the infection of bad company: stigma-by- association john b. pryor, ph.d. illinois state university...

The Infection of Bad The Infection of Bad Company: Stigma-by-Company: Stigma-by-

AssociationAssociation

John B. Pryor, Ph.D.John B. Pryor, Ph.D.Illinois State UniversityIllinois State University

United States of AmericaUnited States of AmericaPresentation at the 2008 Presentation at the 2008

European Association of Experimental Social PsychologyEuropean Association of Experimental Social PsychologyOpatija, CroatiaOpatija, Croatia

My collaborators

• Glenn D. Reeder

• Andrew Monroe

• Arati Patel

• Briana Muehlbauer

Outline of Today’s Talk1) What is a stigma? Some basic concepts.2) A dual process model of reactions to stigma3) Application of the dual process model to stigma-

by-association effects4) Study 1: Obese Relatives5) Study 2: Smoking Friends6) Study 3: Sitting with Black Guys7) Conclusions

Goffman (1963) defined stigma as “an Goffman (1963) defined stigma as “an undesired undesired differentnessdifferentness from what we from what we had anticipated.”had anticipated.”

““By definition, we believe the person with By definition, we believe the person with a stigma is not quite human.”a stigma is not quite human.”

““We construct a stigma-theory, an We construct a stigma-theory, an ideology to explain his inferiority and ideology to explain his inferiority and account for the danger he represents, account for the danger he represents, sometimes rationalizing an animosity sometimes rationalizing an animosity based upon other differences, such as based upon other differences, such as those of social class (p. 5).”those of social class (p. 5).”

Erving Goffman (1963) identified Erving Goffman (1963) identified three basic types of stigma:three basic types of stigma:- abominations of the bodyabominations of the body- moral character flawsmoral character flaws- tribal stigmastribal stigmas

an abomination of the body

Persons with Disabilities


Persons with HIV/AIDS


Obese People


Persons with facial dermatitis

blemishes of individual moral character

Persons with Mental Illness


Homosexual People


Drug addict


Smoker

tribal stigma of race, nation, religion, family, or other social group

African American


Japanese Korean


Muslim cleric


Mexican

All of these stigmas evoke negative All of these stigmas evoke negative implicit attitudesimplicit attitudes

ABOMINATIONS OF THE BODYABOMINATIONS OF THE BODY• persons with disabilities (Pruett & Chan, 2006) persons with disabilities (Pruett & Chan, 2006) • people with AIDS (Neumann, Hulsenbeck, & Seibt, 2004) people with AIDS (Neumann, Hulsenbeck, & Seibt, 2004) • obese persons (Bessenoff & Sherman, 2000; Wang, Brownell, & Wadden, obese persons (Bessenoff & Sherman, 2000; Wang, Brownell, & Wadden,

2004) 2004) • people with facial dermatitis (Grandfield, Thomson, & Turpin, 2005) people with facial dermatitis (Grandfield, Thomson, & Turpin, 2005) MORAL CHARACTER FLAWSMORAL CHARACTER FLAWS• persons with mental illness (Teachman, Wilson, & Komarovskaya, 2006) persons with mental illness (Teachman, Wilson, & Komarovskaya, 2006) • homosexuals (Jellison, McConnel, & Gabriel, 2004)homosexuals (Jellison, McConnel, & Gabriel, 2004)• drug abusers (Brener, von Hippel, & Kippax, 2007)drug abusers (Brener, von Hippel, & Kippax, 2007)• people who smoke (Pryor, 2007) people who smoke (Pryor, 2007) TRIBAL STIGMASTRIBAL STIGMAS• White Americans have negative implicit attitudes toward Black Americans White Americans have negative implicit attitudes toward Black Americans

(Kawakami, Phills, Steele, & Dovidio, 2007)(Kawakami, Phills, Steele, & Dovidio, 2007)• Japanese have negative implicit attitudes toward Koreans and visa versa Japanese have negative implicit attitudes toward Koreans and visa versa

(Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998)(Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998)• Christians have negative implicit attitudes toward Muslims (Park, Felix, & Lee, Christians have negative implicit attitudes toward Muslims (Park, Felix, & Lee,

2007) 2007) • Hispanics have negative implicit attitudes toward other Hispanics who have a Hispanics have negative implicit attitudes toward other Hispanics who have a

darker skin color (Uhlmann, Dasgupta, Elgueta, Greenwald, Swanson, 2002)darker skin color (Uhlmann, Dasgupta, Elgueta, Greenwald, Swanson, 2002)

A Dual Process Model of A Dual Process Model of Reactions to StigmasReactions to Stigmas

Pryor, Reeder, Yeadon, & Hesson-McInnis (2004)Pryor, Reeder, Yeadon, & Hesson-McInnis (2004)

NegativeNegativeAffectiveAffectiveReactionReaction

AvoidanceAvoidanceBehaviorBehavior

StigmaStigma Reflexive ProcessesReflexive Processes

evokes

A Dual Process Model of A Dual Process Model of Reactions to StigmasReactions to Stigmas

StigmaStigma ReflexiveReflexiveProcessesProcesses


DeliberativeDeliberativeProcessesProcesses

AvoidanceAvoidanceBehaviorBehavior

•AttributionalAttributionalAnalysesAnalyses

•PC concernsPC concerns•Ideological Ideological

RationalizationsRationalizations

•AttributionalAttributionalAnalysesAnalyses

•PC concernsPC concerns•Ideological Ideological

RationalizationsRationalizations

ApproachApproachor Avoidanceor Avoidance

BehaviorBehavior

Positive orPositive orNegativeNegative

AffectAffect

Onset Role of emotion Role of cognition Characteristic behavior Theoretical origins

REFLEXIVE PROCESSES Spontaneous when stigma is encountered Emotions are evoked by the stigma Emotions are often negative (e.g., disgust, fear, uneasiness, etc.) Cognitions (e.g., labels) trigger emotions and motor responses Avoidance Associative learning or evolved instincts

DELIBERATIVE PROCESSES Requires time, motivation, & cognitive resources Emotions are the products of cognitive processes Emotions may be positive (e.g., sympathy) or negative (e.g., irritation) Attributional cognitions moderate reflexive reactions Consideration of personal values & social appropriateness Approach or avoidance Pro-social behavior or social exclusion Socialization Higher order cognitive processes

Pryor, Reeder, Monroe & Patel (in press)

Goffman’s 4Goffman’s 4thth Type of Stigma: Type of Stigma:“Courtesy Stigma” or“Courtesy Stigma” or

Stigma-by-AssociationStigma-by-Association

Goffman theorized that stigma is spread by Goffman theorized that stigma is spread by social structure associationssocial structure associations. “Thus, the . “Thus, the loyal spouse of a mental patient, the loyal spouse of a mental patient, the daughter of an ex-con, the parent of the daughter of an ex-con, the parent of the cripple, the friend of the blind, the family of cripple, the friend of the blind, the family of the hangman, are all obliged to share some the hangman, are all obliged to share some of the discredit of the stigmatized person to of the discredit of the stigmatized person to whom they are related (p. 30).”whom they are related (p. 30).”

Goffman theorized that stigma is spread by Goffman theorized that stigma is spread by social structure associationssocial structure associations. “Thus, the . “Thus, the loyal spouse of a mental patient, the loyal spouse of a mental patient, the daughter of an ex-con, the parent of the daughter of an ex-con, the parent of the cripple, the friend of the blind, the family of cripple, the friend of the blind, the family of the hangman, are all obliged to share some the hangman, are all obliged to share some of the discredit of the stigmatized person to of the discredit of the stigmatized person to whom they are related (p. 30).”whom they are related (p. 30).”

““Sorority Evictions Raise Issue Sorority Evictions Raise Issue of Looks and Bias”of Looks and Bias”

“Worried that a negative stereotype of the sorority was contributing to a decline in membership that had left its Greek-columned house here half empty, Delta Zeta’s national officers interviewed 35 DePauw (University) members in November, quizzing them about their dedication to recruitment. They judged 23 of the women insufficiently committed and later told them to vacate the sorority house. The 23 members included every The 23 members included every woman who was overweight. They also included the woman who was overweight. They also included the only Korean and Vietnamese membersonly Korean and Vietnamese members. The dozen students allowed to stay were slender and popular with fraternity men — conventionally pretty women the sorority hoped could attract new recruits.”

Sam Dillon, February 25, 2007

courtesy stigma - acquired through social structure associations

Spouse of Obese Person

courtesy stigma - acquired through chosen affiliation

Friend of Smoker

courtesy stigma - acquired through chosen affiliation

Acquaintance of a Black Man

How does stigma-by-association work?


auto

mat

ical

ly e

voke

s

Affect associated w

ith

A Reflexive Process

Three studies, three stigmas:Three studies, three stigmas:ObesityObesitySmokingSmoking

RaceRace

Some common elements:

1. Use of Affective Misattribution Procedure to measure implicit anti-stigma attitudes

2. Measurement of explicit attitudes with feeling thermometers & Likert scales

3. Measurement of PC concerns

Some hypotheses• Stigma-by-association effects are driven by

reflexive processes• The potential for stigma-by-association is

related to the strength of implicit attitudes evoked by a stigma

• Explicit stigma-related attitudes will not be connected to stigma-by-association effects

• PC concerns will be connected to explicit, but not implicit anti-stigma attitudes

Study 1: Obese RelativesStudy 1: Obese Relatives

Affective Misattribution Procedure Affective Misattribution Procedure (AMP): (AMP): Measuring Implicit Anti-Fat AttitudesMeasuring Implicit Anti-Fat Attitudes

• Before and after photos of 30 women taken from commercial weight-loss websites

1 second 1 second

before

after

signal photosignal photo pictographpictograph ratingrating

Make rating of pictograph


Ratings of Chinese Pictographs Following Photos of Women Before and After Weight Loss

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

After Weight Loss Before Weight Loss

Preceding Photo

Pleasantness of Pictographs

Ple

asan

tnes

s of

Pic

togr

aphs

Measures of Explicit AttitudesMeasures of Explicit Attitudes

• Feeling thermometers (0-100 favorability Feeling thermometers (0-100 favorability ratings)ratings)

• Likert Scale (Crandall’s 1994 Anti-Fat Likert Scale (Crandall’s 1994 Anti-Fat Attitudes Scale) – examples:Attitudes Scale) – examples:– ““I really don’t like fat people very much”I really don’t like fat people very much”– ““One of the worst things that could happen to me One of the worst things that could happen to me

would be if I gained 25 pounds”would be if I gained 25 pounds”– ““Fat people tend to be fat pretty much through Fat people tend to be fat pretty much through

their own fault.”their own fault.”

degreesPOSITIVE 100° Extremely attractive

90° Very attractive80° Quite attractive70° Fairly attractive60° Slightly attractive50° Neither attractive nor unattractive40° Slightly unattractive30° Fairly unattractive20° Quite unattractive10° Very unattractive

NEGATIVE 0° Extremely unattractive




3 sec. 3 sec. rating

Thi

nR

elat

ive

Hea

vyR

elat

ive

Basic Procedure of Photo Rating Task

32 men were rated in 2 conditions

cond

ition

s

Relationship of Implicit Anti-Fat Attitudes to Evaluations of Men with Thin and Fat Relatives

40

42

44

46

48

50

52

54

- 1 SD AMP + 1 SD AMP

Implicit Anti-Fat Bias

Evaluation of Associated

Menthin relativesfat relatives

Study 2: Smoking FriendsStudy 2: Smoking Friends

Modified AMP: Measure of Implicit Modified AMP: Measure of Implicit Attitudes toward SmokersAttitudes toward Smokers

How pleasant How pleasant is the is the painting?painting?

QuickTime™ and aTIFF (LZW) decompressor

are needed to see this picture.

1 second1 second 1 second1 second

How pleasant How pleasant is the is the painting?painting?

signal photosignal photo abstract paintingabstract painting ratingrating

Ratings of Abstract Paintings Following Photos of Smokers and Non-Smokers

-0.3

-0.2

-0.1

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

non-smokers smokers

Preceding Photo

Pleasantness of

Paintings

Ple

asan

tnes

s of

P

aint

ings







2 sec. 2 sec. rating

Sm

oker

Non

-Sm

oker

Basic Procedure of Photo Rating Task

•Participants rated the attractiveness of 32 men & 32 women•Half were accompanied by smokers & halfby non-smokers

Relationship of Implicit Anti-Smoker Attitudes to Attractiveness Ratings of People

Accompanied by Smokers and Non-Smokers

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

-1 SD AMP +1 SD AMP

Implicit Anti-Smoker Attitudes

Attractiveness

Non-SmokersSmokers

Att

ract

iven

ess

Study 3: Sitting with Black Study 3: Sitting with Black GuysGuys

Measuring Implicit Anti-Black Measuring Implicit Anti-Black Attitudes with the AMPAttitudes with the AMP



1 sec 1 sec

30 W

hit

e F

aces

30 B

lack

Fac

es

signal pictograph rating

Ratings of Chinese Pictographs following Photos of White and Black Men

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

White Black

Preceding Photo

Pleasantness of Pictographs

Ple

asan

tnes

s of

Pic

togr

aphs

Job candidate seated with a Black employeeJob candidate seated with a White employee

Manipulation of Arbitrary Association

Participants examined application file of applicant for an IT job.

Relationship of Implicit Anti-Black Attitudes to Hiring Reccommendations to Job Applicants

Arbitrarily Associated with White or Black Men

-1.2

-1

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

-1 SD AMP +1 SD AMP

Implicit Anti-Black Attitudes

Hiring

Reccommendations

WhiteBlack

-0.13-0.14

-0.37

-0.05

-0.33-0.33

-0.03

-0.38

-0.44-0.45

-0.4

-0.35

-0.3

-0.25

-0.2

-0.15

-0.1

-0.05

0

Correlations with

IMS

Obesity Smokers Race

Three Stigma Studies

Correlations of the Implicit Anti-Stigma Attitude and the Two Explicit Attitude Measures with Motivation to Control

Implicit Attitudes Feeling Thermometers Likert Scales

** ** ** ****

* * Significant correlations with explicit attitudesSignificant correlations with explicit attitudes

ObesitySmokers

Race

Feeling Thermometers

Likert Scales

0.32

0.2

0.17

0.26

0.11

0.18

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

Correlations

Stigma Studies

Explicit Measures

Correlations Between Explicit Attitude Measures and Implicit Attitude Measures across Three Studies

****

** **

ConclusionsConclusions•The ability of a stigma to “infect” associated The ability of a stigma to “infect” associated others is related to the degree to which the others is related to the degree to which the stigma evokes spontaneous affect.stigma evokes spontaneous affect.

•Stigma-by-association seems to largely Stigma-by-association seems to largely involve reflexive processes.involve reflexive processes.

•The current studies examined individual The current studies examined individual differences in implicit attitudes as moderators differences in implicit attitudes as moderators of this process. Some stigmas may evoke of this process. Some stigmas may evoke spontaneous affect for almost all people.spontaneous affect for almost all people.

Stigma-by-association is a well known phenomenon

• "…and keep them (children) from all ill, especially the infection of bad company." John Locke (1632–1704) from Some Thoughts Concerning Education.

• "Associate yourself with men of good quality if you esteem your own reputation for 'tis better to be alone than in bad company." George Washington (1732 - 1799)

The infection of bad company?A silver lining to the dark cloud…

A stigma automatically

evokes negative

affect and this affect spreads to associated

others

Aarrgg!!

the infection of bad company: stigma-by- association john b. pryor, ph.d. illinois state university...

Documents

disabilities slide

croatia slide

hivaids slide

facial dermatitis slide

body persons

social group mexican

tribal stigma of race

defined stigma