ofwhatit’sliketobetotallyfreefromsuffering.

ThepointofthisstoryisthattryingtoanswerGod’squestion,passingjudgmentontheworld,isawasteoftime.Anditoffersabetteruseforthefirstnobletruth:lookingatthings,notintermsof“world”or“life,”butsimplyidentifyingsufferingsothatyoucancomprehendit,letitgo,andattainrelease.Ratherthanaskingustomakeablanketjudgment—which,ineffect,wouldbeaskingustobeblindpartisans—thefirstnobletruthasksustolookandseepreciselywheretheproblemofsufferinglies.

Otherdiscoursesshowthattheproblemisn’twithbodyandfeelingsinandofthemselves.Theythemselvesaren’tsuffering.Thesufferingliesinclingingtothem.Inhisdefinitionofthefirstnobletruth,theBuddhasummarizesalltypesofsufferingunderthephrase,“thefiveaggregatesofclinging”:clingingtophysicalform(includingthebody),feelings,perceptions,thoughtconstructs,andconsciousness.However,whenthefiveaggregatesarefreefromclinging,hetellsus,theyleadtolong-termbenefitandhappiness.

Sothefirstnobletruth,simplyput,isthatclingingissuffering.It’sbecauseofclingingthatphysicalpainbecomesmentalpain.It’sbecauseofclingingthataging,illness,anddeathcausementaldistress.Theparadoxhereisthat,inclingingtothings,wedon’ttrapthemorgetthemunderourcontrol.Instead,wetrapourselves.Whenwerealizeourcaptivity,wenaturallysearchforawayout.Andthisiswhereit’ssoimportantthatthefirstnobletruthnotsaythat“Lifeissuffering.”Iflifeweresuffering,wherewouldwelookforanendtosuffering?We’dbeleftwithnothingbutdeathandannihilation.Butwhentheactualtruthisthatclingingissuffering,wesimplyhavetolookfortheclingingandeliminateitscauses.

Thisprocesstakestime,though,becausewecan’tsimplytellthemindnottocling.It’slikeadisobedientchild:ifyouforceittoletgowhileyou’relooking,it’llsearchforablindspotwhereyoucan’tseeit,andwillstarttoclingthere.Infact,themind’smajorblindspot—ignorance—istheprimecausethatgivesrisetoclinging’sproximatecause:craving.So,asthefourthnobletruth,theBuddharecommendsapathofpracticetogetridoftheblindspot.Thepathhaseightfactors:rightview,rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration.Inamoreabbreviatedform,theBuddha’stermforthepracticeis“abandoninganddeveloping”:abandoningactivitiesthatgethinderawareness,anddevelopingqualitiesthatexpanditsclarityandrange.

Theabandoning—inwhichyourefrainfromunskillfulthoughts,words,and

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deedsinspiredbycraving—isobviouslyanantidotetoclinging.Thedeveloping,though,playsamoreparadoxicalrole,foryouhavetoholdtotheskillfulqualitiesofmindfulness,concentration,anddiscernmentthatfosterawarenessuntilthey’refullymature.Onlythencanyouletthemgo.It’slikeclimbingaladdertogetonaroof:yougrabholdofahigherrungsothatyoucanletgoofalowerrung,andthengrabontoarungstillhigher.Astherungsgetfurtherofftheground,yourviewgetsmoreexpansiveandyoucanseepreciselywherethemind’sclingingsare.Yougetasharpersenseofwhichpartsofexperiencebelongtowhichnobletruthandwhatshouldbedonewiththem:thepartsthataresufferingshouldbecomprehended;thepartsthatcausesufferingshouldbeabandoned;thepartsthatformthepathtotheendofsufferingshouldbefurtherdeveloped;andthepartsthatbelongtotheendofsufferingshouldbeverified.Thishelpsyougethigherandhigherontheladderuntilyoufindyourselfsecurelyontheroof.That’swhenyoucanfinallyletgooftheladderandbetotallyfree.

SotherealquestionwefaceisnotGod’squestion,passingjudgmentonhowskillfullyhecreatedlifeortheworld.It’sourquestion:howskillfullyarewehandlingtherawstuffoflife?Areweclinginginwaysthatserveonlytocontinuetheroundofsuffering,orarewelearningtoholdtotheladder-likequalitiesthatwilleliminatecravingandignorancesothatwecangrowupandnothavetocling.Ifwenegotiatelifearmedwithallfournobletruths,realizingthatlifecontainsbothsufferingandanendtosuffering,there’shope:hopethatwe’llbeabletosortoutwhichpartsoflifebelongtowhichtruth;hopethatsomeday,inthislife,we’lldiscoverthebrightnessatthepointwherewecanagreewiththeBuddha,“Oh.Yes.Thisistheendofsufferingandstress.”

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OpeningtheDoortotheDhammaRespectinBuddhistThought&Practice

Ifyou’rebornintoanAsianBuddhistfamily,thefirstthingyourparentswillteachyouaboutBuddhismisnotaphilosophicaltenetbutagestureofrespect:howtoplaceyourhandsinañjali,palm-to-palmoveryourheart,whenyouencounteraBuddhaimage,amonk,oranun.Obviously,thegesturewillbemechanicalatfirst.Overtime,though,you’lllearntherespectfulattitudethatgoeswithit.Ifyou’requicktopickitup,yourparentswillconsideritasignofintelligence,forrespectisbasictoanyabilitytolearn.

Asyougetolder,theymayteachyouthesymbolismofthegesture:thatyourhandsformalotusbud,representingyourheart,whichyouareholdingouttobetrainedinhowtobecomewise.Ultimately,asyougrowmorefamiliarwiththefruitsofBuddhistpractice,yourparentshopethatyourrespectwillturnintoreverenceandveneration.Inthisway,theygiveaquickanswertotheoldWesternquestionofwhichsideofBuddhism—thephilosophyorthereligion—comesfirst.Intheireyes,thereligiousattitudeofrespectisneededforanyphilosophicalunderstandingtogrow.Andasfarasthey’reconcerned,there’snoconflictbetweenthetwo.Infact,they’remutuallyreinforcing.

ThisstandsinmarkedcontrasttothetypicalWesternattitude,whichseesanessentialdiscrepancybetweenBuddhism’sreligiousandphilosophicalsides.Thephilosophyseemssorational,placingsuchahighvalueonself-reliance.TheinsightattheheartoftheBuddha’sawakeningwassoabstract—aprincipleofcausality.Thereseemsnoinherentreasonforaphilosophywithsuchanabstractbeginningtohaveproducedadevotionalismintenseenoughtorivalanythingfoundinthetheisticreligions.

YetifwelookatwhatthePālicanonhastosayaboutdevotionalism—theattitudeitexpresseswiththeclusterofwords,respect,deference,reverence,homage,andveneration—wefindnotonlythatitstheoryofrespectisrootedinthecentralinsightoftheBuddha’sawakening—thecausalprinciplecalledthis/thatconditionality(idappaccayatā)—butalsothatrespectisrequiredtolearnandmasterthiscausalprincipleinthefirstplace.

Onthesurfaceitmayseemstrangetorelateatheoryofcausalitytotheissueofrespect,butthetwoareintimatelyentwined.Respectistheattitudeyoudeveloptowardthethingsthatmatterinlife.Theoriesofcausalitytellyouif

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anythingreallymatters,andifso,whatmattersandhow.Ifyoubelievethatasupremebeingwillgrantyouhappiness,you’llnaturallyshowrespectandreverenceforthatbeing.Ifyouassumehappinesstobeentirelyself-willed,yourgreatestrespectwillbereservedforyourownwillfulness.Asforthehow:Ifyouviewtruehappinessastotallyimpossible,totallypre-determined,ortotallyrandom,respectisunnecessary,foritmakesnodifferenceintheoutcomeofyourlife.Butifyouseetruehappinessaspossible,anditscausesasprecarious,contingent,anddependentonyourattitude,you’llnaturallyshowthemthecareandrespectneededtokeepthemhealthyandstrong.

Thisisreflectedinthewaythecanontreatstheissueofrespect.ItdetailsthevariedwaysinwhichlaypeopleoftheBuddha’stimeshowedrespecttotheBuddhaandthemonasticSaṅgha,andthemorestandardizedwaysinwhichthemembersoftheSaṅghashowedrespecttotheBuddhaandtooneanother.EspeciallyinterestingistheprotocolofrespectfortheDhamma.BuddhistmonksandnunsareforbiddenfromteachingtheDhammatoanyonewhoshowsdisrespect,andtheBuddhahimselfissaidtohaverefusedtoteachhisfirstsermontothefivebrethrenuntiltheystoppedtreatinghimasamereequal.

Thisprotocol,ofcourse,mayhavebeenaculturalaccident,somethingpickedupwilly-nillyfromthesocietyoftheBuddha’stime,buttherearepassagesinthecanonsuggestingotherwise.Buddhismwasoneofthesamaṇa(contemplative)movementsinancientIndia,whichclaimedtofollowtruthsofnatureratherthanmainstreamculturalnorms.Thesemovementswereveryfreeinchoosingwhattoadoptfromprevailingcustoms.Buddhistdescriptionsofothersamaṇamovementsoftencriticizedthemforbeingdisrespectfulnotonlytooutsidersbutalsoamongthemselves.Studentsareshownbeingdisrespectfultotheirteachers—theirgroupmeetingsraucous,noisy,andoutofcontrol.AllofthisisthencontrastedwiththewayBuddhistsconducttheirmeetingsinmutualcourtesyandrespect.ThissuggeststhattheBuddhistswerefreetorejectthecommoncustomsofrespectbutmadeaconsciouschoicenotto.

Thischoiceisbasedontheirinsightintorespectasaprerequisiteforlearning.It’seasiertolearnfromsomeoneyourespectthanfromsomeoneyoudon’t.Respectopensthemindandloosenspreconceivedopinionstomakeroomfornewknowledgeandskills.Atthesametime,peoplewhovaluetheirknowledgefeelmoreinclinedtoteachittosomeonewhoshowsrespectthantosomeonewhodoesn’t.

However,thetypeoflearningtheBuddhaemphasizesisnotsimplytheacquisitionofinformation.It’saskillleadingtototalreleasefromsufferingandstress.Andthisiswheretheissueofrespectconnectswithcausality,fortheBuddhisttheoryofcausalitycentersonthequestionofhowit’spossibletolearnaskill.

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Ascyberneticstheoryshows,learningingeneralispossibleonlywherethereisfeedback;learningaskillrequiresthefurtherabilitytomonitorfeedbackandchoosehowtouseittomodifybehavior.TheBuddha’sdiscoveriesincausalityexplainthehowandthewhatthatallowforthesefactors.Thehowheexpressedasacausalformula;thewhat,asananalysisofaction:thefactorsthatshapeit,togetherwiththerangeofresultsitcangive.

Thecausalformula,simplyput,statesthateachmomentiscomposedofthreethings:resultsfrompastactions,presentactions,andtheimmediateresultsofpresentactions.Althoughthisprincipleseemssimple,itsconsequencesareverycomplex.Everyactyouperformhasrepercussionsinthepresentmomentthatalsoreverberateintothefuture.Dependingontheintensityoftheact,thosereverberationscanlastforaveryshortoraverylongtime.Thuseveryconditionedexperienceisshapedbythecombinedeffectsofpastactionscomingfromawiderangeovertime,togetherwiththeeffectsofpresentacts.

Causalityovertimeplacescertainlimitationsoneachmoment.Thepresentisnotacleanslate,forit’spartiallyshapedbyinfluencesfromthepast.Immediatecausalityinthepresent,however,makesroomforfreewill.Noteverythingisdeterminedbythepast.Atanymoment,youcaninsertnewinputintotheprocessandnudgeyourlifeinanewdirection.Still,there’snotsomuchroomforfreewillthatcausalitybecomesarbitrary.Everythisputintothesystemproducesaparticulartypeofthat.Eventsfollowdiscerniblepatternsthatcanbemastered.

Thewhatthatkeepsthisprocessinmotionisthefactorallowingforfeedbackandthemonitoringoffeedback.Thecentralelementinthatwhatisintention,whichtheBuddhaidentifiedastheessenceofaction,orkamma.Intention,inturn,isshapedbyactsofattention,whichaskquestionsaboutperceptionsandcreateviewsfromthosequestions.Becauseyoucanattendtotheresultsofyourintentions,thereisaninternalfeedbackloopallowingyoutolearn.Becauseattentioncanaskquestions,itcanmonitorthatfeedbacktodeterminehowbesttoputittouse.Andbecauseyourintentions—guidedbyviewsandofferingnewinputintothepresent—canthenreshapeyourexperience,yourabilitytolearncanmakeadifference:youcanchangeyourbehaviorandreaptheresultsofyourimprovedskillsintermsofgreaterandgreaterhappiness.

Howfarcanthathappinessgo?InthecourseofhisAwakening,theBuddhadiscoveredthatthepursuitofskillfulnesscanultimatelyleadbeyondtimeandspace,beyondtherealmofconditionalityandrebirth.Fromthisdiscoveryheidentifiedfourtypesofkamma:thefirstthreegivingpleasant,painful,ormixedresultsintheroundofrebirth,andthefourthleadingbeyondallkammatotheendofrebirth.Inotherwords,theprincipleofcausalityworkssothatactionscaneithercontinuetheroundorbringittoanend.Becauseeventhehighestpleasurewithintheroundisinconstantandundependable,hetaughtthatthemostworthy

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courseofactionisthefourthkindofkamma—thetypethatledtohisAwakening—toputanendtokammaonceandforall.

Theskillneededforthisformofkammacomesfromcoordinatingthefactorsofattentionandintentionsothattheyleadfirsttopleasantresultswithintheroundofrebirth,andthen—onthetranscendentlevel—tototalreleasefromsufferingandstress.This,inturn,requirescertainattitudestowardtheprincipleofcausalityoperatinginhumanlife.Andthisiswherethequalityofrespectbecomesessential,forwithouttheproperrespectforthreethings—yourself,theprincipleofcausalityoperatinginyourlife,andotherpeople’sinsightsintothatprinciple—youwon’tbeabletomustertheresolveneededtomasterthatprincipleandtoseehowfaryourpotentialforskillfulnesscango.

Respectforyourself,inthecontextofthis/thatconditionality,meanstwothings:

1)Becausethefourthkindofkammaispossible,youcanrespectyourdesireforunconditionalhappiness,anddon’thavetoregarditasanunrealisticideal.

2)Becauseoftheimportanceofintentionandattentioninshapingyourexperience,youcanrespectyourabilitytodeveloptheskillsneededtounderstandandmastercausalrealitytothepointofattainingtruehappiness.

Butrespectforyourselfgoesevenfurtherthanthat.Notonlycanyourespectyourdesirefortruehappinessandyourabilitytoattainit,youmustrespectthesethingsifyoudon’twanttofallundertheswayofthemanyreligiousandsecularforceswithinsocietyandyourselfthatwouldpullyouinotherdirections.

Althoughmostreligiousculturesassumetruehappinesstobepossible,theydon’tseehumanskillfulnessascapableofbringingitabout.Byandlarge,theyplacetheirhopesforhappinessinhigherpowers.Asforsecularcultures,theydon’tbelievethatunconditionalhappinessispossibleatall.Theyteachustostriveforhappinessdependentonconditions,andtoturnablindeyetothelimitationsinherentinanyhappinesscomingfrommoney,power,relationships,possessions,orasentimentalsenseofcommunity.Theyoftenscoffathighervaluesandsmilewhenreligiousidolsfallorreligiousaspirantsshowfeetofclay.

Thesesecularattitudesfosterourownunskillfulqualities,ourdesiretotakewhateverpleasurescomeeasily,andourimpatiencewithanyonewhowouldtellusthatwe’recapableofbetterandmore.Butboththesecularandthecommonreligiousattitudesteachustounderestimatethepowersofourownskillfulmindstates.Qualitieslikemindfulness,concentration,anddiscernment,whentheyfirstariseinthemind,seemunremarkable—smallandtender,likemapleseedlingsgrowinginthemidstofweeds.Ifwedon’twatchforthemoraccordthemanyspecialrespect,theweedswillstranglethemorweourselveswilltreadthemunderfoot.Asaresult,we’llnevergettoknowhowmuchshadetheycan

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provide.If,however,wedevelopstrongrespectforourownabilitytoattaintrue

happiness,twoimportantmoralqualitiestakechargeofourmindsandwatchoutforourgoodqualities:concernforthesufferingwe’llexperienceifwedon’ttryourbesttodevelopskillfulness,andshameatthethoughtofaiminglowerthanatthehighestpossiblehappiness.Shamemayseemastrangeadjuncttoself-respect,butwhenbotharehealthytheygotogether.Youneedself-respecttorecognizewhenacourseofactionisbeneathyou,andthatyou’dbeashamedtofollowit.Youneedtofeelshameforyourmistakesinordertokeepyourself-respectfromturningintostubbornpride.

Thisiswherethesecondaspectofrespect—respectfortheprincipleofcausality—comesin.This/thatconditionalityisnotafree-formprocess.Eachunskillfulthisisconnectedtoanunpleasantthat.Youcan’ttwisttheconnectiontoleadtopleasantresults,oruseyourownpreferencestodesignacustomizedpathtoreleasefromcausalexperience.Self-respectthushastoaccommodatearespectforthewaycausesactuallyproduceeffects.Traditionally,thisrespectisexpressedintermsofthequalitytheBuddhastressedinhisverylastwords:heedfulness.Tobeheedfulmeanshavingastrongsensethatifyou’recarelessinyourintentions,you’llsuffer.Ifyoutrulyloveyourself,youhavetopaycloseattentiontothewayrealityreallyworks,andactaccordingly.Noteverythingyouthinkorfeelisworthyofrespect.EventheBuddhahimselfdidn’tdesignBuddhismortheprincipleofthis/thatconditionality.Hediscoveredthem.Insteadofviewingrealityinlinewithhispreferences,hereorderedhispreferencestomakethemostofwhathelearnedbywatching—withscrupulouscareandhonesty—hisactionsandtheiractualeffects.

ThispointisreflectedinhisdiscoursetotheKālāmas(AN3:65).AlthoughthisdiscourseisoftencitedastheBuddha’scarteblancheforfollowingyourownsenseofrightandwrong,itactuallysayssomethingverydifferent:Don’tsimplyfollowtraditions,butdon’tsimplyfollowyourownpreferences,either.Ifyousee,throughwatchingyourownactionsandtheirresults,thatfollowingacertainmentalstateleadstoharmandsuffering,youshouldabandonitandresolvenevertofollowitagain.Thisisarigorousstandard,whichrequiresputtingtheDhammaaheadofyourownpreconceivedpreferences.Anditrequiresthatyoubeveryheedfulofanytendencytoreversethatpriorityandputyourpreferencesfirst.

Inotherwords,youcan’tsimplyindulgeinthepleasureorresistthepaincomingfromyourownactions.Youhavetolearnfrombothpleasureandpain,toshowthemrespectaseventsinacausalchain,toseewhattheyhavetoteachyou.ThisiswhytheBuddhacalleddukkha—pain,stress,andsuffering—anobletruth;andwhyhetermedthepleasurearisingfromtheconcentratedmindanobletruthaswell.Theseaspectsofimmediateexperiencecontainlessonsthatcantakethe

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mindtothenobleattainments.ThediscoursetotheKālāmas,however,doesn’tstopwithimmediate

experience.Itgoesfurtherandstatesthat,whenobservingtheprocessesofcauseandeffectinyouractions,youshouldalsoconfirmyourobservationswiththeteachingsofthewise.Thisthirdaspectofrespect—respectfortheinsightsofothers—isalsobasedonthepatternofthis/thatconditionality.Becausecausesaresometimesseparatedfromtheireffectsbygreatexpansesoftime,it’seasytolosesightofsomeimportantconnections.Atthesametime,yourchiefobstacletodiscernment—delusion—isthementalqualityyouhavethehardesttimedetectinginyourself.Whenyou’redeluded,youdon’tknowyou’redeluded.Sothewiseapproachistoshowrespecttotheinsightsofothers,intheeventthattheirinsightsmayhelpyouseethroughyourownignorance.Afterall,intentionandattentionareimmediatelypresenttotheirawarenessaswell.Theirinsightsmaybejustwhatyouneedtocutthroughtheobstaclesyou’vecreatedforyourselfthroughyourownactsofignorance.

TheBuddhistteachingsonrespectforotherpeoplepointintwodirections.First,theobviousone:respectforthoseaheadofyouonthepath.AstheBuddhaoncesaid,friendshipwithadmirablepeopleisthewholeoftheholylife,fortheirwordsandexampleswillhelpgetyouonthepathtorelease.Thisdoesn’tmeanthatyouneedtoobeytheirteachingsoracceptthemunthinkingly.Yousimplyoweittoyourselftogivethemarespectfulhearingandtheirteachingsanhonesttry.Even—especially—whentheiradviceisunpleasant,youshouldtreatitwithrespect.AsDhammapada76states,

Regardhimasonewhopointsouttreasure,

thewiseonewhoseeingyourfaults

rebukesyou.Staywiththissortofsage.Fortheonewhostayswithasageofthissort,

thingsgetbetter,notworse.

Atthesametime,whenyoushowrespectforthosewhohavemasteredthepath,you’realsoshowingrespectforqualitiesyouwanttodevelopinyourself.Andwhensuchpeopleseethatyourespectthegoodqualitiesbothinthemandinyourself,they’llfeelmoreinclinedtosharetheirwisdomwithyou,andmorecarefulaboutsharingonlytheirbest.ThisiswhytheBuddhisttraditionplaces

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suchanemphasisonnotonlyfeelingrespectbutalsoshowingit.Ifyoucan’tforceyourselftoshowrespecttoothersinwaysthey’llrecognize,there’saresistanceinyourmind.They,inturn,willdoubtyourwillingnesstolearn.Thisiswhythemonasticdisciplineplacessomuchemphasisontheetiquetteofrespecttobeshowntoteachersandseniormonastics.

Theteachingsonrespect,however,goinanotherdirectionaswell.Buddhistmonksandnunsarenotallowedtoshowdisrespectforanyonewhocriticizesthem,regardlessofwhetherornotthatpersonisawakenedorthecriticismwell-founded.Criticsofthissortmaynotdeservethelevelofrespectduetoteachers,buttheydodeservecommoncourtesy.Evenunawakenedpeoplemayhaveobservedvaluablebitsandpiecesofthetruth.Ifyouopenyourselftocriticism,youmaygettohearworthwhileinsightsthatawallofdisrespectwouldhaverepelled.Buddhistliterature—fromtheearliestdaysuptothepresent—aboundswithstoriesofpeoplewhogainedAwakeningafterhearingachancewordorsongfromanunlikelysource.Apersonwiththeproperattitudeofrespectcanlearnfromanything—andtheabilitytoputanythingtoagooduseisthemarkoftruediscernment.

Perhapsthemostdelicateskillwithregardtorespectislearninghowtobalanceallthreeaspectsofrespect:foryourself,forthetruthofcausality,andfortheinsightofothers.Thisbalanceisessentialtoanyskill.Ifyouwanttobecomeapotter,forexample,youhavetolearnnotonlyfromyourteacher,butalsofromyourownactionsandpowersofobservation,andfromtheclayitself.Thenyouhavetoweighallofthesefactorstogethertoachievemasteryonyourown.If,inyourpursuitoftheBuddhistpath,yourself-respectoutweighsyourrespectforthetruthofcausalityortheinsightsofothers,you’llfindithardtotakecriticismortolaughatyourownfoolishness.Thiswillmakeitimpossibleforyoutolearn.If,ontheotherhand,yourrespectforyourteachersoutweighsyourself-respectoryourrespectforthetruth,youcanopenyourselftocharlatansandcloseyourselftothetruththatthecanonsays“istobeseenbythewiseforthemselves.”

TheparallelsbetweentheroleofrespectinBuddhistpracticeandinmanualskillsexplainswhymanyBuddhistteachersrequiretheirstudentstomasteramanualskillasaprerequisiteorapartoftheirmeditation.Apersonwithnomanualskillswillhavelittleintuitiveunderstandingofhowtobalancerespect.WhatsetstheBuddha’sapartfromotherskills,though,istheleveloftotalfreedomitproduces.Andthedifferencebetweenthatfreedomanditsalternative—endlessroundsofsufferingthroughbirthafterbirth,deathafterdeath—issoextremethatwecaneasilyunderstandwhypeoplecommittedtothepursuitofthatfreedomshowitalevelofrespectthat’salsoextreme.Evenmoreunderstandableistheabsolutelevelofrespectforthatfreedomshownbythose

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whohaveattainedit.Theybowdowntoalltheirinnerandouterteacherswiththesincerest,mostheart-feltgratitude.Toseethembowdowninthiswayisaninspiringsight.

SowhenBuddhistparentsteachtheirchildrentoshowrespectfortheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅgha,theyaren’tteachingthemahabitthatwilllaterhavetobeunlearned.Ofcourse,thechildwillneedtodiscoverhowbesttounderstandandmakeuseofthatrespect,butatleasttheparentshavehelpedopenthedoorforthechildtolearnfromitsownpowersofobservation,tolearnfromthetruth,andtolearnfromtheinsightsofothers.Andwhenthatdoor—whenthemind—isopenedtowhattrulydeservesrespect,allthingsnobleandgoodcancomein.

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QuestionsofSkill

TheBuddhawasn’tthesortofteacherwhosimplyansweredquestions.Healsotaughtwhichquestionstoask.Heunderstoodthepowerofquestions:thattheygiveshapetotheholesinyourknowledgeandforcethatshape—validornot—ontotheanswersyouhopewillfillupthoseholes.Evenifyouuserightinformationtoanswerawrongquestion,itcantakeonthewrongshape.Ifyouthenusethatanswerasatool,you’resuretoapplyittothewrongsituationsandendupwiththewrongresults.

That’swhytheBuddhawascarefultomapoutascienceofquestions,showingwhichquestions—inwhatorder—leadtofreedom,andwhichonesdon’t.Atthesametime,hegavehistalksinaquestion-and-answerformat,tomakeperfectlycleartheshapeofthequestionshewasanswering.

Soifyou’relookingtohisteachingforanswersandwanttogetthemostoutofthem,youshouldfirstbeclearaboutwhatquestionsyou’rebringingtoit,andchecktoseeifthey’reinlinewiththequestionstheteachingsweremeanttoaddress.Thatwayyouranswerswon’tleadyouastray.

Acaseinpointistheteachingonnot-self.ManystudentsinterpretthisastheBuddha’sanswertotwoofthemostfrequently-askedquestionsinthehistoryofseriousthought:“WhoamI?”and“DoIhaveatrueself?”Inthelightofthesequestions,theteachingseemstobeano-selfteaching,sayingeitheranunqualifiedNo:Thereisnoself;oraqualifiedNo:noseparateself.ButtheonetimetheBuddhawasaskedpoint-blankifthereisaself,herefusedtoanswer,onthegroundsthateitheraYesoraNotothequestionwouldleadtoextremeformsofwrongviewthatblockthepathtoawakening.AYesoraqualifiedNowouldleadtoattachment:you’dkeepclingingtoasenseofselfhoweveryoudefinedit.AnunqualifiedNowouldleadtobewildermentandalienation,foryou’dfeelthatyourinnermostsenseofintrinsicworthhadbeendenied.

Asforthequestion,“WhoamI?”theBuddhaincludeditinalistofdead-endquestionsthatleadto“athicketofviews,awildernessofviews,acontortion,awrithing,afetterofviews.Boundbyafetterofviews,[you]don’tgainfreedomfrombirth,aging,anddeath,fromsorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,ordespair.”Inotherwords,anyattempttoanswereitherofthesequestionsisunskillfulkarma,blockingthepathtotruefreedom.

Soifthenot-selfteachingisn’tmeanttoanswerthesequestions,what

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questiondoesitanswer?Abasicone:“Whatisskillful?”Infact,alloftheBuddha’steachingsaredirectorindirectanswerstothisquestion.Hisgreatinsightwasthatallourknowledgeandignorance,allourpleasureandpain,comefromouractions,ourkarma,sothequestfortrueknowledgeandtruehappinesscomesdowntoaquestionofskill.Inthiscase,theprecisequestionis:“Isself-identificationskillful?”Andtheansweris:“Onlyuptoapoint.”Intheareaswhereyouneedahealthysenseofselftoactskillfully,it’swisetomaintainthatsenseofself.Buteventually,asskillfulbehaviorbecomessecondnatureandyoudevelopmoresensitivity,youseethatself-identification,evenofthemostrefinedsort,isharmfulandstressful.Youhavetoletitgo.

So,aswithanyskill,therearedefinitestepsalongtheroadtomastery.Andbecausetheaskingofaquestionisatypeofkarma,thequestionsyouasknotonlyhavetostartwiththeissueofskill,theyalsohavetobeskillful—toapproachtheissueskillfully—themselves.EachstepintheBuddha’sskillisthusdefinedbyasetofquestionsthatfocusyourattentionandshapeyourthinkinginthemoststrategicdirection.Infact,thequestionsherecommendscanbetakenasamaptothepractice:youstartoutwithquestionsthatassumeaselfandusethatassumptiontomotivateyourselftoactmoreandmoreskillfully.Onlywhenyoureachanappropriatelevelofskilldothequestionsturntodeconstructyoursenseofself,pinpointingthethingsyouidentifyasyourselfandshowingthatthey’renotreallyyou.Whentheactofself-identificationrunsoutofoptions,itstopsinmid-air—andthemindopenstofreedom.Soifyouputthenot-selfteachinginitspropercontext—thisregimenofquestions—you’llseethatit’snotadead-endanswertoadead-endquestion.Instead,it’sacutting-edgetoolforbringingaboutliberation.

Tobeginthisregimen,theBuddharecommendsthatwhenyouvisitateacher,thefirstquestionstoaskarethese:“Whatisskillful?Whatisunskillful?What,ifIdoit,willbeformylong-termharmandsuffering?Orwhat,ifIdoit,willbeformylong-termwell-beingandhappiness?”Althoughtheselasttwoquestionsbringintheconceptsof“I”and“my,”theyaren’tthefocusoftheinquiry.Thefocusisondoing,ondevelopingskill,onusingyourconcernfor“me”and“mywell-being”totrainyouractionstowardtruehappiness.

TheBuddha’sanswerstothesepreliminaryquestionsreadlikeacourseinwildernesssurvival.Firstcomethedo’sanddon’ts.Awildernessinstructorwilltellyou:“Ifamoosechargesyou,run.Ifabearchargesyou,don’t.”TheBuddha’scorrespondingdo’sanddon’tsaretenguidelinesdealingwithbody,speech,andmind.Theguidelinesforthebodyare:don’tkill,don’tsteal,don’tengageinillicitsex.Forspeech:don’ttelllies,don’tspeakdivisively,don’tspeakabusively,don’tengageinidlechatter.Andforthemind:abandongreed,abandonillwill,cultivaterightviews.ThesearetheBuddha’sbasicgroundrulesforthesurvivalof

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yourhappiness,andmanyofhisteachingssimplyelaborateonthesetenpoints.Butasanywildernessinstructorwilltellyou,survivalrequiresmorethan

simplerulesofthumb.Youhavetobealerttothegapsnotcoveredbytherules.Youneedtolearntouseyourpowersofobservation,imagination,andingenuitytodigoutunskillfulhabitsanddevelopnewhabitstofillinthegaps.Thatwayyoucanlivecomfortablyinthewilderness,respectfulofthebearsandmooseandotherdangersaroundyouwithoutbeingoverwhelmedbythem.

ThesameholdstruewiththeBuddha’sskill:inadditiontofollowingthedo’sanddon’ts,youhavetolearnhowtodigouttherootsofunskillfulbehaviorsothatyoucanbecomeadeptinallareasofyourlife,includingtheareaswherethedo’sanddon’tsdon’tapply.Therootsofunskillfulbehaviorarethree:greed,anger,anddelusion.Ofthethree,delusionisthemostinsidious,foritblindsyoutoitsveryexistence.Theonlywaytoovercomeitistoberelentlesslyobservant,lookingatyouractionsintermsofcauseandeffect,gaugingtheirshort-andlong-termconsequencesforyourselfandothers.

Again,thisinvolveslearningtoasktherightquestions.Eachtimeyou’reabouttoact,askyourself:“ThisactionthatIwanttodo:woulditleadtoself-harm,totheharmofothers,ortoboth?Isitanunskillfulaction,withpainfulconsequences,painfulresults?”Ifyouforeseeharm,don’tfollowthroughwithit.Ifnot,goaheadandact.Whileacting,askyourselfifthereareanyunexpectedbadconsequencesarising.Ifthereare,stop.Iftherearen’t,continuewithwhatyou’redoing.Whentheactionisdone,lookintoitsactualshort-andlong-termconsequences.Ifanactioninwordordeedhasendedupcausingharm,informanexperiencedfellow-practitioneronthepath(thisiswhytheBuddhaestablishedtheSaṅgha)andlistentothatperson’sadvice.Ifthemistakenactionwaspurelyanactofthemind,trytodevelopdistasteforthatkindofthinking.Inbothcases,resolvenevertomakethesamemistakeagain,anduseyouringenuitytomaketheresolvestick.If,however,thelong-termconsequencesoftheoriginalactionwereharmless,takejoyandsatisfactioninbeingontherightpathandcontinueyourtraining.

Asyoustaywiththislineofquestioning,itfosterstwomajorresults.Tobeginwith,youbecomemoresensitivetoyouractionsandrespectfuloftheireffects,bothinthepresentandovertime.Unlikethechildwhosays,“ItwasalreadybrokenwhenIsteppedonit,”you’reawareofwhenyoubreakthings—physicalormental—andwhenyoudon’t.Atthesametime,yougainmasteryoverthepatternsofactionandeffect.Yougetbetterandbetterathandlingthingswithouttheirgettingbroken.Thisinturnfostersahealthysenseof“self”and“I”basedoncompetenceandskill.Yoursenseofselfbecomesgood-humoredenoughtofreelyadmitmistakes,matureenoughtolearnfromthem,quickenoughtonoticetheimmediateeffectsofyouractions,whilepatientenoughtostriveforlong-term

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goals.Confidentinitsownpowersofobservation,this“I”alsohasthehumilityneededtolearnfromtheexperienceandadviceofothers.

Thesetworesults—sensitivitytotheeffectsofyourownactionsandacompetentsenseofself—enableyoutosettleintoalevelofmentalconcentrationthat’ssolidandnourishing.Youovercomethehindranceofuncertaintyastowhat’sskillfulandunskillful,andareabletodeveloptheskillfulqualitiesneededtocenterthemind.Asthiscenteredfocusdevelops,aninterestingthinghappens:yoursensitivitytoactionsandyoursenseofselfcomefacetoface.Youbegintoseethatselfnotasathingbutasanactivity,aprocessof“I-making”and“my-making”inwhichyourepeatedlycreateandre-createyoursenseofwhoyouare.YoualsobegintonoticethatthisI-making,evenwhenitproducesthemostskillfulselfpossible,inevitablyresultsinstress.

Why?Becauseanysenseof“I”or“mine”involvesclinging—evenwhenyourconcentrationtunesintoasenseofuniversalself—andallclingingisstressful.Sototakethedevelopmentofskillfulnesstoitsultimatedegree,youhavetounlearnthehabitofI-makingandmy-making.Andtodothis,anothersetofquestionsisrequired.

Thesearethequestionsthatintroducethestrategyofnot-self.TheBuddharecommendsthatyoufocusonanyphenomenonaroundwhichyoumightsensean“I”ora“mine,”andaskaseriesofquestions,startingwith:“Isthisconstantorinconstant?”Ifyouidentifywithyourbody,lookatit.You’llseethatitgrowshungryandthirsty,thatit’saging,destinedtogrowillanddie.“Andisanythinginconstanteasefulorstressful?”Lookatanyattempttofindastablehappinessbasedonthebody,andyou’llseehowstressfulitis.“Andisitfittingtoregardwhat’sinconstant,stressful,subjecttochangeas:‘Thisismine.Thisismyself.ThisiswhatIam’?”

Pursuethislineofinquiryinward,throughlayerafterlayerofphysicalandmentalevents,untilyoucanzeroinonthehighcommand:theselfthat’smanagingnotonlythestabilityofyourconcentrationbutalsoyourinternaldialogueofquestionsandanswers.Fortifiedwiththesenseofstabilityandcalmthatcomewithstrongconcentration,youcanstartdeconstructingthatselfwithnoanxietyoverwhatwillhappenwhenit’sgone.Andwhentheintentionsmakingupthatselfaredeconstructed,astrangethinghappens.It’sasifyouhadpulledoutastrategicthreadholdingatapestrytogether,andnowthewholethingunravelsonitsown.Everythingthatcouldpossiblybeclungtofallsaway.Whatremainsistotal,absolutefreedom—freefromtimeandspace,frombothselfandnot-self,forboth“self”and“not-self”areperceptions,whichthatfreedomtranscends.

Evenwhenyou’vehadonlyafirst,humblingtasteofthisfreedom,youappreciatehowadroitlytheteachingonnot-selfanswersthequestionof“Whatis

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skillful?”AndyouunderstandwhytheBuddharecommendsputtingthequestionof“WhoamI?”aside.Tobeginwith,itwouldn’thavetakenyoutothisfreedom,andcouldwellhavestoodinfreedom’sway.Becauseyour“I”isanactivity,anyattempttopinitdownbeforeyouhadmasteredtheprocessesofactivitywouldhaveleftyoupouncingonshadows,distractedfromtherealworkathand.Anyattempttodeconstructyour“I”beforeithadbecomehealthyandmaturewouldhaveledtoareleaseneuroticandinsecure:you’dsimplyberunningawayfromthemessy,mismanagedpartsofyourlife.Inaddition,anyanswertothequestion“WhoamI?”wouldbetotallyinappropriatetodescribeyournew-foundfreedom,forit’sadimensionapart,wheretheconceptsof“I,”“not-I,”“am,”“amnot”donotapply.

Theonlyquestionstillconcerningyouishowtodigouttheremainingrootsofunskillfulnessstilllatentinthemind.Oncethey’redugup,theBuddhapromises,nothingstandsinthewaytofullandfinalfreedom.Andinthatfreedom,themindlacksnothing,hasnothinginexcess.There’snoneofthedelusionthatwouldshapetheholeofaburningquestion,andnoneofthegreedoraversionthatwouldgiveitteeth.Theonlyremainingquestionsarebonusones:howbesttotakewhateverskillsyou’vedevelopedalongthewayandusethempurelyforthebenefitoftheworld.

Andwhatmorecouldyoupossiblyask?

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FreedomfromFear

AnanthropologistoncequestionedanAlaskanshamanabouthistribe’sbeliefsystem.Afterputtingupwiththeanthropologist’squestionsforawhile,theshamanfinallytoldhim:“Look.Wedon’tbelieve.Wefear.”

HiswordshaveintriguedmeeversinceIfirstheardthem.I’vealsobeenintriguedbytheresponsesIgetwhenIsharehiswordswithmyfriends.Somesaythattheshamanunconsciouslyputhisfingeronthelineseparatingprimitivereligionfromcivilizedreligion:primitivereligionisfoundedonchildishfear;civilizedreligion,onlove,trust,andjoy.Othersmaintainthattheshamancutthroughthepretensionsanddenialsofcivilizedreligionandpointedtothetruesourceofallseriousreligiouslife.

Ifwedigdowntotheassumptionsunderlyingthesetworesponses,wefindthatthefirstresponseviewsfearitselfasourgreatestweakness.Ifwecansimplyovercomefear,weputourselvesinapositionofstrength.Thesecondseesfearasthemosthonestresponsetoourgreaterweaknessinthefaceofaging,illness,anddeath—aweaknessthatcan’tbeovercomewithasimpleshiftinattitude.Ifwe’renotintouchwithourhonestfears,wewon’tfeelmotivatedtodowhat’sneededtoprotectourselvesfromgenuinedangers.

So—whichattitudetowardfearischildish,andwhichismature?Isthereanelementoftruthinboth?Ifso,howcanthoseelementsbestbecombined?Thesequestionsarebestansweredbyrephrasingthem:Towhatextentisfearausefulemotion?Towhatextentisitnot?Doesithavearoleinthepracticethatputsanendtofear?

TheBuddhistanswertothesequestionsiscomplex.ThisisduepartlytoBuddhism’sdualroots—bothasacivilizedandasawildernesstradition—andalsotothecomplexityoffearitself,eveninitsmostprimalforms.Thinkofadeeratnightsuddenlycaughtinahunter’sheadlights.It’sconfused.Angry.Itsensesdanger,andthatit’sweakinthefaceofthedanger.Itwantstoescape.Thesefiveelements—confusion,aversion,asenseofdanger,asenseofweakness,andadesiretoescape—arepresent,toagreaterorlesserextent,ineveryfear.Theconfusionandaversionaretheunskillfulelements.Evenifthedeerhasmanyopeningstoescapefromthehunter,itsconfusionandaversionmightcauseittomissthem.Thesameholdstrueforhumanbeings.Themistakesandevilswecommitwhenfindingourselvesweakinthefaceofdangercomefromconfusion

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andaversion.Maddeningly,however,therearealsoevilsthatwecommitoutof

complacency,whenoblivioustoactualdangers:thecallousthingswedowhenwefeelwecangetawaywiththem.Thusthelastthreeelementsoffear—theperceptionofweakness,theperceptionofdanger,andthedesiretoescapeit—areneededtoavoidtheevilscomingfromcomplacency.Ifstrippedofconfusionandaversion,thesethreeelementsbecomeapositivequality,heedfulness—somethingsoessentialtothepracticethattheBuddhadevotedhislastwordstoit.Thedangersoflifearereal.Ourweaknessesarereal.Ifwedon’tseethemclearly,don’ttakethemtoheart,anddon’ttrytofindawayout,there’snowaywecanputanendtowhatcausesourfears.Justlikethedeer:ifit’scomplacentaboutthehunter’sheadlights,it’sgoingtoendupstrappedtothefenderforsure.

Sotogenuinelyfreethemindfromfear,wecan’tsimplydenythatthere’sanyreasonforfear.Wehavetoovercomethebasiccauseoffear:themind’sweaknessesinthefaceofveryrealdangers.TheeleganceoftheBuddha’sapproachtothisproblem,though,liesinhisinsightintotheconfusion—ortousethestandardBuddhistterm,delusion—thatmakesfearunskillful.Despitethecomplexityoffear,delusionisthesinglefactorthat,initself,isboththemind’sprimeweaknessanditsgreatestdanger.ThustheBuddhaapproachestheproblemoffearbyfocusingondelusion,andheattacksdelusionintwoways:gettingustothinkaboutitsdangerousroleinmakingfearunskillful,andtodevelopinnerstrengthsleadingtotheinsightsthatcutthroughthedelusionsthatmakethemindweak.Inthiswaywenotonlyovercomethefactorthatmakesfearunskillful.Weultimatelyputthemindinapositionwhereithasnoneedforfear.

Whenwethinkabouthowdelusioninfectsfearandincitesustodounskillfulthings,weseethatitcanactintwoways.First,thedelusionssurroundingourfearscancauseustomisapprehendthedangersweface,seeingdangerwherethereisnone,andnodangerwherethereis.Ifweobsessovernon-existentortrivialdangers,we’llsquandertimeandenergybuildingupuselessdefenses,divertingourattentionfromgenuinethreats.If,ontheotherhand,weputthegenuinedangersofaging,illness,anddeathoutofourminds,wegrowcomplacentinouractions.Weletourselvesclingtothings—ourbodies,ourlovedones,ourpossessions,ourviews—thatleaveusexposedtoaging,illness,separation,anddeathinthefirstplace.Weallowourcravingstotakechargeofthemind,sometimestothepointofdoingevilwithimpunity,thinkingthatwe’reimmunetotheresultsofourevil,thatthoseresultswillneverreturntoharmus.

Themorecomplacentweareaboutthegenuinedangerslyinginwaitallaroundus,themoreshockedandconfusedwebecomewhentheyactuallyhit.Thisleadstothesecondwayinwhichthedelusionssurroundingourfears

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promoteunskillfulactions:wereacttogenuinedangersinwaysthat,insteadofendingthedangers,actuallycreatenewones.Weamasswealthtoprovidesecurity,butwealthcreatesahighprofilethatexcitesjealousyinothers.Webuildwallstokeepoutdangerouspeople,butthosewallsbecomeourprisons.Westockpileweapons,buttheycaneasilybeturnedagainstus.

Themostunskillfulresponsetofeariswhen,perceivingdangerstoourownlifeorproperty,webelievethatwecangainstrengthandsecuritybydestroyingthelivesandpropertyofothers.Thedelusionpervadingourfearmakesusloseperspective.Ifotherpeopleweretoactinthisway,wewouldknowtheywerewrong.Butsomehow,whenwefeelthreatened,ourstandardschange,ourperspectivewarps,sothatwrongseemsrightaslongaswe’retheonesdoingit.

Thisisprobablythemostdisconcertinghumanweaknessofall:ourinabilitytotrustourselvestodotherightthingwhenthechipsaredown.Ifstandardsofrightandwrongaremeaningfulonlywhenwefindthemconvenient,theyhavenorealmeaningatall.

Fortunately,though,theareaoflifeposingthemostdangerandinsecurityistheareawhere,throughtraining,wecanmakethemostchangesandexercisethemostcontrol.Althoughaging,illness,anddeathfollowinevitablyonbirth,delusiondoesn’t.Itcanbeprevented.If,throughthoughtandcontemplation,webecomeheedfulofthedangersitposes,wecanfeelmotivatedtoovercomeit.However,theinsightscomingfromsimplethoughtandcontemplationaren’tenoughtofullyunderstandandoverthrowdelusion.It’sthesameaswithanyrevolution:nomatterhowmuchyoumaythinkaboutthematter,youdon’treallyknowthetricksandstrengthsofentrenchedpowersuntilyouamassyourowntroopsanddobattlewiththem.Andonlywhenyourowntroopsdeveloptheirowntricksandstrengthscantheycomeoutontop.Soitiswithdelusion:onlywhenyoudevelopmentalstrengthscanyouseethroughthedelusionsthatgivefearitspower.Beyondthat,thesestrengthscanputyouinapositionwhereyouarenolongerexposedtodangerseveragain.

Thecanonliststhesementalstrengthsatfive:conviction,persistence,mindfulness,concentration,anddiscernment.Italsoemphasizestherolethatheedfulnessplaysindevelopingeach,forheedfulnessiswhatenableseachstrengthtocounteractaparticulardelusionthatmakesthemindweakandunskillfulinthefaceofitsfears.Whatthismeansisthatnoneofthesestrengthsaremerebruteforces.Eachcontainsanelementofwisdomanddiscernment,whichgetsmorepenetratingasyouprogressalongthelist.

Ofthefivestrengths,convictionrequiresthelongestexplanation,bothbecauseit’soneofthemostmisunderstoodandunder-appreciatedfactorsintheBuddhistpath,andbecauseofthemultipledelusionsithastocounteract.

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Theconvictionhereisconvictionintheprincipleofkarma:thatthepleasureandpainweexperiencedependsonthequalityoftheintentionsonwhichweact.Thisconvictioncounteractsthedelusionthat“It’snotinmybestinteresttosticktomoralprinciplesinthefaceofdanger,”anditattacksthisdelusioninthreeways.

First,itinsistsonwhatmightbecalledthe“boomerang”or“spittingintothewind”principleofkarmiccauseandeffect.Ifyouactonharmfulintentions,regardlessofthesituation,theharmwillcomebacktoyou.Evenifunskillfulactionssuchaskilling,stealing,orlyingmightbringshort-termadvantages,thesearemorethanoffsetbythelong-termharmtowhichtheyleaveyouexposed.

Conversely,thissameprinciplecanmakeyoubraveindoinggood.Ifyou’reconvincedthattheresultsofskillfulintentionswillhavetoreturntoyouevenifdeathintervenes,youcanmoreeasilymakethesacrificesdemandedbylong-termendeavorsforyourowngoodandthatofothers.Whetherofnotyoulivetoseetheresultsinthislifetime,you’reconvincedthatthegoodyoudoisneverlost.Inthisway,youdevelopthecourageneededtobuildastoreofskillfulactions—generousandvirtuous—thatformsyourfirstlineofdefenseagainstdangersandfear.

Second,convictioninsistsongivingprioritytoyourstateofmindaboveallelse,forthat’swhatshapesyourintentions.Thiscounteractsthecorollarytothefirstdelusion:“Whatifstickingtomyprinciplesmakesiteasierforpeopletodomeharm?”Thisquestionisbasedultimatelyonthedelusionthatlifeisourmostpreciouspossession.Ifthatweretrue,itwouldbeaprettymiserablepossession,foritheadsinexorablytodeath,withholdoversinpain,aging,andillnessalongtheway.Convictionviewsourlifeaspreciousonlytotheextentthatit’susedtodevelopthemind,forthemind—whendeveloped—issomethingthatnoone,notevendeath,canharm.“Qualityoflife”ismeasuredbythequalityandintegrityoftheintentionsonwhichweact,justas“qualitytime”istimedevotedtothepractice.Or,intheBuddha’swords:

Betterthanahundredyearslivedwithoutvirtue,uncentered,is

onedaylivedbyavirtuouspersonabsorbedinjhāna.—Dhp110

Third,convictioninsiststhattheneedforintegrityisunconditional.Eventhoughotherpeoplemaythrowawaytheirmostvaluablepossession—theirintegrity—it’snoexcuseforustothrowawayours.Theprincipleofkarmaisn’tatrafficordinanceineffectonlyoncertainhoursofthedayorcertaindaysofthe

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week.It’salawoperatingaroundtheclock,aroundthecyclesofthecosmos.Somepeoplehavearguedthat,becausetheBuddharecognizedtheprincipleof

conditionality,hewouldhavenoproblemwiththeideathatourvirtuesshoulddependonconditionsaswell.Thisisamisunderstandingoftheprinciple.Tobeginwith,conditionalitydoesn’tsimplymeanthateverythingischangeableandcontingent.It’slikethetheoryofrelativity.Relativitydoesn’tmeanthatallthingsarerelative.Itsimplyreplacesmassandtime—whichlongwereconsideredconstants—withanother,unexpectedconstant:thespeedoflight.Massandtimemayberelativetoaparticularinertialframe,astheframerelatestothespeedoflight,butthelawsofphysicsareconstantforallinertialframes,regardlessofspeed.Thespeedoflightisalwaysthesame.

Inthesameway,conditionalitymeansthattherearecertainunchangingpatternstocontingencyandchange—oneofthosepatternsbeingthatunskillfulintentions,basedoncravinganddelusion,invariablyleadtounpleasantresults.

Ifwelearntoacceptthispattern,ratherthanourfeelingsandopinions,asabsolute,itrequiresustobecomemoreingeniousindealingwithdanger.Insteadoffollowingourunskillfulknee-jerkreactions,welearntothinkoutsidetheboxtofindresponsesthatbestpreventharmofanykind.Thisgivesouractionsaddedprecisionandgrace.

Atthesametime,wehavetonotethattheBuddhadidn’tteachconditionalitysimplytoencourageacceptancefortheinevitabilityofchange.Hetaughtittoshowhowthepatternsunderlyingchangecanbemasteredtocreateanopeningthatleadsbeyondconditionalityandchange.Ifwewanttoreachtheunconditioned—thetruestsecurity—ourintegrityhastobeunconditional,agiftoftemporalsecuritynotonlytothosewhotreatuswell,buttoeveryone,withoutexception.Asthetextssay,whenyouabstainabsolutelyfromdoingharm,yougiveagreatgift—freedomfromdangertolimitlessbeings—andyouyourselffindashareinthatlimitlessfreedomaswell.

Convictionandintegrityofthissortmakegreatdemandsonus.Untilwegainourfirsttasteoftheunconditioned,theycaneasilybeshaken.Thisiswhytheyhavetobeaugmentedwithothermentalstrengths.Thethreemiddlestrengths—persistence,mindfulness,andconcentration—actinconcert.Persistence,intheformofrighteffort,counteractsthedelusionthatwe’renomatchforourfears,thatoncetheyarisewehavetogiveintothem.Righteffortgivesuspracticeineliminatingmilderunskillfulqualitiesanddevelopingskillfulonesintheirplace,sothatwhenstrongerunskillfulqualitiesarise,wecanuseourskillfulqualitiesasalliesinfendingthemoff.Thestrengthofmindfulnessassiststhisprocessintwoways.(1)Itremindsusofthedangerofgivingintofear.(2)Itteachesustofocusourattention,notontheobjectofourfear,butonthefearinandofitselfasamentalevent,somethingwecanwatchfromtheoutsideratherjumpinginand

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goingalongforaride.Thestrengthofconcentration,inprovidingthemindwithastillcenterofwellbeing,putsusinasolidpositionwherewedon’tfeelcompelledtoidentifywithfearsastheycome,andwherethecomingsandgoingsofinternalandexternaldangersarelessandlessthreateningtothemind.

Eventhen,though,themindcan’treachultimatesecurityuntilituprootsthecausesofthesecomingsandgoings,whichiswhythefirstfourstrengthsrequirethestrengthofdiscernmenttomakethemfullysecure.Discernmentiswhatseesthatthesecomingsandgoingsareultimatelyrootedinoursenseof“I”and“mine,”andthat“I”and“mine”arenotbuiltintoexperience.TheycomefromtherepeatedprocessesofI-makingandmy-making,inwhichweimposethesenotionsonexperienceandidentifywiththingssubjecttoaging,illness,anddeath.Furthermore,discernmentseesthroughourinnertraitorsandweaknesses:thecravingsthatwantustomakean“I”and“mine”;thedelusionsthatmakeusbelieveinthemoncethey’remade.Itrealizesthatthislevelofdelusionispreciselythefactorthatmakesaging,illness,anddeathdangeroustobeginwith.Ifwedidn’tidentifywiththingsthatage,growill,anddie,theiraging,illness,anddeathwouldn’tthreatenthemind.Totallyunthreatened,themindwouldhavenoreasontodoanythingunskillfuleveragain.

Whenthislevelofdiscernmentmaturesandbearsthefruitofrelease,ourgreatestinsecurity—ourinabilitytotrustourselves—hasbeeneliminated.Freedfromtheattachmentsof“I”and“mine,”wefindthatthecomponentfactorsoffear—bothskillfulandunskillful—aregone.There’snoremainingconfusionoraversion;themindisnolongerweakinthefaceofdanger;andsothere’snothingfromwhichweneedtoescape.

Thisiswherethequestionsraisedbytheshaman’sremarksfindtheiranswers.Wefearbecausewebelievein“we.”Webelievein“we”becauseofthedelusioninourfear.Paradoxically,though,ifweloveourselvesenoughtofearthesufferingthatcomesfromunskillfulactionsandattachments,andlearntobelieveinthewayout,we’lldevelopthestrengthsthatallowustocutthroughourcravings,delusions,andattachments.Thatway,theentirecomplex—the“we,”thefear,thebeliefs,theattachments—dissolvesaway.Thefreedomremainingistheonlytruesecuritythereis.

Thisteachingmayoffercoldcomforttoanyonewhowantstheimpossible:securityforhisorherattachments.Butintradingawaythehopeforanimpossiblesecurity,yougaintherealityofahappinesstotallyindependentandcondition-free.Onceyou’vemadethistrade,youknowthatthepay-offismorethanworththeprice.AsoneoftheBuddha’sstudentsoncereported,“Before,whenIwasahouseholder,maintainingtheblissofkingship,Ihadguardspostedwithinandwithouttheroyalapartments,withinandwithoutthecity,withinandwithoutthecountryside.ButeventhoughIwasthusguarded,thusprotected,I

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dwelledinfear—agitated,distrustful,andafraid.Butnow,ongoingalonetoaforest,tothefootofatree,ortoanemptydwelling,Idwellwithoutfear,unagitated,confident,andunafraid—unconcerned,unruffled,mywantssatisfied,withmymindlikeawilddeer.ThisisthemeaningIhaveinmindthatIrepeatedlyexclaim,‘Whatbliss!Whatbliss!’”

Hisdeerisobviouslynotthedeerintheheadlights.It’sadeersafeinthewilderness,atitseasewhereveritgoes.Whatmakesitmorethanadeeristhat,freefromattachment,it’scalleda“consciousnesswithoutsurface.”Lightgoesrightthroughit.Thehuntercan’tshootit,foritcan’tbeseen.

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Saṁsāra

Saṁsāraliterallymeans“wandering-on.”ManypeoplethinkofitastheBuddhistnamefortheplacewherewecurrentlylive—theplaceweleavewhenwegotonibbāna.ButintheearlyBuddhisttexts,it’stheanswer,nottothequestion,“Wherearewe?”buttothequestion,“Whatarewedoing?”Insteadofaplace,it’saprocess:thetendencytokeepcreatingworldsandthenmovingintothem.Asoneworldfallsapart,youcreateanotheroneandgothere.Atthesametime,youbumpintootherpeoplewhoarecreatingtheirownworlds,too.

Theplayandcreativityintheprocesscansometimesbeenjoyable.Infact,itwouldbeperfectlyinnocuousifitdidn’tentailsomuchsuffering.Theworldswecreatekeepcavinginandkillingus.Movingintoanewworldrequireseffort:notonlythepainsandrisksoftakingbirth,butalsothehardknocks—mentalandphysical—thatcomefromgoingthroughchildhoodintoadulthood,overandoveragain.TheBuddhaonceaskedhismonks,“Whichdoyouthinkisgreater:thewaterintheoceansorthetearsyou’veshedwhilewanderingon?”Hisanswer:thetears.Thinkofthatthenexttimeyougazeattheoceanorplayinitswaves.

Inadditiontocreatingsufferingforourselves,theworldswecreatefeedofftheworldsofothers,justastheirsfeedoffours.Insomecasesthefeedingmaybemutuallyenjoyableandbeneficial,buteventhenthearrangementhastocometoanend.Moretypically,itcausesharmtoatleastonesideoftherelationship,oftentoboth.Whenyouthinkofallthesufferingthatgoesintokeepingjustonepersonclothed,fed,sheltered,andhealthy—thesufferingbothforthosewhohavetopayfortheserequisites,aswellasthosewhohavetolaborordieintheirproduction—youseehowexploitativeeventhemostrudimentaryprocessofworld-buildingcanbe.

ThisiswhytheBuddhatriedtofindthewaytostopsaṁsāra-ing.Oncehehadfoundit,heencouragedotherstofollowit,too.Becausesaṁsāra-ingissomethingthateachofusdoes,eachofushastostopithimorherselfalone.Ifsaṁsārawereaplace,itmightseemselfishforonepersontolookforanescape,leavingothersbehind.Butwhenyourealizethatit’saprocess,there’snothingselfishaboutstoppingitatall.It’slikegivingupanaddictionoranabusivehabit.Whenyoulearntheskillsneededtostopcreatingyourownworldsofsuffering,youcansharethoseskillswithotherssothattheycanstopcreatingtheirs.Atthesametime,you’llneverhavetofeedofftheworldsofothers,sotothatextent

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you’relighteningtheirloadaswell.It’struethattheBuddhalikenedthepracticeforstoppingsaṁsāratotheactof

goingfromoneplacetoanother:fromthissideofarivertothefurthershore.Butthepassageswherehemakesthiscomparisonoftenendwithaparadox:thefurthershorehasno“here,”no“there,”no“inbetween.”Fromthatperspective,it’sobviousthatsaṁsāra’sparametersofspaceandtimewerenotthepre-existingcontextinwhichwewandered.Theyweretheresultofourwandering.

Forsomeoneaddictedtoworld-building,thelackoffamiliarparameterssoundsunsettling.Butifyou’retiredofcreatingincessant,unnecessarysuffering,youmightwanttogiveitatry.Afterall,youcouldalwaysresumebuildingifthelackof“here”or“there”turnedouttobedull.Butofthosewhohavelearnedhowtobreakthehabit,noonehaseverfelttemptedtosaṁsāraagain.

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SaṁsāraDividedbyZero

ThegoalofBuddhistpractice,nibbāna,issaidtobetotallyuncaused,andrightthereisaparadox.Ifthegoalisuncaused,howcanapathofpractice—whichiscausalbynature—bringitabout?Thisisanancientquestion.TheMilinda-pañha,asetofdialoguescomposednearthestartofthecommonera,reportsanexchangewhereKingMilindachallengesamonk,Nagasena,withpreciselythisquestion.Nagasenareplieswithananalogy.Thepathofpracticedoesn’tcausenibbāna,hesays.Itsimplytakesyouthere,justasaroadtoamountaindoesn’tcausethemountaintocomeintobeing,butsimplyleadsyoutowhereitis.

Nagasena’sreply,thoughapt,didn’treallysettletheissuewithintheBuddhisttradition.Overtheyearsmanyschoolsofmeditationhavetaughtthatmentalfabricationssimplygetinthewayofagoalthat’suncausedandunfabricated.Onlybydoingnothingatallandthusnotfabricatinganythinginthemind,theysay,willtheunfabricatedshineforth.

Thisviewisbasedonaverysimplisticunderstandingoffabricatedreality,seeingcausalityaslinearandtotallypredictable:XcausesYwhichcausesZandsoon,withnoeffectsturningaroundtoconditiontheircauses,andnopossiblewayofusingcausalitytoescapefromthecausalnetwork.However,oneofthemanythingstheBuddhadiscoveredinthecourseofhisawakeningwasthatcausalityisnotlinear.Theexperienceofthepresentisshapedbothbyactionsinthepresentandbyactionsinthepast.Actionsinthepresentshapeboththepresentandthefuture.Theresultsofpastandpresentactionscontinuallyinteract.Thusthereisalwaysroomfornewinputintothesystem,whichgivesscopeforfreewill.Thereisalsoroomforthemanyfeedbackloopsthatmakeexperiencesothoroughlycomplex,andthataresointriguinglydescribedinchaostheory.Realitydoesn’tresembleasimplelineorcircle.It’smorelikethebizarretrajectoriesofastrangeattractororaMandelbrotset.

BecausetherearemanysimilaritiesbetweenchaostheoryandBuddhistexplanationsofcausality,itseemslegitimatetoexplorethosesimilaritiestoseewhatlightchaostheorycanthrowontheissueofhowacausalpathofpracticecanleadtoanuncausedgoal.ThisisnottoequateBuddhismwithchaostheory,ortoengageinpseudo-science.It’ssimplyasearchforsimilestoclearupanapparentconflictintheBuddha’steaching.

Anditsohappensthatoneofthediscoveriesofnon-linearmath—thebasisfor

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chaostheory—throwslightonjustthisissue.Inthe19thcentury,theFrenchmathematicianJules-HenriPoincarédiscoveredthatinanycomplexphysicalsystemtherearepointshecalledresonances.Iftheforcesgoverningthesystemaredescribedasmathematicalequations,theresonancesarethepointswheretheequationsintersectinsuchawaythatoneofthemembersisdividedbyzero.This,ofcourse,producesanundefinedresult,whichmeansthatifanobjectwithinthesystemstrayedintoaresonancepoint,itwouldnolongerbedefinedbythecausalnetworkdeterminingthesystem.Itwouldbesetfree.

Inactualpractice,it’sveryrareforanobjecttohitaresonancepoint.Theequationsdescribingthepointsimmediatelyaroundaresonancetendtodeflectanyincomingobjectfromenteringtheresonanceunlesstheobjectisonaprecisepathtotheresonance’sveryheart.Still,itdoesn’ttaketoomuchcomplexitytocreateresonances—Poincarédiscoveredthemwhilecalculatingthegravitationalinteractionsamongthreebodies:theearth,thesun,andthemoon.Themorecomplexthesystem,thegreaterthenumberofresonances,andthegreaterthelikelihoodthatobjectswillstrayintothem.It’snowonderthatmeteors,onalargescale,andelectronsonasmallscale,occasionallywanderrightintoaresonanceinagravitationalorelectronicfield,andthustothefreedomoftotalunpredictability.Thisiswhymeteorssometimesleavethesolarsystem,andwhyyourcomputeroccasionallyfreezesfornoapparentreason.It’salsowhystrangethingscouldhappensomedaytothebeatingofyourheart.

IfweweretoapplythisanalogytotheBuddhistpath,thesystemwe’reinissaṁsāra,theroundofrebirth.Itsresonanceswouldbewhatthetextscalled“non-fashioning,”theopeningtotheuncaused:nibbāna.Thewallofresistantforcesaroundtheresonanceswouldcorrespondtopain,stress,andattachment.Toallowyourselftoberepelledbystressordeflectedbyattachment,nomatterhowsubtle,wouldbelikeapproachingaresonancebutthenveeringofftoanotherpartofthesystem.Buttofocusdirectlyonanalyzingstressandattachment,anddeconstructingtheircauses,wouldbelikegettingonanundeflectedtrajectoryrightintotheresonanceandfindingtotal,undefinedfreedom.

This,ofcourse,issimplyananalogy.Butit’safruitfuloneforshowingthatthereisnothingillogicalinactivelymasteringtheprocessesofmentalfabricationandcausalityforthesakeofgoingbeyondfabrication,beyondcauseandeffect.Atthesametime,itgivesahintastowhyapathoftotalinactionwouldnotleadtotheunfabricated.Ifyousimplysitstillwithinthesystemofcausality,you’llnevergetneartheresonanceswheretruenon-fashioninglies.You’llkeepfloatingaroundinsaṁsāra.Butifyoutakeaimatstressandclinging,andworktotakethemapart,you’llbeabletobreakthroughtothepointwherethepresentmomentgetsdividedbyzerointhemind.

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TheAgendasofMindfulness

ThePālitermformeditationisbhāvanā:development.It’sashorthandwordforthedevelopmentofskillfulqualitiesinthemind.Bhāvanāisatypeofkarma—theintentionalactivityleadingultimatelyleadingtotheendofkarma—butkarmanonetheless.ThispointisunderlinedbyanotherPālitermformeditation:kammaṭṭhāna,theworkathand;andbyaThaiidiomformeditation:“tomakeaneffort.”Thesetermsareworthkeepinginmind,tocounterbalancethecommonassumptionthatmeditationisanexerciseininactionorinpassive,all-encompassingacceptance.Actually,asdescribedinthePālitexts,meditationisaverypro-activeprocess.Ithasanagendaandworksactivelytobringitabout.ThiscanbeseeninthePālidescriptionofhowofrightmindfulnessisfosteredthroughsatipaṭṭhāna.

Satipaṭṭhānaisoftentranslatedas“foundationofmindfulness,”whichgivestheimpressionthatitreferstoanobjectofmeditation.Thisimpressionisreinforcedwhenyouseethefoursatipaṭṭhānaslistedasbody,feelings,mind,andmentalqualities.Butifyoulookatthetexts,youfindthattheyteachsatipaṭṭhānaasaprocess,awayofestablishing(upatthāna)mindfulness(sati):hencethecompoundterm.Whenthetextsdefinethecompound,theygive,notalistofobjects,butfourformulasdescribinganactivity.

Here’sthefirstformula:

Ameditatorremainsfocusedonthebodyinandofitself—ardent,alert,andmindful—puttingasidegreedanddistresswithreferencetotheworld.

Eachofthetermsinthisformulaisimportant.“Remainingfocused”canalsobetranslatedas“keepingtrack.”Thisreferstotheelementofconcentrationinthepractice,asyouholdtooneparticularthemeorframeofreferenceamidtheconflictingcurrentsofexperience.“Ardent”referstotheeffortyouputintothepractice,tryingtoabandonunskillfulstatesofmindanddevelopskillfulonesintheirstead,allthewhiletryingtodiscernthedifferencebetweenthetwo.“Alert”meansbeingclearlyawareofwhat’shappeninginthepresent.“Mindful”meansbeingabletorememberorrecollect.Sometimesmindfulnessistranslatedasnon-reactiveawareness,freefromagendas,simplypresentwithwhateverarises,buttheformulaforsatipaṭṭhānadoesn’tsupportthattranslation.Non-reactive

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awarenessisactuallypartofequanimity,oneofmanyqualitiesfosteredinthecourseofsatipaṭṭhāna,buttheardencyinvolvedinsatipaṭṭhānadefinitelyhasanagenda,atasktobedone,whiletheroleofmindfulnessistokeepyourtaskinmind.

Thetaskhereistwofold:stayingfocusedonyourframeofreference,andputtingasideanygreedanddistressthatwouldresultfromshiftingyourframeofreferencebacktotheworld.Thisisthemeaningof“thebodyinandofitself.”Inotherwords,youtrytostaywiththeexperienceofthebodyasit’simmediatelyfelt,withoutreferringittothenarrativesandviewsthatmakeupyoursenseoftheworld.Youstayawayfromstoriesofhowyouhaverelatedtoyourbodyinthepastandhowyouhopetorelatetoitinthefuture.Youdropanyconcernforhowyourbodyfitsintotheworldintermsofitsbeauty,agility,orstrength.Yousimplytuneintothebodyonitsownterms—thedirectexperienceofitsbreathing,itsmovements,itspostures,itselementaryproperties,anditsinevitabledecay.Inthiswayyoulearnhowtostripawayyourassumptionsaboutwhatdoesordoesn’tliebehindyourexperienceofthebody,andgainpracticeinreferringeverythingtotheexperienceitself.

Thesameapproachappliestotheremainingtypesofsatipaṭṭhāna:focusingonfeelings,onmindstates,andonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves.Atfirstglance,thesemaylooklikenewanddifferentmeditationexercises,buttheBuddhamakesclearthattheycanallcenteronasinglepractice:keepingthebreathinmind.Whenthemindiswiththebreath,allfourframesofreferencearerightthere.Thedifferenceliessimplyinthesubtletyofyourfocus.Sowhenyou’vedevelopedyourskillswiththefirst,mostblatanttypeofsatipaṭṭhāna,youdon’thavetomovefartotakeupthemoresubtleones.Simplystaywiththebreathandshiftyourfocustothefeelingsandmindstatesthatarisefrombeingmindfulofthebreath,andthementalqualitiesthateithergetinthewayofyourfocusorstrengthenit.Onceyou’vechosenyourframeofreference,youtreatitthesamewayyou’vebeentreatingthebody:takingitasyourframeofreferenceinandofitself,withoutreferringittostoriesaboutyourselforviewsabouttheworld.Youseparatefeelings—ofpleasure,pain,andneither-pleasure-nor-pain—fromthestoriesyounormallycreatearoundthem.Youseparatestatesofgreed,anger,anddelusionfromtheirfocalpointsintheworld.Inthiswayyoucanseethemforwhattheyare.

Still,though,youhaveanagenda,basedonthedesireforAwakening—adesirethattheBuddhaclassed,notasacauseofsuffering,butaspartofthepathleadingtoitsend.Thisbecomesclearestinthesatipaṭṭhānafocusedonmentalqualitiesinandofthemselves.Youacquaintyourselfwiththeunskillfulqualitiesthatobstructconcentration—suchassensualdesire,illwill,andrestlessness—notsimplytoexperiencethem,butalsotounderstandthemsothatyoucancutthem

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away.Similarly,youacquaintyourselfwiththeskillfulqualitiesthatfosterdiscernmentsothatyoucandevelopthemallthewaytorelease.

ThetextscalltheseskillfulqualitiesthesevenfactorsofAwakeningandshowthatsatipaṭṭhānapracticeisaimedatdevelopingthemallinorder.Thefirstfactorismindfulness.Thesecondiscalled“analysisofqualities”:theabilitytodistinguishskillfulfromunskillfulqualitiesinthemind,seeingwhatcanbeacceptedandwhatneedstobechanged.Thethirdfactorispersistence—persistenceinabandoningunskillfulqualitiesandfosteringskillfulonesintheirplace.Thetextsdescribeawidevarietyofmethodstouseinthisendeavor,buttheyallcomedowntotwosorts.Insomecases,anunskillfulqualitywilldisappearsimplywhenyouwatchitsteadily.Inothercases,youhavetomakeaconcertedeffort,activelydoingwhatyoucantocounteractanunskillfulqualityandreplaceitwithamoreskillfulone.

Asskillfulqualitiestakechargewithinyou,youseethatwhileskillfulthinkingleadstonoharmfulactions,longboutsofitcantirethemind.Soyoubringyourthoughtstostillness,whichdevelopsthreemoreofthefactorsofAwakening:rapture,serenity,andconcentration.Theseprovidethemindwithafoundationofwell-being.

Thefinalfactorisequanimity,anditsplaceinthelistissignificant.Itsnon-reactivityisfullyappropriateonlywhenthemoreactivefactorshavedonewhattheycan.Thisistrueofallthelistsinwhichequanimityisincluded.It’sneverlistedonitsown,assufficientforAwakening;anditalwayscomeslast,afterthepro-activefactorsinthelist.Thisdoesn’tmeanthatitsupplantsthem,simplythatjoinsintheirinteraction.Insteadofreplacingthem,itcounterbalancesthem,enablingyoutostepbackandseesubtlelevelsofstressandcravingthatthemorepro-activefactorsmayhaveobscured.Thenitmakesroomforthepro-activefactorstoactonthenewlydiscoveredlevels.Onlywhenalllevelsofstressandcravingaregoneistheworkofboththepro-activeandnon-reactivesidesofmeditationdone.That’swhenthemindcanbetrulyagenda-free.

It’slikelearningtoplaythepiano.Asyougetmorepro-activeinplayingproficiently,youalsobecomesensitiveinlisteningnon-reactively,todiscernevermoresubtlelevelsinthemusic.Thisallowsyoutoplayevenmoreskillfully.Inthesameway,asyougetmoreskilledinestablishingmindfulnessonyourchosenframeofreference,yougaingreatersensitivityinpeelingawayevermoresubtlelayersofthepresentmomentuntilnothingisleftstandinginthewayoftotalrelease.

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De-perception

Meditationteachesyouthepowerofyourperceptions.Youcometoseehowthelabelsyouapplytothings,theimageswithwhichyouvisualizethings,haveahugeinfluenceoverwhatyousee,howtheycanweighyoudownwithsufferingandstress.Asthemeditationdevelops,though,itgivesyouthetoolsyouneedtogainfreedomfromthatinfluence.

Inthebeginning,whenyoufirstnoticethepowerofperception,youcaneasilyfeeloverwhelmedbyhowpervasiveitis.Supposeyou’refocusingonthebreath.Therecomesapointwhenyoubegintowonderwhetheryou’refocusingonthebreathitselforonyourideaofthebreath.Oncethisquestionarises,thenormalreactionistotrytogetaroundtheideatotherawsensationbehindit.Butifyou’rereallysensitiveasyoudothis,you’llnoticethatyou’resimplyreplacingonecaricatureofthebreathwithanother,moresubtleone.Eventherawsensationofbreathingisshapedbyhowyouconceptualizerawsensation.Nomatterhowhardyoutrytopindownanunfilteredexperienceofbreathing,youstillfinditshapedbyyourideaofwhatbreathingactuallyis.Themoreyoupursuetherealityofthebreath,themoreitrecedeslikeamirage.

Thetrickhereistoturnthisfacttoyouradvantage.Afterall,you’renotmeditatingtogettothebreath.You’remeditatingtounderstandtheprocessesleadingtosufferingsothatyoucanputanendtothem.Thewayyourrelatetoyourperceptionsispartoftheseprocesses,sothat’swhatyouwanttosee.Youhavetotreatyourexperienceofthebreath,notasanendinitself,butasatoolforunderstandingtheroleofperceptionincreatingsufferingandstress.

Youdothisbyde-perception:questioningyourassumptionsaboutbreathing,deliberatelychangingthoseassumptions,andobservingwhathappensasaresult.Now,withoutthepropercontext,de-perceptioncouldeasilywanderoffintorandomabstractions.Soyoutakethepracticeofconcentrationasyourcontext,providingde-perceptionbothwithageneraldirectionandwithparticulartasksthatforceittobumpupagainsttheoperativeassumptionsthatactuallyshapeyourexperienceofthepresent.

Thegeneraldirectionliesintryingtobringthemindtodeeperandmorelong-lastinglevelsofstillnesssoastoeliminatemoreandmoresubtlelevelsofstress.You’renottryingtoprovewhichperceptionsofthebreathdepictitmosttruly,butsimplywhichonesworkbestinwhichsituationsforeliminatingstress.The

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objectivityyou’relookingforisnottheobjectivityofthebreath,buttheobjectivityofcauseandeffect.

Theparticulartasksthatteachyoutheselessonsbeginwiththetaskoftryingtogetthemindtostaycomfortablyfocusedforlongperiodsoftimeonthebreath—andrightthereyourunintotwooperativeassumptions:Whatdoesitmeantobreathe?Whatdoesitmeantobefocused?

It’scommontothinkofthebreathastheairpassinginandoutthroughthenose,andthiscanbeausefulperceptiontostartwith.Usewhateverblatantsensationsyouassociatewiththatperceptionasameansofestablishingmindfulness,developingalertness,andgettingthemindtogrowstill.Butasyourattentiongetsmorerefined,youmayfindthatlevelofbreathbecomingtoofainttodetect.Sotrythinkingofthebreathinsteadastheenergyflowinthebody,asafullbodyprocess.

Thenmakethatexperienceascomfortableaspossible.Ifyoufeelanyblockageorobstructioninthebreathing,seewhatyoucandotodissolvethosefeelings.Areyoudoinganythingtocreatethem?Ifyoucancatchyourselfcreatingthem,thenit’seasytoletthemdissolve.Andwhatwouldmakeyoucreatethemasidefromyourpreconceivednotionsofhowthemechanicsofbreathinghavetowork?Soquestionthosenotions:Wheredoesthebreathcomeintothebody?Doesitcomeinonlythroughthenoseandmouth?Doesthebodyhavetopullthebreathin?Ifso,whichsensationsdothepulling?Whichsensationsgetpulled?Wheredoesthepullingbegin?Andwhereisthebreathpulledfrom?Whichpartshavethebreath,andwhichonesdon’t?Whenyoufeelasensationofblockage,whichsideofthesensationareyouon?

Thesequestionsmaysoundstrange,butmanytimesyourpre-verbalassumptionsaboutthebodyarestrangeaswell.Onlywhenyouconfrontthemhead-onwithstrangequestionscanyoubringthemtolight.Andonlywhenyouseethemclearlycanyoureplacethemwithalternativeconcepts.

Soonceyoucatchyourselfbreathinguncomfortablyinlinewithaparticularassumption,turnitaroundtoseewhatsensationsthenewassumptionhighlights.Trystayingwiththosesensationsaslongasyoucan,totestthem.If,comparedtoyourearliersensationsassociatedwiththebreath,they’reeasiertostaywith,iftheyprovideamoresolidandspaciousgroundingforconcentration,theassumptionthatdrewthemtoyourattentionisausefulnewtoolinyourmeditation.Ifthenewsensationsaren’thelpfulinthatway,youcanthrowthenewtoolaside.

Forexample,ifyouhaveasenseofbeingononesideofablockage,trythinkingofbeingontheotherside.Trybeingonboth.Thinkofthebreathascomingintothebody,notthroughthenoseormouth,butthroughthemiddleof

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thechest,thebackoftheneck,everyporeofyourskin,anyspotthathelpsreducethefeltneedtopushandpull.

Orstartquestioningtheneedtopushandpullatall.Doyoufeelthatyourimmediateexperienceofthebodyisofthesolidparts,andthattheyhavetomanagethemechanicsofbreathing,whichissecondary?Whathappensifyouconceiveyourimmediateexperienceofthebodyinadifferentway,asafieldofprimarybreathenergy,withthesoliditysimplyalabelattachedtocertainaspectsofthebreath?Whateveryouexperienceasaprimarybodysensation,thinkofitasalreadybreath,withoutyourhavingtodoanythingmoretoit.Howdoesthataffectthelevelofstressandstraininthebreathing?

Andwhatabouttheactofstayingfocused?Howdoyouconceivethat?Isitbehindthebreath?Surroundedbybreath?Towhatextentdoesyourmentalpictureoffocusinghelporhindertheeaseandsolidityofyourconcentration?Forinstance,youmayfindthatyouthinkofthemindasbeinginonepartofthebodyandnotinothers.Whatdoyoudowhenyoufocusattentiononanotherpart?Doesthemindleaveitshomebase—say,inthehead—togothere,ordoestheotherparthavetobebroughtintothehead?Whatkindoftensiondoesthiscreate?Whathappensifyouthinkofawarenessalreadybeinginthatotherpart?Whathappenswhenyouturnthingsaroundentirely:insteadofthemind’sbeinginthebody,seewhatstressiseliminatedwhenyouthinkofthebodyassurroundedbyapre-existingfieldofawareness.

Whenyouaskquestionslikethisandgainfavorableresults,themindcansettledownintodeeperanddeeperlevelsofsolidity.Youeliminateunnecessarytensionandstressinyourfocus,findingwaysoffeelingmoreandmoreathome,atease,intheexperienceofthepresent.

Oncethemindissettleddown,giveittimetostaythere.Don’tbeintoogreatahurrytomoveon.Herethequestionsare,“Whichpartsoftheprocesswerenecessarytofocusin?Whichcannowbeletgo?Whichdoyouhavetoholdontoinordertomaintainthisfocus?”Tuningintotherightlevelofawarenessisoneprocess;stayingthereisanother.Whenyoulearnhowtomaintainyoursenseofstillness,trytokeepitgoinginallsituations.Whatdoyoudiscovergetsintheway?Isityourownresistancetodisturbances?Canyoumakeyourstillnesssoporousthatdisturbancescangothroughwithoutrunningintoanything,withoutknockingyourcenteroffbalance?

Asyougetmoreandmoreabsorbedinexploringtheseissues,concentrationbecomeslessabattleagainstdisturbanceandmoreanopportunityforinnerexploration.Andwithouteventhinkingaboutthem,you’redevelopingthefourbasesofsuccess:thedesiretounderstandthings,thepersistencethatkeepsafteryourexploration,thecloseattentionyou’repayingtocauseandeffect,andtheingenuityyou’reputtingintoframingthequestionsyouask.Allthesequalities

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contributetoconcentration,helpitgetsettled,getsolid,getclear.Atthesametime,theyfosterdiscernment.TheBuddhaoncesaidthatthetest

foraperson’sdiscernmentishowheorsheframesaquestionandtriestoanswerit.Thustofosterdiscernment,youcan’tsimplysticktopre-setdirectionsinyourmeditation.Youhavetogiveyourselfpracticeinframingquestionsandtestingthekarmaofthosequestionsbylookingfortheirresults.

Ultimately,whenyoureachaperceptionofthebreaththatallowsthesensationsofin-and-outbreathingtogrowstill,youcanstartquestioningmoresubtleperceptionsofthebody.It’sliketuningintoaradiostation.Ifyourreceiverisn’tpreciselytunedtothefrequencyofthesignal,thestaticinterfereswiththesubtletiesofwhateverisbeingtransmitted.Butwhenyou’repreciselytuned,everynuancecomesthrough.Thesamewithyoursensationofthebody:whenthemovementsofthebreathgrowstill,themoresubtlenuancesofhowperceptioninteractswithphysicalsensationcometothefore.Thebodyseemslikeamistofatomicsensations,andyoucanbegintoseehowyourperceptionsinteractwiththatmist.Towhatextentistheshapeofthebodyinherentinthemist?Towhatextentisitintentional—somethingadded?Whathappenswhenyoudroptheintentiontocreatethatshape?Canyoufocusonthespacebetweenthedropletsinthemist?Whathappensthen?Canyoustaythere?Whathappenswhenyoudroptheperceptionofspaceandfocusontheknowing?Canyoustaythere?Whathappenswhenyoudroptheonenessoftheknowing?Canyoustaythere?Whathappenswhenyoutrytostoplabelinganythingatall?

Asyousettleintothesemoreformlessstates,it’simportantthatyounotlosesightofyourpurposeintuningintothem.You’reheretounderstandsuffering,nottoover-interpretwhatyouexperience.Say,forinstance,thatyousettleintoanenvelopingsenseofspaceorconsciousness.Fromthere,it’seasytoassumethatyou’vereachedtheprimordialawareness,thegroundofbeing,fromwhichallthingsemerge,towhichtheyallreturn,andwhichisessentiallyuntouchedbythewholeprocessofemergingandreturning.YoumighttakedescriptionsoftheUnconditionedandapplythemtowhatyou’reexperiencing.Ifyou’reabidinginastateofneitherperceptionnornon-perception,it’seasytoseeitasanon-abiding,devoidofdistinctionsbetweenperceiverandperceived,formentalactivityissoattenuatedastobevirtuallyimperceptible.Struckwiththeapparenteffortlessofthestate,youmayfeelthatyou’vegonebeyondpassion,aversion,anddelusionsimplybyregardingthemasunreal.Ifyoulatchontoanassumptionlikethis,youcaneasilythinkthatyou’vereachedtheendofthepathbeforeyourworkisreallydone.

Youronlyprotectionhereistoregardtheseassumptionsasformsofperception,andtodismantlethemaswell.Andhereiswherethefournobletruthsprovetheirworth,astoolsfordismantlinganyassumptionbydetecting

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thestressthataccompaniesit.Askifthere’sstillsomesubtlestressintheconcentrationthathasbecomeyourdwellingplace.Whatgoesalongwiththatstress?Whatvagrantmovementsinthemindarecreatingit?Whatpersistentmovementsinthemindarecreatingit?Youhavetowatchforboth.

Inthiswayyoucomefacetofacewiththeperceptionsthatkeepeventhemostsubtlestatesofconcentrationgoing.Andyouseethateventheyarestressful.Ifyoureplacethemwithotherperceptions,though,you’llsimplyexchangeonetypeofstressforanother.It’sasifyourascendinglevelsofconcentrationhavebroughtyoutothetopofaflagpole.Youlookdownandseeaging,illness,anddeathcomingupthepole,inpursuit.You’veexhaustedalltheoptionsthatperceptioncanoffer,sowhatareyougoingtodo?Youcan’tjuststaywhereyouare.Youronlyoptionistoreleaseyourgrip.Andifyou’relettinggofully,youletgoofgravity,too.

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TheWeightofMountains

Isamountainheavy?Itmaybeheavyinandofitself,butaslongaswedon’ttrytoliftitup,itwon’t

beheavyforus.Thisisametaphorthatoneofmyteachers,AjaanSuwat,oftenusedwhen

explaininghowtostopsufferingfromtheproblemsoflife.Youdon’tdenytheirexistence—themountainsareheavy—andyoudon’trunawayfromthem.Ashewouldfurtherexplain,youdealwithproblemswhereyouhavetoandsolvethemwhereyoucan.Yousimplylearnhownottocarrythemaround.That’swheretheartofthepracticelies:inlivingwithrealproblemswithoutmakingtheirrealityburdentheheart.

Asabeginningstepinmasteringthatart,it’susefultolookatthesourceforAjaanSuwat’smetaphor—theBuddha’steachingsondukkha—togetafullerideaofhowfarthemetaphorextends.

DukkhaisawordnotoriouslyhardtotranslateintoEnglish.InthePālicanon,itappliesbothtophysicalandtomentalpainanddis-ease,rangingfromintenseanguishtothesubtlestsenseofbeingburdenedorconfined.ThePālicommentariesexplaindukkhaas“thatwhichishardtobear.”AjaanMahaBoowa,aThaiforestmaster,translatesitas“whateverputsasqueezeontheheart.”AlthoughnosingleEnglishtermcoversallofthesemeanings,theword“stress”—asastrainonbodyormind—seemsascloseasEnglishcangettothePāliterm;“suffering”canbeusedinplaceswhere“stress”seemstoomild.

TheBuddhafocusedhisteachingsontheissueofstressbecausehehadfoundamethodfortranscendingit.Tounderstandthatmethod,wehavetoseewhichpartsofourexperiencearemarkedbystress.Fromhisperspective,experiencefallsintotwobroadcategories:compounded(saṅkhata)—puttogetherfromcausalforcesandprocesses—anduncompounded(asaṅkhata).Allordinaryexperienceiscompounded.Evensuchasimpleactaslookingatafloweriscompounded,inthatitdependsonthephysicalconditionssupportingtheflower’sexistencetogetherwithallthecomplexphysicalandmentalfactorsinvolvedintheactofseeing.Theonlyexperiencethatisn’tcompoundedisextraordinary—nirvana—foritdoesn’tdependoncausalfactorsofanykind.

Stressistotallyabsentfromuncompoundedexperience.Itsrelationtocompoundedexperience,though,ismorecomplex.WhentheBuddhatalked

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aboutdukkhaintermsofthethreecommoncharacteristics—inconstancy,stress,andnot-self—hesaidthatallcompoundedexperiencesareinnatelystressful.Fromthispointofview,evenflower-gazingisstressfuldespitetheobviouspleasureitprovides,foritreliesonafragiletensionamongthecombinedfactorsmakinguptheexperience.

Thusifwewanttogobeyondstresswe’llhavetogobeyondcompoundedexperience.Butthispresentsaproblem:whatwillweusetoreachtheuncompounded?Wecan’tuseuncompoundedexperiencetogetusthere,because—bydefinition—itcan’tplayaroleinanycausalprocess.Itcan’tbeusedasatool.Soweneedawayofusingcompoundedexperiencetotranscenditself.

Tomeetthisneed,theBuddhatalkedaboutdukkhainanothercontext:thefournobletruths.Here,forstrategicpurposes,hedividedcompoundedexperienceintothreetruths—stress,itscause(craving),andthewaytoitscessation(thenobleeightfoldpath).Uncompoundedexperienceheleftastheremainingtruth:thecessationofstress.Indefiningthefirsttruthhesaidthatcompoundedexperienceswerestressfulonlywhenaccompaniedbyclinging.Inthissense,flower-gazingisn’tstressfulunlessweclingtotheexperienceandtrytobaseourhappinessonit.

Soit’sobviousthatinthesetwocontextstheBuddhaisspeakingofdukkhaintwodifferentsenses.AjaanSuwat’smountainmetaphorhelpstoexplainhowtheyarerelated.Theheavinessofthemountainstandsfordukkhaasacommoncharacteristic:thestressinherentinallcompoundedexperiences.Thefactthatthemountainisheavyonlyforthosewhotrytoliftitstandsfordukkhaasanobletruth:thestressthatcomesonlywithclinging—theclingingthatturnsphysicalpainintomentalpain,andturnsaging,illness,anddeathintomentaldistress.

TheBuddhataughtdukkhaasacommoncharacteristictomakeusreflectonthethingsweclingto:aretheyreallyworthholdingonto?Ifnot,whykeepholdingon?Iflifeofferednopleasuresbetterthanthosewealreadygetfromclinging,theBuddha’sinsistenceonthestressinthingslikeflower-gazingmightseemchurlishandnegative.Buthispurposeingettingustoreflectontheflipsideofordinarypleasuresistoopenourheartstosomethingverypositive:thehigherformofhappiness,totallydevoidofsufferingandstress,thatcomesonlywithtotallettinggo.Sohealsotaughtdukkhaasanobletruthinordertofocusourattentiononwheretherealproblemlies:notinthestressfulnessofexperiences,butinourignoranceinthinkingwehavetoclingtothem.Andit’sagoodthing,too,thatthisiswheretheissuelies.Aslongastherearemountains,there’snotmuchwecandoabouttheirinherentweight,butwecanlearntobreakourhabitofliftingthemupandcarryingthemaround.Wecanlearntostopclinging.Thatwillputanendtooursufferings.

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Tounderstandhowtoletgoeffectively,it’shelpfultolookatthePāliwordforclinging—upadāna—forithasasecondmeaningaswell:theactoftakingsustenance,aswhenaplanttakessustenancefromthesoil,orafirefromitsfuel.Thissecondmeaningforupadānaappliestothemindaswell.Whenthemindclingstoanobject,it’sfeedingonthatobject.It’stryingtogainnourishmentfromsensorypleasures,possessions,relationships,recognition,status,whatever,tomakeupforthegnawingsenseofemptinessitfeelsinside.Unfortunately,thismentalnourishmentistemporaryatbest,sowekeephungeringformore.Yetnomatterhowmuchthemindmaytrytopossessandcontrolitsfoodsourcestoguaranteeaconstantsupply,theyinevitablybreakdown.Themindisthenburdenedwithsearchingfornewplacestofeed.

Sotheissueofstresscomesdowntothefeedinghabitsofthemind.Iftheminddidn’thavetofeed,itwouldn’tsuffer.Atthesametime,itwouldnolongercreatehardshipsforthepeopleandthingsitconsumes—throughpossessionandcontrol—asfood.Ifwewanttoendsufferingforourselvesandatthesametimerelievethehardshipsofothers,wethushavetostrengthenthemindtothepointwhereitdoesn’thavetofeed,andthensharpenitsdiscernmentsothatitdoesn’twanttofeed.Whenitneitherneedsnorwantstofeed,itwillletgowithoutourhavingtotellitto.

Thepracticetoenddukkhawouldbequickandeasyifwecouldsimplygostraightforthediscernmentthatputsanendtoclinging.Thefeedinganalogy,though,helpstoexplainwhysimplyseeingthedrawbacksofclingingisn’tenoughtomakeusletgo.Ifwe’renotstrongenoughtogowithoutsustenance,themindwillkeepfindingnewwaystofeedandcling.Sowefirsthavetolearnhealthyfeedinghabitsthatwillstrengthenthemind.Onlythenwillitbeinapositionwhereitnolongerneedstofeed.

Howdoesthemindfeedandcling?ThePālicanonlistsfourways:

(1)clingingtosensualpassionforsights,sounds,smells,tastes,andtactilesensations;(2)clingingtoviewsabouttheworldandthenarrativesofourlives;(3)clingingtohabitsandpractices—i.e.,fixedwaysofdoingthings;and(4)clingingtodoctrinesoftheself—i.e.,ideasofwhetherornotwehaveatrueidentity,orofwhatthatidentitymightbe.

There’srarelyamomentwhentheordinarymindisn’tclinginginatleastoneoftheseways.Evenwhenweabandononeformofclinging,it’susuallyinfavorofanother.Wemayabandonapuritanicalviewbecauseitinterfereswithsensualpleasure;orasensualpleasurebecauseitconflictswithaviewaboutwhatweshoulddotostayhealthyandfit.Ourviewofwhowearemayvarydependingon

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whichofourmanysensesof“I”ismostpained,expandingintoasenseofcosmiconenesswhenwefeelconfinedbyoursmallmind-bodycomplex;andcontractingintoasmallshellwhenwefeelwoundedfromidentifyingwithacosmossofilledwithcrueltyandwaste.Whentheinsignificanceofourfiniteselfbecomesoppressiveagain,wemayjumpattheideathatwehavenoself,butthenthatbecomesoppressive.

Soourmindsjumpfromclingingtoclinginglikeabirdtrappedinacage.Whenwerealizewe’recaptive,wenaturallysearchforawayout,buteverywhereweturnseemstobeanothersideofthecage.Wemaybegintowonderwhetherthereisawayout,orwhethertalkoffullreleaseissimplyanoldarchetypalidealthathasnothingtodowithhumanreality.ButtheBuddhawasagreatstrategist:herealizedthatoneofthewallsofthecageisactuallyadoor,andthatifwegraspitskillfully,it’llswingwideopen.

Inotherwords,hefoundthatthewaytogobeyondclingingistoturnourfourwaysofclingingintothepathtotheirownabandoning.We’llneedacertainamountofsensorypleasure—intermsofadequatefood,clothing,andshelter—tofindthestrengthtogobeyondsensualpassion.We’llneedrightview—seeingallthings,includingviews,intermsofthefournobletruths—toundermineourclingingtoviews.Andwe’llneedaregimenofthefiveethicalpreceptsandthepracticeofmeditationtoputthemindinasolidpositionwhereitcandropitsclingingtohabitsandpractices.Underlyingallthis,we’llneedahealthysenseofself-love,self-responsibility,andself-disciplinetomasterthepracticesleadingtotheinsightthatcutsthroughourclingingtodoctrinesoftheself.

Sowestartthepathtotheendofsuffering,notbytryingtodropourclingingsimmediately,butbylearningtoclingmorestrategically.Intermsofthefeedinganalogy,wedon’ttrytostarvethemind.Wesimplychangeitsdiet,weaningitawayfromjunkfoodinfavorofhealthfood,developinginnerqualitiesthatwillmakeitsostrongthatitwon’tneedtofeedeveragain.

Thecanonliststhesequalitiesasfive:

convictionintheprincipleofkarma—thatourhappinessdependsonourownactions;

persistenceinabandoningunskillfulqualitiesanddevelopingskillfulonesintheirstead;

mindfulness;concentration;anddiscernment.

Ofthese,concentration—atthelevelofjhāna,orintenseabsorption—isthestrengththattheBuddhisttraditionmostoftencomparestogood,healthyfood.

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AdiscourseintheAṅguttaraNikāya(7:63)comparesthefourlevelsofjhānatotheprovisionsusedtostockafrontierfortress.AjaanLee,oneoftheThaiforestmasters,comparesthemtotheprovisionsneededonajourneythroughalonely,desolateforest.OrasDhammapada200saysabouttheraptureofjhāna,

Howveryhappilywelive,wewhohavenothing.Wewillfeedonrapture

liketheRadiantgods.

Asfordiscernment:Whenthemindisstrengthenedwiththefoodofgoodconcentration,itcanbegincontemplatingthedrawbacksofhavingtofeed.ThisisthepartoftheBuddha’steachingthat—formanyofus—goesmostdirectlyagainstthegrain,becausefeeding,ineverysenseoftheword,isourprimarywayofrelatingtoandenjoyingtheworldaroundus.Ourmostcherishedsenseofinter-connectednesswiththeworld—whatsomepeoplecallourinterbeing—is,atitsmostbasiclevel,inter-eating.Wefeedonothers,andtheyfeedonus.Sometimesourrelationshipsaremutuallynourishing,sometimesnot,buteitherwayit’shardtoimagineanylastingrelationshipwheresomekindofphysicalormentalnourishmentwasn’tbeingconsumed.Atthesametime,feedingistheactivityinwhichweexperiencethemostintimatesenseofourselves.Wedefineourselvesthroughthepleasures,people,ideas,andactivitieswekeepreturningtofornourishment.

Soit’shardforustoimagineaworld,anypossibilityofenjoyment—evenourveryself—wherewewouldn’tinter-eat.Ourcommonresistancetotheideaofnolongerfeeding—oneoftheBuddha’smostradicallyuncommonteachings—comeslargelyfromafailureoftheimagination.Wecanhardlyconceiveofwhathe’stryingtotellus.Sohehastoprescribesomestrongmedicinetojogourmindsintonewperspectives.

Thisiswherehisteachingsondukkha,orstress,comeintoplay.Whenthemindisstrongandwellfed,itcanbegintolookobjectivelyatthestressinvolvedinhavingtofeed.Theteachingsondukkhaasacommoncharacteristicfocusonthedrawbacksofwhatthemindtakesforfood.Sometimesitlatchesontoout-and-outsuffering.Itclingstothebodyevenwhenrackedwithpain.Itclingstoitspreferencesandrelationshipsevenwhenthesebringanguish,grief,anddespair.Sometimesthemindlatchesontopleasuresandjoys,butpleasuresandjoysturnstressfulwhentheydeteriorateandchange.Inanyevent,everythingthemindlatchesontoisbyitsverynaturecompounded,andthere’salwaysatleastasubtlelevelofstressinherentinkeepingthecompoundgoing.Thisappliesnotonlytogross,externalconditions,buteventothemostsubtlelevelsofconcentrationinthemind.

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Whenweseestressasacharacteristiccommontoallthethingswelatchonto,ithelpsdispeltheirallure.Pleasuresbegintoringhollowandfalse.Evenoursufferings—whichwecanoftenglamorizewithaperversepride—begintoseembanalwhenreducedtotheircommoncharacteristicofstress.Thishelpscutthemdowntosize.

Ofcourse,somepeopleobjecttotheideaofcontemplatingthedukkhainherentinthemind’sfood,onthegroundsthatthiscontemplationdoesn’tdojusticetothemanyjoysandsatisfactionsinlife.TheBuddha,however,neverdeniestheexistenceofpleasure.Hesimplypointsoutthatifyoufocusontheallureofyourfood,you’llneverbeabletooutgrowyoureatingaddictions.Itwouldbelikeaskinganalcoholictomuseonthesubtlegoodflavorsofscotchandwine.

Dukkhaisinherentnotonlyinthethingsonwhichwefeed,butalsointheveryactoffeeding.ThisisthefocalpointfortheBuddha’steachingondukkhaasanobletruth.Ifwehavetofeed,we’reaslavetoourappetites.Andcanwetrustourselvestobehaveinhonorablewayswhenthedemandsoftheseslavedriversaren’tmet?Inter-eatingisnotalwaysaprettything.Atthesametime,aslongasweneedtofeedwe’repreytoanyuncertaintiesinourfoodsources,atthemercyofanypeopleorforceswithpoweroverthem.Ifwecan’tdowithoutthem,we’rechainedtothem.Themindisn’tfreetogoplaceswherethereisn’tanyfood.And,astheBuddhaguarantees,thosearepreciselytheplaces—beyondourordinarymentalhorizons—wherethegreatesthappinesslies.

Thepurposeofthesetwocontemplations—onthestressinherentbothinthemind’sfoodandinthewayitfeeds—istosensitizeustolimitationsthatweotherwiseaccept,sometimesblithely,alwaysblindly,withoutthought.Oncetherealizationfinallyhitshomethatthey’renotworththepricetheyentail,weloseallinfatuationwithourdesiretofeed.And,unlikethebody,themindcanreachalevelofstrengthwhereitnolongerneedstoclingortakeinsustenance,evenfromthepathofpractice.Whenitbecomesstrongenoughinconviction,persistence,mindfulness,concentration,anddiscernment,itcanopentoadimension—thedeathless—wherethereisneitherfeedingnorbeingfedupon.Thatputsanendtothe“feeder,”andthere’snomoresufferingwithregardtofood.Inotherwords,oncewe’vefullypenetratedthedeathless,dukkhaasacommoncharacteristicisnolongeranissue;dukkhaasanobletruthnolongerexists.

Thisiswhereyoudiscoversomethingunexpected:themountainsyou’vebeentryingtoliftareallaby-productofyourfeeding.Whenyoustopfeeding,nonewmountainsareformed.Althoughtheremaystillbesomepast-karmamountainsremainingaroundyou,they’lleventuallywearawayandnonewoneswilltaketheirplace.Inthemeantime,theirweightisnolongeraproblem.Onceyou’ve

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finallystoppedtryingtoliftthemup,there’snothingtoholdyoudown.

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FivePilesofBricksTheKhandhasasBurden&Path

TheBuddha’sAwakeninggavehim,amongotherthings,anewperspectiveontheusesandlimitationsofwords.Hehaddiscoveredareality—theDeathless—thatnowordscoulddescribe.Atthesametime,hediscoveredthatthepathtoAwakeningcouldbedescribed,althoughitinvolvedanewwayofseeingandconceptualizingtheproblemofsufferingandstress.Becauseordinaryconceptswereoftenpoortoolsforteachingthepath,hehadtoinventnewconceptsandtostretchpre-existingwordstoencompassthoseconceptssothatotherscouldtasteAwakeningthemselves.

Oneofthenewconceptsmostcentraltohisteachingwasthatofthekhandhas,whicharemostfrequentlytranslatedintoEnglishas“aggregates.”PriortotheBuddha,thePāliwordkhandhahadveryordinarymeanings:Akhandhacouldbeapile,abundle,aheap,amass.Itcouldalsobethetrunkofatree.Inhisfirstsermon,though,theBuddhagaveitanew,psychologicalmeaning,introducingtheterm“clinging-khandhas”tosummarizehisanalysisofthetruthofstressandsuffering.Throughouttheremainderofhisteachingcareer,hereferredtothesepsychologicalkhandhastimeandagain.TheirimportanceinhisteachingshasthusbeenobvioustoeverygenerationofBuddhistseversince.Lessobvious,though,hasbeentheissueofhowtheyareimportant:Howshouldameditatormakeuseoftheconceptofthepsychologicalkhandhas?Whatquestionsaretheymeanttoanswer?

Themostcommonresponsetothesequestionsisbestexemplifiedbytworecentscholarlybooksdevotedtothesubject.BothtreatthekhandhasastheBuddha’sanswertothequestion,“Whatisaperson?”Toquotefromthejacketofthefirst:

“IfBuddhismdeniesapermanentself,howdoesitperceiveidentity?…Whatweconventionallycalla‘person’canbeunderstoodintermsoffiveaggregates,thesumofwhichmustnotbetakenforapermanententity,sincebeingsarenothingbutanamalgamofever-changingphenomena….[W]ithoutathoroughunderstandingofthefiveaggregates,wecannotgrasptheliberationprocessatworkwithintheindividual,whois,afterall,simplyanamalgamofthefiveaggregates.”

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Fromtheintroductionoftheother:

”ThethirdkeyteachingisgivenbytheBuddhaincontextswhenheisaskedaboutindividualidentity:whenpeoplewanttoknow‘whatamI?’,‘whatismyrealself?’.TheBuddhasaysthatindividualityshouldbeunderstoodintermsofacombinationofphenomenawhichappeartoformthephysicalandmentalcontinuumofanindividuallife.Insuchcontexts,thehumanbeingisanalysedintofiveconstituents—thepañcakkhandha[fiveaggregates].”

Thisunderstandingofthekhandhasisn’tconfinedtoscholars.AlmostanymodernBuddhistmeditationteacherwouldexplainthekhandhasinasimilarway.Anditisn’tamoderninnovation.ItwasfirstproposedatthebeginningofthecommonerainthecommentariestotheearlyBuddhistcanons—boththeTheravādinandtheSārvastivādin,whichformedthebasisforMahāyānascholasticism.

However,oncethecommentariesusedthekhandhastodefinewhatapersonis,theyspawnedmanyofthecontroversiesthathaveplaguedBuddhistthinkingeversince:“Ifapersonisjustkhandhas,thenwhatgetsreborn?”“Ifapersonisjustkhandhas,andthekhandhasareannihilatedonreachingtotalnibbāna,thenisn’ttotalnibbānatheannihilationoftheperson?”“Ifapersoniskhandhas,andkhandhasareinterrelatedwithotherkhandhas,howcanonepersonenternibbānawithoutdraggingeveryoneelsealong?”

AlargepartofthehistoryofBuddhistthoughthasbeenthestoryofingeniousbutunsuccessfulattemptstosettlethesequestions.It’sinstructivetonote,though,thatthePālicanonneverquotestheBuddhaastryingtoanswerthem.Infact,itneverquoteshimastryingtodefinewhatapersonisatall.Instead,itquoteshimassayingthattodefineyourselfinanywayistolimityourself,andthatthequestion,“WhatamI?”isbestignored.Thissuggeststhatheformulatedtheconceptofthekhandhastoanswerother,differentquestions.If,asmeditators,wewanttomakethebestuseofthisconcept,weshouldlookatwhatthoseoriginalquestionswere,anddeterminehowtheyapplytoourpractice.

ThecanondepictstheBuddhaassayingthathetaughtonlytwotopics:sufferingandtheendofsuffering.AsurveyofthePālidiscoursesshowshimusingtheconceptofthekhandhastoanswertheprimaryquestionsrelatedtothosetopics:Whatissuffering?Howisitcaused?Whatcanbedonetobringthosecausestoanend?

TheBuddhaintroducedtheconceptofthekhandhasinhisfirstsermoninresponsetothefirstofthesequestions.Hisshortdefinitionofsufferingwas“thefiveclinging-khandhas.”Thisfairlycrypticphrasecanbefleshedoutbydrawing

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onotherpassagesinthecanon.Thefivekhandhasarebundlesorpilesofform,feeling,perception,

fabrications,andconsciousness.NoneofthetextsexplainwhytheBuddhausedthewordkhandhatodescribethesethings.Themeaningof“treetrunk”mayberelevanttothepervasivefireimageryinthecanon—nibbānabeingextinguishingofthefiresofpassion,aversion,anddelusion—butnoneofthetextsexplicitlymakethisconnection.Thecommonandexplicitimageisofthekhandhasasburdensome.Wecanthinkofthemaspilesofbrickswecarryonourshoulders.However,thesepilesarebestunderstood,notasobjects,butasactivities,foranimportantpassagedefinesthemintermsoftheirfunctions.Form—whichcoversphysicalphenomenaofallsorts,bothwithinandwithoutthebody—wearsdownor“de-forms.”Feelingfeelspleasure,pain,andneitherpleasurenorpain.Perceptionlabelsoridentifiesobjects.Consciousnesscognizesthesixsenses(countingtheintellectasthesixth)alongwiththeirobjects.Ofthefivekhandhas,fabricationisthemostcomplex.Passagesinthecanondefineitasintention,butitincludesawidevarietyofactivities,suchasattention,evaluation,andalltheactiveprocessesofthemind.Itisalsothemostfundamentalkhandha,foritsprimaryactivityistotakethepotentialfortheexperienceofform,feeling,etc.—comingfrompastactions—andturnitintotheactualexperienceofthosethingsinthepresentmoment.

Thusintentionisanintegralpartofourexperienceofallthekhandhas—animportantpoint,forthismeansthatthereisanelementofintentioninallsuffering.Thisopensthepossibilitythatsufferingcanbeendedbychangingourintentions—orabandoningthementirely—whichispreciselythepointoftheBuddha’steachings.

Tounderstandhowthishappens,wehavetolookmorecloselyathowsufferingarises—or,inotherwords,howkhandhasbecomeclinging-khandhas.

Whenkhandhasareexperienced,theprocessoffabricationnormallydoesn’tsimplystopthere.Ifattentionfocusesonthekhandhas’attractivefeatures—beautifulforms,pleasantfeelings,etc.—itcangiverisetopassionanddelight.Thispassionanddelightcantakemanyforms,butthemosttenaciousisthehabitualactoffabricatingasenseofmeormine,identifyingwithaparticularkhandha(orsetofkhandhas)orclaimingpossessionofit.

Thissenseofmeandmineisrarelystatic.Itroamslikeanameba,changingitscontoursasitchangeslocation.Sometimesexpansive,sometimescontracted,itcanviewitselfasidenticalwithakhandha,aspossessingakhandha,asexistingwithinakhandha,orashavingakhandhaexistingwithinitself.Attimesfeelingfinite,atothertimesinfinite,whatevershapeittakesit’salwaysunstableandinsecure,forthekhandhasprovidingitsfoodaresimplyactivitiesandfunctions,inconstantandinsubstantial.Inthewordsofthecanon,thekhandhasarelike

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foam,likeamirage,likethebubblesformedwhenrainfallsonwater.They’reheavyonlybecausetheirongripoftryingtoclingtothemisburdensome.Aslongaswe’readdictedtopassionanddelightfortheseactivities—aslongasweclingtothem—we’reboundtosuffer.

TheBuddhistapproachtoendingthisclinging,however,isnotsimplytodropit.Aswithanyaddiction,themindhastobegraduallyweanedaway.Beforewecanreachthepointofnointention,wherewe’retotallyfreedfromthefabricationofkhandhas,wehavetochangeourintentionstowardthekhandhassoastochangetheirfunctions.Insteadofusingthemforthepurposeofconstructingaself,weusethemforthepurposeofcreatingapathtotheendofsuffering.Insteadofcarryingpilesofbricksonourshoulders,wetakethemoffandlaythemalongthegroundaspavement.

Thefirststepinthisprocessistousethekhandhastoconstructthefactorsofthenobleeightfoldpath.Forexample,RightConcentration:Wemaintainasteadyperceptionfocusedonanaspectofform,suchasthebreath,anduseddirectedthoughtandevaluation—whichcountasfabrications—tocreatefeelingsofpleasureandrefreshment,whichwespreadthroughthebody.Inthebeginning,it’snormalthatweexperiencepassionanddelightforthesefeelings,andthatconsciousnessfollowsalonginlinewiththem.Thishelpsgetusabsorbedinmasteringtheskillsofconcentration.

Oncewe’vegainedthesenseofstrengthandwellbeingthatcomesfrommasteringtheseskills,wecanproceedtothesecondstep:attendingtothedrawbacksofeventherefinedkhandhasweexperienceinconcentration,soastoundercutthepassionanddelightwemightfeelforthem:

“Supposethatanarcherorarcher’sapprenticeweretopracticeonastrawmanormoundofclay,sothatafterawhilehewouldbecomeabletoshootlongdistances,tofireaccurateshotsinrapidsuccession,andtopiercegreatmasses.Inthesameway,thereisthecasewhereamonk…enters&remainsinthefirstjhāna:rapture&pleasurebornofseclusion,accompaniedbydirectedthought&evaluation.Heregardswhateverphenomenatherethatareconnectedwithform,feeling,perceptions,fabrications,&consciousness,asinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adisintegration,anemptiness,not-self.[Similarlywiththeotherlevelsofjhāna.]”

Thevariouswaysoffosteringdispassionarealsokhandhas,khandhasofperception.Astandardlistincludesthefollowing:theperceptionofinconstancy,theperceptionofnot-self,theperceptionofunattractiveness,theperceptionofdrawbacks(thediseasestowhichthebodyissubject),theperceptionofabandoning,theperceptionofdistasteforeveryworld,theperceptionofthe

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undesirabilityofallfabrications.Oneofthemostimportantoftheseperceptionsisthatofnot-self.WhentheBuddhafirstintroducedtheconceptofnot-selfinhissecondsermon,healsointroducedawayofstrengtheningitsimpactwithaseriesofquestionsbasedaroundthekhandhas.Takingeachkhandhainturn,heasked:“Isitconstantorinconstant?”Inconstant.“Andiswhatisinconstantstressfulorpleasurable?”Stressful.“Andisitfittingtoregardwhatisinconstant,stressful,subjecttochangeas:‘Thisismine.Thisismyself.ThisiswhatIam’?”No.

Thesequestionsshowthecomplexrolethekhandhasplayinthissecondstepofthepath.Thequestionsthemselvesarekhandhas—offabrication—andtheyusetheconceptofthekhandhastodeconstructanypassionanddelightthatmightcenteronthekhandhasandcreatesuffering.Thus,inthisstep,weusekhandhasthatpointoutthedrawbacksofthekhandhas.

Ifusedunskillfully,though,theseperceptionsandfabricationscansimplyreplacepassionwithitsmirrorimage,aversion.Thisiswhytheyhavetobebasedonthefirststep—thewellbeingconstructedinjhāna—andcoupledwiththethirdstep,theperceptionsofdispassionandcessationthatinclinethemindtothedeathless:“Thisispeace,thisisexquisite—theresolutionofallfabrications;therelinquishmentofallacquisitions;theendingofcraving;dispassion;cessation;Unbinding.”Ineffect,theseareperception-khandhasthatpointthemindbeyondallkhandhas.

Thetextssaythatthisthree-stepprocesscanleadtooneoftworesults.If,afterundercuttingpassionanddelightforthekhandhas,themindcontainsanyresidualpassionfortheperceptionofthedeathless,itwillattainthethirdlevelofAwakening,callednon-return.Ifpassionanddelightareentirelyeradicated,though,allclingingisentirelyabandoned,theintentionsthatfabricatekhandhasaredropped,andthemindtotallyreleased.Thebricksofthepavementhaveturnedintoarunway,andthemindhastakenoff.

Intowhat?Theauthorsofthediscoursesseemunwillingtosay,eventotheextentofdescribingitasastateofexistence,non-existence,neither,orboth.Asoneofthediscoursesstates,thefreedomlyingbeyondthekhandhasalsoliesbeyondtherealmtowhichlanguageproperlyapplies.Thereisalsotheveryrealpracticalproblemthatanypreconceivednotionsofthatfreedom,ifclungtoasaperception-khandha,couldeasilyactasanobstacletoitsattainment.Still,thereisalsothepossibilitythat,ifproperlyused,suchaperception-khandhamightactasanaidonthepath.Sothediscoursesprovidehintsintheformofsimiles,referringtototalfreedomas:

Theunfashioned,theend,theeffluent-less,thetrue,thebeyond,thesubtle,thevery-hard-to-see,

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theageless,permanence,theundecaying,thefeatureless,non-elaboration,peace,thedeathless,theexquisite,bliss,solace,theexhaustionofcraving,thewonderful,themarvelous,thesecure,security,unbinding,theunafflicted,thepassionless,thepure,release,non-attachment,theisland,shelter,harbor,refuge,

theultimate.

Otherpassagesmentionaconsciousnessinthisfreedom—“withoutfeatureorsurface,withoutend,luminousallaround”—lyingoutsideoftimeandspace,experiencedwhenthesixsensespheresstopfunctioning.Inthisitdiffersfromtheconsciousness-khandha,whichdependsonthesixsensespheresandcanbedescribedinsuchtermsasnearorfar,past,present,orfuture.consciousnesswithoutsurfaceisthustheawarenessofAwakening.Andthefreedomofthisawarenesscarriesoverevenwhentheawakenedpersonreturnstoordinaryconsciousness.AstheBuddhasaidofhimself:

“Freed,dissociated,&releasedfromform,theTathāgatadwellswithunrestrictedawareness.Freed,dissociated,&releasedfromfeeling…perception…fabrications…consciousness…birth…aging…death…suffering&stress…defilement,theTathāgatadwellswithunrestrictedawareness.”

Thisshowsagaintheimportanceofbringingtherightquestionstotheteachingsonthekhandhas.Ifyouusethemtodefinewhatyouareasaperson,youtieyourselfdowntonopurpose.Thequestionskeeppilingon.Butifyouusethemtoputanendtosuffering,yourquestionsfallawayandyou’refree.Youneveragainclingtothekhandhasandnolongerneedtousethemtoendyourself-createdsuffering.Aslongasyou’restillalive,youcanemploythekhandhasasneededforwhateverskillfulusesyouseefit.Afterthat,you’reliberatedfromallusesandneeds,includingtheneedtofindwordstodescribethatfreedomtoyourselfortoanyoneelse.

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PerennialIssues

TowardtheendofWorldWarII,AldousHuxleypublishedananthology,ThePerennialPhilosophy,proposingthatthereisacommoncoreoftruthstoalltheworld’sgreatreligions.Thesetruthsclusteredaroundthreebasicprinciples:thattheSelfisbynaturedivine,thatthisnatureisidenticalwiththedivineGroundofBeing,andthattheideallifeisonespentinthequesttorealizethisnon-dualtruth.

IntheyearssinceHuxleypublishedhisanthology,theideaofaperennialphilosophyhasexertedwideinfluence.Inparticular,ithasopenedthemindsofmanyWesternerstotheideathatreligionsoftheEast,suchasBuddhism,havesomethingvaluabletooffer,andthatthepreferenceofonereligionoveranothercouldbesimplyamatterofpersonaltaste.PeoplewithapositiverelationshiptotheJudeo-ChristiantraditioncouldadoptBuddhistteachingsandpracticeswithoutconflict;thosewithanegativerelationshiptotheJudeo-ChristiantraditioncouldfindspiritualnurtureinBuddhism,freefromthefaithdemandsofthesynagogueorthechurch.Inthisway,theideaofaperennialphilosophyhaseasedthewayofmanyWesternersintoBuddhistthoughtandpractice.Andtothisday,theprinciplesoftheperennialphilosophy—asoutlinedbyHuxleyandthehostofperennialphilosopherswhohavefollowedinhiswake—haveprovidedanunderpinningforhowBuddhismistaughtintheWest.WhenRumiisquotedinaDhammatalk,theperennialphilosophyisspeaking.

ButeventhoughtheideaofaperennialphilosophyhasprovidedanopeningtotheDhamma,thequestionarises:Isitreliable?HasitdistortedtheDhammaintheprocess?Agoodwaytoanswerthesequestionsistotakeacloserlookatthetenetsofperennialphilosophy,toseehowtheystanduptoscrutinyontheirownstrengths,atthesametimecomparingthemwithwhattheBuddhataught.

Perennialphilosophersbasetheirthinkingontwoclaims.Thefirstisafact-claim:allthegreatreligioustraditionsoftheworldshareacommoncoreofbeliefs.Thesecondisavalue-claim:thecommonalityofthesebeliefsisproofthattheyaretrue.

Theideaofsuchaperennialphilosophyisattractive.Itsuggestsawayofarrivingatreligioustruthsthatareuniversalandobjective,ratherthanculturallyconditioned.Itoffersaplotofcommongroundwheredifferentreligions,insteadoffightingovertheirdifferences,canliveinharmonyandpeace.Infact,some

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perennialphilosophersmaintainthattheobjectivityofperennialphilosophymakesitsoscientificallyrespectablethatitcanprovidetheframeworkbywhichallhumanknowledge—spiritualandscientific—canbebroughttogetherinanoverarchingtheorythatallotstoeachbodyofknowledgeitsproperfunctionandplace.

However,thereareproblemswithbothoftheclaimsonwhichperennialphilosophyisbased—problemsthatunderminethevalidityoftheperennialphilosophers’projectanddeflecttheirattentionfrommoreimportantissuesthatanyquestforspiritualobjectivityshouldaddress.

Theproblemswiththefact-claimderivefromthemethodologyusedforestablishingthecommoncoreofthegreattraditions.Thecentralquestiontackledbytheperennialphilosophy,wearetold,isthatofourtrueidentity—“Whatismytrueself?”—andtheanswertothatquestionisthatourtrueselfisidenticalwithBeingasawhole.WeareallOne,andourcommonidentityextendstothegroundandsourceofallthings.Toarriveatthisanswer,though,theperennialphilosophershavehadtodiscountmanyoftheteachings—foundinmostoftheworld’smajorreligions—thatpositaseparateidentityforeachperson,andacreatoroftheuniverseseparatefromitscreation.

Togetaroundthisdifficulty,perennialphilosophershavetriedtolimittherangeofwhattheymeanbya“greatreligioustradition.”Theydrawthelinearoundthisconceptinoneoftwoways.Thefirstistodrawadistinction,inheritedfromtheRomantics,betweenconventionalreligiousdoctrinesandtheinsightsofdirectreligiousormysticalexperience.Mysticalexperienceisthedirectapprehensionofinnertruths.Conventionaldoctrinesarethecorruptionofthosetruths,formulatedbypeopleofalowerlevelofreligiousinspiration,influencedbysocial,cultural,orpoliticalfactors.Thusperennialphilosophersclaimthattheyarejustifiedinignoringconventionaldoctrinesanddrawingtheirrawdataonlyfromreportsofmysticalexperience,fortheseareclosesttothetruthsofdirectexperience.

Theproblemhereisthatmanyaccountsofdirectreligiousexperiencesdonotsupportthetenetsofperennialphilosophy.TheBuddha’sAwakeningisacaseinpoint.ThatAwakeningobviouslyqualifiesasadirectreligiousexperience,andyetthedescriptionsofitfoundintheearliestrecords,thePālicanon,containnothingtosupporttheperennialphilosophy’sanswertothequestionofpersonalidentity.Theydon’tevenaddressthequestion.Infact,therearepassagesinthePālicanonwheretheBuddhadenouncesquestionsofidentityandbeing—“WhoamI?WhatamI?DoIexist?DoInotexist?”(MN2)—asinappropriateentanglementsblockingthepathtoAwakening.

Perennialphilosophershaveusedtwotacticstogetaroundthisdifficulty.OneistocitethePālitextsbuttore-interpretthem.Theteachingonnot-self,they

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say,issimplyanindirectwayofapproachingthebasictenetofperennialphilosophy:ifoneabandonsone’sidentificationwiththeaggregatesofthesmallself,oneawakenstoone’sidentitywiththelargerself,theOnenessoftheAll.EventhoughtheAwakeningaccountmakesnomentionofalargerselforofanyfeelingsofOneness,theperennialphilosophersassumebyextrapolationfromaccountsinothertraditionsthattheymusthavebeenpresentintheBuddha’sexperience,andthateitherheneglectedtomentionthemorhisfollowersdroppedthemfromtheirrecords.TheproblemhereisthatthePālicanonassignsfeelingsofOnenessandnon-dualitytomundanelevelsofconcentration,andnottothetranscendent(AN10:29).Italsolumpsviewsofaninfiniteselfwithviewsofafiniteselfasequallyuntenable(DN15).Infact,MN22singlesouttheideaofaneternalself,atonewiththecosmos,as“utterlyandcompletelytheteachingofafool.”AndeventhoughthePālicanonadmitsthatitsdescriptionoftheBuddha’sAwakeningisincomplete(SN56:31),thereisnoreasontobelievethattheunexpressedessenceofhisAwakeningwouldbeexpressedinatenetthatheexplicitlysaidtoabandon.

ThisdifficultyhasledtoasecondtacticfordealingwiththeproblemofthePālicanon:todismissitentirelyinfavorofMahayanatextsthatfitbetterwiththetenetsofperennialphilosophy.RatherthantreatingTheravadaBuddhismasacompletetraditionwithitsownintegrity,perennialphilosophersadopttheMahayanapolemicalstancethatTheravadaissimplyanincomplete—Huxleycalledit“primitive”—fragmentofatraditionthatfindsitsexplicitcompletiononlyintheMahayanaitself.

Theperennialphilosophers’reasonsforadoptingthisstancerelatetothesecondwayinwhichtheydelimitthemeaningof“greatreligioustradition”:theimplicitvalue-claimthatnon-dualismissuperiortodualismorpluralism.Thesuperiorityofnon-dualism,theysay,isbothconceptualandethical.Conceptuallyitismoreinclusive,encompassingalargerview.Theerasingofdistinctionsissuperiortothecreationofdistinctions.Ethically,non-dualismleadstoactsofkindnessandcompassion:WhenpeoplesensetheiressentialOneness,theyaremorelikelytotreatoneanotherwiththesamecaretheywouldtreatthemselves.Thusthegreatreligioustraditionsmust,bydefinition,benon-dualistic.

Boththeconceptualandtheethicalargumentsfornon-dualism,however,areopentoquestion.Conceptually,thereisnoproofthatanon-dualviewisnecessarilymoreencompassingthatadualorpluralisticview.ApersonwhohashadadirectexperienceofdualitymayhavetouchedsomethingthatliesoutsidetheOnenesscomprehendedbythenon-dualist.ThePāliinterpretationofnibbānaisanexample:nibbānaliesoutsidetheOnenessofjhāna,andeventheAllnessoftheAll—theentirerangeofthesixsenses(includingthemind)andtheirobjects(SN35:23;MN49).Itneitherincludesthemnoractsastheir

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groundorsource(MN1).(PassagesthatcitetheDeathlessasthegroundofallthingsaremistranslations.)Atthesametime,therearemanyareasoflifeinwhichdistinctionsareclearlysuperiortoalackofdistinctions.Whenyouneedbrainsurgery,youwantadoctorwhoisclearaboutthedistinctionbetweenskillfulandunskillfulmethods.Apersonwhoseesdistinctionsmaybedetectingsubtledifferencesthatanon-dualistsimplyhasn’tnoticed.

Ethically,thesuperiorityofnon-dualismisevenhardertoprove.Tobeginwith,thenotionofethicalsuperiorityisinandofitselfadualisticposition:ifcompassionisbetterthancruelty,therehastobeadistinctionbetweenthetwo.Secondly,thereistheproblemoftheodicy,theexplanationforthesourceofevilinajustuniverse.IfallthingscomefromOneSource,thenwheredoesevilcomefrom?Onecommonnon-dualistansweristhatitcomesfromignoranceofouressentialOneness,butthatsimplydrivesthequestionbackanotherstep:Wheredoesignorancecomefrom,ifnotfromtheOneSource?HowcantheOneSourcebeignorantofitself?Isitincompetent?Isitplayinganinhumanegameofhide-and-seek?

Thisissueoftheodicyhasbeenarguedrepeatedlyovertheagesineverytraditionthatpositsasinglesourceforthecosmos,andthenon-dualistanswerseventuallycomedowntothree:eviliseitherillusoryornecessaryorboth.Butifyoucansaythatevilisillusory,it’sasignthatyou’veneverbeenvictimizedbyevil.Ifyousaythatit’snecessary,thenwhatincentiveisthereforpeoplenottodoit?Thosewhowanttodoevilcansimplysaythatthey’reperforminganecessaryfunctionintheworld.ThispointisillustratedbytheIndianlegendofthemurdererwhometaphilosophicalnon-dualistontheroadandchallengedhimtogiveonereason,consistentwithhisphilosophy,forwhyheshouldn’tallowhimselftobestabbed.Thenon-dualistwasunabletodoso,andsometwithhisdeath.

Thusit’sapparentthatthefact-claimofperennialphilosophy—thatitisgivingvoicetotheessentialmessageofalltheworld’sgreatreligioustraditions—dependsonaveryrestricteddefinitionof“all.”Thegreatreligioustraditionsarebydefinitionthosewhoagreewithitsprinciples.Thosewhodon’tarelessertraditionsandsomaybediscounted.Thismeansthattheperennialphilosophers’commentsabout“allgreatreligions”arenotsimpleobservationsaboutarangeofphenomenawhoseboundariesarealreadywidelyaccepted.Instead,they’reanattempttodefinethoseboundaries—andaveryexclusionaryoneatthat.There’snowaythatsucharestrictedvisionoftheworld’sreligioustraditionscouldprovidearallyingpointthatwouldunitetheminpeaceandharmony.Itsimplyaddsonemoredivisivevoicetotheclamor.

However,evenifthefact-claimofaperennialphilosophywerebetterbased,therewouldstillbereasontoquestionitsvalue-claim:thatconsensusisproofof

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truth.Evenifthegreattraditionsdidshareacommoncoreofbeliefs,thatwouldbenoguaranteeoftheirvalidity.Noreputablebodyofknowledgehaseverviewedsimpleconsensusasproofofaproposition’struth.Thehistoryofscienceislitteredwithtruthsthatwereonceuniversallyacceptedandnownolongerare.It’salsostuddedwithstoriesofideasthatwereoriginallyrejectedbecausetheybuckedtheconsensusbutlaterwereestablishedastrue.Thisshowsthatconsensusisnotproof.It’svalidonlyifitfollowsonproof.Andthestandardsforproofaretobesoughtinthestoryofhowonetruthoverthrowsanother.Invariably,aswereadthroughhistory,wefindthatthishappensbecausethenewtruthisbetterinoneoftwoways:eitherintermsofthemethodusedtoarriveatitorintermsofitsuses,thebeneficialactionsitinspires.Galileo’sideasonmatterandaccelerationwereacceptedoverAristotle’sbecausetheywerebasedonbetterexperiments.Newton’s,andnotAristotle’s,arestillusedbyNASAbecausetheyhavebeenfoundmoreusefulingettingrocketstoMars.

Thishistoricalfactsuggeststhattruth-claimsareestablished,notbyconsensus,butbyhumanactivity:theactionsthatleadtothediscoveryoftruthsandthosethatresultfromtheiracceptance.Andifevertherewereanissuethatascientificinquiryintoreligionshouldaddress,thisisit:Howshouldtherelationbetweentruthandactivitybestbeunderstood,andhowshoulditbeappliedtogreatestadvantage?Ifthisissueisnotaddressed,howcanweknowwhattodotofindtruths,orwhattodowiththemoncethey’refound?

Sofar,however,perennialphilosophershavehadnothingtosayonthistopic.Infact,theyrepeatedlystatethatthequestionofwhichmethods—ornon-methods—thegreatreligioushaveusedtoarriveattheirconsensusisimmaterial.Allthatmattersisthattheyagree.Butwhatifallthosemethodswerequestionable?Andwhatiftheirconsensuscreatesmoreproblemsthanitsolves?Aswehavealreadynoted,thenon-dualisticstanceproposedbytheperennialphilosophers,ifcarefullyquestioned,hastroublespeakingtotherealityofevilorprovidinganincentiveagainstdoingit.Thustheyfailbothtestsforverifyingtruths:theyarenon-committalontheissueofwhatactionsareneededtodiscoverspiritualtruths,andtheyproposeatruththatunwittinglyopensthedoortoevilactionsthatwouldresultfromacceptingtheirclaims.

So,giventheweaknessesinthefact-claimsandvalue-claimsonwhichperennialphilosophyisbased,doesthatmeanthatthequestforobjectivespiritualtruthsisdoomedtofailure?Notnecessarily.Itsimplymeansthattheperennialphilosophershavebeenaskingthewrongquestionsandusingafaultymethodologytoanswerthem.Amorefruitfullineofinquirywouldbetofocusonthespiritualimplicationsofthequestionraisedabove:Howshouldtherelationbetweentruthandactivitybestbeunderstood,andhowshoulditbeappliedtogreatestadvantage?Thisquestionliesatthebasisofthescientificmethod,soany

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scientificaccountofreligionwouldhavetobeginhere.Thisstudycouldstartbysearchingthereligioustraditionsoftheworld,notfortheirfact-statements,butfortheirstatementsonwhatactionsareneededtoverifyfacts.Thesetruth/actionclaimscouldthenbecomparedandputtothetest.

AndthisisanareawherethePālicanonhasagreatdealtosay.ItsdescriptionsoftheBuddha’sAwakening—focusingonkarma,causality,andthefournobletruths—directlyaddressthequestionofhowtruthandactivityarerelated.TheBuddha’srealizationsconcerningkarmaandcausalityfocusonthewaybeliefsandactionsinfluenceoneanother.Hisinsightsintothefournobletruthsfocusonthewaykarmaandcausalitycanbestbeputtousetobringanendtosuffering.HisAwakeningprovidedanswerstothequestionsof(1)whatactionis,(2)whatthehighesthappinessisthatactioncanproduce,(3)whatbeliefsleadtothemostskillfulactions,and(4)whatactionscanprovideanadequatetestforthosebeliefs.

Furthermore,thePālicanoncontainsexplicitinstructionsonhowtheBuddha’steachingsaretobetestedbyothers.HisfamousinstructionstotheKālāmas(AN3:65),thattheyshouldknowforthemselves,areaccompaniedbydetailedstandards—unfortunately,considerablylessfamous—onwhatproceduresanyvalid“knowingforoneself”shouldentail.

“Sointhiscase,Kālāmas,don’tgobyreports,bylegends,bytraditions,byscripture,bylogicalconjecture,byinference,byanalogies,byagreementthroughponderingviews,byprobability,orbythethought,‘Thiscontemplativeisourteacher.’Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,‘Thesedhammas[teachings,mentalqualities,actions]areunskillful;thesequalitiesareblameworthy;thesedhammasarecriticizedbythewise;thesedhammas,whenadopted&carriedout,leadtoharm&tosuffering’—thenyoushouldabandonthem…“Don’tgobyreports,bylegends,bytraditions,byscripture,bylogicalconjecture,byinference,byanalogies,byagreementthroughponderingviews,byprobability,orbythethought,‘Thiscontemplativeisourteacher.’Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,‘Thesedhammasareskillful;thesedhammasareblameless;thesedhammasarepraisedbythewise;thesequalities,whenadopted&carriedout,leadtowell-being&tohappiness’—thenyoushouldenter&remaininthem.”

Thecanonalsoprovidespreciseinstructionsforhowtojudgetheresultsofone’sactions,andhowtolearnfromone’smistakes.

“Wheneveryouwanttodoabodilyaction,youshouldreflectonit:‘ThisbodilyactionIwanttodo—woulditleadtoself-affliction,totheaffliction

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ofothers,ortoboth?Woulditbeanunskillfulbodilyaction,withpainfulconsequences,painfulresults?’If,onreflection,youknowthatitwouldleadtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth;itwouldbeanunskillfulbodilyactionwithpainfulconsequences,painfulresults,thenanybodilyactionofthatsortisabsolutelyunfitforyoutodo.Butifonreflectionyouknowthatitwouldnotcauseaffliction…itwouldbeaskillfulbodilyactionwithpleasantconsequences,pleasantresults,thenanybodilyactionofthatsortisfitforyoutodo.“Whileyouaredoingabodilyaction,youshouldreflectonit:‘ThisbodilyactionIamdoing—isitleadingtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth?Isitanunskillfulbodilyaction,withpainfulconsequences,painfulresults?’If,onreflection,youknowthatitisleadingtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth…youshouldgiveitup.Butifonreflectionyouknowthatitisnot…youmaycontinuewithit.“Havingdoneabodilyaction,youshouldreflectonit:‘ThisbodilyactionIhavedone—diditleadtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth?Wasitanunskillfulbodilyaction,withpainfulconsequences,painfulresults?’If,onreflection,youknowthatitledtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth;itwasanunskillfulbodilyactionwithpainfulconsequences,painfulresults,thenyoushouldconfessit,revealit,layitopentotheTeacherortoaknowledgeablecompanionintheholylife.Havingconfessedit…youshouldexerciserestraintinthefuture.Butifonreflectionyouknowthatitdidnotleadtoaffliction…itwasaskillfulbodilyactionwithpleasantconsequences,pleasantresults,thenyoushouldstaymentallyrefreshed&joyful,trainingday&nightinskillfulmentalqualities.[Similarlywithverbalandmentalactions,althoughthelastparagraphonmentalactionsstates:]“Havingdoneamentalaction,youshouldreflectonit:‘ThismentalactionIhavedone—diditleadtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth?Wasitanunskillfulmentalaction,withpainfulconsequences,painfulresults?'If,onreflection,youknowthatitledtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth…thenyoushouldfeeldistressed,ashamed,&disgustedwithit.Feelingdistressed,ashamed,&disgustedwithit,youshouldexerciserestraintinthefuture.Butifonreflectionyouknowthatitdidnotleadtoaffliction…itwasaskillfulmentalactionwithpleasantconsequences,pleasantresults,thenyoushouldstaymentallyrefreshed&joyful,trainingday&nightinskillfulmentalqualities.”—MN61

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Whetherthecanon’sstandardsfortestingreligiousteachingsareadequateandconvincingmaybesubjecttodebate.Buttheyprovideaclearstartingpointforexploringtheissueofwhattodowithfact-claimsandvalue-claims—thefirstissuethatanyobjectiveinquiryintospiritualtruthsshouldaddress.

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“Whenyouknowforyourselves…”TheAuthenticityofthePāliSuttas

TheTheravadatradition,dominantinSriLanka,Myanmar,andThailand,regardsthePālisuttasastheauthenticandauthoritativerecordoftheBuddha’sownwords.WhenWesternscholars—piquedbyissuesofauthorityandauthenticity—firstlearnedoftheseclaimsinthe19thcentury,theybeganemployingthehistoricalmethodtotestthem.Andalthougheveryconceivablescrapofliteraryorarcheologicalevidenceseemstohavebeenexamined,noair-tighthistoricalproofordisproofoftheseclaimshassurfaced.Whathassurfacedisamassofminorfactsandprobabilities—showingthatthePālicanonisprobablytheclosestdetailedrecordwehaveoftheBuddha’steachings—butnothingmorecertainthanthat.ArcheologicalevidenceshowsthatPāliwasprobablynottheBuddha’snativelanguage,butisthisproofthathedidn‘tusePāliwhentalkingtonativespeakersofthatlanguage?Thecanoncontainsgrammaticalirregularities,butarethesesignsofanearlystageinthelanguage,beforeitwasstandardized,oralaterstageofdegeneration?Andinwhichstageofthelanguage’sdevelopmentdidtheBuddha’slifefall?FragmentsofotherearlyBuddhistcanonshavebeenfound,withslightdeviationsfromthePālicanonintheirwording,butnotintheirbasicdoctrines.IstheirunanimityindoctrineasignthattheyallcomefromtheBuddhahimself,orwasittheproductofalaterconspiracytoremakeandstandardizethedoctrineinlinewithchangedbeliefsandtastes?Scholarshaveproveneagertotakesidesontheseissues,buttheinevitableuseofinference,conjecture,andprobabilitiesintheirargumentslendsanairofuncertaintytothewholeprocess.

ManyhaveseenthisuncertaintyassignoftheinadequacyoftheTheravādinclaimstoauthenticity.Butsimplytodismisstheteachingsofthesuttasforthisreasonwouldbetodepriveourselvesoftheopportunitytotesttheirmostremarkableassertion:thathumaneffort,properlydirected,canputanendtoallsufferingandstress.Perhapsweshouldinsteadquestionthemethodsofthehistorians,andviewtheuncertaintyoftheirconclusionsasasignoftheinadequacyofthehistoricalmethodasatoolforascertainingtheDhamma.ThesuttasthemselvesmakethispointintheirownrecommendationsforhowtheauthenticityandauthorityoftheDhammaisbestascertained.Inafamouspassage,theyquotetheBuddhaassaying:

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“Kālāmas,don’tgobyreports,bylegends,bytraditions,byscripture,bylogicalconjecture,byinference,byanalogies,byagreementthroughponderingviews,byprobability,orbythethought,‘Thiscontemplativeisourteacher.’Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,‘Thesedhammasareunskillful;thesedhammasareblameworthy;thesedhammasarecriticizedbythewise;thesedhammas,whenadoptedandcarriedout,leadtoharmandtosuffering’—thenyoushouldabandonthem….Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,‘Thesedhammasareskillful;thesedhammasareblameless;thesedhammasarepraisedbythewise;thesedhammas,whenadoptedandcarriedout,leadtowelfareandtohappiness’—thenyoushouldenterandremaininthem.”—AN3:66

Becausethispassageiscontainedinareligiousscripture,thestatementsattractingthemostattentionhavebeenthoserejectingtheauthorityofreligiousteachers,legends,traditions,andscripture;alongwiththoseinsistingontheimportanceofknowingforoneself.Theseremarkablyanti-dogmaticstatements—sometimestermedtheBuddha’sCharterofFreeInquiry—havetendedtodivertattentionfromtheseverestricturesthatthepassageplacesonwhat“knowingforoneself”entails.Inquestioningtheauthorityofreports,itdismissesthebasicmaterialonwhichthehistoricalmethodisbased.Inquestioningtheauthorityofinferenceandprobability,itdismissessomeofthemethod’sbasictechniques.Inquestioningtheauthorityoflogicalconjecture,analogies,andagreementthroughponderingviews,itdismissesthemethodsoffree-thinkingrationalismingeneral.

ThisleavesonlytwomethodsforascertainingtheDhamma,bothofthemrelatedtothequestionraisedinthispassageandcentraltootherteachingsinthecanon:Whatisskillful,whatisunskillful?Indevelopinganyskill,youmust(1)payattentiontotheresultsofyourownactions;and(2)listentothosewhohavealreadymasteredtheskill.Similarly,inascertainingtheDhamma,youmust(1)examinetheresultsthatcomefromputtingaparticularteachingintopractice;and(2)checkthoseresultsagainsttheopinionsofthewise.

TwoaspectsoftheDhamma,however,makeitaskillapart.ThefirstisreflectedinthefactthatthewordDhammameansnotonlyteaching,butalsoqualityofthemind.Thustheabovepassagecouldalsobetranslated:

“Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,‘Thesequalitiesareunskillful;thesequalitiesareblameworthy;thesequalitiesarecriticizedbythewise;thesequalities,whenadoptedandcarriedout,leadtoharmandtosuffering’—thenyoushouldabandonthem….Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,‘Thesequalitiesareskillful;thesequalitiesareblameless;thesequalitiesarepraisedbythewise;thesequalities,whenadoptedandcarriedout,lead

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towelfareandtohappiness’—thenyoushouldenterandremaininthem.”

Infact,thisismorelikelythecorrecttranslation,asthediscussionfollowingthispassagefocusesontheresultsofactingonqualitiesofthemind:greed,aversion,anddelusionintheunskillfulset;andlackofgreed,lackofaversion,andlackofdelusionintheskillfulone.ThispointstothefactthatDhammapracticeisprimarilyaskillofthemind.

ThesecondaspectthatsetstheDhammaapartasaskillisitsgoal:nothinglessthanthetotalendingofsuffering.

WhilethissecondaspectoftheDhammamakesitanattractiveskilltomaster,thefirstaspectmakesithardtodeterminewhohasmasteredtheskillandisthusqualifiedtospeakaboutitwithauthority.Afterall,wecan’tlookintothemindsofotherstoseewhatqualitiesarethereandwhattheinternalresultsofthepracticeare.Atbest,wecandetecthintsofthesethingsintheiractions,butnothingmore.Thus,ifwelooktoothersforthelastwordontheDhamma,wewillalwaysbeinapositionofuncertainty.TheonlywaytoovercomeuncertaintyistopracticetheDhammatoseeifitbringsaboutanendtosufferingwithinourownminds.

Traditionally,thetextsstatethatuncertaintyabouttheDhammaendsonlywiththeattainmentofStream-entry,thefirstofthefourlevelsofAwakening.EventhoughapersonwhohasreachedthislevelofAwakeningisn’ttotallyimmersedintheendingofsuffering,heorshehasseenenoughoftheendofsufferingtoknowwithoutadoubtthatthat’swherethepracticeoftheDhammaleads.Soit’snotsurprisingthatthefourfactorsthesuttasidentifyasbringingaboutStream-entryarealsothefourmethodstheyrecommendforascertainingwhethertheythemselvesareatrulyauthoritativeandauthenticguidetotheendofsuffering.

Thosefactors,listedinSN55:5,are:

associationwithpeopleofintegrity,listeningtothetrueDhamma,appropriateattention,andpracticeinaccordancewiththeDhamma.

Passagesfromthesuttasdealingwitheachofthesefactorshelpshowhowthetwosourcesofskill—thecounselofthewiseandthelessonslearnedbyobservingtheresultsofyourownactions—canbeproperlybalancedandintegratedsoastoascertainwhatthetrueDhammais.AndbecauselisteningtothetrueDhammanowincludesreadingthetrueDhamma,aknowledgeofthesefactorsandtheirinterrelationshipsgivesguidanceinhowtoreadthesuttas.Inparticular,thesefactorsshowhowthesuttasthemselvessaytheyshouldberead,andwhatother

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actionsprovidetheskillfulcontextforgettingthemostbenefitfromreadingthem.

Asyouexploretheexplanationsofthesefactors,youfindthattheirpresentationasashortlistisdeceptivelysimple,inasmuchaseachfactorcontainselementsoftheotherfactorsaswell.Forinstance,associatingwithpeopleofintegrityisofgreathelpinpracticingtheDhamma,butforapersontorecognizepeopleofgenuineintegrityrequiresthatheorshehavesomepriorexperienceinpracticingtheDhamma.Thus,althoughtheformofthelistsuggestsasimplelinearprogression,theindividualfactorsofthelistareinterrelatedincomplexways.WhatthismeansinpracticeisthattheprocessofascertainingtheDhammaisacomplexone,requiringsensitivityanddiscernmentinbalancingandintegratingthefactorsinanappropriateway.

Associationwithpeopleofintegrity.BecausetheDhammaconsistsprimarilyofqualitiesofthemind,anywrittenaccountoftheDhammaisonlyapaleshadowoftherealthing.Thus,togainasenseoftheDhamma’sfulldimensions,youmustfindpeoplewhoembodytheDhammaintheirthoughts,words,anddeeds,andassociatewiththeminawaythatenablesyoutoabsorbasmuchoftheDhammaaspossible.Thepassagesexplainingthisfactorthusofferadviceintwoareas:howtorecognizepeopleofintegrityandhowbesttoassociatewiththemonceyouhavefoundthem.

Theimmediatesignofintegrityisgratitude.

“Apersonofintegrityisgratefulandacknowledgesthehelpgiventohim.Thisgratitude,thisacknowledgmentissecondnatureamongadmirablepeople.Itisentirelyonthelevelofpeopleofintegrity.”—AN2:31

Gratitudeisanecessarysignofintegrityinthatpeoplewhodonotrecognizeandvaluethegoodnessandintegrityinothersareunlikelytomaketheefforttodevelopintegritywithinthemselves.Onitsown,though,gratitudedoesn’tconstituteintegrity.Theessenceofintegrityliesinthreequalities:truth,harmlessness,anddiscernment.

“Thereisthecasewhereamonklivesindependenceonacertainvillageortown.Thenahouseholderorhouseholder’ssongoestohimandobserveshimwithregardtothreementalqualities—qualitiesbasedongreed,qualitiesbasedonaversion,qualitiesbasedondelusion:‘Arethereinthisvenerableoneanysuchqualitiesbasedongreed…aversion…delusionthat,withhismindovercomebythesequalities,hemightsay,“Iknow,”whilenotknowing,orsay,“Isee,”whilenotseeing;orthathemighturgeanothertoactinawaythatwasforhis/herlong-termharmandpain?’As

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heobserveshim,hecomestoknow,‘Thereareinthisvenerableonenosuchqualities….Hisbodilyandverbalbehaviorarethoseofonenotgreedy…aversive…deluded.AndtheDhammaheteachesisdeep,hardtosee,hardtorealize,tranquil,refined,beyondthescopeofconjecture,subtle,to-be-experiencedbythewise.”—MN95

Asthispassageshows,knowledgeofaperson’struthfulnessrequiresthatyoubesoobservantofhisorherbehaviorthatyoucanconfidentlyinferthequalityofhisorhermind.Thislevelofconfidence,inturn,requiresthatyounotonlybeobservant,butalsodiscerningandwillingtotaketime,forasanotherpassagepointsout,theappearanceofspiritualintegrityiseasytofake.

ThenKingPasenadiKosalawenttotheBlessedOneand,onarrival,havingboweddowntohim,sattooneside.Thensevencoiled-hairascetics,sevenJainascetics,sevenclothlessascetics,sevenone-clothascetics,andsevenwanderers—theirnailsgrownlong,theirbody-hairgrownlong—walkedpastnotfarfromtheBlessedOne.…Onseeingthem,KingPasenadiarrangedhisupperrobeoveroneshoulder,kneltdownwithhisrightkneeontheground,salutedtheasceticswithhishandsbeforehisheart,andannouncedhisnametothemthreetimes:“Iamtheking,venerablesirs,PasenadiKosala.Iamtheking,venerablesirs,PasenadiKosala.Iamtheking,venerablesirs,PasenadiKosala.”Thennotlongaftertheasceticshadpassed,hereturnedtotheBlessedOneand,onarrival,havingboweddowntohim,sattooneside.AshewassittingtherehesaidtotheBlessedOne,“Ofthoseintheworldwhoarearahantsoronthepathtoarahantship,aretheseamongthem?”“Yourmajesty,asalaymanenjoyingsensualpleasures,livingcrowdedwithwivesandchildren,usingKasifabricsandsandalwood,wearinggarlands,scents,andcreams,handlinggoldandsilver,it’shardforyoutoknowwhetherthesearearahantsoronthepathtoarahantship.[1]“It’sthroughlivingtogetherthataperson’svirtuemaybeknown,andthenonlyafteralongperiod,notashortperiod;byonewhoisattentive,notbyonewhoisinattentive;byonewhoisdiscerning,notbyonewhoisn’tdiscerning.[2]“It’sthroughtradingwithapersonthathispuritymaybeknown….[3]“It’sthroughadversitythataperson’sendurancemaybeknown….[4]“It’sthroughdiscussionthataperson’sdiscernmentmaybeknown,andthenonlyafteralongperiod,notashortperiod;byonewhoisattentive,notbyonewhoisinattentive;byonewhoisdiscerning,notbyonewhoisn’tdiscerning.”

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“Amazing,lord!Astounding!—howwellthatwasputbytheBlessedOne!…Thesemen,lord,aremyspies,myscouts,returningaftergoingoutthroughthecountryside.Theygooutfirst,andthenIgo.Now,whentheyhavescrubbedoffthedirtandmud,arewell-bathedandwell-perfumed,havetrimmedtheirhairandbeards,andhaveputonwhiteclothes,theywillgoaboutendowedandprovidedwiththefivestringsofsensuality.”—Ud6:2

AN4:192expandsonthesepoints,indicatingthattheabilitytorecognizeapersonofintegrityrequiresyoutohaveastrongsenseofintegrityyourself.Infact,MN110insiststhatyoumustbeapersonofintegrityinyouractions,views,andfriendshipsifyouaretorecognizeintegrityinanother.

ListeningtotheTrueDhamma.Onceyou’vedeterminedtothebestofyourabilitythatcertainpeopleembodyintegrity,thesuttasadviselisteningtotheirDhamma,bothtolearnaboutthem—tofurthertesttheirintegrity—andtolearnfromthem,togainasenseofwhattheDhammamightbe.Andagain,thesuttasrecommendbothhowtolistentotheDhammaandhowtorecognizetrueDhammawhenyouhearit.

MN95advisesthatyouspendtimenearpeopleofintegrity,developasenseofrespectforthem,andpaycloseattentiontotheirDhamma.

SN6:2andAN8:2explainthepurposeforrespecthere:It’saprerequisiteforlearning.Neitherpassageelaboratesonthispoint,butitstruthisfairlyobvious.Youfinditeasiertolearnfromsomeoneyourespectthanfromsomeoneyoudon’t.Respectopensyourmindandloosensyourpreconceivedopinionstomakeroomfornewknowledgeandskills.Atthesametime,apersonwithavaluableteachingtoofferwillfeelmoreinclinedtoteachittosomeonewhoshowsrespectthantosomeonewhodoesn’t.However,respectdoesn’tnecessarilymeangivingyourfullapprovaltotheteaching.Afterall,partofthepurposeinlisteningtotheDhammaistotestwhetherthepersonteachingithasintegrityinhisviewsorhers.Fullapprovalcancomeonlywhenyou’veputtheteachinginpracticeandtasteditsresults.ThisiswhytheVinaya,themonasticdiscipline,neverrequiresthatastudenttakevowsofobediencetoateacher.Hererespectmeans,inthewordsofSn2:9,alackofstubbornness.Or,inthewordsofAN6:88,“thepatiencetocomplywiththeteaching”:thewillingnesstolistenwithanopenmindandtotakethetimeandeffortneededtogiveanyteachingsthatseemreasonableaserioustry.

ThereasonabilityoftheteachingcanbegaugedbythecentralprincipleinviewsofintegrityasexplainedaboveinMN110.Thatprincipleisconvictioninkamma,theefficacyofhumanaction:thatpeopleareresponsiblefortheir

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actions,thattheirintentionsdeterminethequality—theskillfulnessorunskillfulness—oftheiractions,thatactionsgiveresults,andthatthequalityoftheactiondeterminesthequalityoftheresult.Apersonwhodoesn’tbelieveintheseprinciplescannotbetrusted.

Becausethedistinctionbetweenskillfulnessandunskillfulnessiscentraltotheprincipleofkamma—andalsototheprojectofputtinganendtosufferingandstress—MN135recommendsapproachingpotentialteachersandaskingthem:

“Whatisskillful?Whatisunskillful?Whatisblameworthy?Whatisblameless?Whatshouldbecultivated?Whatshouldnotbecultivated?What,havingbeendonebyme,willbeformylong-termharmandsuffering?Orwhat,havingbeendonebyme,willbeformylong-termwelfareandhappiness?”

Thetextsgiveafewexamplesofwhatmightbecalledthelowestcommondenominatorforjudgingwhetheranswerstothisquestionembodyintegrity.Inessence,theseteachingsconstitute“whatworks”ineliminatingblatantlevelsofsufferingandstressinone’slife.

“Nowwhatisunskillful?Takinglifeisunskillful,takingwhatisnotgiven…sexualmisconduct…lying…abusivespeech…divisivetale-bearing…idlechatterisunskillful.Covetousness…illwill…wrongviewsareunskillful.Thesethingsaretermedunskillful.“Andwhataretherootsofunskillfulthings?Greedisarootofunskillfulthings,aversionisarootofunskillfulthings,delusionisarootofunskillfulthings.Thesearetermedtherootsofunskillfulthings.“Andwhatisskillful?Abstainingfromtakinglifeisskillful,abstainingfromtakingwhatisnotgiven…fromsexualmisconduct…fromlying…fromabusivespeech…fromdivisivetale-bearing…abstainingfromidlechatterisskillful.Lackofcovetousness…lackofillwill…rightviewsareskillful.Thesethingsaretermedskillful.“Andwhataretherootsofskillfulthings?Lackofgreedisarootofskillfulthings,lackofaversionisarootofskillfulthings,lackofdelusionisarootofskillfulthings.Thesearetermedtherootsofskillfulthings.”—MN9

“Thesethreethingshavebeenpromulgatedbywisepeople,bypeoplewhoaretrulygood.Whichthree?Generosity…going-forth[fromthehomelife]…andservicetoone’smotherandfather.Thesethreethingshavebeenpromulgatedbywisepeople,bypeoplewhoaretrulygood.”—AN3:45

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However,thetrueDhammahasadimensionthatgoesfarbeyondthelowestcommondenominator.TorepeatthewordsofMN95,itis“deep,hardtosee,hardtorealize,tranquil,refined,beyondthescopeofconjecture,subtle,to-be-experiencedbythewise.”Theprincipleofskillfulness—ofcauseandeffectthatcanbetestedinyourownactions—stillappliesinthisdimension,butthestandardsfor“whatworks”onthislevelarecorrespondinglysubtlerandmorerefined.Twofamouspassagesindicatewhatthesestandardsare.

“Gotamī,thedhammasofwhichyoumayknow,‘Thesedhammaslead—topassion,nottodispassion;tobeingfettered,nottobeingunfettered;toaccumulating,nottoshedding;toself-aggrandizement,nottomodesty;todiscontent,nottocontentment;toentanglement,nottoseclusion;tolaziness,nottoarousedpersistence;tobeingburdensome,nottobeingunburdensome’:

Youmaydefinitelyhold,‘ThisisnottheDhamma,thisisnottheVinaya,thisisnottheTeacher’sinstruction.’

“Asforthedhammasofwhichyoumayknow,‘Thesedhammaslead—todispassion,nottopassion;tobeingunfettered,nottobeingfettered;toshedding,nottoaccumulating;tomodesty,nottoself-aggrandizement;tocontentment,nottodiscontent;toseclusion,nottoentanglement;toarousedpersistence,nottolaziness;tobeingunburdensome,nottobeingburdensome’:

Youmaydefinitelyhold,‘ThisistheDhamma,thisistheVinaya,thisistheTeacher’sinstruction.’”—AN8:53

“Upāli,thedhammasofwhichyoumayknow,‘Thesedhammasdonotleadtoutterdisenchantment,todispassion,tocessation,tocalm,todirectknowledge,toself-awakening,nortounbinding’:Youmaydefinitelyhold,‘ThisisnottheDhamma,thisisnottheVinaya,thisisnottheTeacher’sinstruction.’“Asforthedhammasofwhichyoumayknow,‘Thesedhammasleadtoutterdisenchantment,todispassion,tocessation,tocalm,todirectknowledge,toself-awakening,tounbinding’:Youmaydefinitelyhold,‘ThisistheDhamma,thisistheVinaya,thisistheTeacher’sinstruction.’”

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—AN7:80

AN8:30expandsonsomeoftheprinciplesinthefirstofthesetwopassages.Butherewewillfocusonthepointswherethesetwopassagesintersect—intherequirementthattheDhammaleadtodispassionandtobeingunfettered—forthestandardtestforagenuineexperienceofAwakeningisthatitarisesfromdispassionandcutsthefettersofthemind.

“Therearethesetenfetters….Self-identityviews,uncertainty,graspingathabits&practices,sensualdesire,andillwill.Thesearethefivelowerfetters.Andwhicharethefivehigherfetters?Passionforform,passionforwhatisformless,conceit,restlessness,andignorance.Thesearethefivehigherfetters.”—AN10:13

AsMN118explains,stream-entrycutsthefirstthreefetters;once-returning,thesecondlevelofAwakening,weakenspassion,aversion,anddelusion;non-returning,thethirdlevel,cutsthefettersofsensualdesireandillwill;andarahantship,thefinallevelofAwakening,cutstheremainingfive.

Ultimately,ofcourse,theonlyproofforwhetherateachingleadsinthisdirectioncomeswhen,havingputtheteachingintopractice,youactuallybegintocutthesefettersfromthemind.Butasapreliminaryexercise,youcancontemplateateachingtomakesenseofitandtoseeiftherearegoodreasonsforbelievingthatitwillleadintherightdirection.

“HearingtheDhamma,oneremembersit.Rememberingit,onepenetratesthemeaningofthosedhammas.Penetratingthemeaning,onecomestoanagreementthroughponderingthosedhammas.Therebeinganagreementthroughponderingthosedhammas,desirearises.Withthearisingofdesire,onebecomeswilling.Willing,onecontemplates[lit:‘weighs,’‘compares’].”—MN95

Theprocessofpondering,weighing,andcomparingtheteachingsisbasedonadoptingtherightattitudeandaskingtherightquestionsaboutthem.AsAN2:25pointsout,someoftheteachingsaremeanttohavetheirmeaninginferred,whereasothersarenot,andtomisapprehendwhichofthesetwoclassesaparticularteachingbelongstoisaseriousmistake.Thisiswherethenextfactorforstream-entryplaysarole.

Appropriateattention.MN2drawsthelinebetweenappropriateandinappropriateattentiononthebasisofthequestionsyouchoosetopursueincontemplatingtheDhamma.

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“Thereisthecasewhereanuninstructed,run-of-the-millperson…doesn’tdiscernwhatideasarefitforattention,orwhatideasareunfitforattention….Thisishowheattendsinappropriately:‘WasIinthepast?WasInotinthepast?WhatwasIinthepast?HowwasIinthepast?Havingbeenwhat,whatwasIinthepast?ShallIbeinthefuture?ShallInotbeinthefuture?WhatshallIbeinthefuture?HowshallIbeinthefuture?Havingbeenwhat,whatshallIbeinthefuture?’Orelseheisinwardlyperplexedabouttheimmediatepresent:‘AmI?AmInot?WhatamI?HowamI?Wherehasthisbeingcomefrom?Whereisitbound?’“Asheattendsinappropriatelyinthisway,oneofsixkindsofviewarisesinhim:TheviewIhaveaselfarisesinhimastrueandestablished,ortheviewIhavenoself…ortheviewItispreciselybymeansofselfthatIperceiveself…ortheviewItispreciselybymeansofselfthatIperceivenot-self…ortheviewItispreciselybymeansofnot-selfthatIperceiveselfarisesinhimastrueandestablished,orelsehehasaviewlikethis:Thisveryselfofmine—theknowerthatissensitivehereandtheretotheripeningofgoodandbadactions—istheselfofminethatisconstant,everlasting,eternal,notsubjecttochange,andwillendureaslongaseternity.Thisiscalledathicketofviews,awildernessofviews,acontortionofviews,awrithingofviews,afetterofviews.Boundbyafetterofviews,theuninstructedrun-of-the-millpersonisnotfreedfrombirth,aging,anddeath,fromsorrow,lamentation,pain,distress,anddespair.Heisnotfreed,Itellyou,fromstress.“Thewell-instructeddiscipleofthenobleones…discernswhatideasarefitforattention,andwhatideasareunfitforattention….Heattendsappropriately,Thisisstress…Thisistheoriginationofstress…Thisisthecessationofstress…Thisisthewayleadingtothecessationofstress.Asheattendsappropriatelyinthisway,threefettersareabandonedinhim:self-identityviews,doubt,andgraspingathabits&practices.”—MN2

SomeofthemostuselesscontroversiesinthehistoryofBuddhistthoughthavecomefromignoringthisteachingonwhatisandisnotanappropriateobjectforattention.Buddhistshavedebatedfruitlesslyforcenturies,andcontinuetodebatetoday,onhowtodefineaperson’sidentity—theanswertothequestion,“WhatamI?”—orwhetherapersondoesordoesn’thaveaself—theanswertothequestions,“AmI?AmInot?”Thefruitlessnessoftheseargumentshasprovenrepeatedlythepointmadebythispassage:thatanyanswertothesequestionsleadstoentanglementinthefettersthattheDhammaismeanttocutaway.

Toavoidthesecontroversies,thepassagerecommendsfocusingonfourtruthsthatconstitutetheappropriateobjectforattention—stress,itsorigination,itscessation,andthewayleadingtoitscessation.Thesetruthsaredirectlyrelatedto

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thequestionofskillfulness,whichdividesrealityintotwosetsofvariables:causeandeffect,skillfulandunskillful.Theoriginationofstressisanunskillfulcause,andstressitsresult.Thewayleadingtothecessationofstressisaskillfulcause,andthecessationofstressitsresult.Tolookatexperienceinthesetermsistoattendappropriatelyinawaythatcanhelpcutthefettersunderlyingunskillfulnessinthemind.

Forinstance,SN56:11definesthetruthofstressasthefiveclinging-aggregates—clingingtoform,feeling,perception,fabrications,andconsciousness—andmaintainsthatthistruthshouldbecomprehendedinsuchawayastoleadtodispassionfortheclinging.This,too,isafunctionofappropriateattention.

“Avirtuousmonkshouldattendinanappropriatewaytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant,stressful,adisease,acancer,anarrow,painful,anaffliction,alien,adissolution,anemptiness,not-self.Foritispossiblethatavirtuousmonk,attendinginanappropriatewaytothesefiveclinging-aggregatesasinconstant…not-self,wouldrealizethefruitofstream-entry.”—SN22:122

ThusappropriateattentionentailsawayoflookingattheDhammanotonlyasitispresentedinateaching,butalsoasitpresentsitselfdirectlyasexperiencetothemind.

PracticeinaccordancewiththeDhamma.Onceyou’vegainedasenseoftheDhammathroughappropriateattention,theremainingstepistopracticeinaccordancewiththeDhamma.Aswiththefirsttwofactorsforstream-entry,thisprocessistwofold:adaptingyouractionstofollowinlinewiththeDhamma(ratherthantryingtoadapttheDhammatofollowyourownpreferences),andrefiningyourunderstandingoftheDhammaasitistestedinexperience.

MN61offersexplicitinstructionsonhowthisistobedone.

“Whatdoyouthink,Rāhula:Whatisamirrorfor?”“Forreflection,sir.”“Inthesameway,Rāhula,bodilyactions,verbalactions,andmentalactionsaretobedonewithrepeatedreflection.“Wheneveryouwanttoperformabodilyaction,youshouldreflectonit:‘ThisbodilyactionIwanttoperform—woulditleadtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth?Isitanunskillfulbodilyaction,withpainfulconsequences,painfulresults?’If,onreflection,youknowthatitwouldleadtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth;itwouldbeanunskillfulbodilyactionwithpainfulconsequences,painfulresults,then

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anybodilyactionofthatsortisabsolutelyunfitforyoutodo.Butifonreflectionyouknowthatitwouldnotcauseaffliction…itwouldbeaskillfulbodilyactionwithhappyconsequences,happyresults,thenanybodilyactionofthatsortisfitforyoutodo.“Whileyouareperformingabodilyaction,youshouldreflectonit:‘ThisbodilyactionIamdoing—isitleadingtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth?Isitanunskillfulbodilyaction,withpainfulconsequences,painfulresults?’If,onreflection,youknowthatitisleadingtoself-affliction,toafflictionofothers,orboth…youshouldgiveitup.Butifonreflectionyouknowthatitisnot…youmaycontinuewithit.“Havingperformedabodilyaction,youshouldreflectonit….If,onreflection,youknowthatitledtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth;itwasanunskillfulbodilyactionwithpainfulconsequences,painfulresults,thenyoushouldconfessit,revealit,layitopentotheTeacherortoaknowledgeablecompanionintheholylife.Havingconfessedit…youshouldexerciserestraintinthefuture.Butifonreflectionyouknowthatitdidnotleadtoaffliction…itwasaskillfulbodilyactionwithhappyconsequences,happyresults,thenyoushouldstaymentallyrefreshedandjoyful,trainingdayandnightinskillfulmentalqualities.[Similarlyforverbalactionsandmentalactions,althoughthefinalparagraphconcerningmentalactionssays:]“Havingperformedamentalaction,youshouldreflectonit….If,onreflection,youknowthatitledtoself-affliction,totheafflictionofothers,ortoboth;itwasanunskillfulmentalactionwithpainfulconsequences,painfulresults,thenyoushouldfeeldistressed,ashamed,anddisgustedwithit.Feelingdistressed…youshouldexerciserestraintinthefuture.Butifonreflectionyouknowthatitdidnotleadtoaffliction…itwasaskillfulmentalactionwithhappyconsequences,happyresults,thenyoushouldstaymentallyrefreshedandjoyful,trainingdayandnightinskillfulmentalqualities.”—MN61

Theprocessofself-examinationrecommendedinthispassageincludestheprinciplesdiscussedunderthefirstthreefactorsforstream-entry.Youpayappropriateattentiontoyourownintentionsandactions,andtotheirresults,toseewhethertheyqualifyasskillfulorunskillful.Ifyounoticethatanyofyourbodilyorverbalactionshaveledtoharmfulresults,youapproachapersonofintegrityandlistentohis/heradvice.InthiswayyoucombinethetwoprinciplesthatIti16and17recommendasthemosthelpfulinternalandexternalprinciplesforawakening:appropriateattentionandfriendshipwithadmirablepeople.Itis

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nocoincidencethatthesearepreciselythetwoprinciplesrecommendedinthediscoursetotheKālāmas.

Self-examinationofthissort,however,sharesyetanotherfeaturewiththefirstfactorforstream-entry:theneedforintegrity.Justasyourintegrityisaprerequisiteforyourabilitytodetectintegrityinothers,soitisaprerequisiteforyourabilitytogaugethetruenatureofyourintentionsandtheresultsofyouractions.Thesearecommonlythetwoareasofexperiencewherepeopleareleasthonestwiththemselves.Yet,foryourpracticetoaccordwiththeDhamma,youmustresistanyhabitualtendencytobelessthantotallyscrupulousaboutthem.Thisiswhy,asaprefacetotheaboveadvice,thesuttashowstheBuddhalecturingontheimportanceoftruthfulnessasthemostessentialqualityforapersononthepath.

AlthoughRāhulareportedlyreceivedtheaboveadvicewhenhewasachild,MN19maintainsthattheprinciplesitcontainscanleadallthewaytofullAwakening.Thismeans,ofcourse,thattheycanleadtothefirstlevelofAwakening,whichisstream-entry.

Stream-entryisoftencalledthearisingoftheDhammaeye.Whatstream-enterersseewiththisDhammaeyeisalwaysexpressedinthesameterms:“Whateverissubjecttooriginationisallsubjecttocessation.”ApassageintheVinayashowsthattheconcept“allthatissubjecttoorigination”occursinconjunctionwithaglimpseofwhatstandsinoppositionto“allthatissubjecttoorigination”—inotherwords,theunfabricated:deathlessness.

[ImmediatelyafterattainingtheStream]SāriputtathewandererwenttowhereMoggallānathewandererwasstaying.Moggallānathewanderersawhimcomingfromafarand,onseeinghim.said,“Yourfacultiesarebright,myfriend;yourcomplexionpureandclear.CoulditbethatyouhaveattainedtheDeathless?”“Yes,myfriend,Ihave….”—MvI.23.5

ThesuttasdescribetheexperienceoftheDeathlessinonlythesketchiestterms.Whatlittledescriptionthereis,isintendedtoshowthattheDeathlessliesbeyondmostlinguisticcategories.However,thereareafewindicatorstoshowwhattheDeathlessisnot.

Tobeginwith,itcannotbedescribedasastateofeitherbeingnornon-being.

MahāKoṭṭhita:Withtheremainderlessstoppingandfadingofthesixspheresofcontact[vision,hearing,smell,taste,touch,andintellection]isitthecasethatthereisanythingelse?Sāriputta:Don’tsaythat,myfriend.

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MahāKoṭṭhita:Withtheremainderlessstoppingandfadingofthesixspheresofcontact,isitthecasethatthereisnotanythingelse?Sāriputta:Don’tsaythat,myfriend.MahāKoṭṭhita:…isitthecasethattherebothisandisnotanythingelse?Sāriputta:Don’tsaythat,myfriend.MahāKoṭṭhita:…isitthecasethatthereneitherisnorisnotanythingelse?Sāriputta:Don’tsaythat,myfriend.MahāKoṭṭhita:Beingasked…ifthereisanythingelse,yousay,‘Don’tsaythat,myfriend’.Beingasked…ifthereisnotanythingelse…iftherebothisandisnotanythingelse…ifthereneitherisnorisnotanythingelse,yousay,‘Don’tsaythat,myfriend’.Now,howisthemeaningofthisstatementtobeunderstood?Sāriputta:Saying…isitthecasethatthereisanythingelse…isitthecasethatthereisnotanythingelse…isitthecasethattherebothisandisnotanythingelse…isitthecasethatthereneitherisnorisnotanythingelse,oneisobjectifyingnon-objectification.Howeverfarthesixspheresofcontactgo,thatishowfarobjectificationgoes.Howeverfarobjectificationgoes,thatishowfarthesixspheresofcontactgo.Withtheremainderlessfadingandstoppingofthesixspheresofcontact,therecomestobethestopping,theallayingofobjectification.—AN4:173

Second,thedimensionoftheDeathlessisnotdevoidofawareness,althoughtheawarenessheremustbydefinitionlieapartfromtheconsciousnessincludedinthefiveaggregatesoffabricatedexperience.

“Monks,thatdimensionshouldbeexperiencedwheretheeye(vision)stopsandtheperception(mentallabel)offormfades.Thatdimensionshouldbeexperiencedwheretheearstopsandtheperceptionofsoundfades…wherethenosestopsandtheperceptionofaromafades…wherethetonguestopsandtheperceptionofflavorfades…wherethebodystopsandtheperceptionoftactilesensationfades…wheretheintellectstopsandtheperceptionofidea/phenomenonfades:Thatdimensionshouldbeexperienced.”—SN35:117

“Havingdirectlyknowntheextentofdesignationandtheextentoftheobjectsofdesignation,theextentofexpressionandtheextentoftheobjectsofexpression,theextentofdescriptionandtheextentoftheobjectsofdescription,theextentofdiscernmentandtheextentoftheobjectsofdiscernment,theextenttowhichthecyclerevolves:Havingdirectlyknown

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that,themonkisreleased.[Tosaythat,]‘Themonkreleased,havingdirectlyknownthat,doesnotsee,doesnotknowishisopinion,’thatwouldbemistaken.’”—DN15

consciousnesswithoutsurface,withoutendluminousallaround:

Herewater,earth,fire,andwindhavenofooting.Herelongandshort,

coarseandfine,fairandfoul,nameandform

areallbroughttoanend.Withthestoppingof[theaggregateof]consciousness,

eachisherebroughttoanend.—DN11

“consciousnesswithoutsurface,withoutend,luminousallaround,isnotexperiencedthroughthesolidityofearth,theliquidityofwater,theradianceoffire,thewindinessofwind,thedivinityofdevas(andsoonthroughalistofthevariouslevelsofgodhoodto)theallnessoftheAll(i.e.,thesixsensespheres).”—MN49

“Evenso,Vaccha,anyform…feeling…perception…fabrication…consciousnessbywhichonedescribingtheTathāgatawoulddescribehim:ThattheTathāgatahasabandoned,itsrootdestroyed,likeanuprootedpalmtree,deprivedoftheconditionsofexistence,notdestinedforfuturearising.Freedfromtheclassificationofform…feeling…perception…fabrication…consciousness,Vaccha,theTathāgataisdeep,boundless,hardtofathom,likethesea.”—MN72

“Freed,dissociated,andreleasedfromtenthings,Bāhuna,theTathāgatadwellswithunrestrictedawareness.Whichten?Freed,dissociated,andreleasedfromform,theTathāgatadwellswithunrestrictedawareness.Freed,dissociated,andreleasedfromfeeling…fromperception…fromfabrications…fromconsciousness…frombirth…fromaging…fromdeath…fromstress…Freed,dissociated,andreleasedfromdefilement,theTathāgatadwellswithunrestrictedawareness.“Justasared,blue,orwhitelotusborninthewaterandgrowinginthewater,risesupabovethewaterandstandswithnowateradheringtoit,inthesamewaytheTathāgata—freed,dissociated,andreleasedfromthesetenthings—dwellswithunrestrictedawareness.”—AN10:81

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Thesearenotthewordsofapersonwhohasfoundreleaseinunconsciousness.

Finally,althoughtheDeathlessissometimescalledconsciousnesswithoutsurface,withoutend,itisnottobeconfusedwiththeformlessstageofconcentrationcalledthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousness.Oneofthemaindifferencesbetweenthetwoisthatthedimensionoftheinfinitudeofconsciousnessisfabricatedandwilled(seeMN140).Theelementofwill,though,canbeveryattenuatedwhileoneisinthatdimension,andonlydiscernmentatanextremelysubtlelevelcanferretitout.Onewayoftestingforitistoseeifthereisanysenseofidentificationwiththeknowing.Ifthereis,thenthereisstilltheconceitofI-makingandmy-makingappliedtothatstate.Anothertestistoseeifthereisanysensethattheknowingcontainsallthingsoristheirsource.Ifthereis,thenthereisstillfabricationinthatstateofmind,forwhentheDeathlessisfullycomprehended,thesenseofunrestrictedawarenessascontainingoractingasthesourceofotherthingsisseentobeanignorantconceit.

“Thereisthecase,monks,whereanuninstructedrun-of-the-millperson…perceivesUnbindingasUnbinding.PerceivingUnbindingasUnbinding,heconceivesthingsaboutUnbinding,heconceivesthingsinUnbinding,heconceivesthingscomingoutofUnbinding,heconceivesUnbindingas‘mine,’hedelightsinUnbinding.Whyisthat?Becausehehasnotcomprehendedit,Itellyou….“Amonkwhoisanarahant,devoidofmentalfermentations—whohasattainedcompletion,finishedthetask,laiddowntheburden,attainedthetruegoal,destroyedthefettersofbecoming,andisreleasedthroughrightknowledge…directlyknowsUnbindingasUnbinding.DirectlyknowingUnbindingasUnbinding,hedoesnotconceivethingsaboutUnbinding,doesnotconceivethingsinUnbinding,doesnotconceivethingscomingoutofUnbinding,doesnotconceiveUnbindingas‘mine,’doesnotdelightinUnbinding.Whyisthat?Becausehehascomprehendedit,Itellyou.”—MN1

However,inlinewiththeinstructionstoGotamīandUpāli,thetruetestofanexperienceofstream-entryisnotinitsdescription,butintheresultsitproduces.Thetextsdescribetheseintwoways:fourfactorsthatcharacterizeapersonwhohasenteredthestream,andthreefettersthatstream-entryautomaticallycuts.

Thefourfactors,accordingtoAN10:92,are:unwaveringconvictionintheBuddha,unwaveringconvictionintheDhamma,unwaveringconvictionintheSaṅgha,and“virtuesthatareappealingtothenobleones—untorn,unbroken,unspotted,unsplattered,liberating,praisedbythewise,untarnished,leadingto

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concentration.”Thethreefettersare:self-identityviews,doubt,andgraspingathabitsandpractices.

Thetwolistshavetheircommongroundintheexperienceofthepathtostream-entry.Asthepath—thenobleeightfoldpath—yieldstothefruitofstream-entry,youseethatalthoughordinaryactioncanleadtopleasant,unpleasant,ormixedresultsontheleveloffabricatedexperience,thenobleeightfoldpathisaformofactionthatproducesnoneoftheseresults,butinsteadleadstotheendofaction(seeAN4:237).ThisexperiencecutsthroughanydoubtaboutthetruthoftheBuddha’sAwakening,thusensuringthatyourconvictionintheBuddha,Dhamma,andSaṅghawillnotwaver.Havingseentheresultsthatordinaryactionsdohaveonthefabricatedlevel,however,youwouldn’tdaretransgressthefivepreceptsthatembodythevirtuesappealingtothenobleones(seeAN8:39).Still,becausetheDeathlessistheendofaction,youdon’tgraspathabitsandpracticesasthegoalinandofthemselves.Andbecauseyouhaveseentheaggregatesofform,feeling,perception,fabrication,andconsciousnessfadeawayintheexperienceoftheDeathless,youwouldneverconstructanidentityviewaroundthem.

Althoughthetraditionallistsoftheresultsofstream-entryprovidestringentstandardsforjudgingone’sownattainment,thetexts—andlivingBuddhisttraditionstoday—recordmanyinstancesofpeoplewhohaveover-estimatedtheirattainment.Thuswhenyouhavewhatseemstobeanattainmentofthissort,youhavetoexamineitcarefullyandtestthemindtoseeifthethreefettersareactuallycut.Andbecausetheattainmentitselfiswhatprovesordisprovestheauthorityandauthenticityofthetexts,aswellastheintegrityofyourteachers,youareultimatelyleftwithonlyoneguaranteeofyourattainment:yourownintegrity,whichyouhopehasbeenadequatelydevelopedalongthepath.InkeepingwiththeprinciplethattheDhammaisultimatelyaqualityofthemindasembodiedintheentireperson,theonlywayyoucanultimatelygaugethetruthoftheDhammaisifyouasapersonaretrue.

Becausetheattainmentofstream-entrycanmakesuchanenormousdifferenceinyourlife,itiswortheveryounceofintegrityneededtoattainitandtoascertaintheattainment.

ThentheBlessedOne,pickingupalittlebitofdustwiththetipofhisfingernail,saidtothemonks,“Whatdoyouthink,monks?Whichisgreater:thelittlebitofdustIhavepickedupwiththetipofmyfingernail,orthegreatearth?”“Thegreatearthisfargreater,lord.ThelittlebitofdusttheBlessedOnehaspickedupwiththetipofhisfingernailisnexttonothing.It’snotahundredth,athousandth,aonehundred-thousandth…whencompared

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withthegreatearth.”“Inthesameway,monks,foradiscipleofthenobleoneswhoisconsummateinview,anindividualwhohasbrokenthrough[tostream-entry],thesufferingandstresstotallyendedandextinguishedisfargreater.Thatwhichremainsinthestateofhavingatmostsevenremaininglifetimesisnexttonothing:it’snotahundredth,athousandth,aonehundred-thousandth,whencomparedwiththepreviousmassofsuffering.That’showgreatthebenefitisofbreakingthroughtotheDhamma,monks.That’showgreatthebenefitisofobtainingtheDhammaeye.”—SN13:1

Forapersonwhohasbeenrelievedofthismuchsuffering,thequestionofthehistoricalBuddhabecomesirrelevant.IfthegenuineDeathlessisnotthehistoricalBuddha’sattainment,it’swhatagenuineBuddhawouldhaveattained.TheDhammaleadingtothisattainmentcouldnothavecomefromanyoneelse.AsSN22:87quotestheBuddhaassaying,“OnewhoseestheDhammaseesme,”i.e.,theaspectoftheBuddhathatreallymatters,theaspectsignalingthattotalfreedom,thetotalendofsuffering,isanattainablegoal.

Soledominionovertheearth,goingtoheaven,lordshipoverallworlds:

thefruitofStream-entryexcelsthem.—Dhp178

Theseareaudaciousclaims,andtheyobviouslyrequireanapproachmoreaudaciousthanthehistoricalmethodtotestthem.Asthesuttasindicate,nothinglessthangenuineintegrityofcharacter,developedthroughcarefultrainingandpractice,willsuffice.Giventhat“dhamma”meansbothteachingandqualityofmind,itstandstoreasonthattruthofcharacterisneededtomeasurethetruthoftheteaching.Onlytruepeoplecanknowthetruthofthesuttas’claims.Thismayseemanexclusionaryorelitistthingtosay,butactuallyit’snot.Thesortofeducationneededtomasterthehistoricalmethodisn’topentoeveryone,butintegrityis—ifyouwanttodevelopit.Thesuttassaythatthebestthingsinlifeareavailabletothosewhoaretrue.Theonlyquestioniswhetheryou’retrueenoughtowanttoknowifthey’reright.

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Glossary

Ajaan(Thai):Teacher;mentor.Pāliform:Ācariya.

Arahant:A“worthyone”or“pureone;”apersonwhosemindisfreeofdefilementandthusisnotdestinedforfurtherrebirth.AtitlefortheBuddhaandthehighestlevelofhisnobledisciples.Sanskritform:Arhat.

Deva:Literally,“shiningone.”Aninhabitantoftheheavenlyrealms.

Dhamma:(1)Event;action;(2)aphenomenoninandofitself;(3)mentalquality;(4)doctrine,teaching;(5)nibbāna(althoughtherearepassagesdescribingnibbānaastheabandoningofalldhammas).Sanskritform:Dharma.

Jhāna:Mentalabsorption.Astateofstrongconcentrationfocusedonasinglesensationormentalnotion.Thistermisderivedfromtheverbjhāyati,whichmeanstoburnwithasteady,stillflame.Sanskritform:Dhyāna.

Kamma:Intentionalact.Sanskritform:Karma.

Khandha:Aggregate;heap;pile.Sanskritform:Skandha.

Nibbāna:Literally,the“unbinding”ofthemindfrompassion,aversion,anddelusion,andfromtheentireroundofdeathandrebirth.Asthistermalsodenotestheextinguishingofafire,itcarriesconnotationsofstilling,cooling,andpeace.“Totalnibbāna”insomecontextsdenotestheexperienceofAwakening;inothers,thefinalpassingawayofanarahant.Sanskritform:Nirvāṇa.

Samaṇa:Contemplative.Literally,apersonwhoabandonstheconventionalobligationsofsociallifeinordertofindawayoflifemore“intune”(sama)withthewaysofnature.

Saṁsāra:Transmigration;theprocessofwanderingthroughrepeatedstatesofbecoming,withtheirattendantdeathandrebirth.

Saṅgha:Ontheconventional(sammati)level,thistermdenotesthecommunitiesofBuddhistmonksandnuns.Ontheideal(ariya)level,itdenotesthosefollowersoftheBuddha,layorordained,whohaveattainedatleaststream-

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entry.

Sutta:Discourse.Sanskritform:Sūtra.

Tathāgata:Literally,“onewhoistrulygone(tatha-gata)”or“onewhohasbecomeauthentic(tatha-āgata),”anepithetusedinancientIndiaforapersonwhohasattainedthehighestreligiousgoal.InBuddhism,itusuallydenotestheBuddha,althoughoccasionallyitalsodenotesanyofhisarahantdisciples.

Vinaya:Themonasticdiscipline,whoserulesandtraditionscomprisesixvolumesinprintedtext.

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Abbreviations

AN AṅguttaraNikāyaDhp DhammapadaDN DīghaNikāyaIti ItivuttakaMN MajjhimaNikāyaMv MahāvaggaSN SaṁyuttaNikāyaSn SuttaNipātaUd Udāna

ReferencestoDN,Iti,Khp,andMNaretodiscourse(sutta);referencestoDhp,toverse.ReferencestoMvaretochapter,

section,andsub-section.Referencestoothertextsaretosection(nipāta,saṁyutta,orvagga)anddiscourse.

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2Copyright 3Introduction 4LifeIsn’tJustSuffering 6OpeningtheDoortotheDhamma 10QuestionsofSkill 18FreedomfromFear 23Saṁsāra 30SaṁsāraDividedbyZero 32TheAgendasofMindfulness 34De-perception 37TheWeightofMountains 42FivePilesofBricks 49PerennialIssues 55“Whenyouknowforyourselves…” 63Glossary 81Abbreviations 83

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