the institute of soil science in pushchino: its forty-year history

ISSN 1064�2293, Eurasian Soil Science, 2010, Vol. 43, No. 11, pp. 1301–1307. © Pleiades Publishing, Ltd., 2010.Original Russian Text © V.N. Kudeyarov, 2010, published in Pochvovedenie, 2010, No. 11, pp. 1401–1408.

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The Institute of Physicochemical and BiologicalProblems of Soil Science of the Russian Academy ofSciences in Pushchino has an intricate history. Theorigin of this institute dates back to the second part ofthe 1960s. The need to have soil science among thefundamental sciences represented at the Academy ofSciences has always been realized by the Academy.Indeed, soil—the object of soil science—is an inde�pendent natural body, the basis of plant and animal lifeon the planet, and a crucial link between living andinert matter. In the USSR Academy of Sciences, fun�damental soil science was represented by theDokuchaev Soil Science Institute.

However, in 1963, under the pressure of politicalcircumstances and the voluntaristic decisions ofN.S. Khrushchev, the Dokuchaev Soil Science Insti�tute was transferred from the USSR Academy of Sci�ences into the All�Union Academy of AgriculturalSciences. This was a very sad episode, which greatlyimpaired the development of soil science as a funda�mental science in the former Soviet Union.

In 1967–1968, in relation to the adoption of anumber of large economic programs by the SovietGovernment, the USSR Academy of Sciences waschallenged to work on fundamental problems of thedevelopment of agriculture in the country. The prob�lems related to soil science and agricultural chemistrywere among the priority problems. At that time, thereturning of the Dokuchaev Soil Science Instituteunder the umbrella of the USSR Academy of Sciencesproved to be impossible, and it was decided to organizenew institutes of soil science within the framework ofthe Academy.

In his speech at the annual meeting of the Academyin December 1965, its President AcademicianM.V. Keldysh stressed the need to solve the problemsrelated to rational land management, land reclama�tion, the development of irrigation, the use of chemi�

cal ameliorants, and other means of agricultural inten�sification.

The next meeting in the summer of 1966 wasdevoted to the development of land reclamation in theSoviet Union. Academician Keldysh noted the need toorganize the Institute of Agrochemical Problems,which should ensure “the close cooperation of chem�ists, physicists, and biologists working on the theoreti�cal and applied problems of the chemization of agri�culture.” (In fact, the idea of the creation of the Insti�tute of Agricultural Chemistry of the USSR Academyof Sciences was advanced by Academician D.N. Prya�nishnikov as long ago as in 1936).

This meeting adopted a resolution asking the Pre�sidium of the Academy to organize the Institute of SoilScience and Agricultural Chemistry at the SiberianBranch of the Academy.

The organization of the Institute of AgrochemicalProblems was entrusted to Academician Ya.V. Peive.However, soon, Ya.V. Peive was elected the GeneralScientific Secretary of the Academy, and he could notdelegate his time to the organization of the institute. In1967, Corresponding Member of the USSR Academyof Sciences V.A. Kovda, who returned to the SovietUnion after his six�year employment as the Directorof the Department of Natural and Exact Sciences ofUNESCO in Paris, took the organization of this insti�tute into his hands. He insisted that the future instituteshould work not only on the problems of agriculturalchemistry but also on the problems of soil science. Hebelieved that the problems of agricultural chemistrycould not be solved without proper attention to soils,because chemical ameliorants and fertilizers interactwith soils and change their physicochemical and bio�logical characteristics. However, his main idea was torestore the status of fundamental soil science withinthe Academy.

On his initiative, in April 1967, the Presidium ofthe Academy adopted a resolution On the Develop�

HISTORY OF SCIENCE

The Institute of Soil Science in Pushchino:Its Forty�Year History

V. N. KudeyarovInstitute of Physicochemical and Biological Problems of Soil Science, Russian Academy of Sciences,

ul. Institutskaya 2, Pushchino, Moscow oblast, 142290 RussiaE�mail: [email protected]

Received May 12, 2010

Abstract—The main stages of the 40�year�long history of the Institute of Physicochemical and BiologicalProblems of Soil Science of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Pushchino are considered.

DOI: 10.1134/S1064229310110141

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KUDEYAROV

ment of Investigations in the Fields of AgriculturalChemistry and Soil Science.

Paragraph 3 of this resolution stated the need toorganize the Institute of Agricultural Chemistry andSoil Science with the aim “to study the theoreticalproblems of agricultural chemistry, soil science, andsoil reclamation” and to locate this institute in Push�chino beginning in 1969. It was planned to begin theconstruction of new laboratory buildings in 1971.

In January 1968, to execute this decision, theDepartment of Soil Science, Agricultural Chemistry,and Soil Reclamation was organized at the Institute ofthe Biochemistry and Physiology of Microorganismsof the USSR Academy of Sciences. V.A. Kovdabecame the head of this department. Thus, the basis ofthe future Institute of Agricultural Chemistry and SoilScience was founded.

V.V. Builov, M.S. Sokolov, S.V. Boiko, I.K. Antipov,M.N. Pol’skii, V.N. Kudeyarov, V.N. Zolotareva,I.I. Skripchenko, and others became the first staffmembers of this department. An outstanding agriculturalchemist A.V. Sokolov (a corresponding member of theUSSR Academy of Sciences) was invited to head investi�gations in the field of agricultural chemistry.

The material base of the department was very mod�est. There was just a 20�m2 room at the Institute ofBiophysics of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In May1969, the Institute of the Biochemistry and Physiologyof Microorganisms received its own building, and thedepartment could use the laboratory rooms for variousexperimental works.

The research work of the department began imme�diately after its organization. In 1969, two expeditionsto Rostov oblast and the Transbaikal region were orga�nized. The first field materials were obtained, and thefirst scientific results were published.

In 1969–1970, the department continued its devel�opment; these were the years when the scientific baseof the future Institute of Agricultural Chemistry andSoil Science was shaped.

The resolution of the Presidium of the USSRAcademy of Sciences on October 29, 1970, markedthe official organization of the new institute. At thattime, the team of the department consisted of 65 per�sons, including two corresponding members of theUSSR Academy of Sciences (V.A. Kovda andA.V. Sokolov), three doctors of science, and twentycandidates of science. Professors O.V. Makeev,A.V. Peterburgskii, and E.V. Lobova were invited towork at the institute and contributed a lot to the shap�ing and execution of its scientific program.

Kovda understood that the newly created instituteshould not be a copy of the Dokuchaev Soil ScienceInstitute or a copy of institutes specializing in agricul�tural chemistry. Therefore, from the very beginning,the problems of soil science and agricultural chemistrywere considered from the biospheric point of view.This was a distinctive feature of the new institute. It

should be noted that the end of the 1960s and thebeginning of the 1970s were the years of considerableintensification and chemization of agriculture in theSoviet Union. In this context, the problems of theenvironmental protection from pollution with the res�idues of pesticides (M.S. Sokolov) and fertilizers(V.N. Kudeyarov) were in the focus of the researchworks performed by the institute. The biogeochemicalapproach to studying the cycles of major biophilouselements, heavy metals, and xenobiotics was laid inthe basis of the investigations performed by the insti�tute. These were the first works of that kind in theSoviet Union. The institute held priority in publica�tions devoted to the cycles and balance of nutrients inecosystems. These studies were performed under thesupervision of Prof. A.V. Peterburgskii. The majorattention was paid to nitrogen and phosphorus as themost deficient nutrients. The potential negative envi�ronmental consequences of the intense use of chemi�cals in agriculture were thoroughly analyzed. Thisdirection of research was proposed and supported byV.A. Kovda.

The biogeochemical investigations were headed bythe young scientists N.F. Glazovskii (afterwards, a cor�responding member of the Russian Academy of Sci�ences and a deputy director of the Institute of Geogra�phy of the Russian Academy of Sciences) andA.G. Nazarov.

The problems of the biological productivity of soilsand landscapes were studied by A.N. Tyuryukanov andT.L. Bystritskaya.

The Laboratory of Mathematical and PhysicalModeling of Soil Processes was headed by V.V. Gal�itskii. Owing to the support of Kovda, this laboratorywas well equipped with various unique devices, includ�ing the first computers.

In the middle of the 1970s, the Institute had themost advanced (for that time) laboratory equipment.Mass spectrometers, gas and liquid chromatographs,an X�ray diffractometer, a scanning electron micro�scope, an emission spectrometer to analyze the iso�topes of nitrogen, electric paramagnetic resonanceand nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopes, infra�red spectrophotometers, and other devices were at thedisposal of the researchers.

V.A. Kovda invited not only soils scientists andagricultural chemists but also specialists in neighbor�ing fields of knowledge, including microbiologists,chemists, mathematicians, physicists, etc. This was aprescient decision. Afterwards, high�quality specialistswith their background education in mathematics(Ya.A. Pachepskii) and in chemistry (D.L. Pinskii,A.A. Ponizovskii, and V.V. Snakin) were trained at theinstitute.

The institute was also in charge of the developmentof large�scale international and All�Union programs,including the programs on the classification and diag�nostics of the soils of the world, the assessment of the


THE INSTITUTE OF SOIL SCIENCE IN PUSHCHINO 1303

world land resources, the role of biological nitrogen infarming and in biocenoses, the International Biologi�cal Program, etc.

Kovda took special care of the works having an inter�national significance. Thus, the Soil Map of World editedby V.A. Kovda, E.V. Lobova, G.V. Dobrovol’skii,Yu.M. Ivanov, B.G. Rozanov, and N.A. Solomatinawas developed and published in English and in Rus�sian. This map served as the basis for the internationalcooperation of scientists from different countries inthe field of soil geography. The publication of this mapwas a significant contribution of Russian pedologiststo the assessment and rational use of land resources ona global scale. On the basis of this map, special mate�rials on the diagnostics of the properties of the majorsoils of the world were collected; their characteristicswere compared with those of the soils in the SovietUnion. Later (in 1987), a series of works on the SoilMap of the World was awarded the State Prize of theSoviet Union.

In the same years, Kovda headed a great workordered by the United Nations on the development ofthe world map of aridity and droughts. These materialsserved as official documents at the IntergovernmentalConference of the UN on the Problems of Desertifica�tion in Nairobi (Kenya) in 1977.

In the 1970s, the Institute participated in the workscommissioned by the state and related to the problemof the partial diversion of the flows of Siberian andnorthern rivers to ensure irrigation in the southernregions. Kovda understood the urgent need to replen�ish the water resources in the basin of the Aral Sea;however, he had strong doubts about the favorableconsequences of this gigantic project. The first feasi�bility studies performed under his supervision showedthat the partial diversion of the river flows could exerta negative impact on the floodplains of the northernrivers, including the enhancement of cryogenic distur�bances (V.G. Chigir) and, at the same time, enhancethe soil salinization in the southern regions. A mathe�matical model of the soil changes in the area of theprojected channel was developed by Ya.A. Pachepskii.The results of these investigations played a significantrole in the decision to stop this ambitious and insuffi�ciently grounded project.

As an expert in the field of soil salinization, Kovdasupported the idea to study the biogeochemistry ofsulfur. It was demonstrated that the biogenic processeslead to notable changes in the isotopic composition ofsulfur (V.V. Builov). Light sulfur isotopes tend to accu�mulate in the upper part of the soil profile. The mass�spectrometric studies of sulfur isotopes as naturallabels made it possible to understand the nature of thesodic salinization of the floodplain soils in the lowerreaches of the Don River.

The problems of soil reclamation were of particularinterest for Kovda. He supported the organization ofthe well�equipped Laboratory of Soil Mineralogy(A.I. Trubin, A.O. Alekseev, and T.V. Alekseeva),

which concentrated on the study of the particular rea�sons and factors concerning the degradation of irri�gated soils. One of the negative consequences of theirrigation of chernozems is their “slitization” (thedevelopment of vertic properties). It was shown thatthis process is caused by the enrichment of irrigatedsoils with clay minerals of the montmorillonitic group.The processes of the neoformation of secondary min�erals were studied in detail in the meadow�cher�nozemic soils of rice paddies in the Kuban Riverfloodplain.

Kovda supervised the works on the geography andcartography of soils performed by I.N. Stepanov,I.V. Ivanov, and V.M. Alifanov. However, he did notimpose his own views on the researchers and tried tosupport novel ideas. Thus, he supported the develop�ment of the method of relief flexure by I.N. Stepanovas an original method of soil mapping, though its uni�versal applicability caused doubt among soil scientists.

An original field of investigations into the problemsof permafrost�affected soils was headed byO.V. Makeev. Kovda was greatly interested in theresults of these studies and supported the organizationof an experimental station in the permafrost zone andregular expeditions, which are still continued by theteam of D.A. Gilichinskii. The results of their workscan hardly be overestimated. Unique materials on thebiogeochemistry and genesis of permafrost�affectedsoils (S.V. Gubin), the carbon cycle in cryogenic eco�systems, and the paleobiota in frozen sediments(D.G. Fedorof�Davydov and E.M. Rivkina) havebeen obtained.

One more important field of soil science—archae�ological soil science—was developed by I.V. Ivanovand V.A. Demkin. The use of the methods of archae�ology and exact dating of buried soils made it possibleto trace the history of the soil evolution on the CentralRussian Upland in the past 5000 years and to reachimportant conclusions about the soil evolution andclimate changes.

The team of mathematicians (V.V. Galitskii,Ya.A. Pachepskii, A.S. Komarov, and E.V. Mironenko)inspired by Kovda was deeply involved into the problemsof soil science and the mathematical modeling of soilprocesses. Thus, a comprehensive model of the trans�port of water and salts in the soils of irrigated territoriesin arid and semiarid regions was developed. Mathe�matical models of the physicochemical processesbased on the use of thermodynamic equations andequilibrium constants of the major reactions in soilswere suggested. A mathematical model of the physic�ochemical equilibrium in soils made it possible to cal�culate the changes in the salinity of the groundwaterand soil solutions upon soil reclamation. It was shownthat the heterogeneity of the soil pore space should betaken into account in the analysis of the migration ofions and salts in soils. The theory of dimensions wasapplied to generalize the experimental data used inmodeling the water and salt balances in irrigated soils.

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An experimental station was created on a 170�haplot near Pushchino (A.I. Uskov and G.A. Bulatkin)to conduct field experiments. The Biospheric Stationwas organized by A.S. Kerzhentsev to perform theenvironmental monitoring of landscapes in the UpperOka basin. These stations gave the institute the statusof a scientific center with a well�developed laboratoryand field bases.

The broad diversity of the investigations performedby the institute was not random. The Institute of Agri�cultural Chemistry and Soil Science created byV.A. Kovda reflected in its work the widest scope ofKovda’s interests not only in soil science but also in theneighboring sciences. None of the research themes atthe institute escaped the attention of Kovda. He wasthe true scientific leader of the institute and wellinformed about the works of all its laboratories andgroups; his lively interest concerned the studies of notonly the heads of laboratories and senior researchersbut also junior researchers, postgraduate students, andtrainees. His office at the institute was open for every�body. He managed to find time to listen carefully to allhis visitors and to discuss their ideas, plans, andresults. He always supported interesting suggestions.

The institute was not a closed organization. Theindefatigable energy of Kovda and his numerous con�tacts with colleagues abroad and in the Soviet Unionmade the institute a well�known center of numerousAll�Union and international symposia, conferences,and workshops. From 1972 to 1980, the institute orga�nized and hosted 15 All�Union conferences with a con�siderable number (70–350) of participants and11 international conferences attended by 100–120 par�ticipants. Together with Moscow State University andthe Dokuchaev Soil Science Institute, the Institute ofAgricultural Chemistry and Soil Science took anactive part in the organization of the X ISSS Congressin Moscow in 1973; this congress was attended bynearly 1500 foreign participants. The Institute of Agri�cultural Chemistry and Soil Science was in charge ofpublishing the proceedings of the congress and itsfinancial and material support. Three months afterthis congress, V.A. Kovda, who was also President ofthe Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environ�ment (SCOPE), organized the VII Plenum of SCOPEwith the broad participation of foreign and soviet sci�entists working on these problems.

The energy of Kovda vividly manifested itself in thepublishing activity of the institute. Kovda authoredmany original works; he was also a scientific editor ofvirtually all the monographs and collections of papersprepared by the institute. In 1971–1980, 67 mono�graphs and collections of papers were published; theirtotal volume reached 643 quires.

Kovda headed the institute for ten years (1970–1980). Then, for two years, the institute was headed byits deputy director V.N. Kudeyarov.

In 1982, the Institute of Agricultural Chemistryand Soil Science was merged with the Institute of Pho�

tosynthesis and renamed into the Institute of Soil Sci�ence and Photosynthesis of the USSR Academy ofSciences. This amalgamation of the two quite differentinstitutes was also a voluntaristic decision. However,both of them remained in the system of institutes ofthe Academy of Sciences. There was no reason for thisreorganization. Both institutes had their own pro�grams, and the need for them was quite obvious. At thesame time, it was hardly possible to ensure the realintegration of the institutes dealing with differentobjects and using different methods.

Professor M.S. Kuznetsov became the first directorof the reorganized institute (1982–1988). He tried tounite the two parts of the institute within the frame�work of a common program on the study of biopro�ductivity. However, this idea was not very successful.Such an artificial cooperation of researchers thinkingin different terms and working at different method�ological levels proved to be unviable. At the same time,Kuznetsov initiated new investigations into the prob�lems of soil erosion and invited new specialists to theinstitute. It should be noted that these investigationsstrengthened the environmental component in theworks of the joint institute.

The major challenge of the new institute reflectedin its scientific programs was “the management of soilfertility and plant productivity on the basis of the reg�ulation of the energy� and mass�exchange processes inthe soil–plant–atmosphere system.” The ameliora�tion, rational use, and conservation of soils upon theirhigh and sustainable biological productivity ensuredby the proper regulation of the biological turnoverwere the major goals of the research. The attention wasconcentrated on the mechanisms of functioning ofagrocenoses and on their modeling.

In 1988, the Institute of Soil Science and Photo�synthesis was headed by Professor V.I. Kefeli. Kefeligraduated from the Faculty of Soil Science and Agri�cultural Chemistry of the Timiryazev AgriculturalAcademy. He worked at the Institute of Physiology ofthe USSR Academy of Sciences and headed the groupstudying the major mechanisms of plant growth. In1986, he headed the Laboratory of Natural and Syn�thetic Growth Regulators at the same institute. He is awell�known specialist in plant physiology. His majorworks are devoted to the mechanisms of plant growthand to the study of natural and synthetic growth regu�lators.

V.I. Kefeli breathed new life into the atmosphere atthe institute. The international contacts of the insti�tute were expanded. According to many researchers ofthe institutes and their colleagues from other insti�tutes, the new director made the institute an “aestheticcenter.” He was fond of arts and organized an originalexhibition at the institute. This exhibition includedmany interesting items; there were paintings and soilmonoliths, mammoth’s tusks and archaeological arti�facts, etc. Later, after Kefeli left the institute, the main



part of this unique collection was presented to themunicipal museum in Pushchino.

Under Kefeli’s rule, the activity of the institute inthe organization of various scientific conferences,workshops, and round�table discussions wasenhanced. The most important initiative in this fieldwas the organization (together with Moscow StateUniversity) of regular Soil Science and Ecology schoolsessions. These school sessions have become very pop�ular; up to the present time, they have been conductedalmost every year.

The scientific direction of the institute somewhatchanged. Kefeli initiated work on the problems ofsoil–plant interactions. The role and functions of thesoil cover in the biosphere and the role of soil as one ofthe major components of the biosphere and the objectof diverse anthropogenic activities were studied indetail.

Interesting investigations of the main process con�tributing to the cycles of nitrogen were performed. Theconditions of the neoformation of mineral phosphatesin soils upon the interaction of the latter with phos�phorus fertilizers were studied. The role of condensedphosphates in the activation of the element’s migra�tion in soils was shown. The biological synthesis ofpolyphosphates in the soils treated with orthophos�phoric fertilizers was also demonstrated (A.Yu. Kude�yarova).

Under V.I. Kefeli, active field studies into the prob�lems of soil evolution in the Late Pleistocene andHolocene were continued in the tundra, forest, andforest�steppe zone of European Russia. The polygen�etic nature of modern soil profiles was demonstrated.The Holocene evolution of soils in the steppe andsemidesert zones was studied over a wide territory(from the Dnieper Basin in the west to the Ob’ Basinin the east). The ages of chernozems, chestnut soils,and solonetzes were determined, and the general trendin the development of these soils was described.

A new direction of soil science—soil cryology orcryopedology—was shaped at the interface betweensoil science and permafrost science; the cryologicalclassification of soils was developed (O.V. Makeev,D.A. Gilichinskii, and S.V. Gubin).

The theoretical basis of soil monitoring programsand systems of regional monitoring were developed(A.S. Kerzhentsev).

The period under the directorship of V.I. Kefeli wasrelatively short. After his departure to the UnitedStates in 1996, Academician V.A. Shuvalov—a prom�inent scientist in the field of photosynthesis—waselected the director.

Soon after his election, Shuvalov suggested that theInstitute of Soil Science and Photosynthesis should berenamed the Institute of Fundamental BiologicalProblems (IFBP). Thus, both soil science and photo�synthesis were eliminated from the official name of theinstitute. Moreover, the problems of soil science

proper were excluded from the official program ofresearch directions. Despite the objections of soil sci�entists, the institute was renamed into the IFBP in1998.

Under these circumstances, the Soil ScienceDepartment of the IFBP headed by V.N. Kudeyarovsuggested that it should be separated from the IFBPand reorganized into a new institute of the physico�chemical and biological problems of soil science. Thisidea was supported by Academician G.V. Dobro�vol’skii and, after his discussion with AcademicianA.S. Spirin (who headed the Presidium of the Push�chino Science Center of the Russian Academy of Sci�ences), it was decided to address the Presidium of theAcademy with the suggestion to organize the Instituteof Physicochemical and Biological Problems of SoilScience on the basis of the Department of Soil Scienceof the IFBP. This suggestion was also supported by thesecretary of the Division of Physicochemical Biol�ogy—Academician V.T. Ivanov. As a result, in March1966, the Presidium of the Academy issued Resolutionno. 60, in which this suggestion was realized;V.N. Kudeyarov was appointed the executive directorof the new institute. Since May 2000, V.N. Kudeyarovhas been heading the Institute of Physicochemical andBiological Problems of Soil Science (IPBPSS) as itsdirector. Thus, the status of a separate institute dealingwith soil science within the framework of the RussianAcademy of Sciences was restored.

At present, the IPBPSS is one of the leading cen�ters in the field of soil science. It is included in theDivision of Biological Sciences of the Russian Acad�emy of Sciences. The staff of the institute consists of190 persons, including 74 research workers; amongthem, there are 20 doctors and 48 candidates of sci�ence.

The list of the main scientific directions of the insti�tute and their leaders (doctors of science) is as follows:

—The physicochemical and biological processesof soil formation and the transformation of naturaland artificial chemical substances in soils and ecosys�tems (D.L. Pinskii, B.N. Zolotareva, A.Yu. Kude�yarova, and N.D. Anan’eva).

—The role of soil in the biogeochemical cycles ofelements (V.N. Kudeyarov, V.M. Semenov, I.N. Kur�ganova, and A.O. Alekseev).

—The role of the cryosphere in the global turnoverof matter and energy and the conservation of geneticresources; the cryogenic soil formation (D.A. Gili�chinskii, S.V. Gubin, and O.I. Khudyakov).

—The spatial–temporal organization and func�tioning of soils in the biosphere as the basis of sustain�able development (I.V. Ivanov, V.A. Demkin,V.M. Alifanov, L.A. Gugalinskaya, V.E. Prikho’dko,and O.S. Khokhlova).

—Soil fertility management (V.I. Nikitishen andV.P. Shabaev).

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—The mathematical modeling of soil processesand ecosystems (A.S. Komarov).

The study of the physicochemical and biologicalprocesses of soil formation, of the role of soils in theemission of greenhouse gases, and of the mechanismsof soil buffering and of soil self�purification processesthe under conditions of the increasing anthropogenicloads on the environment are the acute fundamentalproblems of soil science that are being solved by theinstitute.

In the ten years of the existence of the IPBPSS, thefollowing results have been obtained.

The biogeochemical turnover of elements in the pedo�sphere. The carbon budget for the territory of Russiahas been assessed. It has been shown that the soils, ter�restrial ecosystems, and landscapes of Russia play acrucial role in the stabilization and sustainability of thebiosphere on the planet. The soil cover of Russia occu�pies one�eighth of the terrestrial surface of the planetand contains one�fifth of the global pool of soil car�bon. The contribution of Russian soils to the globalemission of CO2 from the pedosphere into the atmo�sphere is estimated as one�seventeenth of the globalemission from the pedosphere. Thus, Russia can beconsidered an ecological donor for the entire world.These conclusions have been reached on the basis ofdetailed studies of the seasonal and annual fluxes ofCO2 with the separation of their components relatedto the root respiration of higher plants and the activityof microorganisms with the use of isotopic methodsand subtle laboratory experiments. Particular sugges�tions aimed at managing the carbon sequestration pro�cesses in the soil cover have been made (V.N. Kude�yarov, I.N. Kurganova, A.A. Larionova, I.V. Yevdoki�mov, V.M. Semenov, V.O. Lopes�de�Gerenyu, andothers).

Detailed studies of the accumulation of the micro�bial biomass and its particular pools in the soils of dif�ferent geneses and under different management prac�tices have been performed by N.D. Anan’eva.

The modifications of methods to determine themicrobial carbon and nitrogen in soils have beendeveloped. New data on the growth rates of the micro�bial biomass in different types of soils subjected to dif�ferent treatments have been obtained (S.A. Blago�datskii).

The role of phosphorus in the system of bio�geochemical cycles, the problems of the geochemistryof this element, and the impact of phosphates on thetransformation of soil humus compounds have beenstudied by A.Yu. Kudeyarova.

The geochemistry and mineralogy of soils and thephysicochemical processes in soils. A theoretical con�cept of the cluster arrangement of the soil adsorptioncomplex has been developed (D.L. Pinskii). Investiga�tions into the behavior of iron in the modern soils ofdifferent natural zones and in paleosols (includingpaleosols of the Carboniferous period) have been per�

formed. The dependence of the contents of magneticminerals in the soils on the particular bioclimatic con�ditions of the pedogenesis on the Russian Plain hasbeen shown. The content of soil (biogenic) magnetitecan be considered as “a magnetic record” of the pale�oenvironmental conditions. On this basis, the quanti�tative characteristics of the paleoclimatic conditionsin the Pleistocene and Holocene can be obtained(A.O. Alekseev and T.V. Alekseeva).

The isotopic compositions of the carbon, oxygen,and sulfur in the soil humus, carbonate minerals, gyp�sum, and soluble salts have been studied. The originsof various components entering the soils under theimpact of the biological turnover of substances fromthe atmosphere and groundwater and inherited by thesoils from the parent materials have been assessed. Thechanges in the 12C/13C ratio in soils as related tochanges in the climatic conditions of the Holocenehave been determined (Ya.G. Ryskov†, E.G. Morgun,and S.A. Oleinik).

The study of soil development with time. The soilevolution in different natural zones—tundra; forests;and, particularly, steppes—in the Holocene and in theentire Quaternary period has been studied in detail.On this basis, the periods of ecological optimums andecological crises in the lives of ancient people havebeen identified for the Bronze, Early Iron, and Medi�eval epochs. The rates of the processes of humus for�mation, the accumulation of carbonates, and themigration of salts in various soils have been deter�mined. The regional variability of the climate andpedogenesis in the arid zones of Russia has been esti�mated. A new direction of soil science—archaeologicalsoil science—has been shaped in the course of numerousstudies of soils buried under archaeological monumentsof different ages (I.V. Ivanov, V.A. Demkin, S.V. Gubin,V.M. Alifanov, L.A. Gugalinskaya, and O.S. Khokhlova).

The capacity of frozen soils to preserve variousmicroorganisms (prokaryotes, green algae, actino�mycetes, and fungi) in a viable state for hundreds ofthousands and millions of years has been proved,which is of great significant for our understanding ofthe development of life on this planet. The concept ofthe cryobiosphere—a part of the biosphere—has beensuggested. The cryobiosphere represents a specifichabitat of paleomicroorganisms. It is the most popu�lated by microorganisms in the upper permafrost lay�ers, where the microflora is preserved for a geologicallymeaningful amount of time owing to the presence ofsome amounts of unfrozen water ensuring the preser�vation of the cell structures. Viable representatives offour out of the five kingdoms of living organisms havebeen identified in permafrost. The biomass of ancientviable microorganisms in permafrost is much higherthan the biomass of modern microorganisms. The sta�ble regime of permafrost temperatures in the subzerorange favors the development of various adaptationmechanisms for the preservation of life and the repa�



ration of cells after the permafrost’s thawing(D.A. Gilichinskii and E.M. Rivkina).

The study of fossil seeds of plants and the vegetativeremains from ancient animal burrows in permafrostmade it possible to reconstruct the paleoenvironmentwithin the Kolyma Lowland more than 30000 yearsago and to show that the tundra communities of thattime contained inclusions of steppe communities(S.V. Maksimovich).

The interaction of the natural and agrogenic factorsof soil fertility ensuring the balanced nutrition ofplants and the sustainable functioning of agroecosys�tems has been studied. It is shown that the balancedapplication of fertilizers is of primary importance forthe root nutrition of crops and the formation of stableproductivity of agroecosystems in Central Russia(V.I. Nikitishen). The testing of new strains of associa�tive microorganisms for raising crop yields has beenperformed (V.P. Shabaev).

The mathematical modeling of ecosystems and theprediction of the possible changes in the biologicalcycles of carbon, nitrogen, and heavy metals in forestecosystems of the European part of Russian under theimpact of various natural and anthropogenic loads(forest cuts, climate changes, industrial pollution, for�est fires, and invasion of pests) are being developed. Inparticular, a system of models of the dynamics of forestecosystems (EFIMOD) has been created. It includesmodels of the dynamics of the soil organic matter, thetree growth, the climate fluctuations, forest cuts andfires, and the biodiversity of forest ecosystems(A.S. Komarov, A.V. Mikhailov, M.V. Bobrovskii, andI.V. Priputina).

An important work on the history of soil science isbeing performed by I.V. Ivanov.

The institute is traditionally involved in variousorganizational activities. Regular All�Russian andinternational conferences and workshops are orga�nized. In the past five years, the institute has hostedmore than 20 different scientific meetings, includingten meetings with the participation of foreign scien�tists. Among them, the traditional Ecology and Soilsschool sessions should be mentioned. They are orga�nized together with Moscow State University and are

conducted almost every year. Also, five conferences onthe problems of soil evolution, three conferences onthe emission and sink of greenhouse gases, and threeconferences on soil and ecosystem modeling havebeen organized.

In recent years, the institute has partly renewed itslaboratory equipment. A unique set of modern instru�mental mineralogical and isotopic geochemical meth�ods, including x�ray methods, thermogravimetry,Mässbauer and infrared spectroscopy, mass spectros�copy, micromorphology, and electron microscopy isapplied by the researchers. Among the analyticaldevices available at the institute, there are a differentialscanning microcalorimeter (DSM�10 M), an isother�mic microcalorimeter (Biotest�M), a Mässbauer spec�trometer (MC�1191E), an x�ray diffraction spectrome�ter (SPEKTROSCAN MAKS�GV), a gas chromatog�rapher (LKhM 2000), an automatic element analyzer(Elementar Vario EL III), a portable analyzer of CO2(Li�6400Q), a fluorescent microscope (OPTON IM 35), aZeiss microscope (AXIOSTAR plus), an atomic emis�sion spectrometer (Optima 5300DV), and others. Theinstitute is well equipped with computers and otheroffice equipment.

At present, the Institute of Physicochemical andBiological Problems of Soil Science is a solid scientificorganization with highly qualified staff members. Aserious drawback, which is, unfortunately, typical ofnot only the IPBPSS but also of other institutes of theRussian Academy of Sciences, is a critically low per�centage of young scientists in the staff. This is a state�important problem, and it can only be solved at thefederal level. Unfortunately, neither the institute northe Russian Academy of Sciences can solve this prob�lem. The future prospects of the institute depend onthe state policy with respect to fundamental scienceand the institutes of the Academy of Sciences.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is grateful to I.V. Ivanov and L.O. Kar�pachevskii for their valuable remarks and suggestions,which were taken into account in this paper.

the institute of soil science in pushchino: its forty-year history

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