the implementation of the european foundation for quality
TRANSCRIPT
THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EUROPEANFOUNDATION FOR QUALITY MANAGEMENT'S(EFQM) EXCELLENCE MODEL IN ACADEMICUNITS OF UNITED KINGDOM UNIVERSITIES
John DAVIES
Management Research InstituteSchool of Management
University of Salford, Salford, UK
Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements of theDegree of Doctor of Philosophy, February 2004
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 11.0 Chapter Introduction 211 Background 21.2 Reasons for researching into this area . 3
1.2.1 Government Policy 31.2.2 Need to capture the learning from the consortia Universities 51.2.3 The lack of holistic quality management approaches in UK Universities 61.2.4 The lack of empirically sound Total Quality implementation models 61.2.5 The lack of success in implementing Total Quality Management (TQM) 6
initiatives in organisations1.3 Purpose, Aim and Objectives of the Research 7
1.3.1 Purpose 71.3.2 Aim 71.3.3 Objectives 8
1.4 Research Question 81.5 Scope of the Research 101.6 Research Methodology 12
1.6.1 Literature Review 121.6.2 Case Studies 12
1.7 Intended Contributions of the Study 131.8 Structure of the Thesis 131.9 Chapter Summary 14
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 15THE CONTENT, DEVELOPMENT AND USES OF THEEUROPEAN FOUNDATION FOR QUALITYMANAGEMENT'S EXCELLENCE MODEL
2.0 Chapter Introduction 162.1 The European Foundation for Quality Management's Excellence Model 162.2 The Concepts and Processes on which the EFQM Excellence Model is based 17
2.2.1 Total Quality Management Concepts 172.2.2 Self-Assessment 192.2.3 Scoring 25
2.3 The History of the Development of the EFQM Excellence Model 292.4 The Actual and Suggested uses of the EFQM Excellence Model in Sectors other 33
than the United Kingdom Higher Education2.4.1 The EFQM Excellence Model as a Strategic Tool 332.4.2 The EFQM Excellence Model as a means of providing a Holistic, 38
broader perspective of the business2.4.3 The EFQM Excellence Model as a tool for Performance Management 382.4.4 The EFQM Excellence Model as a Benchmarking Tool 392.4.5 The EFQM Excellence Model as a framework for integrating other 41
quality and management initiatives and tools2.4.6 The EFQM Excellence Model as a means of gaining a Quality Award 432.4.7 The EFQM Excellence Model as a means of motivating staff to get 43
involved in Quality Improvement activities2.5 Chapter Summary 44
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW 46ISSUES IMPACTING ON THE EFFECTIVEIMPLEMENTATION OF THE EFQM EXCELLENCEMODEL IN UK UNIVERSITY ACADEMIC UNITS
3.0 Chapter Introduction 473.1 Motive 47
3.1.1 Objectives and Expected Benefits 493.2 Gaining Senior Management Commitment 503.3 Preparation 53
3.3.1 Resistance to Change 533.3.2 Culture/Context Assessment 56
3.3.2.1 Management Style 583.3.2.2 Individualism 603.3.2.3 The Critical nature of Staff and Academic Freedom 613.3.2.4 Professionalism and the nature of Professional Services 623.3.2.5 Co-operation and Support 633.3.2.6 The Academic Culture of an Institution 643.3.2.7 Recognition and Rewards 643.3.2.8 The Language and Terminology of the EFQM 66
Excellence Model3.3.3 Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment 683.3.4 Project Management 71
3.3.4.1 Steering Committee 713.3.4.2 Project Manager 713.3.4.3 Project Champion 723.3.4.4 Project Consultant 723.3.4.5 Project Activities Plan 733.3.4.6 Project Progress Monitoring 743.3.4.7 Project Resources Allocation 743.3.4.8 Project Pilot 75
3.3.5 Education and Training 773.3.6 Communication 793.3.7 Staff Involvement and Teamwork 80
3.4 Momentum 823.4.1 Improvement Planning, Action and Review 823.4.2 The Pace of Implementation 83
3.5 Integration 843.5.1 Multi-Level use of the EFQM Excellence Model 843.5.2 The use of the EFQM Excellence Model in Strategic Planning 853.5.3 The use of the EFQM Excellence Model in Performance 85
Management3.5.4 Alignment of the EFQM Excellence Model with other 86
organisational systems3.6 Chapter Summary 87
CHAPTER 4: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK4.0 Chapter Introduction4.1 Issues which emerged from the literature reviews
4.1.1 Issues from Chapter Two4.1.2 Issues from Chapter Three
4.2 Implementation Model Development literature4.2.1 Phasing and Sequencing
88898990909191
4.2.2 Alternatives and Selection 924.2.3 Non-Prescriptive and Flexible Frameworks 924.2.4 Model Structure 93
4.3 Rationale for the structure of the Theoretical Framework 954.4 Chapter Summary 98
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 1005.0 Chapter Introduction 1015.1 Choice of Research Strategy 1015.2 Research Design 105
5.2.1 Case Study Research Design 1075.2.1.1 Components of Case Study Research Design 1075.2.1.2 Types of Case Study Design 1115.2.1.3 Selection of Cases 112
5.2.2 Theory Development 1155.3 Preparation for Data Collection 115
5.3.1 Protocol Development 1165.3.2 Principles of Evidence and Data Collection 116
5.3.2.1 Documentation 11%5.3.2.2 Archival Records 1185.3.2.3 Interviews 1195.3.2.4 Participant Observation 1195.3.2.5 Multiple Sources of Evidence 1205.3.2.6 Case Study Database 1205.3.2.7 Case Study Database 121
5.3.3 Data Collection Methods and Instruments 1215.3.3.1 Design of the Data Collection Methods and Instruments 121
5.3.3.1.1 Case Study Background Information 1225.3.3.1.2 Interview Design 122
5.3.3.1.2.1 Content of the Interview 1225.3.3.1.2.2 Interview Procedure 1245.3.3.1.2.3 Choice of Interviewees for the 125
Interviews5.3.3.1.2.4 Time and Location of the Interviews 126
5.3.3.2 Conduct of the Data Collection within the Case Studies 1275.3.4 Skills 1275.3.5 Training 128
5.4 Methods for the analysis of Case Study Data 1285.4.1 General Analytic Strategies 1285.4.2 Analytic Techniques 129
5.4.2.1 Dominant Modes of Analysis 1295.4.2.1.1 Pattern-Matching 1295.4.2.1.2 Explanation-Building 1305.4.2.1.3 Time-Series Analysis 1305.4.2.1.4 Program Logic Models 130
5.4.2.2 Program Logic Models 1315.4.2.2.1 Analyzing Embedded Units 1315.4.2.2.2 Making Repeated Observations 1315.4.2.2.3 Case Survey 131
5.5 Chapter Summary 131
CHAPTER 6: FINDINGS 1326.0 Chapter Introduction 1336.1 Case Study 'A' 133
6.1.1 Case Study 'A' Background (2002-2003) 133
6.1.2 Case Study 'A' Interview and Document Analysis 1356.1.3 Case Study 'A' Time-Series Analysis 1436.1.4 Case Study 'A' Program Logic - comparison with Theoretical Framework 146
6.2 Case Study 'B' 1526.2.1 Case Study 'B' Background (2002-2003) 1526.2.2 Case Study 'B' Interview and Document Analysis 1546.2.3 Case Study 'B' Time-Series Analysis 1646.2.4 Case Study 'B' Program Logic - comparison with Theoretical Framework 166
6.3 Case Study 'C' 1726.3.1 Case Study 'C' Background (2002-2003) 1726.3.2 Case Study 'C' Interview and Document Analysis 1736.3.3 Case Study 'C' Time-Series Analysis 1836.3.4 Case Study 'C' Program Logic - comparison with Theoretical Framework 185
6.4 Case Study 'D' 1916.4.1 Case Study 'D' Background (2002-2003) 1916.4.2 Case Study 'D' Interview and Document Analysis 1936.4.3 Case Study 'D' Time-Series Analysis 2056.4.4 Case Study 'D' Program Logic - comparison with Theoretical Framework 208
6.5 Chapter Summary 213
CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION 2147.0 Chapter Introduction 2157.1 Discussion of Case Studies 215
7.1.1 Case 'A' 2157.1.2 Case 'B' 2167.1.3 Case 'C' 2177.1.4 Case 'D' 218
7.2 Cross-Case Discussion 2217.2.1 Decision Phase 2217.2.2 Preparation Phase 2247.2.3 Implementation and Evaluation Phase 237
7.2.3.1 Integration 2377.2.3.2 Momentum 240
7.2.4 Effectiveness of the Implementation 2467.3 Discussion of the Theoretical Framework 2487.4 Discussion on the conduct of the Research and the Research Methodology 2537.5 Limitations of the Research 2557.6 Operational Recommendations 256
7.6.1 Case 'A' 2567.6.2 Case 'B' 2577.6.3 Case 'C' 2577.6.4 Case 'D' 257
7.7 Recommendations for Further Related Research 2587.8 Contributions of the Research 2587.9 Chapter Summary 259
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS 2618.0 Chapter Introduction 2628.1 Conclusions 2628.2 Recommendations for Further Related Research (Summary) 265
APPENDICES 267
REFERENCES
481
List of Tables, Figures and Appendices
Table Page DescriptionTable 2.1 26 The importance of the EFQM criteria as perceived by the Danish
business community (extracted from Eskildsen et al (2001)Table 2.1 32 EFQM Public Sector Award and Prize Winners (EFQM, 2004)Table 5.1 102 Relevant Situations for Different Research StrategiesTable 5.2 107 Case Study Tactics for Four Design TestsTable 5.3 117 Six Sources of Evidence: Strengths and Weaknesses (Yin, 1994,
p.80)Table 5.4 124 Definitions of different levels of usage of the Excellence Model
(PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2000, p.31)Table 5.5 126 The positions of the interviewees in the case study organisationsTable 6.1 146 Case Study 'A' Time-Series AnalysisTable 6.2 166 Case Study 'B' Time-Series AnalysisTable 6.3 185 Case Study 'C' Time-Series AnalysisTable 6.4 208 Case Study 'D' Time-Series AnalysisTable 7.1 247 Comparison of intended and actual uses of the EFQM Excellence
Model
FigureFigure 2.1 16 The EFQM Excellence Model (EFQM, 2003a)Figure 2.2 24 RADAR LogicFigure 4.1 94 Phases in the innovation process (Vrakking 1995, p.32)Figure 4.2 96 The Theoretical FrameworkFigure 5.1 106 The Research Design for this StudyFigure 5.2 120 Convergence of Multiple Sources of Evidence (adapted from Yin
1994, p.93)Figure 5.3 121 The chain of evidence for each case within this studyFigure 7.1 252 Guidance framework for EFQM Excellence Model implementation
in UK University academic units
AppendicesAppendix 1 268 EFQM Excellence Model CriteriaAppendix 2 271 Extracts from example given in EFQM booklet 'Assessing for
Excellence. A Practical Guide for Self-Assessment'. (EFQM 1999)Appendix 3 272 Notes for EFQM Implementation Project ManagersAppendix 4 274 Notes for IntervieweesAppendix 5 275 EFQM Implementation Interview QuestionsAppendix 6 281 Case Study Organisation BackgroundAppendix 7 283 Case Study 'A' Interview and Document AnalysisAppendix 8 320 Case Study 'A' Document ListAppendix 9 321 Case Study 'B' Interview and Document AnalysisAppendix 10 372 Case Study 'B' Document ListAppendix 11 373 Case Study 'C' Interview and Documentation AnalysisAppendix 12 413 Case Study 'C' Document ListAppendix 13 414 Case Study 'D' Interview and Document AnalysisAppendix 14 471 Case Study 'D' Document ListAppendix 15 472 Links between the interview questions and the elements of the
theoretical framework
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my appreciation and thanks to the following individuals who have
helped and supported me in various ways through this endeavour:
• Professor John M. Sharp, my PhD supervisor, for his valuable advice, guidance, suggestions
and support.
• Professor John Heywood for his views on my research methodology and the structure of
this thesis.
• Professor Philip Sullivan of De Montfort University the Project Director of the HEFCE
GMP 200 consortium for his help in piloting the data collection instruments and in
accessing appropriate case studies.
• My sincere thanks to all the interviewees in the case study organisations for their diligent
responses. They must remain anonymous. Particularly my thanks go to the four project
managers who helped considerably with the logistics of data collection in the case study
organisations.
• To my Vice Chancellor, Professor Michael Harloe, and Dean, Professor Carole Roberts, for
allowing me the very generous period of study leave, which has enabled me to bring this
PhD research to a conclusion.
• To my colleagues in the School of Management at the University of Salford for their
understanding and support, and for covering my duties during my period of study leave.
• To my wife Michelle and son Kane for their understanding, patience, support and tolerance,
and the sacrifices made by them during the course of my study. I dedicate this work to them
and promise to spend more time with them.
List of Abbreviations
BEM Business Excellence Model
BQF British Quality Foundation
CMPS Centre for Management and Policy Studies
EFQM European Foundation for Quality Management
FE Further Education
GMP Good Management Practice
HE Higher Education
HEFCE Higher Education Funding Council for England
HEI Higher Education Institution
HRM Human Resource Management
IM Institute of Management
PWC PriceWaterhouseCoopers
QAA Quality Assurance Agency
RADAR Results Approaches Deployment Assessment and Review
RAE Research Assessment Exercise
SMC Senior Management Commitment
SMT Senior Management Team
SPC Statistical Process Control
TQM Total Quality Management
TSE Towards Service Excellence
UMIST University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology
VC Vice Chancellor
ABSTRACT
The aim of this research was to examine how the EFQM Excellence Model implementation
process had been conducted in a number of cases in UK University academic units with a view
to developing a guidance framework for implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in this
particular context.
Issues which could impact on the implementation of the European Foundation for Quality
Management's (EFQM) Excellence Model in the UK University academic environment were
identified through a comprehensive literature review of the model's implementation in other
sectors, literature on the UK University sector and on established good practice in implementing
similar quality programmes, such as Total Quality Management (TQM).
A theoretical framework was developed in order to conceptualise the relationships between the
issues identified through the literature review and to form a basis for the development of data
collection and analysis tools. The case study strategy was chosen as the appropriate way to
investigate the phenomenon.
The approaches used in the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in four United
Kingdom University academic units were explored and analysed in order to discover the critical
issues for effective implementation.
The fieldwork revealed a number of issues which were essential to effective implementation
(motive, gaining senior management commitment, demonstrating senior management
commitment, education and training, staff involvement and teamwork, the overall pace of the
implementation, integration of the EFQM Model into the organisation, and activities to maintain
momentum) and two issues which were desirable in producing effective implementation
(culture/context assessment, and project management).
The main output and contribution from the research was a guidance framework for
implementing the EFQM Excellence Model in academic units of UK universities.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Chapter Introduction
In this chapter the background to the research area will be provided, the reasons for researching
into this area will be explained, the purpose, aim and objectives of the research will be
described, the research questions will be developed, the scope of the research will be identified,
the intended contributions of the study will be outlined and the structure of the thesis will be
described.
Quality improvement initiatives have grown in use and significance in United Kingdom
universities in recent years. Harvey (1999, p.6) states:
"Gone are the days when higher education institutions could take the view that, by dint of theirstatus as institutions of higher learning, they were quality organisations with no need toimprove. There is, as has been suggested, growing pressure on institutions to be moreresponsive to a range of stakeholders and to continually improve to meet changing needs".
Harvey (1999) recommends that institutions should reflect upon their practices and develop
what they do. As will be seen later, the EFQM (European Foundation for Quality Management)
Excellence Model provides an approach for doing this and thus research into its use is topical.
1.1 Background
The broad problem area to be researched relates to the implementation of the EFQM Excellence
Model in United Kingdom Universities.
This area is of interest to the author as he is working in a University that, as part of a consortium
of UK Universities, is piloting the use of the EFQM Excellence Model. This is a Higher
Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) developing Good Management Practice
(GMP) project. The overall purpose of the GMP programme (and a similar one with another
consortium of BE institutions) is to evaluate the benefits of applying the EFQM Excellence
Model to Higher Education institutions as a strategic tool for performance management and
governance, strategic planning, developing key performance indicators, benchmarking,
identifying good management practice and for the achievement of sustainable improvement in
all aspects of performance (Consortium for Excellence in Higher Education, 2000).
The HEFCE funded project also seeks to address two key areas by using self-assessment
methodologies:
• How an organisation does things in terms of the effectiveness of its managementapproaches.
• What results are actually achieved, relating to Customer, People, Society and KeyPerformance Results
(Consortium for Excellence in Higher Education, 2000).
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The evaluation described above as the overall purpose of the GMP programme is intended to
identify the benefits of applying the EFQM Excellence Model in HE. The author has seen the
opportunity to conduct a detailed piece of research that evaluates how the HE institutions have
approached its implementation rather than just evaluating the benefits achieved in using the
EFQM Excellence Model. Successful implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model is clearly
a prerequisite for the achievement of the anticipated benefits to be evaluated by the GMP
project and thus is worthy of detailed study. This is detailed later in section 1.3, Purpose, Aim
and Objectives of the research.
The author has expert knowledge of Quality Management as a Fellow of the Institute of Quality
Assurance, has lectured in Quality Management for 11 years and worked in manufacturing
industry for 13 years, where he was involved in implementing Quality Management Systems.
Therefore the project presented a good opportunity to evaluate the implementation of an
approach to the management of quality (the EFQM Excellence Model) in the rather different
setting of UK Higher Education.
1.2 Reasons for researching into this area
1.2.1 Government Policy
Clearly the UK government (through HEFCE) are funding the GMP programme and therefore
see the EFQM Excellence Model as, potentially, a means for implementing quality
improvement in the HE sector. Holmes & McElwee (1995, p.5), writing on TQM in UK HE
hold the view that:
"The need for managers to justify their actions and demonstrate quality and effectiveness hasnever been greater".
Owlia & Aspinwall (1997) state that there is a prevailing belief that higher education has
entered a new environment in which quality plays an increasingly important role. McAdam et al
(2002) note a continuing emphasis on cost reduction and improved customer service within the
UK public sector, as successive governments have sought to control public expenditure and
improve value for money and that quality is an "umbrella" programme for improving public
sector performance. The Cabinet Office is encouraging the EFQM Excellence model's use in
the wider public sector. In February 2000 Ian McCartney, the then Minister of State for the
Cabinet Office, announced a new partnership between the Cabinet Office and the British
Quality Foundation (BQF), to promote the use of the EFQM Excellence Model across the public
sector (Cabinet Office Press Office, 2000). Thus the UK Public Sector Excellence Programme
Team was set up in the Cabinet Office. Although attempts had been made to introduce the Total
Quality Management (TQM) concept into public organisations prior to this, it was not evident
that these attempts had had any notable success (Adebanjo, 2001). The Public Sector Excellence
Programme's role is to help public sector organisations to use effective quality tools and
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techniques to help them to improve their performance to meet delivery standards. The Cabinet
Office promotes the EFQM Excellence Model as a framework which, by looking across the
whole scope of an organisation's activities, produces a prioritised action plan which, in turn, will
assist in determining what other tools to use and when that use would be most effective (CMPS
Civil Service College Directorate, 2002).
"The Cabinet Office's. Public Sector Excellence Programme aims to bring the benefits of theEFQM Excellence Model to the notice of public sector organisations, and to help them sharebest practice with each other; with the private sector; and with government bodies in othercountries.
The Modernising Government White Paper, published in March 1999, sets out a future vision ofGovernment re-balanced around the interests of users rather than providers. The Cabinet Officeis leading a reform programme to deliver this across the public sector, promoting serviceswhich are of better quality, more effective and more responsive to users. The Excellence Modelis one of the key tools underpinning this programme"(The UK Public Sector Excellence Programme Team, 2001, p.1).
McAdam et al (2002) observe that the EFQM Excellence Model has successfully been applied
in the public sector as long ago as 1996. They indicate an increasing use of the model in the
public sector with over 60 per cent of agencies, 120 local authorities and over 2,000 schools
using the framework. McAdam & Welsh (2000) believe that the UK can properly be described
as the international leader in applying the EFQM Excellence Model in the public sector. EFQM
(2000, p.5) quote Jon Green, Team Leader of the Public Sector Excellence Programme as
saying:
"Today the model is being applied throughout the entire public sector, an area that accounts for20% of the UK economy. Although the extent of market penetration varies, there is no part ofthe public sector where we're not applying the Excellence Model in some important way. It iscurrently in use in schools, hospitals, local authorities, fire brigades, all of the UK policeforces, two thirds of all executive agencies and most UK central government departments."
In the same article (EFQM, 2000) an interview is conducted with Bryan Dennis, Director of the
BENchmark Programme at the Civil Service College. He believes that the main attraction of the
EFQM Excellence Model to Government policy makers is that it is a genuine, trusted
management tool and not an academic's untried theory or politician's whimsical vote getting
idea. He sees the benefit of self-assessment rather than the confrontational audit/inspection
approach.
In February 2000 the Cabinet Office commissioned PriceWaterhouseCoopers (PWC) to
undertake an evaluation of the Public Sector Excellence Programme. Their population was
26,114 organisations and PWC surveyed a sample of 3,500 organisations. Their findings
(PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2000) showed that there has been an explosion in public sector use
of the EFQM Excellence Model. An estimated 44% of organisations were using the model -
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more than two-thirds of them starting since 1998 when the Excellence Programme was
expanded to include the whole public sector. It was clear at the time that, with this amount of
new users, the majority of these public sector bodies were at an early stage of maturity in
applying the Model. Nevertheless, 81% of the users surveyed believed that the model was
already an effective tool in their organisations (Cabinet Office, 2001). The author is not
surprised by this result as it is likely that the questionnaires would have been filled in by the
staff responsible for implementing the EFQM model who would naturally view the model
favourably. The British Quality Foundation (BQF) and the Institute of Management (IM),
(Charlesworth, 2000) conducted a survey of 609 1M members into improvement initiatives in
UK organisations. It was found that 15% of organisations were using the EFQM Excellence
Model and that the EFQM Excellence Model was the second most popular choice (after
Investors in People) for organisations considering introducing a performance improvement
initiative in the near future.
Prabhu et al (2002) conducted research into business excellence in the North-East of England
and surveyed 119 public sector organisations including schools, community education, and
training and recruitment. It is interesting to note that there were no Universities in the sample,
possibly because there were no Universities using the EFQM Excellence Model at the time.
Prabhu et al (2002) conclude that service delivery and quality could be enhanced further in the
public sector by the effective use of quality frameworks such as EFQM which appear to have a
low priority in the sector. This conflicts with the PWC survey and might indicate that public
sector organisations have not made much progress with the EFQM Excellence Model in the
period between 2000 and 2001.
It is clear from the above research (McAdam et al 2002 and Prabhu et al 2002) that, although
there has been considerable activity in the use of the EFQM Excellence Model in almost all
areas of the public sector, there has been little or no use of it in UK Universities. Despite the
lack of activity in implementing the EFQM Excellence model in UK Higher Education
Institutions (HEIs), Osseo-Asare Jr. & Longbottom (2002) believe that the EFQM Excellence
Model, being generic, can be successfully applied to UK HEIs. This supports the need for
research into the use of the EFQM Excellence model in this sector.
1.2.2 Need to capture the learning from the consortia Universities
There is a need to identify the strengths and weaknesses in the approaches to implementing the
EFQM Excellence Model in the consortia Universities in order that good practice can be used in
the implementation of it in other Universities. Motwani & Kumar (1997) contend that the most
difficult thing about applying TQM is the implementation process. Engelberg (2000) suggests
that there is no formula for how to implement and maintain quality. Tan (1997) cites Miller
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(1992) who reports that studies in the USA and Europe showed that less than half of companies
that launched TQM programmes have any success. Tan (1997) suggests that the failure lies in
how organisations implement it.
1.2.3 The lack of holistic quality management approaches in UK Universities
Although there are well developed systems for assessing teaching quality and research quality in
UK Universities (Quality Assurance Agency (QAA)) subject review and institutional review
and the Research Assessment Exercise (RAE)), there are few, if any, examples of the successful
implementation of more holistic approaches to the management of quality in UK Universities
such as 1S09000 or the EFQM Excellence Model. McAdam & Welsh (2000) have observed that
the educational sector has experienced the application of the EFQM Excellence Model although
they note that the impact up to then had been far less than in many other public services. For
example, they report that only three further education institutions were using the model at the
time out of an estimated 450 colleges in the sector. Kanji & Tambi (2002) conducted a survey
of 163 UK universities and higher education colleges and found that only 4 institutions had
implemented Total Quality Management (TQM). More recent research (Commons, 2003)
affirms that few colleges have yet embraced the EFQM Excellence Model formally. There are
many examples of the use of holistic approaches to the management of quality in the private
sector and other areas of the public sector, however the consortia represent the first concerted
effort to use one of these more holistic approaches (the EFQM Excellence Model) in the UK HE
sector. It is important to see if this sort of approach is feasible in the UK HE academic
environment.
1.2.4 The lack of empirically sound Total Quality implementation models
Thiagaragan et al (2001, p.290) identify that the literature is full of "everything you need to
know about TQM implementation", but most of the information is based on personal
experiences and anecdotal evidence. According to Dean & Bowen (see Thiagaragan et al 2001,
p.291) leaders question the lack of empirically sound models to assist in effective quality
management.
1.2.5 The lack of success in implementing Total Quality Management (TQM)
initiatives in organisations
According to Vrakking (1995), the main issue in implementation is how the best possible
chance can be created to ensure that implementation of intended innovations takes place.
Thiagaragan et al (2001) state that unsuccessful TQM implementation attempts are not
uncommon. Thiagarajan & Zairi (1997) argue that many quality strategies fail to deliver
because what is planned and what is implemented are not the same. They continue that the
failure to realistically consider implementation issues is common.
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Mersha (1997, p.174) states that:
"Many organizations in industrialized nations have found that successful introduction andsustenance of TQM can be elusive. A survey conducted by the Forum Corporation of 685executives who initiated TQM indicated that... ...many [ organizations] have not gone past theTQM awareness stage and thus have failed to achieve the desired purpose. Some studies showthat TQM implementations fail in about 70 percent of US firms".
Harari (see Sousa-Poza et al 2001, p.745) postulates that only 20 per cent of companies that
implement TQM do so successfully. Yandrick (see Sousa-Poza et al 2001, p.'745) is more
positive and claims that about two-thirds are successful. Spector & Beer (1994, p.63) discuss the
dichotomy they have found between the overwhelming support expressed in organisations for
TQM principles coupled with overwhelming failure in implementation. They contend that this
suggests that organisations need to become more expert at implementing the "sweeping
organisational transformation that lies at the core of TQM". Roger et al (see Chin & Pun 2002,
p.273) argue that one of the main reasons for the failure of TQM can be attributed to
implementation problems. According to Lindsay & Petrick (see Chin & Pun 2002, p.273) the
overwhelming volume of literature in TQM is primarily focused on techniques, prescriptions
and procedures. However, less attention has been devoted to how TQM was introduced and
implemented.
A survey of 469 higher education institutions on the implementation of TQM by Birnbaum &
Deshotels (see Srikanthan & Dalrymple 2002, p.1) concluded that the adoption of TQM in the
academy is both a "myth and illusion". Brigham (see Srikanthan & Dalrymple 2002, p.1) found
that universities were implementing Total Quality strategies in administrative areas but were
shying away from their use in academic areas.
As the EFQM Excellence Model is based on TQM principles, the author is curious to discover if
successful implementation of it is just as elusive as when implementing TQM, particularly in
UK University academic units.
1.3 Purpose, Aim and Objectives of the Research
1.3.1 Purpose
The general purpose of this study is to construct a guidance framework for EFQM Excellence
Model implementation in UK University academic units.
1.3.2 Aim
The aim of this research is to examine how the EFQM Excellence Model implementation
process has been conducted in a number of cases in UK University academic units with a view
to developing a guidance framework for implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in this
particular context. This will draw upon the successes and difficulties identified in the case
7
studies and the existing literature on the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model and
other Total Quality Management (TQM) approaches in other contexts.
1.3.3 Objectives
• To identify the issues that impact on the implementation of the European Foundation forQuality Management's (EFQM) Excellence Model in the UK University academicenvironment based on knowledge of the model's implementation in other sectors,knowledge of the UK University sector and on established good practice in implementingsimilar quality programmes, such as Total Quality Management (TQM). These issues willbe identified through a comprehensive literature review.
• To assess the effectiveness of the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in thecase study organisations, i.e. in which ways has the use of the EFQM Excellence Modelbecome part of the normal management activities of the institutions involved? In order toassess the effectiveness of the implementation the possible uses of the EFQM ExcellenceModel will be identified in the literature.
• To explore and analyse the approaches used in attempted implementation of the EFQMExcellence Model in a number of UK University case studies in order to discover thecritical issues for effective implementation.
• To explain why the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model was effective orineffective in a number of cases in UK University academic units by reference to thetheoretical framework.
1.4 Research Questions
The above purpose, aim and objectives help to guide the development of appropriate research
questions. The primary research question to be asked is:
How can the EFQM Excellence Model be effectively implemented in United Kingdom
University academic units?
In order to clarify this primary research question it is useful to define the key words in it. The
key phrase in it is effectively implemented Therefore the words effective and implement will be
defined.
Implement
"To carry into effect" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2003).
"To carry out or put into effect" (Wordsmyth, 2003).
"To put a plan or system into operation" (Cambridge Dictionary, 2003).
Effective
"Having practical operation" (Oxford English Dictionary, 2003).
"In use, in operation" (Newbury House Online Dictionary, 2003).
8
"Successful or achieving the results that you want" (Cambridge Dictionary, 2003).
It can be seen from the above definitions that implementation infers effectiveness. Therefore
something that is effectively implemented is something that is in operation or use.
The pivotal word in the primary research question is effectively. Although the issue of how this
research question can be answered will be dealt with in more detail in the research methodology
chapter the author thought it would aid the reader's understanding if a brief description of the
criterion for assessment of the effectiveness of the implementation was placed here.
The author will argue that the EFQM Excellence Model would have been effectively
implemented when its use has been integrated into the regular management practices of the
organisation. This is based on the definition of effectively implemented described above. For
example, has ownership of the self-assessment process been demonstrated by staff in
schools/departments/divisions carrying out their own self-assessments and/or are the
improvement plans generated in self-assessment linked in to the organisation's strategy and/or
business planning process? Fullan & Pomfret (see Vraldcing 1995, p.44) describe the goal of
implementation as:
"maximization of the degree in which the actual use of an innovation corresponds with itsintended use
So if an organisation was actually using the EFQM Excellence Model in the way that it
intended, then it could be argued that it had been effectively implemented. Another perspective
on whether the EFQM Excellence Model had been effectively implemented could be when it
had had a positive impact on the key results of the organisation, however this would be
extremely difficult to assess as the areas for improvement identified through the process of self-
assessment would be unique to each organisation. Thus the impact on key results would be
unique. This would not facilitate an equitable assessment of whether implementation had been
effective in each of the organisations. In addition it would be difficult, if not impossible, to
demonstrate causality between the EFQM Excellence Model self-assessment process and
improvements in the key results of the case study organisations as a number of complex factors
impact on these results in addition to the process of self-assessment. This view is supported by
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000), who report that experiences from commercial sectors that
have considerable maturity in the EFQM Excellence Model suggest that causal links between
the use of the EFQM Excellence Model and outcomes achieved can only start to materialise
within a timeframe of five years or more. As the consortia members have only been using the
model for three years it would be difficult to establish these causal links. It is also possible that
an organisation might have achieved some isolated improvements through the use of the EFQM
Excellence Model without having properly integrated the model into the regular management
practices of the organisation. The author argues that it is this integration that is likely to result in
9
long-term improvements in an organisation. This then is a more robust view of effective
implementation.
The secondary research questions are:
What are the issues that impact on the implementation of the European Foundation for
Quality Management's (EFQM) Excellence Model in the UK University academic
environment?
What are the possible uses of the EFQM Excellence Model?
How was implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model attempted in a number of UK
University case studies?
Why was the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model effective or ineffective in a
number of cases in UK University academic units?
1.5 Scope of the Research
The scope of this research is limited to case studies selected from the members of the two
consortia mentioned earlier who are also universities (not the HE Colleges) as they match the
requirements of being UK Universities and also of using the EFQM Excellence Model. In
addition, the consortia members have all received funding from HEFCE to facilitate the
implementation and thus are on an even footing with each other in terms of having resources
available to initiate the project. Clearly a lack of means to fund the project would present a very
practical barrier to implementation. All the HEIs in the two consortia started at the same time
(June 2000) and this helps to rule out differences in progress towards implementation due to the
time available. The fieldwork will be limited to cases of implementation in academic units
(schools/departments/faculties) within the institutions. The reason for this is that the author has
discovered by informal interviews with the two consortia project managers that there have been
very few attempts to implement the EFQM Excellence Model in these academic units and the
most progress has been made in administrative areas of HEIs. The author proposes that
implementation in these administrative areas of HEIs is unlikely to be significantly different to
that in the administrative areas of other public sector organisations or commercial businesses.
On the other hand the relatively low number of attempts to implement the EFQM Excellence
Model (or TQM) in academic areas might suggest that this has presented barriers to
implementation that don't occur in the administrative areas. This proposition is supported by
research carried out by Aly & Akpovi (2001) in California public higher education:
"Many TQM advocates in academia have supported the idea of starting TQM implementationon the business side of universities; first, because it is relatively easier. The results of the surveytend to enforce this idea and indicate that most universities implementing TQM do start with
10
their administrative services where processes are very similar to business processes in industry"(Aly & Akpovi, 2001, p.129).
Aly & Akpovi's (2001) research revealed that administrative services was the most popular area
for TQM implementation (76%) and only 18% of the universities reported implementing TQM
at the school/college level. In addition Owlia & Aspinwall (1997) observed that, in the UK,
TQM implementation, up to that point in time, had mainly focused on administrative sections of
universities and colleges. Melan (1998) reports on a survey published by the American Society
for Quality Control in 1994 which indicated that, of 206 US institutions of higher education
participating in TQM, 84% were utilising quality improvement in administration. They see this
as reflecting the relative similarity of college and university administrative activity to that of
business. An extensive piece of research by Harvey (1995) revealed that there was a great
reluctance among universities to apply TQM principles to their academic programmes and that
where TQM had been applied in universities it had most often been in administrative and
service departments.
The author is aware from his membership of the EFQM's Community of Practice for Education
that other (three or four) UK universities who are not members of the consortia have started to
use the EFQM Excellence Model, but these have been using it for a shorter period of time than
the consortia members and haven't received any HEFCE funding to support its implementation.
Therefore they will be excluded from this piece of research as the lack of funding and the fact
that they started their implementation programmes later than the consortia members would
make it difficult to assess whether the implementation had been effective because of the
diminished opportunity to carry out the implementation process. Hides (2002) made a
presentation about the use of the EFQM Excellence model to the Association of University
Administrators in April 2002 (this session was attended by senior administrators from 15 UK
universities). It was clear from the response of the audience that none of their universities were
implementing or indeed had much awareness of the EFQM Excellence Model at that time.
The author is aware from his involvement in research networks and attendance at research
conferences, that a number of European Universities are attempting to use the EFQM
Excellence Model, however Universities in each country operate in quite different environments
brought about by factors such as legislation, regulatory frameworks, funding mechanisms and
stakeholder expectations. The UK universities in the consortia all operate in the same general
environment, started the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model at the same time and
have all had HEFCE funding to support the implementation which provides a basis on which an
equitable investigation can be made. Therefore it is more appropriate to consider the European
Universities as part of the literature review (where current knowledge of the use and
11
implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model is documented) rather than the fieldwork aspect
of the research.
1.6 Research Methodology
This research involves two main stages. Stage 1 involves conducting a literature review to
develop a theoretical framework for implementing the EFQM Excellence Model in UK
University academic units, while stage 2 involves conducting a series of case studies within UK
University academic units that are implementing the EFQM Excellence Model in order to
discover how the implementation process was carried out.
1.6.1 Literature Review
A literature review will be conducted to determine what research has already been done in the
area in order to identify the issues around implementation that need to be explored in the
subsequent fieldwork. This literature review will integrate knowledge of the UK University
environment, generic knowledge on the implementation of TQM programmes and specific
knowledge on the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model.
1.6.2 Case Studies
The next stage of the research will involve carrying out case studies in UK University academic
units. The Universities involved will be detailed in chapter six. The case study approach was
chosen to provide rich and deep insights into the issues being investigated. The findings of the
case studies will be used to shed a practical light on the theoretical framework
UK Universities encompass a large and varied range of organisations — the "old", pre-1992
Universities and the post-1992 Universities (the former Polytechnics). Within each of these
categories there exist many differences in history, local factors, structures, modes of
governance, specialisms and the relative balance between Teaching, Research and Academic
Enterprise (the interaction, often on a commercial basis, with business and the community)
activities. Each University is therefore unique making it difficult for a researcher to carry out
research that would be representative of the sector as a whole. With such a scenario, it would be
extremely difficult to conduct research that would be valid and reliable to the point where it
could be claimed that the findings were generalisable to all UK Universities. However, by being
aware of the similarities and differences between the case study organisations it is the author's
intention to develop a framework to provide guidance for implementing the EFQM Excellence
model in UK University academic units.
For the purposes of this study, the author adopted the case study approach to enable deep
insights to be gained into the views of people in the organisations on the use and
12
implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model. A quantitative approach, such as doing a
survey, is good for probing common factors and establishing general patterns, but is not
effective in helping to understand the reasons for what was done, why it was done and how
things were done (Yin, 1994). In essence, the research is an exploratory study intended to
develop a guidance framework for the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK
University academic units. The rationale for the chosen research strategy will be explained in
more detail in Chapter 5.
1.7 Intended Contributions of the Study
The intention of this study is to contribute to the body of knowledge on the implementation of
the EFQM Excellence Model in the UK Higher Education sector by attempting to bridge the
gap between existing theories, knowledge and approaches of EFQM Excellence Model
implementation and that required for guiding effective implementation in UK university
academic units. Particularly the main contribution will be a guidance framework for
implementing the EFQM Excellence Model in academic units of UK universities. There is now
an abundance of literature on the EFQM Excellence Model, some of which addresses
implementation. The majority of case studies in the literature deal with private sector
organisations, fewer with public sector organisations, even fewer with UK HE and fewer still
(almost none) with UK university academic units. It is this gap in knowledge that this thesis is
designed to address. From an application standpoint, the framework is aimed at increasing the
degree of effectiveness in implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model.
1.8 Structure of the Thesis
This thesis is divided into eight chapters. Chapter Two contains a review of the content,
development and uses of the EFQM Excellence Model. Chapter Three contains a review of the
literature on the issues that could impact on the effective implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model in UK University academic units. This includes a review of the literature on
the implementation of generic TQM programmes and a review of the literature on the specific
implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in industry, the broad public sector and the HE
sector. This chapter will also include a review of contextual issues in UK University academic
units that could impact on the success of EFQM Excellence Model implementation. Chapter
Four explains the development of the theoretical framework for implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model in UK University academic units. This will be based on the integration of the
knowledge from the above literature reviews. The set of issues described in this framework will
be explored in the case studies.
Chapter Five covers the research methodology. The issues related to research design and the
rationale for choosing the case study strategy will be addressed. The data collection methods
13
and instruments, and methods of analysis, related to the aim and objectives of this research will
be described and justified.
Chapter Six presents the findings of the study (data analysis). Chapter Seven provides a
discussion of the findings and draws comparisons and contrasts with the theory and literature.
The limitations of the research will be discussed, the contributions of the research will be
described and recommendations will be made for both the case study organisations and for
further related research.
In the final chapter, Chapter Eight, conclusions will be drawn and the recommendations for
further related research will be summarised.
1.9 Chapter Summary
This chapter has provided an introduction to the research study, stated that the aim of the
research is to examine how the EFQM Excellence Model implementation process has been
conducted in a number of UK university academic units, outlined the case study methodology to
be used, defined the intended contribution of the study to the body of knowledge on the use of
the EFQM Excellence Model in the UK university environment and described the structure of
the thesis.
14
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
THE CONTENT, DEVELOPMENT AND USES OF
THE EUROPEAN FOUNDATION FOR QUALITY
MANAGEMENT'S EXCELLENCE MODEL
Leadership
People
Policy &Strategy
Processes
...1f...Partnerships
& Resources
PeopleResults
CustomerResults
10,
•
SocietyResults
KeyPerformance
Results
2.0 Chapter Introduction
This chapter includes reviews of the content, development and uses of the EFQM Excellence
model in order to provide an in-depth understanding of the detail of the model, the concepts and
processes on which the model is constructed, the history of its development and the actual and
suggested uses of the model in sectors other than UK HE. The issues that emerge from this
chapter of the literature review will inform the theoretical framework to be developed in chapter
four and help to provide a focus for the fieldwork element of the research. This then will
contribute to the achievement of the objective: To identify the issues that impact on the
implementation of the European Foundation for Quality Management's (EFQ.10 Excellence
Model in the UK University academic environment. The uses of the model identified in this
literature review chapter will form a basis for assessing if implementation has been effective in
the case studies to be investigated in the fieldwork and thus will partly contribute to the
achievement of the objective: To assess the effectiveness of the implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model in the case study organisations. Implementation would be deemed to have
been effective if the EFQM Excellence Model is in use in the case study organisations. This has
been described in detail in section 1.4.
2.1 The European Foundation for Quality Management's Excellence Model
The EFQM Excellence Model is a non-prescriptive framework based on nine criteria as shown
in Figure 2.1. Five of these are 'Enablers' and four are 'Results'. The 'Enabler' criteria cover what
an organisation does. The 'Results' criteria cover what an organisation achieves. 'Results' are
caused by 'Enablers' and feedback from 'Results' helps to improve 'Enablers' (EFQM, 2003a).
Enablers Results
Innovation and Learning
Figure 2.1:2.1: The EFQM Excellence Model (EFQM, 2003a)
16
The Model, which recognizes there are many approaches to achieving sustainable excellence in
all aspects of performance, is based on the premise that:
Excellent results with respect to Performance, Customers, People and Society are achieved
through Leadership driving Policy and Strategy, People, Partnerships, Resources, and Processes.
(EFQM, 2003a). Ghobadian & Woo (1996) confirm that the model implicitly recognizes that
the quality of the final offerings is the end result of a complex of integrated processes and
employees' efforts and that it provides a useful audit framework against which organisations can
evaluate their quality management methods, the deployment of these methods, and the end
results. This view is supported by Gadd (1995, p.69) who states:
"Clearly, the model allows measurement of more than just performance. It also allows formeasurement of how the organization operates".
The Model's nine boxes, shown in figure 2.1, represent the criteria against which to assess an
organisation's progress towards excellence. Each of the nine criteria has a definition, which
explains the high level meaning of that criterion (EFQM, 2003a).
To develop the high level meaning further each criterion is supported by a number of sub-
criteria. Sub-criteria pose a number of questions that should be considered in the course of an
assessment. The detail of this is contained in appendix 1.
Below each sub-criterion are lists of possible areas to address. The areas to address are not
mandatory nor are they exhaustive lists but are intended to further exemplify the meaning of the
sub-criterion (EFQM, 2003a).
2.2 The Concepts and Processes on which the EFQM Excellence Model is based
This section covers three areas; Total Quality Management concepts, Self-Assessment and
Scoring.
2.2.1 Total Quality Management Concepts
EFQM (2002) explain that the EFQM Model is a non-prescriptive framework that recognises
there are many approaches to achieving sustainable excellence. Within this non-prescriptive
approach there are some Fundamental Concepts which underpin the EFQM Model. These are
expressed below (EFQM, 2003a) and are based on well-established Total Quality Management
(TQM) principles (the model's original title was 'The European Model for Total Quality
Management' (Porter & Tanner, 1996)). There is no significance intended in the order of the
concepts. The list is not meant to be exhaustive and they will change as excellent organisations
develop and improve.
17
Results Orientation
Excellence is achieving results that delight all the organisation's stakeholders.
Customer Focus
Excellence is creating sustainable customer value.
Leadership & Constancy of Purpose
Excellence is visionary and inspirational leadership, coupled with constancy of purpose.
Management by Processes & Facts
Excellence is managing the organisation through a set of interdependent and interrelated
systems, processes and facts.
People Development & Involvement
Excellence is maximising the contribution of employees through their development and
involvement.
Continuous Learning, Innovation & Improvement
Excellence is challenging the status quo and effecting change by using learning to create
innovation and improvement opportunities.
Partnership Development
Excellence is developing and maintaining value -adding partnerships.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Excellence is exceeding the minimum regulatory framework in which the organisation operates
and to strive to understand and respond to the expectations of their stakeholders in society.
Ghobadian & Woo (1996) see the above as providing an implementable total quality
management model. This view is supported by Porter & Tanner (1996) who view the self-
assessment process as enabling the progress of TQM programmes to be monitored in a
systematic way. Kanji & Tambi (2002) consider business excellence models (including the
EFQM Excellence Model) to be special types of TQM models that provide measures of key
organisational areas and demonstrate the contributory effect of those key areas to overall
organisational performance. Thus self-assessment using the EFQM Excellence Model can be
seen as a systematic approach to introducing TQM concepts into an organisation whilst also
monitoring changes in organisational performance. This view, however, is not universal.
Much has been written on the concepts contained within TQM, principally derived from the
thoughts of a number of quality gurus. Kanji & Tambi (2002) list Deming, Juran, Crosby,
Ishikawa, Garvin, Feigenbaum and Taguchi as the major quality writers. According to Van der
Wiele et at (see Kanji &Tambi 2002, p.15), TQM involves an application of quality
management principles to all aspects of an organisation, including customers. They continue
that TQM has an emphasis on prevention, continuous improvement and customer focus in order
to produce high quality products and services that will satisfy the needs of customers.
18
McCulloch (see Harris 1994, p.34) argues that regarding TQM as simply a management
technique is inadequate and it is more properly seen as a set of institutional values. Porter &
Tanner (1996) describe TQM as a business approach that focuses on improving the
organisation's effectiveness, efficiency and responsiveness to customers' needs by actively
involving people in process improvement activities. They argue that measurement is
fundamental to knowing if improvement has occurred and that self-assessment provides a
means of monitoring the progress of TQM programmes.
Kanji &Tambi (2002) differentiate between conceptual models of TQM and measurement
models. The TQM concepts listed above would be seen as a conceptual model by this definition
and the EFQM Excellence Model as a measurement model. There is debate in the literature
about whether the EFQM Excellence Model (and other measurement models) adequately links
together the concepts of TQM and its measurement. Taylor & McAdam (2003) argue that the
emphasis on processes within the EFQM Excellence Model is largely mechanistic with
processes more closely linked with material objects than people issues and flows of knowledge.
They are also critical of the lack of emphasis on empowerment (a fundamental TQM concept)
within the EFQM Excellence Model with only one part of one criterion directly related to
empowerment. Oakland & Porter (2004) propose a new model for TQM that addresses both the
hard (planning, process, performance and people) and soft (communication, commitment and
culture) issues of quality. This is an attempt to bridge the gap between the conceptual and
measurement models of TQM described by Kanji & Tambi (2002). EFQM (2003a) themselves
have also attempted to make this linkage by providing a matrix to show the significant links
between the fundamental concepts and the criteria of the EFQM Excellence Model. In addition
they list a large number of red threads which link concepts with specific sub-criteria of the
EFQM Excellence Model. So it has been recognised that the linkage between TQM concepts
and the criteria of the EFQM Excellence Model needed to be made more explicit.
As the EFQM Excellence Model is therefore a special type of TQM model it makes sense to
review literature on the implementation of TQM and not just the implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model specifically, as it is likely that there will be some implementation issues that
are common or transferable. This will be dealt with in detail in chapter 3.
2.2.2 Self-Assessment
The EFQM (2003b) definition of self-assessment is:
"Self-Assessment is a comprehensive, systematic and regular review of an organisation'sactivities and results referenced against the EFQM Excellence Model. The Self-Assessmentprocess allows the organisation to discern clearly its strengths and areas in whichimprovements can be made and culminates in planned improvement actions which are thenmonitored for progress".
19
Thus it can be seen from the above definition that self-assessment is a vehicle for systematic
continuous improvement in an organisation. An extensive study by Coulambidou & Dale (1995)
supports this view. The surveyed organisations when asked which factors were the most
important for justifying their continuing with self-assessment, identified the following:
• Identify opportunities for improvement• Provide new motivation for the quality improvement process• Direct the improvement process• Manage the business
Hillman (1994) sees four main areas of benefit in using self-assessment:
1. Measurement:
• Gaining consensus on what has been achieved and what still needs to be done.• Enabling managers to prioritize action based on facts and identified needs.• Providing data to compare with, and learn from, "world class" organizations.• Providing data on improvements over time.
2. Applying best practice:
• Learning from each other and from other organizations.• Providing objective reviews of progress.• Providing a common approach to use in all departments and on all sites.• Minimizing the effort needed to develop assessment methods at different sites.
3. Involvement:
• Enabling everyone to contribute to the assessment process, thereby bringingownership of the results and proposed actions.
• Enabling staff to see the impact of their improvement efforts.• Enabling senior managers to drive the improvement process and to empower
their staff to exercise initiative at their own level.
4. Reinforcement of direction:
• Demonstrating the long-term commitment, and consistency of purpose.• Integrating improvement activity into everyday life by focussing on business
results.• Providing a practical tool to drive continuous improvement.
Clearly there is a degree of overlap between the results of Coulambidou & Dale's survey and
Hillman's views, which are based on his experience of training consultancy in organisations
using the EFQM Excellence Model. There is clear agreement that self-assessment helps in
identifying areas for improvement and directing the improvement process. Coulambidou & Dale
emphasise providing motivation for the improvement process and managing the business
whereas Hillman puts his emphasis on the involvement of staff and the application of best
practice. Barnett (1992) describes this self-assessment approach to the management of quality as
a developmental approach to quality, which is conducted from a primarily internal viewpoint in
Universities.
20
The European Foundation for Quality Management (2003b) suggests a number of approaches
for self-assessment, which are questionnaire, matrix chart, workshop, pro-forma and award
simulation.
The EFQM (2003b) recognise that each self-assessment approach delivers different benefits and
involves different resources and risks. Before an approach is chosen it is important to consider
what the organisation is hoping to achieve from using the EFQM Excellence Model. For
instance, if the aim is to secure a 'quick fix' to a specific problem then this is unlikely to occur
given the long-term nature of the Model. Alternatively, if the organisation is looking to achieve
a quality award it must be remembered that the RADAR scoring matrix (see later) awards
higher scores to organisations who can demonstrate positive trends for more than 3 years, in a
wide scope of result areas. Thereby implying that continuous improvement efforts needed to
have been well underway prior to embarking upon using the EFQM Excellence Model for
attaining an award.
In line with this thinking the EFQM (2003b) have a menu of approaches that organisations can
choose from dependent upon whether they are well on the way with applying quality concepts
and frameworks, just starting the journey or somewhere in between the two. A distinction is
also made between the amount of effort required for each approach in terms of low, medium
and high effort. Clearly these choices depend upon the availability of resources within the
organisation regarding commitment, time, energy, information and finance. Likewise the
organisation may consider applying the EFQM Model throughout all departments at once or
design a phased approach, whereby some departments will apply it before others, dependent
upon the aforementioned resources available.
Questionnaire approach
Deemed by the EFQM (2003b) as one of the least labour intensive approaches (providing an
existing questionnaire is used) the questionnaire self-assessment approach aims to obtain the
views of [all] the people within the organisation.
The benefits associated with this approach are that it is quick and easy to apply, can involve all
the organisation's people, supports communication efforts and can be used in conjunction with
other approaches. The associated risks are that the strengths and areas for improvement cannot
be ascertained, accuracy of feedback is dependent upon the phrasing of the original questions,
there may be questionnaire fatigue within the organisation and expectations can be raised and
unfulfilled if timely, appropriate actions do not occur (EFQM 2003b).
21
Matrix chart approach
In essence the matrix chart approach requires an organisation to create a series of achievement
statements that can be assigned a rating from 1-10. Statements would have to be identified for
all the nine criteria of the Model, thereby involving the creation of 90 achievement statements in
total. The matrix chart is then used by management teams who self-assess where the
organisation is in relation to the statements.
The benefits associated with this approach are that it is simple to use, requires minimal training,
can involve all the organisation's people, supports team discussion and clearly demonstrates
progress and the lack of progress in relation to all the nine criteria of the EFQM Excellence
Model (EFQM 2003b). The associated risks are that the list of strengths and areas for
improvement are not produced, it does not allow comparisons against EQA applicants and there
is no direct cross-reference between the matrix statements and the sub-criteria of the Model.
(EFQM 2003b).
Workshop approach
The workshop approach has five distinct phases;
1. Training2. Data collection3. A scoring workshop4. Prioritisation of improvement actions5. A review of progress
The latter becomes part of the normal review process for the organisation. The benefits
associated with this approach are that it; is an excellent way to familiarise management teams to
understand the Model, supports team building and allows for discussion and agreement
regarding the strengths and areas for improvement, which provides motivation towards
improvement actions (EFQM 2003b). The associated risks are that it; is less robust that the
award simulation approach requires expert facilitation and can result in unrealistic, often over
generous scoring (EFQM 2003b).
Pro-forma approach
The pro-forma approach involves using a set of pro-formas, which in total contain all the 32
sub-criteria of the EFQM Excellence Model. Appendix 2 contains extracts from the example
given in the EFQM booklet 'Assessing for Excellence. A Practical Guide for Self-Assessment'
(EFQM 1999).
Assessment teams collect the appropriate information and then use the pro-formas to undertake
a self-assessment. The benefits associated with this approach are that it; provides factual
information, delivers a list of strengths and areas for improvement, can involve a range of the
22
organisation's people and provides a reasonably accurate indication of an award application
score (EFQM 2003b).
The associated risks are that; the process is dependent upon good data collection and the pro-
formas can stifle recognition of the full story relating to excellence development (EFQM
2003 b).
Award simulation approach
The award simulation approach is in essence a replication of the process for entering for the
European Quality Award. It involves preparing a full submission document abiding by the
criteria laid down in the EFQM Award Application brochure (EFQM 2003b). Subsequently a
team of trained assessors, either internal or external to the organisation, scores the application
and provides a feedback report containing a list of strengths and areas for improvement.
The benefits associated with this approach are that it provides; a list of strengths and areas for
improvement, an excellent communication document, an opportunity to compare performance
with other organisations and a rehearsal for applying for the EQA. The associated risks are less
involvement of managers because the task is usually delegated, a potential for creative writing
and it can be too ambitious for an organisation early on in its journey towards excellence
(EFQM 2003b).
Clearly the issue of which self-assesssment approach to use and why is a significant one for
organisations. This issue will be explored in the fieldwork.
To help organisations with the process of self-assessment, RADAR logic was introduced and
can be seen diagrammatically in figure 2.2 (adapted from EFQM, 2002).
RADAR consists of four elements:
Results,
Approach,
Deployment,
Assessment and
Review
23
Determine
irlitY the Resultsrequired
Assess & Plan & developReview Approaches
'kid.Deploy
Approaches All6)
Figure 2.2 RADAR Logic
This logic states that an organisation needs to:
• Determine the Results it is aiming for as part of its policy and strategy making process.These results cover the performance of the organisation, both financially andoperationally, and the perceptions of its stakeholders.
• Plan and develop an integrated set of sound Approaches to deliver the required resultsboth now and in the future.
• Deploy the approaches in a systematic way to ensure full implementation.• Assess and Review the approaches followed based on monitoring and analysis of the
results achieved and ongoing learning activities. Based on this identify, prioritise, planand implement improvements where needed.
When using the model within an organisation, for example for the purposes of Self-Assessment,
the Approach, Deployment, Assessment and Review elements of the RADAR logic should be
addressed for each Enabler sub-criterion and the Results element should be addressed for each
Results sub-criterion (EFQM, 2002)..
Applying RADAR logic
The following describes the specific elements of the RADAR concept that should be addressed
(EFQM, 2002):
Results
This covers what an organisation achieves. In an excellent organisation the results will show
positive trends and/or sustained good performance, targets will be appropriate and met or
exceeded, performance will compare well with others and will have been caused by the
approaches. Additionally, the scope of the results will address the relevant areas.
Approach
This covers what an organisation plans to do and the reasons for it. In an excellent organisation
the approach will be sound -having a clear rationale, well-defined and developed processes and
24
Results 50%
a clear focus on stakeholder needs, and will be integrated - supporting policy and strategy and
linked to other approaches where appropriate.
Deployment
This covers the extent to which an organisation uses the approach and what it does to deploy it.
In an excellent organisation the approach will be implemented in relevant areas, in a systematic
way.
Assessment & Review
This covers what an organisation does to assess and review both the approach and the
deployment of the approach. In an excellent organisation the approach, and deployment of it,
will be subject to regular measurement, learning activities will be undertaken, and the output
from both will be used to identify, prioritise, plan and implement improvement.
Jackson (2001, p.138) compares the RADAR logic to the Deming/Shewhart cycle of continuous
improvement and continues later:
"All in all it can be seen that applying the RADAR logic is a rigorous process that has thepotential to achieve desired results providing efforts are continuous and relentless,measurements are timely and appropriate, and learning opportunities are not overlooked.Furthermore, applying the RADAR logic to the nine criteria of the EFQM Excellence Model is ademanding exercise that requires a sensible implementation approach best achieved by startingsimple".
Awkati (2000, p.2'7) recommends introducing the EFQM Excellence Model in a "back to front"
fashion using RADAR and starting with Results then moving round the RADAR cycle without
mentioning the EFQM Excellence Model or its criteria.
2.2.3 Scoring
The weightings for each of the criteria in the EFQM Excellence Model are as follows:
• Leadership 10%
• People 9%
• Policy and Strategy 8% Enablers 50%
• Partnerships and Resources 90/o
• Processes 14%
• People Results 9%
• Customer Results 20%
• Society Results 6%
• Key Performance Results 15%
25
Jackson (2001) explains that the percentages are those that emerged from the values and
experiences of the 14 founder member businesses of the EFQM. She notes that it is interesting
that these weightings have remained the same despite the extensive consultation exercise that
was undertaken with all member organisations of the EFQM (over 800) during 1997 to 1999.
There is however some debate on the weightings as they appear in the EFQM Excellence
Model. Oakland (1999) is of the opinion that the weightings are not rigid and may be modified
to suit specific organisational needs. Eskildsen et al (2001) surveyed 756 Danish organisations
using the EFQM Excellence Model to find out how the importance of the different criteria was
perceived by the business community. The results showed that Danish companies perceive the
enabler block to be more important than the result block. They would allocate approximately a
70% weighting to the enablers and a 30% weighting to the results. This is understandable as the
enablers cause the results and not the other way around (Oakland, 1999). Thus putting greater
emphasis on the enablers would seem a sensible thing to do. The following table (table 2.1)
shows the weightings for each of the nine criteria from the Danish survey compared with those
contained within the EFQM Excellence Model.
EFQM Criteria EFQM % Weighting Danish Study % Weighting
Leadership 10 14.4
People 9 13.5
Policy & Strategy 8 14.4
Partnerships & Resources 9 13.6
Processes 14 16.4
People Results 9 8.7
Customer Results 20 9.0
Society Results 6 5.4
Key Performance Results 15 5.6
Table 2.1. The importance of the EFQM criteria as perceived by the Danish business
community (extracted from Eskildsen et al (2001)).
The maximum score that can be attained is 1000 points although organisations winning the
European Quality Award tend to score 600 - 700 points (Jackson, 2001). Some authors espouse
the benefits of scoring. Gadd (1995) indicates that scoring serves three important functions:
1. To identify winners in an award process.2. To provide a yardstick for identifying strengths and areas for improvement.3. To provide an opportunity for benchmarking against other business
units/divisions within the same organisation, and externally with otherorganisations using the same self-assessment model.
26
However many authors have drawn attention to the negative aspects of the scoring system. Dale
et al (1998) observed a preoccupation with the scoring mechanism and scores to the detriment
of developing improvement plans. Dale et al (2000, p.6), having carried out extensive research
into the use of the EFQM Excellence Model, highlighted this significant problem with points-
scoring:
"The emphasis of many organisations (mainly those with a lack of experience of continuousimprovement) is now on scoring points against the criteria of award models and away from thefundamental basics of the technical essence of quality. Quality management, TQM, businessexcellence, or excellence - or whatever you want to badge it - has become yet anotherorganizational control system which has to be manipulated and beaten, with high scoresattained and improved upon".
Conti (1997) warns of the risks involved in scoring. It can result in an obsession with numbers
and he has observed that companies become hopelessly addicted to the numbers game instead of
using self-assessment as a diagnostic tool for improvement. His self-assessment model does not
weight the categories. Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) reported on a case in which a company had
previously used scoring as a base for an internal quality award to motivate people. However the
competition was cancelled since it caused the focus to shift to collecting scores rather than
improving performance. Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) also note a suggestion from EFQM that
scoring does not have to be included at all in self-assessment. Arcelay et al (1999) conducted
research in Spanish healthcare organisations. Out of thirty institutions using self-assessment,
three did not carry out the scoring process. The reasons for their decision not to use points
scoring are not provided in the paper as it focuses on the points scored by the institutions that did
use scoring. Exploring the rationale behind these decisions could have increased the value of this
piece of research.
Leonard & McAdam (2002a, p.21) quote a manager interviewed as part of their research into
organisations using the EFQM Excellence model who makes a point about the dangers of
measurement and in particular the scoring system of the EFQM model:
"When you start assessment, self-assessment in departments, you'll be looking at scores becausethere's danger if you do that, managers are going to start creating scores here. And I've afeeling at the moment that the right way to approach it is not to have a score".
Lewis (1999) reports on the development of an initiative in Southwark Council called 'Towards
Service Excellence' (TSE) based on the EFQM Excellence model. After the initial run of the
initiative in 1996, TSE was revised in 1997 to add in scoring to enable comparison and external
assessment, but this led to hyped scores which masked actual performance rather than providing
a rigorous platform for improvement. According to Lewis, this demonstrated that managers were
more motivated to clear targets and hurdles than effect real improvement in service quality. This
view is supported by de Dommartin (2000) who explains that one of the reasons that EFQM
chose to improve the EFQM model at that time was that the emphasis on scoring was not
27
conducive to improvement efforts and progress. Oakland (1999) states that scores should not
become an end in themselves. Jeanes (2000) describes the scoring as optional, the focus of self-
assessment being on identifying strengths and areas for improvement. The CMPS Civil Service
College Directorate (2002, p.4) offers the following view:
"You will be much more successful if the objective from the start is performance improvementrather than simply to attain a high score".
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) reported from an extensive survey that, in a number of cases,
organisations undertook their self-assessment without using the scoring mechanism. As they
became more familiar with the process of self-assessment then the scoring system was given
more importance. This was usually the case on their second or third self-assessment cycles.
Although some organisations could see advantages in producing scores, for example, for
participating in the benchmarking database run by the Civil Service College, the majority of
managers interviewed instead concentrated their efforts on assessing, prioritising and targeting
areas for improvement. The research evidence provided by PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000)
further supports the view that scoring is incidental to self-assessment against the Excellence
Model through:
• The number of public sector organisations choosing to down play or ignore internal self-assessment scores; and
• The low level of take up in sharing self-assessment scores with the Civil Service Collegedatabase.
A study of the benefits of using the EFQM Excellence Model conducted by the Bristol Quality
Centre in 1993 cited in Porter & Tanner (1996) reports that some organisations use self-
assessment scores to measure, compare and rank interdivisional performance and to create
league tables. A warning is given of the potential danger of league tables, such as increased
competition and less cooperation. The researchers conclude that the use of self-assessment for
interdivisional comparisons is highly dependent on the culture of the organisation. The findings
of a very extensive piece of research by PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) into the use of the
EFQM Excellence Model in the public sector support this view. A great fear expressed by public
sector organisations was that the government may in some way seek to enforce compulsory
scoring of organisations and generate 'name and shame' league tables - a scenario all
commentators believed would be the death knell of the Excellence Model in the public sector.
The author notes that this may be an issue to be aware of in the context of UK 11E, as inter-
institution comparisons are made against a series of measures and reported in the UK national
press. In the author's experience in UK universities, this type of comparison provokes
widespread ill feeling within the sector. Any attempt to use the scores from an EFQM
Excellence Model self-assessment to construct comparative league tables, either within or
between HEIs, would have to be preceded by a careful assessment of the cultural and
behavioural implications of such a system.
28
In addition, the fact that the maximum score that can be achieved is 1000 infers that there is a
standard for excellence. This is at odds with the notion that the EFQM Excellence model exists
to promote continuous improvement in an organisation through the identification of areas for
improvement. The author would argue that even an organisation that scores the maximum of
1000 points still has scope for improvement. This is another argument that undermines the
scoring process. In the recent 'refreshment' of the EFQM Excellence Model, Coles (2003, p.14)
reported that in RADAR an in-depth description of scoring is not covered. She explained that the
EFQM had decided on this to ensure that:
"The true value of the RADAR process is gained (Plan, Do, Check, Act) rather than just amechanism for scoring".
This provides further evidence to support the view that scoring can detract from the
improvement process. It can be seen clearly from the above debate that the decisions of whether
to use scoring as part of self-assessment, whether to amend the weightings given in the model
and subsequently what purposes any scores should be used for are significant for organisations
as they impact on organisational behaviour. These aspects will be explored further in the
fieldwork.
2.3 The History of the Development of the EFQM Excellence Model
Hides & Davies (2002) reviewed the history and development of the EFQM model. The success
of the Baldrige Model (USA) and the Deming prize (Japan) encouraged the formation of the
European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) in 1988. The 14 founders of EFQM
were all Presidents of world-class organisations representing a number of different markets and
were endorsed by the European Commission. The full list of organisations was:
• Bosch • KLM• BT • Nestle• Bull • Olivetti• Ciba-Geigy • Philips• Dassault • Renault• Electrolux • Sulzer• Fiat • Volkswagen
The EFQM Excellence model, previously called the European Model for Business Excellence,
was introduced in 1991 with the European Quality Award being awarded for the first time in
1992. From its inception, the adoption of Total Quality Management (TQM) principles has been
at the heart of the EFQM vision. This vision was restated in 2000 as:
"A world in which organisations in Europe excel" with the role of the EFQM "to be the
driving force for sustainable excellence in organisations in Europe" (EFQM, 2002).
29
Hart cited in Pitt (1999, p.51) stated that the EFQM Excellence Model was underdeveloped for
public sector use. For example, emphasis was placed on return on investment, shareholder share
value and other investment criteria without addressing the National Health Service principles of
equity, fairness and access to services.
In 1996 a Public and Voluntary Sector version of the EFQM Excellence Model was introduced
and incorporated into the award structure. The first recognition (in the form of prize-winners)
for Public Sector Organisations was given in 1998, although no awards were presented in this
category. The changes contained within the Public and Voluntary Sector version of the EFQM
Excellence Model are relatively small which are generally in the suggestions for areas to
address (Jackson, 2001).
Criteria Differences
1 Leadership
None.
2 Policy and Strategy
2a Defines the shareholder as 'owning stakeholders' (ie the government or governing body).
2b Uses the term comparator in addition to competitor to highlight that often in the publicsector there is no competition.
2c Uses the term 'capacity to take advantage of opportunities' in addition to competitiveadvantage.
3 People
3e Identifies that aligning remuneration, redeployment etc will be 'within the bounds ofGovernment or governing body policies'.
4 Partnerships and Resources
None
5 Processes
5c Includes other stakeholders as well as customers in the context of determining needs andexpectations.
5d Adds promoting to the selling of products and services.
5e Uses the term 'product and service delivery and servicing' in terms of follow-up oncustomer relationships.
6 Customer Results
6a Some additions to perceptions measures:
Overall image: fairness, courtesy and understanding. Products and services: relevanceof product or service. After sales service: becomes product or service aftercare. Loyalty:Intention to use the product again, willingness to use and willingness to commend areadded.
30
6b Some additions to performance indicators:
Products and services: value for money and performance against customer-basedobjectives. After sales service: becomes product or service support and aftercare.Loyalty: includes number of commendations and number of lost services.
7 People Results
None.
8 Society Results
None.
9 Key Performance
9a Financial outcomes become:
Results- meeting of budgets
- audited accounts including income, grants and expenditure items
- investment returns surplus/profit
Non-financial outcomes become:
market share;- time to introduce new products and services;- volumes;- success
rates as defined by the vision and mission- compliance with legislation and codes of
practice results.
(EFQM, 2003b)
It can be seen from the above that the differences in the Public and Voluntary Sector version of
the EFQM Excellence Model are in terminology and language which has been changed to suit
the operating context of this type of organisation. Oakland (1999, p.108) states:
"It may be necessary to assess the status of the language to be used before launching a self-assessment process. If recipients are not familiar with certain language, many propositions willbe meaningless".
This begs the question of whether a similar change in terminology and language might be useful
in the HE context. This is an issue to be explored in the fieldwork.
In the words of EFQM:
"The EFQM Excellence Model does not seek to assess the 'quality' or 'excellence' of politicalpolicies, but rather the management of excellence within organisations" (EFQM, 2003a).
The first winner of the Public Sector Award of the European Quality Award was the Inland
Revenue, Accounts Office Cumbernauld in 2000 (EFQM, 2003a). Table 2.1 shows previous
prize and award winners for the EFQM Public Sector Category.
The adoption of Excellence within the Public Sector has been especially publicised within the
healthcare sector. Jackson (1999), Stahl- (2001), Train & Williams (2000), Nabitz & Klazinga
(1999), Naylor (1999), Dunn & Mathews (2001) and Downey-Ennis & Harrington (2002) all
31
discuss the use of the Excellence Model within health and social care environments.
1998• (No Award winner)• AVE (A division of RENFE) (Prize Winner)• Inland Revenue Cumbemauld (Prize Winner)1999• (No Award or Prize winners)2000• Inland Revenue, Accounts Office Cumbernauld (Award
Winner)• Arbejdsformidlingen - Ringkoebing AMT (Prize Winner)• Foxdenton School and Integrated Nursery (Prize Winner)2001• St. Mary's College Northern Ireland (Award Winner)2002• Customs and Tax Region Aarhus, Denmark (Prize Winner)2003• Runshaw College (Award Winner)• Kocaeli Chamber of Industry (Prize Winner)
Table 2.1 EFQM Public Sector Award and Prize Winners (EFQM, 2004)
According to PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000), the public sector in Europe is taking longer than
the private sector to adopt the EFQM Excellence Model, mainly because of the cultural divide
between private and public sectors combined with the view that the EFQM Excellence Model is
perceived by European public services as a private sector tool. Their UK based research
indicated the opposite view and this was put down to the growth of public-private partnerships
in recent years and that traditional ideas of quality and improvement are mainly derived from
Anglo-Saxon culture and these have not filtered as significantly into the European public sector
that is uncomfortable with notions of competitiveness and business-like behaviour.
The author has two observations to report on this point: Firstly, that as a member of the EFQM's
Education Community of Practice, the author has seen a high take-up in the use of the EFQM
Excellence Model in this section of the European public sector in the last two years (2001 -
2003), i.e. since PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research, and secondly the issue of the European
public sector being uncomfortable with the notions of competitiveness and business-like
behaviour that is raised by PriceWaterhouseCoopers. Davies et al (2001) argued that staff in UK
HE are equally uncomfortable with these notions.
In April 1999 a revised version of the EFQM Excellence Model was published after a lengthy
and detailed consultation and testing process. Significantly for the public sector, the word
'business' was dropped from the title and 'business results' became 'key performance results' (de
Dommartin, 2000).
32
The EFQM Excellence Model was 'refreshed' in 2003 (shown in appendix 1). The headline
concepts have remained unchanged with the exception of Public Responsibility that has become
Corporate Social Responsibility. There have been a number of changes at the sub-criteria and
guidance points levels. The main changes have been the explicit inclusion of a fifth sub-
criterion to Leadership, 'Leaders identify and champion organisational change' and the reduction
from five to four sub-criteria in Policy and Strategy. The elements of the fifth sub-criteria have
moved partly to Leadership and partly to Processes (EFQM, 2003c; Coles, 2003).
2.4 The Actual and Suggested uses of the EFQM Excellence Model in Sectors other
than the United Kingdom Higher Education
Clearly, as can be seen above, the main use of the EFQM Excellence model is to carry out self-
assessment with the aim of identifying strengths and areas for improvement in an organisation.
A review of the literature, however, shows that there are a number of other possible uses for the
EFQM Excellence model. These are its uses as a strategic tool, a means of providing a holistic,
broader view of the business, a tool for performance management, a benchmarking tool, a
means of integrating other quality and management initiatives and tools, a means of gaining a
quality award and its use to motivate staff to get involved in quality improvement activities.
Some of these suggested uses enjoy widespread support whilst others provoke debate about
their appropriateness.
2.4.1 The EFQM Excellence Model as a Strategic Tool
The use of the EFQM Excellence Model as a strategic tool and the use of the outputs of self-
assessment as an integral part of business and strategic planning are topics that have provoked
great debate and a wide range of, often, differing views amongst a host of academics and
practitioners.
Many writers have strong views that the EFQM Excellence Model can be used as a strategic
tool. Gadd (1995) describes how organisations can use self-assessment against the EFQM
Excellence Model as a strategic tool to build process robustness and achieve integrated
management. He notes that some organisations see the outputs of self-assessment as providing a
strategic tool for high-level decision-making. Gadd (1995, p83) continues:
"Self-assessment using the EQA model is holistic, and takes an organization-wide view of thebusiness. By focussing on business results and customer satisfaction, it takes a strategicperspective. Policy and strategy is an important element of the model, and is linked to all theother organizational enablers, including processes. Using self-assessment in this way clearlyidentifies how an organization's strategy shapes its business processes".
33
Porter et al (1998, p.2) state that:
"Self-assessment is a strategic business improvement tool. Managers at the highest level of theorganisation lead most self-assessments. Commitment to improvement is demonstrated bysenior managers' and directors' involvement in self-assessment activities".
The above view of Porter et al (1998) infers that the involvement of senior staff automatically
makes the use of the EFQM Excellence Model strategic in nature. This does not necessarily
follow and neither does the corollary of it, that the lack of senior involvement in self-assessment
activities would mean that the use of the model was not strategic. However, the aspect of
customer satisfaction providing a strategic perspective highlighted by Gadd is supported by
Leonard & McAdam (2002b, p.47):
"One of the four key constructs that emerged at this stage was that some of the organisationsconsidered their initial intent on applying TQM were "as a strong focus on the customer". Thispoint of initial TQM application represents the most strategically important application ofTQM".
It has already been identified earlier in the chapter that the EFQM Excellence Model is based on
TQM principles therefore the above quote is appropriate in this context.
Lewis (1999) describes the use of a variant of the EFQM Excellence Model (called TSE and
described earlier in section 2.2.3) in a Local Authority. TSE is described as a valuable
programme to establish strategic management. PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) report that 88%
of public sector organisations in their large survey perceived that the EFQM Excellence Model
helped them to improve their strategic management thinking. Jeanes (2000) sees that
organisations are making the model central to their strategic thinking, business planning and
daily operation. This view gives the EFQM Excellence Model both strategic and operational
uses. This is supported by Awkati (2000) who reports on the use of the EFQM Excellence
Model in social services departments. He identifies an increasing use of the model to support
strategic and operational activities.
Ghobadian & Woo (1996) argue that strategic positioning is missing from the model. Leonard
& McAdam (2002b) state that the EFQM Excellence Model criteria concerned with policy and
strategy do not focus on corporate strategy formulation or how dynamic the strategy planning is,
rather they consider how aspects of TQM have been incorporated in the strategic processes.
Obviously Ghobadian and Woo must have referenced the 1991 version of the EFQM Model, as
it was not revised until 1999. Leonard & McAdam must have also been referring to the 1991
version of the EFQM Excellence Model (supported by their reference to the 'Business
Excellence Model' rather than the 'Excellence Model') in which sub-criterion 2(a) of Policy and
Strategy was 'How the policy and strategy are formulated on the concept of total quality' (Porter
& Tanner, 1996). So their research must have taken place before the 1999 version of the EFQM
Excellence Model had been published and demonstrates the long lead times for publication in
34
some journals. Ghobadian & Woo's view would have been fair on examination of the 1991
model Policy and Strategy sub-criteria. Leonard & McAdam's (2002b) criticisms appear to
have been addressed on inspection of the 1999 version of the model (EFQM, 1999) and the
subsequent 2003 refreshment (EFQM, 2003c) as both versions make only very minor references
to TQM or Excellence concepts within the policy and strategy sub-criteria. The major emphasis
is clearly on policy and strategy development, deployment and communication as can be seen
from inspection of the sub-criteria for Policy and Strategy in appendix 1.
Leonard & McAdam (2002a) conclude, from a survey of literature, that the EFQM Excellence
model's role is not primarily at a strategic level but rather at a tactical level, co-ordinating
between the strategic goals and the activities which will achieve them. Again, this probably
reveals that they were referring to the EFQM Excellence Model Policy and Strategy sub-criteria
from the original 1991 version rather than the revised 1999 version. Leonard & McAdam
(2002a) also see that the use of the EFQM Excellence Model as a model for corporate strategy
is undermined by the fact that it is updated every two years and so it is essentially one to two
years out of date when used. They go on to say that if companies are using it as a leading edge
model for strategic and dynamic purposes then they are actually somewhat dated. However the
issue of the model being out of date is one that applies to any model purporting to be strategic in
nature. The EFQM Excellence Model is updated every four years or so and the fact that it has
changed little over the last twelve years would indicate that it would have provided a reasonable
degree of consistency to any organisation using it as a basis for its strategy. In the fieldwork of
this same piece of research Leonard & McAdam (2002a) discovered that the EFQM Excellence
Model was being used as a framework which provides an organisational overview to aid
strategic planning. Leonard & McAdam (2002a, p.22) go on to conclude from the literature
review and fieldwork:
"These management experiences set the use of the BEM within this organisation at a tacticallevel, a position at which it co-ordinates and guides the initiatives and activities to fulfil thecorporate strategy".
So the exact use of the EFQM Excellence Model in the strategic area is not really clear. Leonard
& McAdam's (2002a) results seem to indicate that some organisations have used the EFQM
Excellence Model in a strategic way whilst others have not. Leonard & McAdam's research
does not reveal the stage of maturity of the organisations in the use of the model although they
were all national quality award applicants, which would suggest that they were reasonably
mature users. It is possible that only highly mature users use the model strategically. Leonard &
McAdam (2002a) highlighted one organisation that was using the model to provide the
overview of the organisation for its plans but also the only method of assigning key processes or
issues within its organisational context for strategic purposes. McAdam et al (2002), from a
survey of 163 public service organisations, found that the use of the EFQM Excellence Model
35
has produced improvements in how they developed their strategy, business plans and key
measures. This supports the view that there is some evidence to support the use of the EFQM
Excellence Model as a strategic tool.
In addition to the reported direct use of the EFQM Excellence Model as a strategic tool, many
researchers report the use of the outputs of self-assessment as an integral part of the business
and strategic planning process within organisations. In this respect the model can be seen to
provide a linkage between improvement activities in an organisation and strategic direction.
O'Brien & O'Hanlon (2000) report on a case study of EFQM Excellence Model use. The model
was used to align process, team and individual goals with the organisation's strategic objectives.
Conti (1997) is of the opinion that self-assessment can only realise its full value if it refers to the
company's missions and goals as a whole and that self-assessment acquires a strategic value
only if a prior link is established with strategic planning. Conti goes on to suggest that, since
integration of self-assessment into the planning cycle is a lengthy procedure, companies may
find it best to adopt a gradual step-by-step approach to integration. Gadd (1995) comments on
the action plans arising out of self-assessment and sees their scope as being anything from a
change in strategic direction, to a major process redesign, to some incremental improvements,
depending on the findings of the assessment phase. His research revealed that improvement
plans had been adopted as an integral part of the organisations' business plans. He gives the
example of the 1994 EQA winners, D2D Ltd., who have built the EFQM Excellence Model into
their normal business activities. Self-assessment outputs have become a key input to their
strategic planning process. This example supports the view stated earlier, that strategic use of
the model is likely to be limited to mature model users. McAdam & Welsh (2000) suggest that
self-assessment can be a valuable input into the annual business planning cycle. They continue:
"In this way the organisation's strategic direction can perhaps reflect a more business-focusedapproach" (McAdam & Welsh, 2000, p.122).
Stahr (2001) reports that the agreed outcomes of reviews are used as a basis for the business
planning system at Salford Royal Hospitals Trust. Leonard & McAdam (2002b) citing Livsey
(1993) and Srinidi (1998) state that there is a natural necessity to align quality programmes with
business strategy to ensure that quality efforts reflect the long-term goals of the organisation.
However, Leonard & McAdam (2002b, p.49) continue:
"If TQM is replaced with the mechanised BEM, then the strategic dynamic issues of TQM willbe lost. However, the application of the BEM in many of the cases, was not seen as anythingbeyond assisting the process of improving the business and so represented only one elementwithin the larger remit of strategic planning and formulation".
This acknowledges that the EFQM Excellence Model has a role to play in strategic planning.
The CMPS Civil Service College Directorate (2002) indicates that the EFQM Excellence Model
36
provides a link between what the organisation needs to achieve and the strategies and processes
needed to deliver its objectives. Tummala & Tang (1996) cite Garvin (1988) who particularly
emphasised that quality planning must be integrated into the overall corporate strategic planning
process of the organisation. Porter et al (1996) state that self-assessment ensures that business
improvement activities are fully integrated with the organisation's strategies and plans. They
suggest that self-assessment can provide strategic direction for the organisation and be a
valuable input into the business planning process. This is supported by Pitt (1999) who
describes the use of the EFQM Excellence Model in the Wakefield and Pontefract Community
Health National Health Service Trust (The Trust). The Trust has adopted the model both as an
assessment tool and as a format for many of its documents. For example, the Strategic
Direction, Business Plan and Corporate and Director Objectives all make use of the format.
Improvement opportunities are fed into the business planning cycle and the process of self-
assessment using the EFQM Excellence Model is being developed as part of the business
planning cycle. The outputs of self-assessment are one of four main inputs into the business
planning process at the Trust along with Market Information, Purchaser Intentions and Service
Initiatives.
Lewis (1999) reports that in Southwark Council, with a few exceptions, departments all have
difficulty in embedding the assessment processes into planning and review activity.
Nevertheless, he states that TSE (their modification of the EFQM Excellence Model) is a
valuable programme to establish strategic management and business planning in the council.
Pitt (1999) also reports on difficulties in the timing of the self-assessment cycle and the
objective setting cycle (as part of business planning) in the Trust when self-assessment was first
undertaken, however this was rectified for subsequent cycles. PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000)
examined the issue of the integration of the EFQM Excellence Model into other business
processes in public sector organisations. It was difficult to draw out conclusions from each
sector as integration depends on the length of time that organisations have used the model,
however 20% of local authorities believe that they have achieved total integration with their
planning processes. This again concurs with the view that it is likely that only mature users of
the model will have used it in a strategic manner.
It can be seen that the issue of the EFQM Excellence Model's use as a strategic tool has
provoked a variety of arguments. To summarise, these arguments fall into three categories:
• That the EFQM Excellence Model can be used as a strategic planning model, however,despite some examples of its use in this way, there is no consensus on the model'sappropriateness as a strategic planning model.
• That the outputs of self-assessment using the EFQM Excellence Model can be used asinputs to the strategy and business planning process. There is much evidence from caseexamples and surveys to support its use in this way.
37
• That the EFQM Excellence Model can be used as a means of operationalising strategydevised through other means.
It would appear from the literature that the organisations which are using the EFQM Excellence
Model in a strategic manner are quite mature in their use of the model. As the case study
organisations to be used in this research have all been using the EFQM Excellence Model for
less than three years, it will be interesting to discover if there have been any attempts to use it
in a strategic manner in these UK universities and, if so, how its use compares with the
arguments put forward in the literature.
2.4.2 The EFQM Excellence Model as a means of providing a Holistic, broader
perspective of the business
Some researchers have reported the EFQM Excellence Model being used to provide a holistic,
broader perspective of the business.
"By providing a holistic view of the organization, the model can provide a framework by whichmanagers can develop a broader perspective of the business and its operating environment"(Gadd, 1995, p.73).
In research by Leonard & McAdam (2002a), managers described the EFQM Excellence Model
as a framework that assists in providing a conceptual framework to overview the organisation
and the "issues" through which business improvement can be structured. Gadd (1995, p.83)
concludes:
"By focusing on the organization as a whole, managers have gained an understanding of howthe business knits together, and how all the various divisions, functions and departmentsintegrate. By working with managers from other functions, they form integrated managementteams, looking across the organization and gaining a holistic perspective of the business".
Chapman (2000) describes an organisation which adopted the EFQM Excellence Model
specifically to improve staff understanding of the business processes and involvement at all
levels in the decision-making process, including better two-way communication.
There is some evidence in the literature therefore that the EFQM Excellence Model can be used
to provide this holistic, broader overview of the organisation. It will be interesting to explore
whether this is a use that the model has been put to in the case study organisations.
2.4.3 The EFQM Excellence Model as a tool for Performance Management
Several authors report on the EFQM Excellence model being used as a tool for performance
management.
Lewis (1999, p.11) describes the use of the TSE ('Towards Service Excellence') framework,
which is based on the EFQM Excellence Model, at Southwark Council:
38
"TSE can provide an overall assessment of performance which before had been no more than acompilation of data and information collected in an inconsistent format".
The CMPS Civil Service College Directorate (2002) point out that the government has a
strategic and operational agenda for the public sector which requires organisations to move
more deeply into a performance management culture. They report that many organisations are
using the EFQM Excellence model as the overarching framework to help them achieve a
"joined up" performance management strategy (based on PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2000).
Leonard & McAdam (2002a) conducted an in-depth study of 19 large organisations, which were
using the EFQM Excellence model and had participated in national quality awards. They
concluded that self-assessment helps to focus on performance and so highlights changes and
acts as a monitor of the organisation. Stahr (2001) reports that Salford Royal Hospitals Trust use
the outcomes of reviews as a basis for the ongoing management board performance-monitoring
arrangements. Chapman (2000) reports that the NICO Insolvency Group adopted the EFQM
Excellence Model specifically to develop measures of performance that gauge effectiveness
rather than focus on processing volumes or accuracy. Research by Leonard & McAdam (2002a)
demonstrated that the EFQM Excellence Model incorporates a comprehensive set of
performance measures, beyond simply that of financial measures. Such a scope in performance
measurement helps in representing the role and purpose of public sector organisations.
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000, p.6) found, however, that the EFQM Excellence Model was
not viewed as a performance-measuring tool:
"Most organisations saw benefits in using the Excellence Model and its main value was seen asan improvement diagnostic rather than as a scoring or performance measuring device".
This view seems to be counteracted in the same piece of research as 85% of the 3500 public
sector organisations surveyed believed that the EFQM Excellence Model helped them achieve
sustained levels of performance.
It can be seen that, according to the majority of literature reviewed, the EFQM Excellence
model provides a framework for performance management in organisations. The 'results' criteria
of the model provide a means for organisations to set targets and monitor progress against those
targets, thus effecting performance management. The RADAR Logic described earlier (section
2.2.2) would appear to be particularly useful in this because of the emphasis on setting
objectives and assessing and reviewing progress against these objectives.
2.4.4 The EFQM Excellence Model as a Benchmarking Tool
A number of authors suggest that the EFQM Excellence model lends itself for use as a
benchmarking tool. Lewis (1999) describes the TSE framework used at Southwark Council (see
39
above) and the inclusion of a set of benchmarks enabling comparison and external assessment.
Chapman (2000) examines the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in two
organisations who both combined self-assessment with benchmarking (using the EFQM
Excellence Model as a framework) to help to identify the key objectives for improvement within
their respective organisations. Subsequently, benchmarking has been used to monitor progress
towards these defined objectives. Ghobadian & Woo (1996) suggest that the EFQM Excellence
Model provides organisations with a temporal or sectoral benchmarking tool and a vehicle for
sharing experience and good practices. Porter & Tanner (1996, p.164) describe research carried
out by the Bristol Quality Centre in 1993:
"Self-assessment enables positive comparisons to be made between departments, divisions andexternally against other organizations in a learning culture. This activity can help to discoveroverlooked strengths or areas for improvement and can identify best practices".
Gadd (1995, p.82) is an enthusiastic supporter of the use of the EFQM Excellence Model as a
benchmarking tool:
"By providing a common framework, and a scoring mechanism, by which to make comparisons,the EQA model provides organisations with a benchmarking tool. The award process identifiesbest-in-class organizations for each element, and so an organization can see, as soon as it hascompleted a self-assessment to the EQA model, how its scores compare with those achieved bythe best. This identifies the size of the performance gap, and points the organization in thedirection of particular elements".
Gadd may have oversimplified the process of benchmarking and the EFQM Excellence Model's
use in this process. Firstly, a comparison of scores on any element of the model is not
necessarily useful. For example, two organisations may achieve similar scores through quite
different mixes of strengths and areas for improvement. This won't immediately help to guide
improvement activities, unless there is an opportunity to discover the reasons why the scores
were achieved. This view is supported by PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) who see value in
benchmarking provided that the focus is placed on areas for improvement rather than scoring.
The same piece of research also reports that by far the most common forms of benchmarking
adopted by organisations in the public sector are either process benchmarking or best practice
comparisons. Secondly, the score assessed by inexperienced assessors within an organisation
just starting out is unlikely to make for an equitable comparison with the score arrived at by an
organisation being assessed for a European Quality Award assessed by experienced assessors
(Porter & Tanner, 1996).
The CMPS Civil Service College Directorate (2002) says that the EFQM Excellence Model
provides opportunities to promote and share excellence approaches within different areas of the
organisation and with other organisations, in other words an opportunity for benchmarking.
Leonard & McAdam (2002a) conducted research with 19 organisations and found that most of
40
those organisations see the use of the model as an opportunity to assess itself and benchmark
itself.
In summary, the EFQM Excellence Model provides a common framework which facilitates
benchmarking provided that the emphasis is on comparing and contrasting strengths and areas
for improvement and not on a simplistic comparison of scores.
2.4.5 The EFQM Excellence Model as a framework for integrating other quality
and management initiatives and tools
A large number of authors support the use of the EFQM Excellence Model as a framework for
integrating a host of other quality and management initiatives and tools. Some authors also see
the model as providing a framework with which organisations can select appropriate initiatives
and tools to aid them in their drive towards excellence.
The results of a survey by PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) commissioned by the Cabinet Office
revealed that 85% of 3,500 public sector organisations surveyed saw the EFQM Excellence
Model helping them to link together key policies and initiatives. The Civil Service College
Directorate (2002) suggests that the EFQM Excellence Model provides a means to integrate
various quality initiatives into normal business operations. Research by McAdam et al (2002)
found that the EFQM Excellence Model was seen as an overall integrative quality framework.
This integrative framework was found to be particularly attractive in the public sector context as
it integrates the many, sometimes disparate, improvement initiatives within the public sector.
This view is supported by Jackson (1999) who suggests that one of the reasons that the UK
Government had commended the use of the EFQM Excellence Model to all organisations within
the National Health Service was that it has the ability to incorporate a number of initiatives
already being applied, like ISO 9000 and Investors in People. Jackson (1999, p.252) continues:
"Hence, the model does not need to be seen as an add-on, rather it can be viewed as anoverarching framework which will bring all the ongoing activities together".
Shergold & Reed (1996) state that self-assessment using the EFQM Excellence Model provides
a way to integrate various quality initiatives into normal business operations. McAdam & Welsh
(2000) identified that self-assessment encourages the integration of a range of quality initiatives
which may have been separately pursued across an organisation. McAdam & Welsh (2000,
p.122) conclude:
"The process therefore also combats "initiative fatigue" because it shows how they fit togetherfor the overall benefit of the organisation".
41
Jeanes (2000, p.25) is a strong advocate of the EFQM Excellence Model's use as an integrative
framework:
"Some of the best-known and most widely-used initiatives and tools can be mapped on to themodel. Faced with so many tools and techniques, the model can be useful in several ways. It canhelp an organisation see where the impact of a particular initiative should be felt. Where anorganisation has identified areas for improvement, it can then use the model to select theappropriate initiatives to achieve them".
The importance of the second part of Jeanes' point is noted. The model can be used as an aid in
the selection of future initiatives for improvement and not just as a means of mapping current
initiatives.
O'Brien & O'Hanlon (2000) report on a case study of EFQM Excellence Model implementation.
The company had implemented many quality initiatives, e.g. SPC, quality circles, ISO 9001 and
QS-9000, although it had been difficult to link these initiatives witikitx z. sink% buski‘ess
framework and transferring ownership from the Quality Department to the business as a whole
was proving a very slow process. The company chose the EFQM Excellence Model as a means
of overcoming these difficulties. Leonard & McAdam (2002a) suggest that the EFQM
Excellence Model has provided managers with a much needed framework to conceptually place
the wide range of improvement tools, techniques and certified systems from IS09000 to
Investors in People to environmental standards. Awkati (2000, p.27) reports on the use of the
EFQM Excellence Model within Social Services:
"The social work environment is saturated with initiatives, such as 'quality protects', 'nationalassessment framework', 'foster care standards', etc. To overcome this hurdle it is essential thatthe model be conveyed as a system which helps the practitioner tackle these initiatives, ratherthan a system that sits alongside them".
Lewis (1999) reports on the use of a customised variant of the EFQM Excellence Model called
TSE (described in section 2.2.3) in a local authority. Here the model was used as a strategic
framework for individual quality initiatives so that they lead to the same objective. Downey-
Ennis & Harrington (2002) claim that a major strength of the EFQM Excellence Model is that it
is able to sit comfortably within the organisation and accommodate the many initiatives
currently under way within the healthcare sector.
In summary, the EFQM Excellence model provides a means for both mapping the areas of
impact within an organisation of various quality and management initiatives and tools and
selecting initiatives in a proactive way to support the development of areas for improvement.
42
2.4.6 The EFQM Excellence Model as a means of gaining a Quality Award
Although one of the main reasons that the founder members of the EFQM had for developing
the model originally was to provide the basis for an awards process, very few authors give any
emphasis to the use of the EFQM Excellence Model as a means for gaining an award.
Porter & Tanner (1996) describe the objective of the European Quality Awards as being to
recognize top quality performances of organisations. They state that winning awards will
usually enhance the image and reputation of the organisation. In addition to the European
awards there are now national and regional awards based on the EFQM Excellence Model.
Gadd (1995) suggests that the preparation of an award submission document can be a useful
way of gaining a comprehensive assessment of an organisation, although the preparation of the
document is a lengthy and time-consuming process. Porter et at (1998), having surveyed 215
organisations and developed 36 in-depth case studies, concluded that winning an award is the
least important reason for using the EFQM Excellence Model. The CMPS Civil Service College
Directorate (2002) suggests that the EFQM Excellence Model provides opportunities to
recognise both progress and outstanding levels of achievement through internal awards. The
author would advise caution with this use of the use of the model, because of the potential effect
on the behavior of staff within organisations. Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) reported on a case
in which a company had previously used scoring as a base for an internal quality award to
motivate people. However the competition was cancelled since it caused the focus to shift to
collecting scores rather than improving performance.
Perhaps it is not so surprising that few authors suggest that the EFQM Excellence Model should
be used to apply for a quality award. Although it is difficult to quantify the numbers of
organisations using the EFQM Excellence Model, it is clear from much of the literature
reviewed in this chapter that this must now run into many thousands. Only a relative handful of
organisations apply for a quality award in any particular year (EFQM, 2003b). This would
suggest either that the organisations do not consider themselves ready to apply for an award or
that they are using the EFQM Excellence model for other purposes rather than as a means for
applying for a quality award.
2.4.7 The EFQM Excellence Model as a means of motivating staff to get involved in
Quality Improvement activities
Some commentators view the EFQM Excellence Model as a tool for increasing staff
involvement in quality improvement activities within organisations.
An extensive survey by Coulambidou & Dale (1995) revealed the major reasons that
organisations gave for justifying their continuing with self-assessment. One of the major reasons
43
was that it provided new motivation for the quality improvement process. Hillman (1994) sees
that self-assessment can be used to increase the involvement of staff enabling everyone to
contribute to the assessment process, thereby bringing ownership of the results and proposed
actions, enabling staff to see the impact of their improvement efforts and enabling senior
managers to drive the improvement process and to empower their staff to exercise initiative at
their own level. Porter & Tanner (1996) suggest that self-assessment helps to motivate people
and gives a fresh impetus to business improvement programmes. Porter et al (1998, p.2) are
strong proponents of the use of self-assessment as a means of involving staff:
"Self-assessment is a team activity, which engages team members in focused continuousimprovement. Organisations find that one of the key benefits of their approach to self-assessment is the development of the people involved".
Gadd (1995, p.82) states that:
"Self-assessment encourages an ethos of continuous process improvement, and involves seniormanagement in this process".
The CMPS Civil Service College Directorate (2002) identify that using the EFQM Excellence
Model for self-assessment provides a means to create enthusiasm amongst the people within the
organisation, involve them in the improvement process and give fresh impetus to their pursuit of
business excellence. Lewis (1999) provides a specific example of this in Southwark Council
where TSE (their version of the EFQM Excellence Model) was used to ensure employee
involvement. Chapman (2000) provides two further examples, one from a service organisation
who involved staff at all levels in the process of self-assessment and a second from a public
sector organisation which adopted the EFQM Excellence Model specifically to improve staff
understanding of the business processes and improve involvement at all levels in the decision-
making process.
It can be seen from the above that the EFQM Excellence Model is often used to motivate staff
to get involved in quality improvement activities and can be used to reinvigorate improvement
initiatives that have started to lose momentum.
2.5 Chapter Summary
This chapter has addressed three main topics. The content of the EFQM Excellence Model, the
development of the model and its uses in addition to its main use as a means to carry out self-
assessment with the aim of identifying strengths and areas for improvement in an organisation.
The EFQM Excellence Model is a non-prescriptive framework based on nine criteria. The
model is underpinned by a number of fundamental TQM concepts and uses the process of self-
assessment against the model's criteria to identify strengths and areas for improvement in
organisations. There are a number of different approaches to the process of self-assessment and
44
these are supported by a technique known as RADAR Logic. There are advantages and
drawbacks in the use of each of the approaches to self-assessment. It is for each organisation to
decide which approach best suits their needs having balanced off the level of detail of the
assessment against the time and resources required to produce it. Another possible output of the
self-assessment process is a score out of 1000 points, which gives an indication of the degree of
excellence of an organisation. There are advantages and disadvantages to using the scoring
element of self-assessment and the decisions of whether to use scoring as part of self-
assessment and subsequently what purposes the scores should be used for are significant for
organisations as they can impact on organisational behaviour. Thus the outcomes of this chapter
have partly contributed to the achievement of the objective: To identify the issues that impact on
the implementation of the European Foundation for Quality Management's (EFQA/V Excellence
Model in the UK University academic environment.
A review of the literature, shows that there are a number of other possible uses for the EFQM
Excellence Model other than for self-assessment. These are its use as a strategic tool, its use as a
means of providing a holistic, broader view of the business, its use as a tool for performance
management, its use as a benchmarking tool, its use as a means of integrating other quality and
management initiatives and tools, its use in gaining a quality award and as a means of
motivating staff to get involved in Quality Improvement activities. Some of these suggested
uses enjoy widespread support whilst others provoke debate about their appropriateness. Thus
the objective: To assess the effectiveness of the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model
in the case study organisations has partly been achieved.
The main issues that have emerged from this chapter of the literature review that will be
included in the theoretical framework (chapter 4) and then investigated in the fieldwork are:
• Whether the EFQM Excellence Model has been applied throughout all departments in theuniversities at once or if a phased approach has been designed whereby some departmentshave applied it before others.
• Which self-assessment approach has been chosen by each university and why.• Whether RADAR Logic has been used as part of self-assessment in the universities.• Whether scoring has been used as part of self-assessment in the universities and, if scoring
has been used, if the weightings have been amended and for what purposes the scores havebeen used.
• Whether some of the language or terminology in the EFQM Excellence Model has beenaltered in the universities to fit better with the HE environment.
• To confirm whether the UK universities are using the EFQM Excellence Model in itsexpected primary role of a model for self-assessment.
• To discover if the EFQM Excellence Model is being used for other purposes as described inthis chapter.
45
CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE REVIEW
ISSUES IMPACTING ON THE EFFECTIVEIMPLEMENTATION OF THE EFQM
EXCELLENCE MODEL IN UK UNIVERSITYACADEMIC UNITS
3.0 Chapter Introduction
The aim of the literature review is to ensure that issues pertinent to the aim and objectives of the
research are identified in order that the aim and objectives can be effectively pursued in the
fieldwork element of the research. Specifically the objective: To identifr the issues that impact
on the implementation of the European Foundation for Quality Management's (EFQM)
Excellence Model in the UK University academic environment will be addressed. This literature
review was conducted to determine what research had already been done in the area in order to
identify the issues around implementation that needed to be included in the theoretical
framework and then explored in the subsequent fieldwork. Brunetto (2001, p.468), commenting
on implementation research, concludes that:
"The discipline has to date failed to develop a unified theoretical framework".
This literature review synthesises and integrates knowledge of the UK University environment,
generic knowledge on the implementation of TQM programmes and specific knowledge on the
implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model.
A matrix was used to capture the issues cross-referenced against the source. This matrix was
then used to identify the most frequent issues affecting implementation that had surfaced from
the literature and as a means to structure this chapter.
The issues and sub-issues revealed by this literature review are discussed and analysed below.
3.1 Motive
Wells (2001, p.5) states:
"Be clear about why you want it [the EFQM Excellence Model]"
Ritchie & Dale (2000, p.245) advise that:
"An organisation needs to question why it employs self-assessment, what are the gains, and arethey being realistic in their expectations of its output".
Chin & Pun (2002) emphasise the importance of the motivation for starting an improvement
process whilst Vraldcing (1995) argues for a good decision (or motive) to proceed with the
implementation of an innovation, as not having support for this initial decision results in a lack
of support and consequent difficulties with the implementation. Tan (1997) argues that most
organisations find it hard to install TQM because of a lack of conviction that TQM works.
Melan (1998) identifies having an established need as a primary reason for TQM success and
Thiagaragan et al (2001) identify that a critical prerequisite to developing the necessary
commitment is a clear belief in the benefits of TQM, i.e. a clear motive. Motwani & Kumar
(1997) argue that there is a decision phase in implementing TQM, which includes having a clear
47
understanding of why the institution is implementing TQM. Ovretveit (see Jackson 2001, p.158)
concurs with this and states that it is imperative that organisations determine the reason for
using their chosen quality management tool before they begin using it. McCunn (1998) writes
about the implementation of the Balanced Scorecard and recommends that implementation
should not start unless an organisation knows what it hopes to achieve. In other words, there is a
clear motive. Clearly, the same can be said for the EFQM Excellence Model. Sullivan-Taylor &
Wilson (1996) examined TQM implementation in New Zealand service organisations and found
that each one had its own unique rationale or motive for implementing TQM.
McAdam & Welsh (2000) conducted a survey of further education colleges using the EFQM
Excellence Model in Northern Ireland and found that the three main motives for implementing
quality management were the need to enhance customer satisfaction, the need to achieve
competitive edge/improve market share and the need to prepare for an externally-assessed
inspection. Lewis (1999) describes the difficulty of sustaining motivation for the use of self-
assessment in a local government case study whilst Poirier & Tokarz (1996) examine the issue
of the motivation for implementing TQM. They suggest that the key questions to ask are "Why"
and "Who". "Why" is important as it describes the real reason for implementing TQM, e.g.
survival of the organisation. They argue that external motivators such as survival and customer
pressure are the strongest, most sustainable motivating reasons. Bardoel & Sohal (1999) found,
in a study of seven Australian organisations that had implemented TQM, that the most common
reason for embarking on TQM was due to external forces. Van der Wiele et at (2000) disagree
with this view. Their research concludes that if self-assessment is externally forced, then little
performance improvement is perceived, however if there is internal motivation to improve the
organisation then self-assessment can become established and performance improvement
follows. They argue that gaining a sufficient number of motivated people to take the
implementation forward will be difficult in situations where the motivation to change comes
largely from outside. Van der Wiele et al's (1996) survey of EFQM members revealed that the
top five motives for undertaking self-assessment were all internal issues and that those
companies which start self-assessment activities for internal reasons give more attention to the
development of an improvement plan than those motivated by external issues. Chapman (2000)
describes two cases of EFQM Excellence Model implementation. In both cases the
organisations had clear internal motives for selecting the EFQM Excellence Model at the outset.
In Charlesworth's (2000) survey of 609 Institute of Management members, the motives for
implementing various performance improvement initiatives were examined. About two thirds of
the motives stated were related to external pressures with only a third of the motives being
located internally to the companies. Zink & Voss (1998) describe a case of EFQM
implementation in a German university and identify a mixture of internal and external motives
for introducing quality management tools.
48
"Who" is motivated to implement TQM is the other important factor and Poirier & Tokarz
(1996) argue that the senior management needs to provide this drive. In terms of "who" is
motivated to implement the EFQM Excellence Model it is clear from the literature that the
senior management need to be committed to this. This is discussed in detail in section 3.2.
Clearly it is important for an organisation to have a clear motive for implementing the EFQM
Excellence Model, however there is disagreement on whether internal or external forces provide
the more effective motives. On balance, it would appear that internal motives are the most
powerful.
3.1.1 Objectives and Expected Benefits
Ryan (1996) emphasises that, to implement any programme, a key condition is clarity of
programme objectives. Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) argue that the purpose and underlying
objectives of self-assessment have to be clear to everyone involved.
One of the barriers to TQM implementation described in much of the literature is that of short-
termism with regards to the expected timescales in which objectives will be met and benefits
achieved. Mersha (1997) identifies that an expectation of quick results is one of the factors that
results in the failure of TQM implementations. Michael et al (1997) found that people who
become involved with TQM expect to see results immediately, and this is usually not the case.
Longenecker & Scazzero (see Melan 1998, p.132) identified the demand for immediate results
as one of the main inhibitors to TQM. Atkinson (1990) states that TQM will not produce results
in the short term and Sullivan-Taylor & Wilson (1996) argue that many TQM implementations
result in premature abandonment as short-term pressures eclipse longer-term issues. A research
project conducted in 1996 by the London and Manchester Business School (see McAdam and
Welsh 2000, p.123) highlighted that the majority of respondents believed that a gap of at least
four years was required between the introduction of self-assessment and benefit realisation.
Munro-Faure and Munro-Faure (1992) support this view and emphasise that it is important not
to set unrealistic expectations for the programme over short periods of time. Harvey (1995)
observes that TQM is viewed by new users as a 'quick fix'. He goes on to say that the TQM
literature clearly indicates that implementation is not a rapid process, that it involves a change of
culture and that the impact is long-term. Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure (1994, p.254) argue that:
"Quality Improvement will take years, not just one quarter".
More specifically, in relation to the EFQM Excellence Model, the Cabinet Office (2001) warns
not to expect quick fixes as the process is about continuous improvement.
49
So clear objectives and expected benefits for EFQM Excellence Model use need to be in place
over the medium to long term and an evaluation of whether the expected benefits are being
achieved should be carried out. Any expectation of short term benefits being realised is likely to
be unrealistic and hinder progress with the EFQM implementation.
3.2 Gaining Senior Management Commitment
The topic of gaining senior management commitment to the implementation of quality
initiatives is one that appears in almost all texts and papers dealing with the issue of
implementation. Ryan (1996) emphasises that, to implement any programme, the commitment
of management is a key condition for effective implementation. Thiagarajan & Zairi (1997)
argue that it is critical that the senior management build the requisite commitment to
implementing TQM before getting the rest of the staff involved. Thiagarajan & Zairi (1997,
p.270) continue that:
"Top management commitment to the quality process and their leadership in fostering anenvironment where quality is a way of life sets the foundation for the implementation of TQM inan organization".
Spector & Beer (1994, p.65) propose a sequence of steps for the successful implementation of
TQM and other related quality improvement efforts. They stress the need to develop a shared
commitment in the top management team to quality improvement thus:
"The next step is certainly the most vital and, in our experience, the most difficult. It is the stepthat most significantly differentiates success from failure. At this stage, top management as ateam must engage in an analytic and diagnostic process that commits them to qualityimprovement as the key strategic task".
The EFQM Excellence Model self-assessment process is such an analytic and diagnostic
process and this was described in chapter 2. Thus the author proposes that EFQM Excellence
Model self-assessment can fulfil Spector & Beer's vital step. Spector & Beer (1994) go on to say
that, although gaining the commitment of the top management team is so vital, it is often
breached because of the difficulties in getting top managers to operate as a team and, in
particular, to set aside functional and divisional differences on behalf of a cohesive, holistic
view of the organisation. They warn not to confuse top management compliance with top
management commitment.
Hillman (1994) argues that successful self-assessment starts with senior management
commitment. Helms et al (2001) report that a lack of top level support has hindered quality
efforts in higher education whilst in research with ten organisations using the EFQM Excellence
Model, Ritchie & Dale (2000) identified that one of the main difficulties experienced was a lack
of commitment at all levels. Cullen & Hollingum (1987, p.176) argue that:
"Without top management commitment any attempt to introduce Total Quality is a waste of timeand effort".
50
Dale et al (see Taylor & Hill 1992, p.6) stress that top management commitment is vital for the
credibility, continuity and longevity of TQM initiatives. Sufficient and authoritative support
proved to be a necessary condition for advantageous continuous improvement implementation
(Savolainen, 1999). Buch & Rivers (2001) indicate that leadership is crucial to implementing
TQM and Kumar & Douglas (2002) state that top management's commitment to participate and
provide resources for implementation are preconditions for self-assessment. The Cabinet Office
(2001) report lessons from users of the EFQM Excellence Model in the public sector, one of
which is that an organisation will not succeed without senior management commitment. Melan
(1998) explored two cases of TQM implementation and found support for the contention that
one of the four causes of failure is lack of management commitment. Charlesworth (2000)
conducted a survey of 609 Institute of Management members and 30 per cent identified lack of
Board/top management, as one of the main barriers to the implementation of performance
improvement initiatives. Bertram (see Thiagarajan & Zairi 1997, p.271) states that a lack of
requisite management commitment is the main reason for 80 per cent of TQM failures.
Shergold & Reed (1996) are of the opinion that developing the commitment of the leaders to the
use of the EFQM Excellence Model and self-assessment is a key early stage in the
implementation process. Pupius (2002) maintains that Vice Chancellor and senior management
leadership commitment, drive and ownership is essential in EFQM Excellence Model
implementation in higher education. Oakland (2000) describes the implementation of TQM at
the University of Bradford Management Centre and indicates that the first phase of the
programme was concerned with obtaining the commitment of the Professoriate and Executive
Committee to the principles of TQM. This finding is supported by the work of Bnmetto (2001)
who investigated the introduction of quality initiatives in Australian universities and found that,
for any change to happen, senior academics need to put pressure on the lecturers at the grass
roots to change. She goes on to say that it was the senior academics who held the power to
mediate to what extent implementation would occur. Specifically on the subject of self-
assessment, Conti (1997, p.145) states that:
"The introduction of self-assessment into a company is too important an event to be delegated infull, even if the delegated company officer is a first-line manager (and therefore reports directlyto top management). Ownership and control must be retained by top management".
This view is supported by Henderson et al (1999) who, in a case study of EFQM Excellence
Model implementation in a utility company, identified ownership at executive level as a critical
success factor. Pitt (1999) describes a case study of EFQM Excellence Model implementation in
UK healthcare and argues that top-level commitment is critical to this pursuit. With reference to
the implementation of business excellence in a German university, Zink & Voss (1998) state
that leadership and management commitment is crucial for any major change. Koehler &
Pankowski (1996) say that the first phase in implementing TQM is indoctrinating top
51
management. Stahr (2001) supports this and argues that coaching and building confidence in the
use of the EFQM Excellence Model by senior staff before it is rolled out to other staff is critical
to success. Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) argue that when an approach to self-assessment is
designed and a plan is established, strong commitment among middle and top management
commitment needs to be demonstrated. Ho & Wean' (1996) developed a higher education TQM
excellence (HETQMEX) model and recommend obtaining top management commitment if it is
to be implemented successfully. Osseo-Asare Jr. & Longbottom (2002) from research in UK
higher education, found some evidence to suggest that any attempt to introduce TQM and/or the
EFQM Excellence Model without strong leadership and commitment from top and middle
management would be strongly opposed at all levels of the HEI.
Elmuti et al (1996), in their investigation of TQM in United States Higher Education
Institutions, found that one of the main mistakes made was not using senior administrators to
drive the process. This is an interesting point as, in some Universities, the senior administrators
are the only senior staff with permanent posts. Aly & Akpovi (2001) draw attention to the
problem of changes in the leadership of TQM programmes or administration in American
universities which led to many programmes being dropped. Engelberg (2000) raises the same
concern of temporary leadership arrangements in universities and the potential for resulting
superficial change. Harvey (1999) explains that most higher education institutions are
characterised by either a collegiate structure in which lines of accountability are diffuse and
often implicit, and where academic managers are often elected or a hierarchical structure in
which lines of accountability are focused and explicit, and professional managers are appointed.
This issue is also raised by Davies et al (2001) who point out that the academic management
roles in pre-1992 UK universities are filled on a fixed term basis. Conversely, these roles in
post-1992 UK universities are permanent appointments. Raanan (1998) highlights the
problematic nature of management rotation for universities trying to implement TQM. His view
is that management positions are often forced on staff who would rather be performing research
or teaching activities. As a result, the academic managers in universities are not necessarily
those that are best qualified for the job. In addition there is the problem of lack of continuity,
with staff only holding posts for fixed periods of time.
Savolainen (1999) raises a very interesting point in relation to continuous improvement
implementation in Finland. If advocates did not exist or support could not be found on the
superior management level that was closest to the group implementing the initiative, then the
efforts tended to be abandoned.
In conclusion, gaining senior management commitment to implementing the EFQM Excellence
Model is clearly a crucial step in the process and one that needs to take place at the outset before
52
involving other employees. There is much evidence that failure to secure this senior
management commitment leads to failures in implementation. This is further complicated in
some universities by the issue of fixed-term roles for academic managers.
3.3 Preparation
The literature review revealed the importance of preparation to the implementation process.
Poirier & Tokarz (1996) report that managers are impatient and want to dive headfirst into
implementation. Without adequate preparation, they report that results will be slowed
dramatically and much time and effort will be expended to fix the process.
The literature reveals a number of issues that should be dealt with at the preparatory stage of
implementation which are reviewed below.
3.3.1 Resistance to Change
Ryan (1996) indicates that the capacity of programmes to be effectively implemented may be
limited by constraints including the extent of behavioural change required. Dale et al (2000)
explain that there are often difficulties with the introduction of TQM stemming from resistance
to change and Tan (1997) argues that most organisations find it hard to install TQM because of
resistance to change. Motwani & Kumar (1997) indicate that there is considerable scepticism
regarding the use of TQM in educational institutions and that one of the reasons for this
scepticism is a lack of acceptance of the need for change. Jenkins et al (see McAdam et al 2002,
p.582) suggest that pressure for change has meant that there is still considerable resistance to
performance measurement based change in the public sector. Aly & Akpovi (2001), in their
survey of American universities, found that 65 per cent of the universities which had
implemented TQM reported that resistance to change was one of the major challenges to TQM
implementation. This is supported by Owlia & Aspinwall (1997) who found, when investigating
several cases of TQM implementation in United States universities, that the resistance of people
to change was one of the main problems in all the programmes. One of the main constraints of
improvement attempts in higher education according to Seymour (see Owlia & Aspinwall 1997,
p.531) is an unwillingness to change whilst Savolainen (1999) identified attitudinal and
structural opposition in continuous improvement implementation.
Specifically, Thiagarajan & Zairi (1997) highlight the issue of middle management resistance to
TQM implementation stemming from their fears that the transition may cost them status, power
and recognition. This view is supported by Van der Vlist (see Vraklcing 1995, p.35) who says
that resistance can be a response to the attack on the interests and power position of the
manager. Vraldcing (1995, p.31) refers to the "late resisters" who try to undermine an
implementation even after the initial decision to proceed with it has been taken.
53tr
Atkinson (1990) argues that failure to create a readiness for change will delay the benefits of
TQM from taking hold and this argument is supported by Bardoel & Sohal (1999, p.264) who
state:
"The importance of considering the need to create a readiness in the workforce fortransformative change and applying the theoretical perspective of change are imperative".
Vrakking (1995) argues that convincing people of the need to innovate is usually an important
step and this view is supported by Koehler & Pankowski (1996) who describe the change
strategy employed in a case of TQM implementation in American State government. In this case
the readiness for change was established by emphasising a need for change through creating
dissatisfaction with the present state (Lewin, 1951).
Srikanthan & Dalrymple (2001) explain that a core issue in implementing a quality model is
conducting a critical appraisal of how change is to be made in politicised environments as one
typically finds in Higher Education. Koehler & Pankowski (1996) employed the change model
developed by Curt Lewin, where he suggested unfreezing the culture, changing the culture, and
then refreezing the culture. Atkinson (1990) suggests that time and support seem to be the
deciding factors in people coming to terms with change. Logenecker & Scazzero (see Melan
1998, p.132) found that the velocity of change served as one of the main inhibitors to TQM
practice by managers in a production organisation. These last two arguments point towards
taking the implementation slowly in order to give people time to grow accustomed to the
changes and thus reduce resistance. This argument runs counter to that developed by Vralcking
(1995) in section 3.4.2 below on the pace of implementation in which a fast implementation is
advocated.
Ritchie & Dale (2000), in research with ten organisations using the EFQM Excellence Model
for self-assessment, identified general resistance to change as one of the main difficulties
experienced. Conti (1997) views the introduction of self-assessment as a major change and
strong internal resistance is therefore inevitable. He describes one of the sources of this
resistance as the senior management of the organisation who might feel threatened by their
activities coming under scrutiny. Another source described by Conti is the functions or business
units of the company who fear encroachment on their territory or suffer from the not-invented-
here syndrome. This latter syndrome is also raised as an issue by Atkinson (1990). Conti (1997)
recommends gaining the direct involvement of the most negative groups as a tactic to overcome
this type of resistance. Oakland (1999) states that resistance to change may be more severe if the
organization is successful, if there is a particularly deep-seated culture, if there has been a great
deal of change already, or if the change lacks legitimacy. Oakland (1999) lists the following as
the major methods for overcoming resistance to change:
54
• education and communication• participation and involvement• facilitation and support• negotiation and agreement
In the case of TQM implementation at the University of Bradford Management Centre, Oakland
(2000) describes the use of force-field analysis to assess the pressures for and against TQM.
This approach is supported by Mersh (1997) who advocates that, in introducing change in
organisations, advance knowledge of the potential driving and resisting forces would enable
managers to develop appropriate strategies for reducing the adverse impact of the resisting
forces and for further strengthening the forces that promote the desired change.
Mersha (1997, p.177) offers advice on dealing with individuals who are "culturally
programmed" to be more adverse to change. The advice is to aim at reducing resistance rather
than increasing the pressure to change. As a result, resistance is underestimated and the
necessary groundwork to gain sustained support from staff is not done. Giertz (1999)
recommends, when starting a quality development programme, that an understanding of how
people think about quality is gained. Feinberg (1996, p.10) is strongly of the opinion that TQM
practitioners should seek out resistant managers and demand their full participation from the
beginning rather than "working around them" or "waiting until we have a few successes to
convince them".
Koehler & Pankowski (1996) employed empathy, participation and involvement in overcoming
resistance to change in their case of TQM implementation. According to Piderit (see Downey-
Harris & Harrington 2002, p.66):
"Successful organisational adaptation is increasingly reliant on generating employee supportand enthusiasm for the proposed changes, rather than merely overcoming resistance".
Bolton (1995) describes the context and culture of Higher Education Institutions and argues that
change is difficult to implement. Harvey (1995) writes about resistance to change issues that are
specific to the Higher Education context. He believes that the basis for resistance to change in
this context is the scepticism and cynicism, which flourishes amongst academics. Roffe (1998,
p.79) refer to MacFarlane:
"He makes the inference that the apparent resistance to change in the [higher education] sectoris caused in part by inappropriate methods for implementing change, such as by piecemealreforms with no long-term objectives, and concludes that there is clearly a requirement tointroduce appropriate methods for the management of change and for the sector to learn fromchange in other kinds of institution".
Hare (2000, p.3) argues that:
"The theory of organisational change, and how it might be managed and adapted to a collegialand professional culture, is one of the most pressing problems facing [university] institutionalgovernance and management today".
55
Acknowledging that there is likely to be resistance to change, employing mechanisms to assess
where this resistance might come from and employing suitable methods for reducing resistance
are all clearly important issues if implementation is to be effective. Some views on specific
issues in resistance to change in the higher education context, related to the culture in higher
education, have been touched on and these are discussed in detail in section 3.3.2 on
culture/context assessment.
3.3.2 Culture/Context Assessment
Brunetto (2001) states that organisational culture is one factor that can affect how employees
respond to an organisational change affecting their work practices.
Bardoel & Sohal (1999) point out that, when implementing quality improvement programmes,
the time needed to change the organisational culture and attitudes should not be underestimated
whilst Chin & Pun (2002) indicate that an over-emphasis on the technical aspects of TQM
without people commitment and cultivation of the culture will often delay the real
implementation of TQM. Krasachol & Tannock (1999) argue that TQM implementation
requires a culture change in the organisation and Buch & Rivers (2001) identify an
understanding of the culture of an organisation as crucial to implementing TQM. Munro-Faure
& Munro-Faure (1994) are of the opinion that the culture of an organisation must be respected
when implementing a quality improvement programme. Anjard (1995) argues that the cultural
realities of an organisation need to be understood and dealt with in TQM implementation. More
specifically, Anjard (1995) highlights that the behaviour of managers often creates a culture in
which quality and quality improvement systems are not valued at the same level as are other
systems. If this is so, then a TQM culture cannot exist. These views are supported by Sousa-
Poza et al (2001) who argue that unsuccessful implementation of TQM can be blamed on
corporate culture and that the corporate culture of many UK companies is not naturally suited to
TQM implementation. One of the possible reasons offered for this is the relatively high
tendency towards individualism in the workforce (see 3.3.2.2 for a more detailed review of this
issue). Dellana & Hauser (see Sousa-Poza et al 2001, p.747) identified that group cultures were
most facilitating for TQM implementation and Mersha (1997) warns that rigid socio-cultural
systems tend to resist change.
There is much support for carrying out a cultural assessment of an organisation before
implementing TQM or similar initiatives in order to identify potential barriers to change and to
help in designing the implementation programme. Poirier & Tokarz (1996) argue the
importance of understanding the internal personality or culture of an organisation in order that
allowances can be made for this in implementation. Atkinson (1990) supports this view and
recommends assessing the culture and values of the organisation using a feasibility study.
56
Vermeulen (1997) advocates diagnosing and analysing the character of the organisation to
identify potential barriers to change. Chin & Pun (2002) referring to the UMIST-TQM
implementation framework, recommend an assessment of the current status of organisational
culture before developing and implementing for change. The research of Bardoel & Sohal
(1999) with seven cases of TQM implementation suggests that an analysis of the organisation,
using cultural auditing tools, can help with the design of a successful TQM implementation
programme. Wright et al (1998) argue that clear understandings of perceptions are necessary for
those advocating and implementing a total quality programme as this understanding reduces
delays.
Silvestro (2001) calls for a contingency sensitive approach to TQM implementation as much of
the TQM literature is insensitive to the contingencies of the operational context. This view is
supported by Sitkin et al (see Chin & Pun 2002, p.273) who attribute the failure of many TQM
programmes to a disregard for contextual factors. Melan (1998) is of the opinion that the
contextual aspect of change suggests that TQM implementation should be approached in a
contingent way. Savolainen (1999) identified that industry-specific factors, which are related to
the nature of the business, need to be taken into consideration in implementation. Beer &
Walton (see Savolainen 1999, p.1205) contend:
"Rather than assume there is a single way to change organizations we should specify alternativechange strategies appropriate to an organization's stage of development".
In response to this view that implementation should be contingent on the organisational context,
many authors argue for tailored approaches to implementation. Mersha (1997) argues that the
implementation process should be tailored to each organisation's specific situation as the lack of
tailoring has been identified as one of the factors that leads to the failure of TQM
implementation. This view is supported by Michael et al (1997) who state that the TQM
programme should be tailored to suit the individual higher education institution. Sullivan-Taylor
& Wilson (1996) interviewed a consultant in New Zealand who claimed to take cultural
differences into account and altered the quality programme accordingly. Samuelsson & Nilsson
(2002) state that one of the dilemmas in implementing the EFQM Excellence Model is whether
to adjust the criteria of the model to suit the organisation and McAdam & Welsh (2000) note
that the application of the EFQM Excellence Model usually involves negotiation over how the
model should be used, how key terms should be construed and whether particular elements are
even appropriate. Raisbeck (2001) sees a tailored management system as being one of the
fundamentals for successful implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model.
Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) advise that, when selecting a self-assessment approach, the
organisation's culture must be considered. Several respondents in Samuelsson & Nilsson's
(2002) research emphasised that the implementation strategy for the EFQM Excellence Model
57
must be developed with consideration to the company culture and Sousa-Poza et al (2001) agree
that the implementation plan should be adapted to the culture.
Duke (2002) argues that, in managing universities, ignoring the rich organic underlife and the
uniqueness of each member and group invites resistance whilst Michael et at (1997) warn of the
problem of failing to adapt business principles correctly to an academic setting. Taylor & Hill
(1992) argue that higher education bodies wishing to embrace TQM theory and practice must
make an objective and critical assessment of the prevailing culture, with a view to establishing
its appropriateness. Taylor & Hill (1992) go on to discuss the question that follows from this
assessment, what happens if the prevailing culture is considered inappropriate to TQM - can
culture be changed? They conclude that it can be changed via changes in environmental factors,
but such change will almost certainly be difficult and expensive.
Sousa-Poza et al (2001) say that it is unclear whether corporate culture determines the success
of the TQM implementation or if TQM modifies corporate cultures. They conclude that there is
a middle ground in which an adequate corporate culture must be present to effectively
implement TQM and where the implementation process can include activities, such as training,
designed to modify the corporate culture.
To summarise this section on culture/context assessment, it is clear that the implementation of a
TQM initiative such as the EFQM Excellence Model involves a culture change and group
culture is most facilitating in this. The cultural realities of an organisation need to be understood
and it is advocated that a cultural assessment should take place. Subsequently it is recommended
that a contingency sensitive approach to implementation is employed in which the
implementation approach is tailored appropriately for the organisation.
The literature review revealed a number of issues of culture/context that are specific to the
University academic context which are reviewed below:
3.3.2.1 Management Style
Holmes & McElwee (1995) state that the management style in higher education is historically
different and dissimilar to the style in the traditional commercial industrial sectors in which
TQM has had its success. The literature in the area of management style in universities
concentrates on the concepts of managerialism and collegialism. Harvey (1995, p.43) defines
managerialism:
"Managerialism refers to the tendency in higher education for professional managers to play amuch more significant role in decision-making in higher education. Decision-making that has aprofound effect on academic processes and quality but which is based on non-academic criteria- often financial criteria or as the result of managerial theory".
58
Brunetto (2001) views managerialism as the adoption of private sector management tools within
public sector organisations. Inglis (see Laughton 2003, p.318) observed that the teaching quality
assessment exercise in UK HE was perceived by academic staff as part of a creeping and
encroaching managerialism that was a constraint on academic autonomy and a contradiction to
the core values of academic culture.
Harvey (1995, p.1) defines collegialism:
"Collegialism is a term meant to imply the institutionalisation of aspects of collegial practicesand aspirations".
Harvey (1995) says that collegialism is characterised by three core elements:
• A process of shared decision-making by a collegial group in relation to academic matters.• Mutual support in upholding the academic integrity of members of the group.• Conservation of a realm of special knowledge and practice.
Brennan & Shah (see Laughton 2003, p.317) point out that, traditionally, universities have
emphasised self and collegial accountability and self-improvement and, as such, Harris (1994)
is of the opinion that managers in higher education are mediators of extraneous, market-
orientated values, which compete with the collegial values and loyalties intrinsic to the subject
disciplinary focus of learning in universities. Davies et al (2001) argue that models of university
governance based on the notion of collegiality do not sit comfortably with pressures from
customers who expect a business-like response in dynamic situations. Similarly, Srikanthan
(1999) highlights the balance required between the academics' need for autonomy governed
through a collegial process of wide consultation and the Universities' need for accountability
which is often linked with managerial modes of operation, however Bolton (1995) argues that
Higher Education Institutions discourage the active leadership and management of themselves
and Pupius (1998) adds that middle managers in higher education lack the authority to change
things. Raisbeck (2001) has identified outdated management structures, roles and forums as
inhibitors to the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in Higher Education, although
he does not suggest how these structures, roles and forums should be replaced. Pupius (2002)
argues that a balance needs to be achieved between managerialism and collegiality in order that
Higher Education Institutions can meet their obligation to be accountable to various
stakeholders. Davies et al (2001) argue that it is leadership that is needed to combine the
collegiality ethos of universities with the responsive, business-like approach demanded by
customers rather than emphasising a managerial approach. Harvey (1999) discusses his view
that accountability is easier to gain through a managerial system, however this creates problems
of ownership by academics who are likely to look only to comply with management
requirements rather than improve quality. Conversely, in his view, the collegiate system is
better in encouraging staff ownership, but it may be more difficult to establish accountability for
actions. Srikanthan & Dalrymple (2002) argue that, in order to effectively adopt TQM models
59
in higher education, there is a need to move away from managerialism and restore collegialism
as the governing principle in higher education, and this should ideally manifest itself as shared
decision making, upholding of integrity and commitment to knowledge.
Clearly there is great debate about the appropriate management style necessary for the
successful implementation of TQM or the EFQM Excellence Model in the UK University
context. On the whole it appears that any approach perceived by academic staff to be managerial
in nature is likely to be greeted with scepticism and resistance. There appears to be support for a
collegial approach combined with leadership rather than a managerial approach.
3.3.2.2 Individualism
Rodrigues (see Chin & Pun 2002, p.275) argues that people dominated by an individualistic
cultural dimension may not fit well into the group-orientation aspects of management practices.
Bolton (1995) highlights that, in Higher Education Institutions, individuals' achievements are
ranked above their contributions to teamwork. Taylor & Hill (see Owlia & Aspinwall 1997,
p.530) offer the view that individualism is often perceived as the key to personal recognition
and advancement within the higher education system. This view is supported by Roffe (1998,
p.77) who argues that:
"The individual member of staff is advanced or promoted, by and large, on the basis ofindividual research, scholarship and writing, or teaching with relatively little emphasis onworking in teams to develop organisations".
Roffe's view is supported by Pupius (1998) who highlights that the strength of academic
autonomy creates tension and competition between individual and organisation and Raanan
(1998, p.2) refers to this as the "Prima Ballerina Effect" in which egotistical individuals (the
academic staff) won't act in any unified way. Damrosch (see Silver 2003, p.166) suggests, in
today's conditions, people work more closely together in law firms, for example, or in
architectural firms, than they now do in many university departments. Chadwick (1995) notes
that staff in universities sometimes have difficulty in accepting the notion of interdependence
and Elmuti et al (1996, p.30) cite Jauch & Orwig who argue that a TQM system, which requires
a culture committed to well-defined and common goals, appears ill suited for higher education.
Elmuti et al (1996, p.40) argue that:
"The traditionally autonomous role of the professor is contrary to the TQM goals of promotingteamwork and encouraging group-based problem solving".
Motwani & Kumar (1997) highlight considerable scepticism regarding the use of TQM in
educational institutions and one of the reasons for this scepticism is the threat to the individual
academic staffs autonomy. Schaffer (see Owlia & Aspinwall 1997, p.531) expresses concerns
that this autonomous spirit which exists in universities, makes leadership very difficult.
Stawicki (1999, p.238) refers to the "hidden rules" of organisational culture that exist within
60
Institutes of Higher Education. Two of these relate to individualism; co-operation is not a
declared goal and co-operation is not rewarded. Roffe (1998) indicates that the emphasis in
higher education is on the individual and this represents a difficulty for Continuous Quality
Improvement since working in teams is seen as central to the successful implementation of a
quality assurance strategy. Raisbeck (2001) has observed a tendency towards individual rather
than teamworking in Higher Education and argues that this is an inhibitor in the implementation
of the EFQM Excellence Model. This view is supported by Bergman (see Owlia & Aspinwall
1997, p.531) who views the individualism of academic staff as a barrier to any transformation
process.
Therefore the consensus is that academics have a tendency towards individualism which is
reinforced by the promotion policies of universities. As TQM and other quality improvement
approaches emphasise the need for teamwork (see 3.3.7 below) then the issue of individualism
is a potential barrier to the effective implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK
University academic units.
3.3.2.3 The Critical nature of Staff and Academic Freedom
Holmes & McElwee (1995) state the opinion that academics have a reputation for liberalism and
non-conformism. The critical nature of academic staff is identified by Ho & Wearn (1996) as a
potential barrier to TQM implementation in Higher Education Institutions as academic staff are
expected to analyse, challenge, criticize and substantiate evidence. Michael et al (1997) argue
that because university academics seek knowledge unendingly, they practice quality inherently
and therefore it is likely that they would not see the need for the implementation of a quality
model. Giertz (1999) argues that TQM's strong focus on customer satisfaction as a basis for
defining quality is anathema to the concept of academic freedom. Matthews (see Owlia &
Aspinwall 1997, p.531) views academic freedom as a barrier to applying TQM in higher
education as the administration has relatively limited control over academic staff. An alternate
view is offered by Dahlgaard & Madsen (1998) who argue that focusing on the scientific
approach of TQM may be a great help when trying to implement TQM in a higher education
institution. They argue that the causes of problems are regarded as hypotheses by academics,
which then have to be tested through a cycle of data collection and data analysis. Giertz (1999)
has observed that academics can see TQM as a threat to academic freedom and the key to
overcoming this fear is to make a clear connection between what they see as their mission and
continuous improvement of the organisation. Raanan (1998) argues that academics often falsely
use the notion of academic freedom to prevent change to more effective and efficient ways of
working.
61
A related issue is the separation of academics and administrative and support staff in Higher
Education. Raisbeck (2001) has identified this as an inhibitor to the implementation of the
EFQM Model. Michael et al (1997) identified the sometimes conflict between administrators
and academics as a problem in implementing TQM in higher education. This issue was also
identified by Chadwick (1995) who noted that University academics have tended to view
support staff as second class, often describing them as non-academic; similarly support staff
often despair at the lack of administrative and managerial skills shown by academic researchers.
Hare (2000) identifies a structural element to this issue in which there are two diametrically
opposing systems of governance: hierarchical, command and control, administrative line
bureaucracy (for support staff); and autonomous, fragmented, professional service departments
and units (for academic staff). Traditionally, academics have been given a great deal of
autonomy in the execution of their work, as well as control over the supporting administrative
bureaucracy. In recent years, the emphasis on various quality assurance processes in HE has
tended to reduce the degree of autonomy of academic staff and, at least partly, reverse the
control situation. In quality assurance issues the administrators tend to exert control over the
activities of academics.
There emerges no clear view on whether the critical nature of academic staff would be an aid or
a barrier to EFQM Excellence Model implementation. The notion of academic freedom is a
potential barrier to implementation, particularly if this is combined with a lack of co-operative
working with administrative staff.
3.3.2.4 Professionalism and the nature of Professional Services
Cheng & Parsons (see Brunetto 2001, p.469) argue that professional employees place more
importance on their professional authority than formal hierarchical authority. In the context of
healthcare Downey-Harris & Harrington (2002, p.6'7) state that:
"Frequently in the past many professionals refused to co-operate with management in theoverall managerial effectiveness of institutions and in some cases identified management asbeing of a lesser rank within the overall organisational setting".
It is possible that this also applies in Higher Education. Brunetto (2001, p.478) states that:
"In the case of academics, the evidence suggests that the authority associated with theirprofessional culture remains a strong influence in mediating how policies are implemented".
Savolainen (1999) found that resistance to the implementation of continuous improvement
initiatives was embedded in professional cultures. Morgan & Murgatroyd (see McAdam 8c
Welsh 2000, p.123) consider whether the work cultures of the professionals in the public sector
are inimical to TQM. They highlight working practices derived from: the multiplicity of
professional specialisms; the primacy accorded the individual professional transaction; and the
authority (sometimes autocracy) of seniority and status hierarchies. Silvestro (2001) maintains
62
that the EFQM Excellence Model is particularly difficult to apply to professional services as it
tends to be manufacturing oriented and there is an element of professional snobbery towards the
customer and Sallis (see Owlia & Aspinwall 1997, p.530) argues that TQM's emphasis on
customer satisfaction may cause some conflicts with professionals in education as they see
themselves as the guardians of quality and standards. Holmes & McElwee (1995) suggest that
total quality will only be brought about in UK Higher Education by recognising and interacting
with the professionals. This view is supported by Brunetto's (2001) research, which argues that,
in the Swedish higher education sector, the professional authority associated with professionals
in organisations needs to be understood in order to implement new policies. Mintzberg has
quoted Higher Education Institutions as examples of 'Professional bureaucracies" (see Bolton,
1995, p.13). In this type of organisation the organisation is dependent on the skill and
knowledge of the professionals to achieve its outcomes. Clark (see Silver 2003, p.166) describes
higher education as "clusters of professionals tending various bundles of Knowledge". This
view is supported by Brennan & Shah (see Laughton 2003, p. 317) who point out that
universities have relied on the professionalism of academics to ensure their quality and standing
in society. Newton (see Laughton 2003, p.317) identified that academics characterised quality
assurance measures as being accountability led as opposed to improvement led, and therefore
alien to core values of academic culture. This raises the interesting concept that the EFQM
Excellence Model, being improvement led, might gain a warmer reception from academics than
the quality assurance approaches.
The issue of professionalism presents a potential barrier to the implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model in UK University academic units as the professionals might see it as a threat
to their professionalism. Conversely, the EFQM Excellence Model with its emphasis on
improvement might be well received by the professionals, as one of the aspects of
professionalism is continual self-improvement.
3.3.2.5 Co-operation and Support
Raisbeck (2001) identifies a culture of openness and co-operation as one of the fundamentals for
the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model. This view is supported by Moeller &
Sonntag (2001) who identified a supportive organisational environment as one of the success
factors in facilitating successful self-assessments in German healthcare.
Therefore it is more likely that the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model will be
successful if initiatives and projects are pursued in an environment of co-operation and support.
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3.3.2.6 The Academic Culture of an Institution
Raanan (1999) concludes from his research that the term 'university' has become too varied to
be taken as a single, almost uniform, entity and therefore there can be no single, uniform
approach to implementing TQM in universities. Instead the culture and context must be taken
into consideration in the implementation as discussed in 3.3.2 above. In a survey of forty two
Swedish Higher Education Institutions (Giertz, 1999) it was concluded that resistance to TQM
was greater in old universities than in newer institutions as they were described as having
stronger academic cultures. Unfortunately Giertz does not elaborate on what is meant by a
strong academic culture. Martin & Weill (1999) describe a transition in the conservatism of
academic staff who were traditionally very conservative towards change. They have noted a
transition to staff who are much less conservative. They use the United Kingdom as an example
in which the newest universities, which have mostly developed from technological institutions
(the former Polytechnics), have a very different culture from that of the classical institutions.
The notion of the academic culture of an institution is mainly abstract save to say that it is
probably made up of and determined by other issues explored in this sub-section, namely
management style, individualism, the critical nature of academic staff, academic freedom,
professionalism, and co-operation and support. These factors could be influenced by whether a
university is seen as "old" or "new".
3.3.2.7 Recognition and Rewards
Pettigrew and Wallace et al (see Brunetto 2001, p.468) suggest that employees undergoing
organisational change are unlikely to respond favourably to change unless they are rewarded for
their efforts. They found that employees were unwilling to change their work practices in
response to changes in the organisation's official ideologies, expectations and values unless
there was also a change in the rewarding practices of the organisation in line with the new
organisational focus. Thiagarajan & Zairi (1997) found that, in the best organisations,
recognition and rewards are part and parcel of a well-defined quality process in which rewards
and recognition are linked to sustaining the appropriate behaviour.
The review of the literature in this area shows a range of views on the advantages and
disadvantages of the use of recognition and rewards associated with the introduction of TQM or
the EFQM Excellence Model. Mersha (1997, p.171) states that:
"A good TQM system will have built-in mechanisms for motivating and recognizing individualemployees as well as teams".
Poirier & Tokarz (1996) list recognition and rewards as one of twelve critical TQM factors.
This view is supported by Koehler & Pankowski (1996) who describe the importance of
recognition and rewards to the success of a case of TQM implementation whilst Thiagaragan et
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al (2001) stress that recognition is important in maintaining staff involvement. They recommend
setting up a reward system and recognition programmes, consulting employees regarding the
most appropriate forms of recognition. Dadzie (2004) argues that recognition and reward for
good work have been clearly recognised as effective organisational practices.
The UMIST-TQM implementation framework (see Chin & Pun 2002, p.277) recommends the
development of methods for recognising the efforts of teams and individuals and a consideration
of linking rewards to continuous improvement activities and results. Mersha (1997) goes on to
emphasise that the reward and recognition system should be designed to foster co-operation and
teamwork. This view is supported by Tan (1997), who identified that most organisations find it
hard to install TQM because of the reward of individuals rather than teams. Within the context
of universities Michael et al (1997) take the opposite view, which is that staff feel that total
quality means an increase in committee work for which there is no professional benefit for them
as individuals. This is linked to the issue of individualism in Universities which was discussed
in detail in section 3.3.2.2. In Brunetto's (2001) research there was unanimous agreement from
academics that one factor affecting their response to a new policy was the institutional response
of universities communicated by the actions of Heads of School/Faculty, particularly in relation
to rewarding practices. Thiagaragan et al (2001) recommend that a balance is sought between
recognising individual and team performance. Hence the rewards policy related to the
implementation of a quality initiative has the potential to be a significant issue in determining if
implementation is successful.
Brannan (see Jackson 2001, p.161) emphasises that recognising staff is a very important factor
in a total quality management implementation programme. Jackson (2001) suggests a number of
mechanisms for recognising staff including award ceremonies and publication tools. A related
issue is whether to have internal competitions in terms of internal awards linked to EFQM
Excellence Model self-assessment results. Conti (1997) describes the greatest advantage of
internal awards as being the stimulation of extensive involvement in self-assessment. He goes
on to say that the danger with these awards is that, in the desire to win, strengths may be over-
emphasised and this goes against the ultimate purpose of self-assessment which is to identify
areas for improvement. Van der Wiele et al (1996) found in their survey of EFQM members that
internal quality awards were not seen as an important issue in relation to the implementation of
self-assessment, but that there was a need to develop a strong link between the self-assessment
results and the recognition of individuals and teams.
From the above review it can be seen that there is broad support that recognition for staff
involved in implementation can have a positive effect on staff motivation and willingness to
change, and this in turn can be an aid to effective implementation. However, there is some
65
concern expressed about the appropriateness of linking rewards to staff involvement in
implementation and also the issue of internal awards. In both cases, the concern is about the
potential to negatively impact on staff motivation. The other major issue across the area of
recognition and rewards is whether to recognise and reward at the individual or team level.
There appears to be more support in the literature for team rewards and recognition rather then
this being done on an individual basis. This is at odds with the individualistic aspect of
academic culture reviewed in 3.3.2.2.
3.3.2.8 The Language and Terminology of the EFQM Excellence Model
This topic was touched upon in section 2.1, which described the EFQM Excellence Model and
its use in self-assessment. This highlighted areas in which users of the EFQM Excellence Model
have choice, e.g. which type of self-assessment methodology to use or whether to use scoring,
however as the issue here is whether the language and terminology in the EFQM Excellence
Model should be changed to suit the culture or context of Universities, the author decided that it
was more appropriate to deal with this in this section on culture/context assessment.
Helms et al (2001) found that unfamiliar jargon hindered quality efforts in higher education.
Coate (see Owlia & Aspinwall 1997, p.537) identified the language of TQM as one of the
barriers to TQM implementation in a case of implementation in a United States university.
Similarly, Martin & Weill (1999), describing the implementation of TQM in a French
university, highlighted that the university tended to reject a language which it considers as only
suitable for the business world. Taylor & Hill (1991) explain that the terminology of TQM may
need to be modified to make it appropriate and acceptable to the academic community, because
the traditions of higher education are different from those of industrial enterprises.
Similar difficulties with the language and terminology of the EFQM Excellence Model have
been identified in other parts of the public sector. Awkati (2000) describes problems of
understanding with the terminology and abstract nature of the main criteria names in using the
EFQM Excellence Model in social services. Nabitz & Klazinga (1999) detail changes in
terminology in the EFQM Excellence Model to suit the Dutch healthcare context whilst Stahr
(2001) refers to a case of EFQM Excellence Model implementation in healthcare in which the
model's language was orientated into more recognisable, healthcare friendly terminology. Train
& Williams (2000) describe adaptations made to the terminology of the EFQM Excellence
Model in the UK British Benefit Enquiry Line and Moeller & Sonntag (2001) identified the
terminology of the EFQM Excellence Model as a barrier to implementation in German
healthcare because it has its foundation in another industry. Thornett & Viggiani (1996, p.29)
propose that:
66
"Quality is something that is quantifiable and that the language of business and industry can beapplied to schools, albeit with a refined "dialect".
Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002, p.15) noted that some companies have adjusted words in the
questions of the EFQM Excellence Model to better fit the "company language".
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) in their evaluation of the UK Public Sector Excellence
Programme found that several organisations had adapted the terminology of the EFQM
Excellence Model to better suit the culture and language of their organisation.
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000, p.44) are of the opinion that this practice may be important in
avoiding the "not invented here syndrome" that could undermine or be damaging to
implementation efforts.
McAdam & Welsh (2000) found that a number of stakeholders in Northern Ireland Further
Education Colleges emphasised the need to tailor the terminology of the EFQM Excellence
Model so that it would be appropriate for use in the further education sector. McAdam &
Welsh (2000) argue that this problem reflects general and long-standing differences over the
appropriateness of business language in public sector contexts. In Higher Education Institutions,
Bolton (1995, p.17) recommends using traditionally acceptable language, for example students
rather than customers. Pupius (1998) argues that the culture of higher education does not react
well to business language and so appropriate educational language should be developed to
communicate the concepts of the EFQM Excellence Model to an educational audience. Zink &
Voss (1998) propose that the wording in the EFQM Excellence Model be translated and adapted
to an individual organisation's needs as the wording is partly abstract. Owlia & Aspinwall
(1997) identified strong support for the notion of changing the criteria and terminology of
quality models to better suit higher education. Zink & Voss (1999) argue that the terminology in
the EFQM Excellence Model must be translated for each organisation and illustrated by definite
examples. They have observed that this is especially helpful for higher education institutions
whose staff are often not used to the business wording. Ruben et al (1999) describe a version of
the Baldrige framework developed especially for use in United States higher education. The
version was designed to address the needs of colleges and universities and utilises language that
is familiar to the culture of such institutions. Giertz (1999) offers an interesting dichotomy of
opinion on this issue. She points to one point of view, which is that the industry-based
terminology of TQM sometimes offends academics and therefore avoiding this terminology will
help implementation. The opposite argument is that it is important to keep the terminology since
this highlights the fact that the TQM approach represents something new that requires
rethinking.
Osseo-Asare Jr. & Longbottom (2002), from a case study of TQM/EFQM implementation in a
UK HEI, identified that Deans, Assistant Deans, Heads of Departments, Quality Managers and
67
other personnel involved in quality and performance improvement needed further education and
training to help them understand the terminology involved.
A Higher Education version of the EFQM Excellence Model Public and Voluntary Sector
version has recently been produced by one of the consortia described in chapter one. This
interprets the fundamental concepts of the EFQM Excellence Model (described in chapter 2) for
further and higher education and offers suggestions to be analysed under the nine criteria in
terminology that is more suitable for the HE sector (Sheffield Hallam University, 2003).
It would appear that amending the language and terminology of the EFQM Excellence Model so
that it is more suited to the HE context could be an aid in implementation.
To summarise, the issues of culture/context that emerged from the literature which are specific
to the university academic context and which could impact on effective implementation of the
EFQM Excellence Model are firstly, that it appears that any approach perceived by academic
staff to be managerial in nature is likely to be greeted with scepticism and resistance. There
appears to be support for a collegial approach combined with leadership rather than a
managerial approach. Secondly, that the issue of individualism is a potential barrier to the
effective implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK university academic units.
Thirdly, that there emerges no clear view on whether the critical nature of academic staff would
be an aid or a barrier to EFQM Excellence Model implementation. The notion of academic
freedom is a potential barrier to implementation, particularly if this is combined with a lack of
co-operative working with administrative staff. Fourthly, that the issue of professionalism
presents a potential barrier to the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK
University academic units as the professionals might see it as a threat to their professionalism.
Conversely, the EFQM Excellence Model with its emphasis on improvement might be well
received by the professionals, as one of the aspects of professionalism is continual self-
improvement. Fifthly, that it is more likely that the implementation of the EFQM Excellence
Model will be successful if initiatives and projects are pursued in an environment of co-
operation and support. Sixthly, that the issue of recognition and rewards must be carefully
considered in the academic context, and finally, that it would appear that amending the language
and terminology of the EFQM Excellence Model so that it is more suited to the HE context
could be an aid in implementation.
3.3.3 Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
Senge et al (see Srikanthan & Dalrymple 2001, p.5) point out how up to 80% of TQM
implementation efforts end in failure, due to a lack of transformational leadership.
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000), in their report on the evaluation of the UK Public Sector
68
Excellence Programme, found that uncommitted leadership was seen as the key barrier to
driving forward excellence and Aly & Akpovi (2001), in their survey of American universities,
found that 41 per cent of the universities reported lack of leadership as one of the challenges of
TQM implementation. Owlia & Aspinwall (1997) describe a case of failed implementation of
TQM in a United States university in which one of the main factors for failure was low
commitment by top management. Oakland (1999, p.5) states:
"Achieving organizational excellence often requires a mind-set change to break down existingbarriers, but it must start at the top where the serious obsessional commitment and leadershipmust be demonstrated".
This view is supported by Atkinson (1990) who argues that TQM must be driven and be the
responsibility of the senior management, ownership must reside at the top. Tan (1997) argues
that quality cannot be delegated by top management but must start with them in the boardroom
and Dale et al (1998) state that the introduction of a process of continuous improvement must be
led by senior management. Antony et al (2002) investigated the implementation of TQM in
Hong Kong industries and found that management involvement and their total participation was
necessary to lead and facilitate the implementation. Dale et al (2000) point out that there are
often difficulties with the commitment of senior managers associated with the introduction of
TQM. It can be seen that top management support and commitment is a basic requirement for
successful implementation of TQM (Mersha, 1997; Melan, 1998; Motwani & Kumar, 1997;
Adebanjo, 2001).
Bolton (1995) however warns of the danger of this accepted view of obsessional commitment to
quality from the top if it causes leaders in Higher Education Institutions to impose TQM
philosophy and practice without consultation. This view is supported by Pupius (1998) who
raises the concern that managers are often concerned with establishing their own solutions to
problems rather than empowering staff.
Poirier & Tokarz (1996, p.226) report on an American study on TQM and state that:
"Demonstrated leadership commitment is critical to TQM success".
Poirier & Tokarz(1996, p.169) also state:
"Implementing an improvement process requires all the leadership managers can muster".
Harvey (1995) states that an organisation-wide approach to the implementation of TQM
requires the commitment of the top management and is management-led whilst Oakland (2000)
argues that TQM implementation must be given the status of an executive project. Munro-Faure
& Munro-Faure (1992) argue that quality improvement will only succeed if top management is
committed to making it happen and they communicate this commitment to the whole workforce.
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Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure (1994) state that commitment must be visible and active every
day and in every activity. Thiagaragan et al (2001) and Bardoel & Sohal (1999) concur with this
view, stating that senior management's commitment to quality must be visible. More
specifically, Jackson (2001) argues that ensuring the commitment of the Chief Executive is
visible is vital to successful implementation. Ramirez & Loney (see Thiagarajan & Zairi 1997,
p.272) highlight the fact that it is not sufficient for management to be committed, but they must
also be obvious. Krasachol & Tannock (1999) researched into three cases of TQM
implementation in Thailand and concluded that it was obvious that quality activities were fully
supported and led by top management. Moeller & Sonntag (2001) indicate that one of the
success factors when using the EFQM Excellence Model in German Healthcare was constant
reassurance from top management that something would be done as a result of self-assessments.
Koehler & Pankowski (1996) highlight a number of mechanisms for demonstrating senior
management commitment, which include:
• Leaders being highly visible.• Leaders being members of teams.• Leaders being accessible to staff.• Leaders being personally involved in education and training of staff.• Leaders spending time recognising staff for their efforts.
Raisbeck (2001) identifies supportive and involved leaders as one of the fundamentals for
successfully implementing the EFQM Excellence Model. O'Brien & O'Hanlon (2000, p.17)
argue that:
"To implement any business model, the senior management must do more than talk-the-talk;they must 'walk-the-walk' by visibly changing their attitudes and behaviours".
Lewis (1999) describing the use of the EFQM Excellence Model in local government, explains
that leaders are expected to act as role models for the whole organisation. George et al (2003)
found that the senior managers in a local authority department that was implementing the
EFQM Excellence Model delivered briefing sessions to all employees in order to demonstrate
support and commitment from the top. With reference to the implementation of business
excellence in a German university, Zink & Voss (1998) state that leaders need to be actively
involved in the process and act as role models for the new excellence culture. Van der Wiele et
al (1996) conducted a survey of EFQM members and concluded that it is important to start self-
assessment with senior management, that senior management reviews the improvements and
that the Chief Executive Officer is involved. This view is supported by Stahr (2001) who
observes that a characteristic for success in healthcare was securing an organisational norm of
Chief Executive Reviews that ensured self-assessment and continuous improvement were a
cyclic process. This clearly demonstrated the support of the organisation's leaders.
70
Research by Sousa-Poza et al (2001) has identified that one of the solutions, when difficulties in
implementation have surfaced, is to increase executive involvement.
It can be clearly seen from the above review that demonstrating senior management
commitment to the implementation is a key issue if implementation is to be successful,
furthermore this commitment must be active and visible.
3.3.4 Project Management
Hides et al (2000) recommend facilitating total quality through effective project management.
There are a number of issues relevant to project management, which are reviewed here in
separate sections although, clearly, there are linkages between the elements.
3.3.4.1 Steering Committee
Conti (1997) states that top management should form the steering committee. This point is
supported by Kumar & Douglas (2002) who argue that a steering committee should be
constituted comprising of high level personnel. Ho & Weam (1996) recommend establishing a
quality steering committee whilst Thiagaragan et al (2001) advocate that a steering group,
chaired by the chief executive, should be set up during the early stages to design and manage the
implementation process. Jackson (2001) recommends that a steering committee is set up to
demonstrate that the leaders of the organisation are committed to total quality and Vrakking
(1995) advocates having a strong steering group for the implementation.
The literature shows that having a steering committee for the implementation project
comprising senior staff of the organisation who help to design and manage the implementation
process is likely to aid effective implementation.
3.3.4.2 Project Manager
Burke (1993) argues that the selection of the project manager is one of the key appointments
influencing project success. Thiagaragan et al (2001, p.297) recommend the appointment of a
"TQM support manager" to advise and assist in the implementation. In effect, a project
manager. Jackson (2001) advocates expert facilitation for project teams from someone who has
expertise with the EFQM Excellence Model and expertise in the context in which it is being
introduced. This is because they are attuned to the values and aspirations of the professionals in
those organisations. Burke (1993) recommends that the project manager, in addition to having
project management skills, should have experience in the field of the project.
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It appears that the appointment of a project manager with project management skills, knowledge
of the EFQM Excellence Model and an understanding of the university context would be an aid
to effective implementation.
3.3.4.3 Project Champion
Melan (1998) identified that the existence of advocates to facilitate change was a key factor for
successful implementation of improvement and Atkinson (1990) advocates that a manager of
high status should champion the implementation, the higher the status the better. Samuelsson &
Nilsson (2002) identify the need for a member of staff who is accepted at all levels to convince
everyone. Savolainen (1999, p.1218) states that:
"The embedding of the quality ideology requires one or more key supporters, advocates, whonot only believe in the idea but are prepared to act for it".
There is some support then for the appointment of a senior member of staff as a project
champion to aid effective implementation.
3.3.4.4 Project Consultant
Conti (1997) highlights the need for an organisation to decide where and to what degree it will
use the services of external consultants. It is interesting to note that he does not raise the issue of
whether to use an external consultant at all, as he views consultant services as being essential.
He recommends setting up a joint team of company representatives and consultants. Van der
Wiele et al (1996), through a large survey of EFQM member organisations, found that external
support, either from management consultants or from academics, was not seen as a necessary
resource to continue a process of self-assessment after the initial training had been carried out.
This view is supported by Bertsch & Williams (see Thiagarajan & Zairi 1997, p.278) who
surveyed 20 leading companies implementing TQM in the USA, Europe and the Far East and
found that quality training is frequently conducted by line managers with consultants used
sparingly and for specific short-term assignments. Koehler & Pankowski (1996) report on the
successful use of internal consultants in a large-scale implementation of TQM and Arcelay et al
(1999) indicate that every institution should have someone with an excellent knowledge of the
EFQM Excellence Model to stimulate and facilitate the whole process. This view is supported
by the research of Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) which identified the success of using internal
facilitators to support assessment teams.
There is support in the literature for the position of project consultant to aid effective
implementation. This is someone with expert knowledge of the EFQM Excellence Model and
the balance of opinion is that this should be someone within the organisation rather than
external to it. It is possible, given the discussion above on the role of the project manager
(3.3.4.2), that the internal project consultant and the project manager could be combined as one
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role. There is some limited support for the use of external consultants at the start of the
implementation process.
3.3.4.5 Project Activities Plan
Vraklcing (1995) argues that one of the major problems with implementations arises when the
implementation was insufficiently prepared. Owlia & Aspinwall (1997) describe a case of
failure in implementing TQM in a United States university and identified the lack of a clear plan
as one of the main reasons for failure. Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002, p.16) state that:
"In general, companies that used a plan to express the strategy for the implementation [of theEFQM Excellence Model] seemed to carry it through more successfully, while those that did notexperienced a "trial and error" process".
Owlia & Aspinwall (1997) identified, when examining TQM implementation in a number of
UK universities, that they were mostly implemented in a piecemeal fashion, rather than as part
of a fully integrated plan and Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure (1994) argue that quality
improvement must be planned like any other significant activity undertaken by the business.
This view is supported by Henderson et al (1999) who identify planning as a key success factor
for successful business improvement. Michael et al (1997) stress careful planning in TQM
implementation whilst Hillman (1994) stresses the importance of planning before starting the
self-assessment process. Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure (1992) describe the implementation of
TQM in the organisation ICL and explain the development of a blueprint for quality
improvement. Taylor & Hill (1992, p.6) argue that organisational factors are the key to TQM
implementation and state:
"Though many organizations decide to adopt TQM and move directly to implementation, theliterature underlines the need for a considerable amount of preparation".
Taylor & Hill (1991) argue that the implementation of TQM in universities would require
considerable planning and, in the case of TQM implementation at the University of Bradford
Management Centre, Oakland (2000) explains that a strategy for implementing TQM was
developed at a strategic planning workshop.
Conti (1997) recommends that a complete activities plan should be drawn up to be approved by
top management and the steering committee whilst Chin & Pun (2002) take this a step further
by advocating that all members of senior and middle management are involved in the planning
process, thereby developing ownership of the resultant plans. Vrakking (1995) sees this
participation in the design phase as the first step of implementation.
Cullen & Hollingum (1987) advocate a time-phased plan identifying targets and milestones.
This view is supported by Jackson (2001) who argues that the implementation plan should
carefully consider the timing of events. Boonstra (see Vralcking 1995, p.35) states that it is
73
important to distinguish the various steps in the change process using a step-by-step method and
Atkinson (1990) advocates the development of a sequence of activities indicating the critical
path. This view is supported by Vraldcing (1995) who advocates gaining consensus on what the
absolutely necessary steps are. For the implementation of their HETQMEX model, Ho & Wearn
(1996) recommend the creation of a documented implementation plan as, in their experience,
good project management is essential.
Another issue to bear in mind when planning an EFQM Excellence Model implementation is
the existence of other projects which could divert attention, time and resources away from the
implementation. PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) in their evaluation of the UK Public Sector
Excellence Programme, identified initiative overload as a significant barrier to achieving
excellence.
The development of a project activities plan in which the key activities have been identified and
the timescales have been agreed would appear to be an aid to effective implementation. There is
some support for the view that senior managers should participate in the design of this plan and
approve it for use. The plan should take account of other initiatives and projects occurring at the
same time to help prevent initiative overload.
3.3.4.6 Project Progress Monitoring
Ho & Wearn (1996) recommend monitoring progress of the implementation as part of the
Deming cycle (plan-do-check-act) and Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) argue that it is vital to
ensure that monitoring implementation of actions becomes a natural part of the business review
process and not a separate activity. Melan (1998) advocates having a means for assessing the
progress of the change. Jackson (2001) supports this view and argues that the reviewing of the
implementation programme needs to be built into the initial agreed strategy. Burke (1993)
recommends a tracking and monitoring function be established to establish the project's position
with respect to progress against the objectives of the project and its time schedule.
Project progress monitoring would appear to be an aid in effective implementation.
3.3.4.7 Project Resources Allocation
Dale et al (2000) highlight that one of the difficulties often associated with the introduction of
TQM is the allocation of resources. Aly & Akpovi (2001), in their survey of American
universities, found that 53 per cent of the universities which have implemented TQM saw lack
of resources as one of the challenges of TQM implementation. The Cabinet Office (2001) warns
that you will not succeed in implementing the EFQM Excellence Model without adequate
resources whilst Mersha (1997, p.170) states that:
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"A true test of management commitment lies in the amount of resources (time, money, people)that it is willing to allocate to the TQM implementation effort".
Michael et al (1997), who examined TQM implementation in higher education, recommend
allocating sufficient time and resources to the implementation process and Zink & Voss (1998)
state that leaders need to be ready to provide the necessary resources for EFQM Excellence
Model implementation. This view is supported by Van der Wide et al (1996, p.93) who state:
"If self-assessment is to be taken seriously the senior management have to make resourcesavailable".
Van der Wiele et al's (1996) research revealed that the main resources made available for the
self-assessment activities of the respondent organisations were people internal to the
organisation and money. Zink & Schmidt (1998) state that resources for self-assessment must
be provided in terms of time, personnel and, if necessary, finances for external consultants and
training. Moeller & Sonntag (2001) identified difficulties with resources as a barrier to
implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in German healthcare. Particular factors
identified were a lack of dedicated staff to conduct self-assessments, lack of staff time to take
part in self-assessments and a lack of access to information. Jackson (2001) also found that
information requirements are paramount to success. In addition she highlights the resources of
energy, creativity and time as being significant in applying TQM tools.
Vraldcing (1995) advises to double any estimate of resource requirement if implementation is to
be successful and to make sure that budget and manpower requirements are included in the
decision making as, without these, the project cannot be executed.
The allocation of appropriate resources to the implementation process should aid the effective
implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model. These resources might include staff time, a
financial budget and access to information.
3.3.4.8 Project Pilot
Stawicki (1999) reports on the use of TQM in German Higher Education Institutions and notes
that implementation has only taken place in relatively small units. He is of the opinion that it
seems to be too difficult to implement TQM in a department or in a complete university. Conti
(1997) considers the issue of whether the first self-assessment should be done across the whole
organisation or in selected parts of it. In other words, should it be piloted. It is, according to
Conti, important to get a balance between not being seen to exclude sectors and ensuring the
involvement of willing sectors that are likely to become convinced supporters. Harvey (1995)
reports on a number of cases of TQM implementation in Higher Education in which it has been
piloted in one small area before extending the process. However, he reports that there is little
75
evidence to suggest that these small-scale, limited introductions lead to full-scale
implementation. McAdam & Welsh (2000) note that organisations need to choose whether to
implement the EFQM Excellence model organisation wide or to pilot it first whilst Zink &
Schmidt (1998, p.152) advocate the selection of appropriate business units for a "pilot-
assessment" and, because of trend setting effects on the whole company, units should be chosen
with the will to participate actively. Michael et al (1997) report that many colleges or
universities choose to take the slow route to TQM implementation. This involves starting a few
departments at a time and then adding to them until the whole institution is involved.
Moeller et al (2000) report a case of EFQM implementation in German healthcare in which self-
assessment was piloted in one area before rolling out the self-assessment process to other parts
of the organisation and Bolton (1995) argues that it is worth pursuing Total Quality initiatives in
a sub-unit, if necessary without explicit institution-wide commitment as people in Higher
Education Institutions are more likely to emulate a successful experiment than to accept an
imposition. The respondents to Van der Wiele et al's (1996) survey were almost equally divided
on whether it was best to start self-assessment with a pilot scheme or to launch the process on a
company-wide basis, but there was a slight leaning towards the latter. Vralcking (1995, p.43)
expresses very strong views on the issue of piloting which he refers to as "an experimental
garden". He argues that this approach indicates that the faith in the innovation is insufficient.
This results in an unsettling of the main decision to proceed and a lengthening of the
implementation which opens it up to risks. Particularly, this can present a very effective
opportunity for those who are not happy with the innovation to display resistance.
There appears to be no clear view on whether the implementation should be piloted or carried
out across the organisation, and there are a number of arguments both in support of piloting and
against this approach to implementation.
To summarise, there are a number of issues relating to project management, which could impact
on the effective implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK university academic
units. Firstly, that having a steering committee for the implementation project comprising senior
staff of the organisation who help to design and manage the implementation process is likely to
aid effective implementation. Secondly, that the appointment of a project manager with project
management skills, knowledge of the EFQM Excellence Model and an understanding of the
university context would be an aid to effective implementation. Thirdly, that there is some
support then for the appointment of a senior member of staff as a project champion to aid
effective implementation. Fourthly, that there is support for the position of project consultant to
aid effective implementation. This is someone with expert knowledge of the EFQM Excellence
Model and the balance of opinion is that this should be someone within the organisation rather
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than external to it. Fifthly, that the development of a project activities plan in which the key
activities have been identified and the timescales have been agreed would appear to be an aid to
effective implementation. There is some support for the view that senior managers should
participate in the design of this plan and approve it for use. The plan should take account of
other initiatives and projects occurring at the same time to help prevent initiative overload.
Sixthly, that project progress monitoring would appear to be an aid in effective implementation.
Seventhly, that the allocation of appropriate resources to the implementation process should aid
the effective implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model. These resources might include
staff time, a financial budget and access to information, and finally, that there appears to be no
clear view on whether the implementation should be piloted or carried out across the
organisation. There are a number of arguments both in support of piloting and against this
approach to implementation.
3.3.5 Education and Training
Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure (1992, p232) describe TQM implementation in the organisation
ICL and state:
"A key to making the necessary changes lies in educating all employees throughout thecompany".
Mersha (1997, p.170) states that continuous training is "a must" if the TQM effort is to succeed
and Jackson (2001, p.162) advocates providing "intense education and training" when
implementing TQM tools. Taylor & Hill (1992, p.9) argue that:
"Attempting a TQM initiative without providing the training necessary to provide those involvedwith the appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes would be a recipe for disaster".
Oakland (1999) believes that training is the single most important factor in actually improving
performance and Poirier & Tokarz (1996) list training as one of twelve critical TQM factors.
Harvey (1995) argues that there has to be a formal programme of education and training for all
staff whilst Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure (1994) believe that training is essential to transform
an organisation and ensure that quality improvement is successful. They see training as a
prerequisite for understanding and thus effective involvement of staff in quality improvement
whilst Antony et al (2002) found that training and education was the most important factor for
the successful implementation of TQM in Hong Kong industries. Owlia & Aspinwall (1997)
investigated TQM implementation in United States universities and found that training in TQM
was one of the first stages taken in almost all cases. Oakland (see Thiagarajan & Zairi 1997,
p.275) stresses that training strategy should be addressed at an early stage. All three companies
studied by Krasachol & Tannock (1999) featured effective training programmes in their TQM
implementation programmes and Ho & Wearn (1996) recommend providing training so that
staff are fully aware of the changes involved in implementation.
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Koehler & Pankowski (1996) describe just-in-time training in a case of TQM implementation.
In this case, the elements of training were delivered only shortly before they were needed by the
staff involved. This idea of just-in-time training is supported by Thiagarajan & Zairi (1997) who
stress that proper timing and spacing of training programmes to ensure what is learnt is applied
right away and not lost is crucial.
Kano (see Thiagarajan & Zairi 1997, p.277) stresses the importance of adapting training
programmes to the company's workplace. This is supported and made more specific by Kumar
& Douglas (2002) and Zink & Schmidt (1998) who argue that training and educating all
managers involved in the assessment process is a pre-condition for self-assessment. Samuelsson
and Nilsson (2002) argue that training of key management and in-house facilitators should be
one of the organisation's first priorities when implementing self-assessment and that this is a
good way of motivating staff and improving their understanding. This approach is supported by
O'Brien & O'Hanlon (2000) who describe a case of EFQM Excellence Model implementation in
which all the senior and middle managers attended EFQM assessor training. Lewis (1999) states
that each one of Southwark Council's 150 senior managers was trained to conduct self-
assessments on their business and this view is supported by the Cabinet Office (2001) which
recommends training for those taking part in the assessment. Van der Wiele et al (1996) report
that, in their survey of EFQM members, a formal training activity related to self-assessment was
started prior to the launch of the process in 72 per cent of the respondents and 76.1 per cent of
the respondents thought that it was important to train the people who will do the self-
assessment. Shergold & Reed (1996) recommend training self-assessment teams in the
concepts and use of the model and self-assessment and Conti (1997) advocates adequate
training for all members of self-assessment teams in order to ensure effectiveness. In addition he
recommends that at least one team member should have previous experience of self-assessment.
Conti (1997) argues that the main purpose of training is to change people's attitudes. With
reference to the EFQM Excellence Model this means ensuring that the model's fundamental
values have been assimilated.
One of the solutions offered to overcome difficulties in implementation is improved training
(Sousa-Poza et al, 2001). Specifically, Vraldcing (1995) advocates training managers to manage
the change process.
Education and Training are clearly seen as key issues in effective implementation in order to
affect staff knowledge and attitudes, and to introduce the necessary skills to carry out EFQM
Excellence Model self-assessment. Some writers advocate just-in-time training
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3.3.6 Communication
Good communication and information about the implementation is seen as essential to increase
support for the implementation (Vraklcing, 1995) and Poirier & Tokarz (1996) list
communication as one of twelve critical TQM factors. Koehler & Pankowslci (1996) advocate
showing respect for employees by sharing information with them and Krasachol & Tannock
(1999) consider effective communication between management and staff as vital for TQM
implementation. Henderson et al (1999) identified communication as an overarching influence
on the critical success factors for EFQM Excellence Model implementation. This view is
supported by Pupius (2002) who sees internal communication as a key process in EFQM
Excellence Model implementation. Ritchie & Dale (2000) identified in their research with ten
organisations using the EFQM Excellence Model that one of the main difficulties experienced
was ignorance of what self-assessment involves. This can be attributed to poor communication.
This view is supported by Lewis (1999) who is of the opinion that poor understanding of the
purpose of self-assessment (through poor communications) led to the failure to embed the self-
assessment programme into the strategic planning processes in Southwark Council, ain & Pun
(2002) stress that communication must take place to explain why TQM is being adopted and
what will be involved. Zink & Voss (1998, p3) desoxiht the hAtIckattonc elf -
assessment into a German university and explain that:
"The first assessment cycle started with an information campaign, introducing the assessmentscheme and objectives to the people".
Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) view communication as a tool to maintain staff commitment,
stating that people must be informed about targets, execution and consequences of the self-
assessment, and improvements in profitability and overall business performance must be visible.
Evenden & Anderson (see Jackson 2001, p.158) assert that the organisation needs to ensure that
people are kept informed about progress to generate a feeling of involvement whilst Oakland
(1999, p.193) explains the importance of communications thus:
"The essence of changing behaviour in business is to gain acceptance for the need to change,and for this to happen, it is important to provide relevant information, convey good practices,and generate interest, ideas and awareness through excellent communication processes".
Hillman (1994) advocates communicating the organisation's intentions with self-assessment
before getting started. Conti (1997) stresses the importance of putting a communications plan in
place as part of the preparations for implementing the EFQM Excellence Model. He emphasises
that everyone, not just those directly involved, should know what the company's goals are, why
self-assessment is important to the organisation, what will happen and how people will be
involved. The Cabinet Office (2001) concurs with this and recommends that communication
takes place with the whole organisation throughout the assessment process. Mersha (1997)
believes that communication is an important tool in reducing resistance to change and that
timescales, objectives, benefits and success stories should be shared with employees. Shergold
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& Reed (1996) advocate communicating the adoption of the EFQM Excellence Model and self-
assessment to the organisation through a variety of channels whilst Raisbeck (2001) argues that
poor communications are an inhibitor to the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in
Higher Education.
Oakland (1999) suggests that a communications plan should address the following:
• Why should we communicate?• What should we communicate?• Who should we communicate with?• How should we communicate?• When should we communicate?• Where should we communicate?
Cullen & Hollingum (1987) propose mechanisms for increasing company-wide awareness of
TQM, such as briefing sessions and company newspapers whilst Jackson (2001) stresses the
importance of face-to-face communication despite the time that this requires. Antony et al
(2002) found, in researching TQM in Hong Kong industries, that an open culture is important in
improving communication. George et al (2003) describe a case of EFQM Excellence Model
implementation in a local authority in which briefing sessions were employed for all employees.
These provided an overview of where the service had come from over the last few years and
why and how the EFQM Excellence Model was going to be used to encourage further and
continued improvements in the service. In other words, the communication put the use of the
excellence model into the context of the organisation.
On a specific communications issue, Van der Wiele et al (1996) identified from a survey of
EFQM members that only 32.5 per cent of respondents thought that it was important to
publicise the self-assessment results of all business units together for comparison purposes and
to encourage transfer of best practice. The reasons for this view are not discussed, however this
might be due to concerns about possible negative effects of the comparisons on staff motivation.
It can be seen from the above review that communications can be an important aid in effective
implementation and there is much support for the development and use of a communications
plan. A number of mechanisms for communication have been suggested.
3.3.7 Staff Involvement and Teamwork
Storey (see Holmes & McElwee 1995, p.6) discusses the concept of "soft HRM[Human
Resource Management] ", which accepts the idea of resourceful humans who have something to
offer and can contribute to organisational development and the achievement of excellence.
Poirier & Tokarz (1996) list empowerment/involvement as one of twelve critical TQM factors
and Harvey (1995) explains that a central tenet of TQM is that every employee has an important
80
role to play in improving the quality of the product or process. Poirier & Tokarz (1996, p.137)
state that:
"No improvement process would be successful without dedicated people".
Mersha (1997, p.170) argues that:
"TQM success is unthinkable without the full and active involvement of all employees".
Vrakking (1995) argues that the chances of successful implementation increase if employee
participation is applied correctly and in a controlled manner. Mersha (1997) continues by
highlighting that the failure to empower individuals and teams is one of the factors which results
in failed TQM implementations. Thiagarajan & Zairi (1997) argue that TQM succeeds only
with employees' involvement in the TQM process and their commitment to its goals. Taylor &
Hill (1992) and Jackson (2001) argue that every effort must be made to involve all
organisational members as fully as possible in continuous improvement activities whilst
Thiagaragan et al (2001) recommend maximising internal stakeholders' involvement. Munro-
Faure & Munro-Faure (1992) argue that TQM requires the harnessing of the skills and
enthusiasm of everyone in the business. Antony et al (2002) however found a lack of employee
involvement when researching TQM implementation in Hong Kong industries. They thought
that this could be attributed to managers feeling threatened by the idea of delegating authority
and empowering employees. The research of Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) has shown that the
chosen approach to self-assessment must foster staff participation. Conti (1997) recommends
that self-assessment teams should be the main mechanism for gaining staff involvement.
Taylor & Hill (1992) recommend team working as an important vehicle for promoting
employee involvement. Gobeli (see Bardoel & Sohal 1999, p.269) found that the formation of
teams was fundamental to the implementation strategy of TQM for small companies and
Oakland (1999) argues that the complexity of most processes places them beyond the control of
any one individual and thus the only efficient way to tackle process improvement is through the
use of some form of teamwork. This, he indicates, relies on the premise that people are most
willing to support any effort in which they have taken part or helped to develop. This view is
supported by Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure (1994) who say that individuals must be actively
involved in improvement. Mersha (1997) indicates that co-operation and teamwork are
necessary ingredients for TQM success and Ho & Wearn (1996) recommend establishing
improvement teams to gain staff involvement. The UMIST-TQM implementation framework
(see Chin & Pun 2002, p.278) recommends the establishment of teamwork that is designed to
become part of the organisation's method of working. Chapman (2000) describes the
implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in two cases in which internal improvement
teams were set up with clear support, in terms of resources and priority, from senior
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management. All the companies studied by Krasachol & Tarmock (1999) emphasised the
importance of group activity in their TQM programmes and this is supported by the work of
Van der Wiele et al (1996) who noted from their survey of EFQM members that one of the
learning points from the first round of self-assessments in respondents was that there was a need
to develop teamwork. O'Brien & O'Hanlon (2000) describe a case of EFQM Excellence Model
implementation in which more than a third of the 600+ workforce were involved in
improvement teams within a year of starting. Harvey (1995) acknowledges the emphasis on
teamwork in TQM and raises concerns about this in the academic environment. Harvey (1995,
p.29), commenting on teamwork, states:
"In many respects this is an alien process for many academics who are not only used to workingalone but are valued by their institutions for their individual contribution".
Harvey (1995, p.29) goes on to say that:
"For most academics, individual teaching and scholarship are the norm. Indeed, there is aconflict between teamwork and individual brilliance".
Taylor & Hill (see Owlia & Aspinwall 1997, p.530) state that team working is not common in
higher education, although Owlia & Aspinwall (1997) found, when investigating TQM
implementation in United States universities, that employee involvement and team working
were adopted in 86 per cent of cases. Moeller & Sonntag (2001) identified that dysfunctional
group membership or ineffective group dynamics impeded the success of self-assessments.
It appears that the involvement of staff and the use of teamworking are key issues if
implementation is to be effective. However the above review clearly raises the potential for
teamworking being a barrier to effective EFQM Excellence Model within the University
context. This is in line with the tendency towards individualism in the university academic
context, which was reviewed in section 3.3.2.2 above.
3.4 Momentum
Bardoel & Sohal (1999) emphasise the importance of follow-through if an organisation is
attempting to develop long term commitment to any continuous improvement initiative. The
literature review identified a number of actions which, if carried out effectively by
organisations, could help to ensure that the implementation process maintained its momentum.
These are discussed below.
3.4.1 Improvement Planning, Action and Review
Van der Wiele et al (1996) conclude from their survey of EFQM members that the development
of an improvement plan is seen as a very important step in the self-assessment procedure.
Shergold 8c Reed (1996) and Zink & Schmidt (1998) indicate that establishing prioritised action
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plans is a key element of the self-assessment process whilst Pitt (1999) stresses the critical
importance of integrating self-assessment with action planning and implementation, followed by
effective review. Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) state that a critical phase of self-assessment is
the establishment of an improvement plan that must be presented to senior management, linked
to business planning and then communicated to the whole organisation. Arcelay et al (1999)
describe how improvement actions were included in the business plans in a number of centres in
a Spanish public health service and Chapman (2000) describes two cases of EFQM Excellence
Model implementation in which improvement planning, action and review had great
prominence.
Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) state that improvement actions should be prioritised, since only a
few actions can be driven effectively and the Cabinet Office (2001) recommends making sure
that an organisation acts on improvement opportunities as failure to do so will undermine the
organisation's credibility. In terms of improvement planning, Cullen & Hollingum (1987)
advocate putting into effect some improvement projects, which will show quick and clearly
visible benefits early in the programme in order to build up enthusiasm. This view is supported
by Atkinson (1990) who suggests that some wins should be planned, ensuring that the small
successes are implemented. In the two cases of EFQM Excellence Model implementation
described by Chapman (2000, p.31) 'quick wins' were prioritised to give credibility to the
process and develop an ongoing momentum. This concept is supported by Jackson (2001) who
recommends that some quick successes are secured. Moeller & Sonntag (2001, p.364)
recommend that organisations start with "champion-areas" where people will be able to quickly
see numeric evidence of success and Cullen & Hollingum (1987) emphasise the importance of
reviewing the success of improvement projects to ensure they have achieved their objectives.
It is clear that the process of improvement planning, action and review has the potential to
maintain the momentum of the implementation and thus contribute to effective implementation.
There is much support for generating some 'quick wins' to demonstrate success.
3.4.2 The Pace of Implementation
Vermeulen (1997) indicates that failure of TQM implementation can occur when the
implementation process outpaces acceptance of the change and the understanding of the need
and benefits. Vraklcing (1995) takes the opposite view and argues that the chances of successful
implementation increase if the time between generation of the idea and the implementation is
kept to a minimum. He also calls for irreversible actions that commit the organisation to the
project to be taken immediately after the decision has been made. Vrakking (1995), after
investigating many cases of seized-up implementation processes, continues to argue that if
implementation is slow then it is doomed to fail.
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The pace of implementation needs to be carefully judged if implementation is to be effective. If
it is too fast then this might produce resistance to change and if it is too slow then the
momentum of the implementation process is lost.
To summarise, the issues concerning momentum that have emerged from the literature are,
firstly, it is clear that the process of improvement planning, action and review has the potential
to maintain the momentum of the implementation and thus contribute to effective
implementation. There is much support for generating some 'quick wins' to demonstrate success.
Secondly, that it can be seen that there is broad support that recognition for staff involved in
implementation can have a positive effect on staff motivation and willingness to change, and
this in turn can be an aid to effective implementation. However, there is some concern
expressed about the appropriateness of linking rewards to staff involvement in implementation
and also the issue of internal awards. In both cases, the concern is about the potential to
negatively impact on staff motivation. The other major issue across the area of recognition and
rewards is whether to recognise and reward at the individual or team level. There appears to be
more support for team rewards and recognition rather then this being done on an individual
basis and finally, that the pace of implementation needs to be carefully judged if implementation
is to be effective. If it is too fast then this might produce resistance to change and if it is too
slow then the momentum of the implementation process is lost.
3.5 Integration
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000, p.35), in their evaluation of the UK Public Sector Excellence
Programme, state that:
"Detractors of the Excellence Model are more likely to be found in an organisation where thereis a low level integration of the use of the model in the day-to-day running of the business".
Bauer (2002), in researching the implementation of business excellence, found some support for
the argument that successful implementation was aided by integration. Several issues emerge
from the literature that suggest that implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model is more
likely to be successful if it is integrated into the organisation and its processes in various ways.
These are reviewed below:
3.5.1 Multi-Level use of the EFQM Excellence Model
In the implementation of TQM, Thiagaragan et al (2001) recommend establishing activities in
all the levels of the organisation. The author suggests that this might also be applicable with the
EFQM Excellence Model having the effect of a "tap root", helping to ensure integration into the
organisation.
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3.5.2 The use of the EFQM Excellence Model in Strategic Planning
Chin & Pun (2002) argue that TQM is part of the business planning process and should be
integrated with other strategies. Conti (1997) believes that self-assessment and the subsequent
improvement planning should be integrated into the company planning cycle and particularly
strategic planning as the implementation of specific improvements might need the strategic
allocation of resources. Alternatively, if improvements are not feasible or too expensive, then
the strategic goals of the organisation might need to be reviewed and amended. Wells (2001)
recommends that self-assessment is integrated into the existing strategy framework and
Henderson et al (1999) argue that strategic and operational plans should be formulated for
business improvement. Van der Wiele et al's (1996) survey identified linking the outcomes of
the self-assessment to the business planning process as one of the five most important steps in
the self-assessment process. The respondents learned as a result of the first self-assessment that
there is a need to make self-assessment an integral part of the business planning process. Lewis
(1999) describes how most departments in Southwark Council had difficulty in embedding the
assessment processes into planning and review activity whilst Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure
(1994, p.254) state that:
" Quality Improvement requires careful planning to ensure a long-term strategic focus coupledwith short-term action-oriented performance goals".
Elmuti et al (1996) in their investigation of TQM in United States Higher Education Institutions,
found that one common mistake made was not using strategic issues to drive the
implementation. This is supported by the work of Bardoel & Sohal (1999) who found that one
of the reasons for the failure of TQM was the fact that it had not been integrated into the
strategic planning systems of the organisation. Zink & Voss (1998) argue that the vision of
Business Excellence has to become an integral part of corporate planning in German
universities. Pupius (2002) elaborates on this by arguing that EFQM self-assessment should
form part of an integrated planning process in UK Higher Education Institutions.
It appears that linking EFQM Excellence Model self-assessment with the strategic planning
processes has the potential to help integrate the EFQM Excellence Model into the organisation's
processes and thus aid effective implementation.
3.5.3 The use of the EFQM Excellence Model in Performance Management
This issue was dealt with in detail in section 2.4.3 as one of the potential uses of the EFQM
Excellence Model, however this section concentrates on the issue of performance management
being a potential vehicle for helping integrate EFQM Excellence Model self-assessment into an
organisation. Poirier & Tokarz (1996) list the integration of performance management/appraisal
into the TQM process as one of twelve critical TQM factors. This view is supported by Cullen
& Hollingum (1987) who argue that each functional manager should have quality objectives
85
that are set annually. Oakland (1999) explains that performance review techniques such as self-
assessment are useful in identifying improvement opportunities and motivating performance
improvement whilst Koehler & Pankowslci (1996) describe a case in which quality criteria were
integrated into performance appraisals. Thiagaragan et al (2001) advocate the identification of
critical success factors (CSFs) aligned with company policies and the definition of key
performance indicators (KPIs) for each CSF.
There appears to be little in the literature to support the notion that the linking of performance
management with EFQM Excellence Model usage would be a key issue in improving the
integration of the EFQM Excellence Model into an organisation, thus aiding effective
implementation.
3.5.4 Alignment of the EFQM Excellence Model with other organisational systems
Melan (1998) analysed 11 Baldrige application summaries and identified having a system for
sustaining the intervention as one of the factors for successful implementation. Poirier & Tokarz
(1996) list the alignment of organisational systems as one of twelve critical TQM factors. More
specifically, Oakland (1999) explains that the key is to align the employees of the business with
the core processes of the organisation. Dale et al (1998) emphasise the need to integrate the use
of the EFQM Excellence Model into other management activities and Oakland (2000),
describing the TQM implementation at the University of Bradford Management Centre,
explains that it was seen as essential to fully integrate any TQM initiatives into the Management
Centre's management systems. Pitt (1999) stresses the value of locating the self-assessment
process within business action planning and performance monitoring.
Beecfmer & Hamilton (see Hermel & Ramis-Pujol 2003, p.239) believe that the misalignment
of strategic planning, continuous improvement and the transfer of knowledge could be one of
the main causes of failure when trying to implement excellence models.
Jackson (2001) offers an interesting perspective on integrating total quality management tools
into organisations. She emphasises the positive effect of the tool facilitating activities that are
already in place. As a result people are more comfortable with this situation than they would be
in one in which existing processes were being completely discarded for new ones.
If the EFQM Excellence Model can be aligned with activities which are already taking place
within an organisation then it is more likely to become integrated into the organisation and thus
aid effective implementation. In the UK University context this could be an alignment with, for
example, the present quality assurance arrangements for institutional audit.
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To summarise, the issues concerning integration that have emerged from the literature are,
firstly, that multi-level use of the EFQM Excellence Model in an organisation might have the
effect of a "tap root", helping to ensure integration into the organisation. Secondly, that it
appears that linking EFQM Excellence Model self-assessment with the strategic planning
processes has the potential to help integrate the EFQM Excellence Model into the organisation's
processes and thus aid effective implementation. Thirdly, that there appears to be little in the
literature to support the notion that the linking of performance management with EFQM
Excellence Model usage would be a key issue in improving the integration of the EFQM
Excellence Model into an organisation and, finally, that if the EFQM Excellence Model can be
aligned with activities which are already taking place within an organisation then it is more
likely to become integrated into the organisation and thus aid effective implementation.
3.6 Chapter Summary
From this literature review a number of issues have emerged which could impact on the
effective implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK University academic units. A
clear motive with a clear view on the objectives and benefits to be achieved are seen as
important issues and it is clear that senior management commitment to the implementation
needs to be gained. There is much emphasis on the issue of preparation in which the issues of
resistance to change, culture/context assessment (which includes many sub-issues),
demonstrating senior management commitment, project management (which includes many
sub-issues), education and training, communication, and staff involvement and teamwork
emerged as important in implementation. The final two main issues uncovered were those of
momentum and integration, both of which included a number of sub-issues. Thus the outcomes
of this chapter have contributed (along with the outcomes of chapter 2) to the achievement of
the objective: To ident0) the issues that impact on the implementation of the European
Foundation for Quality Management's (EFQM) Excellence Model in the UK University
academic environment.
These issues along with issues identified in chapter 2, the content, development and uses of the
European Foundation for Quality Management's Excellence Model will be taken forward to
chapter 4 in which the theoretical framework will be developed.
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CHAPTER 4
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
4.0 Chapter Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to take the issues and that emerged from the literature reviews in
chapters two and three, and set them into a theoretical framework. The theoretical framework is
an attempt to express the inter-relationships between these issues so that the overall structure of
an implementation process can be conceptualised.
There were a number of articles which were reviewed in chapters two and three, which offered
advice on the development of TQM implementation models and these are considered in this
chapter in order that this knowledge can be included in the development of the theoretical
framework for this study. Significantly, only a small number of articles offered either advice on
how to construct a framework/model or provided an implementation framework/model for
implementation. Just one of these was specific to implementing the EFQM Excellence Model
(rather than TQM) and this (Hermel & Ramis-Pujol, 2003) simply recommended that a non-
prescriptive framework should be developed without actually developing one. In addition there
are many step-by-step guides for carrying out self-assessments, e.g. 'Hinman (1994), EIQIVI
(2003a), CMPS Civil Service College Directorate (2002), however these do not address the list
of issues revealed in this study and therefore are not adequate in terms of addressing these
issues when striving for effective implementation. This again gave the author confidence of the
need for the development of a guidance framework for implementing the EFQM Excellence
Model in UK University academic units, which would help provide the contribution to
knowledge necessary for a PhD.
The development and structure of this theoretical framework for implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model in UK University academic units will be explained in this chapter. The set of
issues impacting on implementation described in this framework can then be explored in the
case studies using appropriate data collection methods. This will contribute to the achievement
of the objective: To explore and analyse the approaches used in attempted implementation of
the EFQM Excellence Model in a number of UK University case studies in order to discover the
critical issues for effective implementation.
4.1 Issues which emerged from the literature reviews
Each of the two literature review chapters revealed a number of issues, which could impact on
the effective implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK University academic units.
The following two sub-sections will revisit these to ensure they are included in the theoretical
framework.
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4.1.1 Issues from Chapter Two
The main issues that emerged from this chapter of the literature review (the content,
development and uses of the European Foundation for Quality Management's Excellence
Model) were:
• Whether the EFQM Excellence Model has been applied throughout all departments in theuniversities at once or if a phased approach has been designed whereby some departmentshave applied it before others.
• Which self-assessment approach has been chosen by each university and why.• Whether RADAR Logic has been used as part of self-assessment in the universities.• Whether scoring has been used as part of self-assessment in the universities and, if scoring
has been used, if the weightings have been amended and for what purposes the scores havebeen used.
• Whether some of the language or terminology in the EFQM Excellence Model has beenaltered in the universities to fit better with the HE environment.
• To confirm whether the UK universities are using the EFQM Excellence Model in itsexpected primary role of a model for self-assessment.
• To discover if the EFQM Excellence Model is being used for other purposes as described inthe chapter, namely:• Its use as a strategic tool.• Its use as a means of providing a holistic, broader view of the business.• Its use as a tool for performance management.• Its use as a benchmarking tool.• Its use as a means of integrating other quality and management initiatives and tools.• Its use in gaining a quality award.• Its use as a means of motivating staff to get involved in Quality Improvement activities.
4.1.2 Issues from Chapter Three
The main issues that emerged from this chapter of the literature review (issues impacting on the
effective implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK university academic units)
were:
• A clear motive is needed with a clear view on the objectives and benefits to be achieved.• It is clear that senior management commitment to the implementation needs to be gained.• There is much emphasis on the issue of preparation in which the following issues emerged:
• Resistance to change needs to be managed.• Culture/context assessment needs to take place. The specific issues relating to the
University culture/context arising from the literature review were:• Management style.• Individualism.• The critical nature of staff and academic freedom.• Professionalism and the nature of Professional Services.• Co-operation and support.• Recognition and rewards.• The overall "academic culture" of an organisation.• The language and terminology of the EFQM Excellence Model and whether it
should be changed to suit the culture of Universities.• Senior management commitment needs to be demonstrated.• Project management needs to be employed. Many sub-issues of project management
emerged:• Steering Committee.• Project manager.• Project champion.
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• Project consultant.• Project activities plan.• Project progress monitoring.• Project resources allocation.• Project pilot.
• Education and Training is important.• Communication is important.• Staff involvement and teamwork are both necessary.
The final two main issues uncovered were those of:• Momentum, which had two sub-issues:
• Improvement planning, action and review.• The pace of implementation.
• Integration, which had a number of sub-issues:• Multi-level use of the EFQM Excellence Model.• The use of the EFQM Excellence Model in strategic planning.• Alignment of the EFQM Excellence Model with other organisational systems.
4.2 Implementation Model Development literature
There are a number of articles, which offer advice on the development of implementation
models. These are considered here in order that this knowledge can be included in the
development of the theoretical framework for this study.
4.2.1 Phasing and Sequencing
A number of writers recommend that implementation should be planned and carried out in
phases and that these phases should be sequenced. Spector & Beer (1994) take as their starting
point that missed steps in the implementation of TQM will contribute in a lasting and significant
way to the competitive effectiveness of an organisation. Motwani & Kumar (1997) propose a
model for implementing TQM in education, which consists of five phases and Vraldcing (1995)
describes seven sub-phases of a total innovation process. Vraldcing (1995, p.38) states that:
"One essential observation is that it is very important people realize beforehand that they mustgo through various separate phases that are discernible at the starting moment to achieveeffective implementation".
Thiagaragan et al (2001, p.294) describe a framework for TQM implementation which offers:
"...a practical step-wise framework of "most critical first" and "least critical last" in addressingthe KORs [key organisational requirements] ".
So, again, the point is made that activities need to be conducted in steps or phases and there is
an order or sequence to these steps that is of a critical nature. Spector & Beer (1994, p.65)
describe a number of ingredients which must be present in TQM implementation and argue that
there is a necessary sequence to their application:
"The above steps, in other words, are sequential and hierarchical: each ingredient forms abasis for the subsequent step. Organizations which violate the sequence will find their effortsweakened, and will be forced to return to and then address earlier overlooked steps".
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Spector & Beer (1994, p.70) continue:
"The notion of sequencing may seem to be rather simple. But behind the huge failure rate ofTQM interventions lies, in our view, regular violations of the sequence".
Clearly then, taking the right steps (or phases) towards implementation and in the right sequence
is important in the construction of an implementation model.
4.2.2 Alternatives and Selection
Vrakking (1995) draws attention to the issue of considering alternatives and selecting from
these alternatives as a stage to be passed through before starting on implementation. This helps
to provide a focus or convergence for the implementation.
4.2.3 Non-Prescriptive and Flexible Frameworks
Hermel & Ramis-Pujol (2003, p.241) mention "guiding" as an important component of
excellence and that guiding seems to be especially important in implementation efforts. Hermel
& Ramis-Pujol (2003, p.241) argue:
"However, implementation is a somehow forgotten issue in management theory (Bartoli andHermel, 1989). The myths of mechanical implementation are no longer broadly accepted asthey were not long ago (Larsson et al, 2001). There is a new interest on guiding approachesinstead of just applying pre-established recipes" (D'Aveni, 1995).
Chin & Pun (2002) refer to the UMIST-TQM framework and explain that it provides a means of
developing and presenting plans in a non-prescriptive manner. Thiagaragan et al (2001) devised
a framework for implementing TQM in Malaysian industry and the intent of this was not to be
prescriptive whilst Jackson (2001) recommends not having a rigid plan for implementation.
Thiagaragan et al (2001, p.293) continue:
"The quality management literature is clear that models and frameworks cannot take theresponsibility from the management as to "how to go about implementing TQM"".
The purpose of Thiagaragan et al's (2001) study was to construct a TQM implementation
framework that could be used as a guide in the selection and/or formulation of an effective
implementation approach in a particular context. This view is supported by Jackson (2001) who
observes that desired achievements were more likely recognised when organisations carefully
evolved and moulded their own implementation package in a context specific way. Silvestro
(2001, p.286) states that:
"It is envisaged that future models of TQM will consist not so much in a fixed set of precepts,but in a series of strategic and operational choices which service managers can consider inplanning their implementation of TQM".
Hermel & Ramis-Pujol (2003, p.241) state that:
"Implementation is viewed not as a choice between options but instead as the "art of balancing"among those options".
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Taylor & Hill (1992) researched into the implementation of TQM in Higher Education and
concluded that there were a great many factors which moderate the likely success of a TQM
initiative and so, rather than attempting to delineate a set of generic steps, it was more profitable
to look at the mediating influences in the context of the organisation.
Therefore there is a strong argument for a framework that provides guidance for flexible
implementation that fits the context rather than a prescriptive model for implementation.
4.2,4 Model Structure
The CMPS Civil Service College Directorate (2002) offers advice on how to use the EFQM
Excellence Model. This does not go as far as offering a full implementation framework, rather it
guides people through the self-assessment process. However there are some elements of their
advice that are applicable in terms of where certain issues might be contained within a guidance
framework for EFQM Excellence Model implementation. They suggest that the first stage is
Plan and Prepare. This includes the elements of:
• Gaining commitment.• Being clear about the reasons for carrying out an assessment.• Deciding the timing of the assessment.• Defining roles and responsibilities.• Training.• Communicating with the organisation.
Clearly then any issues that can be planned or prepared for need to be included early in the
framework and this is supported by Thiagaragan et al (2001) who propose a three-stage
approach to developing a framework for TQM implementation. The first stage involves "the
pre-TQM introduction stage" and "foundation factors" (Thiagaragan et al 2001, p.294). Again
the proposal is that issues which should be dealt with at the planning stage should be included in
this first stage. Thiagaragan et al (2001) suggest that this first stage should include establishing
a motive, setting up a steering group, improving understanding of what is happening, appointing
a senior management champion, communicating the motives and ensuring the visibility of
senior management's commitment. Motwani & Kumar (1997) offer a five phase model for TQM
in education and the first two phases of deciding and preparing map roughly on to the first stage
of Thiagaragan et al's (2001) approach. The deciding phase includes researching TQM and
gaining top management support. The preparing phase includes setting the vision, assessing the
culture and performing a quality assessment. Vraklcing (1995, p.32) (figure 4.1) presents a
model for "a total innovation process". This is made up of four main phases, which are broken
down into seven sub-phases.
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Phase 1
Generation Research Development
of ideasPhase Phase
•
Phase 2 Dissemination AcceptancePhase Phase
Initiation
Phase 3 ImplementationPhase
Implementation
•Phase 4 Evaluation AdjustmentIncorporation Phase Phase
Figure 4.1: Phases in the innovation process (Vrakking 1995, p.32)
The first four sub-phases of Vrakking's model, the research phase, the development phase, the
dissemination phase and the acceptance phase are very similar to, and cover many of the
activities described in Motwani & Kumar's (1997) first two phases of deciding and preparing.
There is broad agreement then on the early phases of the implementation framework which need
to cover research and decisions, motive and planning and preparing.
Thiagaragan et al's (2001) second stage then refers to the key organisational requirements for
the early stages of TQM implementation, which include communication, training and the setting
up of a reward and recognition programme. Motwani & Kumar (1997, p.134) then have a
similar phase which they refer to as "starting". This includes providing training and forming
teams. Vrakking's (1995, p.32) corresponding phase is labelled simply the "implementation
phase".
Motwani & Kumar (1997, p.134) then move on to the phase of "integrating/expanding" in
which ongoing education is provided and improvements are recognized and rewarded.
Thiagaragan et al's (2001) final stage roughly corresponds with this and includes more
communication and training.
Vraldcing's (1995) final two phases of evaluation and adjustment map closely on to Motwani &
Kumar's (1997, p.134) final phase of "Evaluating", which includes evaluating the programme
and making changes.
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It is clear that none of the models reviewed here would be completely appropriate for providing
a framework for the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK University
academic units, as none of them were designed specifically for this purpose. However, much
has been learned about the general structure that such a framework might have. The issues
identified in chapters two and three and outlined above in 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 will now be mapped
on to a phased model derived from this learning in order to produce a theoretical framework for
this study (figure 4.2).
A number of the issues, marked with an asterisk (*) included in the theoretical framework have
sub-issues within them, which are listed in sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 of this chapter. They have
not been inserted into the theoretical framework so that the framework does not become
unnecessarily complicated.
The issue of whether the EFQM Excellence Model had been applied throughout all departments
in the universities at once or if a phased approach had been designed whereby some departments
had applied it before others which emerged from chapter two, is included within the sub-issue
of project pilot.
4.3 Rationale for the structure of the Theoretical Framework
As recommended in section 4.2.3, the framework provides guidance for flexible implementation
that fits the context of UK Universities rather than a prescriptive model for implementation. The
theoretical framework indicates issues to be taken into account and addressed by UK University
academic units considering implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model. The theoretical
framework does not dictate the specific activities that a unit should carry out to address the
issues. For instance in the literature review, many approaches for communication were
reviewed, however the choice of which method of communication might be best in a particular
unit is best left to the unit which knows which mechanisms are already in place in the
organisation.
In line with section 4.2.1, the theoretical framework has been set into phases, which are in a
logical sequence. First of all a decision phase which centres around the motive for using the
EFQM Excellence Model (from chapter 3). Issues included in this phase are consideration of the
objectives and expected benefits from using the EFQM Excellence Model (from chapter 3), the
consideration of alternative models (chapter 4) and support for the decision to use the EFQM
Excellence Model (from chapter 3), and the intended uses of the EFQM Excellence Model
(chapter 2).
95
Intended of the EFQM Model *usesPace
PreparationPhase
Gaining SeniorManagementCommitment Resistance to Change
•Pace Culture/Context assessment *
Planning
EFQM Model specific choices *
Pace
VMomentum
•
Integration
—I Pace
Alignment withother
organisationalsystems
Actual uses of *the EFQM model,particularly its use
in strategicplanning
Multi-level use inthe organisation
Project Management *
Demonstrating SeniorManagementCommitment
Communication
Education and Training
Improvement Planning,Action and Review
Recognition & Rewards
Staff Involvementand Teamwork Evaluation of Benefits
Phase
Objectives and Expected Benefits
DecisionPhase
MotiveAlternatives considered, support for the decision
Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
Project Management *
Education and Training
CommunicationImplementation andEvaluation Phase
Staff Involvement and Teamwork
Pace
Pace
Pace
Effective Implementation
Figure 4.2: The Theoretical Framework
96
Secondly, there is a preparation phase, which starts with gaining senior management
commitment (chapter 3). This has links back to the motive for using the EFQM Excellence
Model and support for the decision to use it, which are contained within the decision phase of
the theoretical framework. The author decided that the issue of gaining senior management
commitment merited having its own 'box' on the 'main line' of the framework because of the
great emphasis put on this issue by a plethora of authors in the literature review. It appears, from
the literature, to be critical to effective implementation. Within the preparation phase, the other
main issue is that of planning (chapter 3). Any issues which logically can be planned for or
considered in advance have been placed here. Therefore the issues of resistance to change
(chapter 3), culture/context assessment (chapter 3), EFQM Excellence Model specific choices
(chapter 2), how senior management commitment might be demonstrated (chapter 3),
arrangements for project management (chapter 3), arrangements for education and training
(chapter 3), planning for communication about the implementation (chapter 3), and
arrangements for staff involvement and teamwork (chapter 3) are included in this preparation
phase. Within this phase there is an argument for examining resistance to change and carrying
out a culture/context assessment at the first stage of planning as the outcomes from these could
inform other issues within the framework, namely EFQM Excellence Model specific choices,
how senior management commitment might be demonstrated, some elements of how the project
is to be managed, the type of education and training needed, the communications plan, how to
involve staff and use teamwork, and the types of recognition and rewards to be used. Within the
literature review for these issues, there were a considerable number of references to issues of
culture, context and resistance, which could be addressed through these issues.
The positioning and content of these first two phases of the theoretical framework have been
informed by section 4.2.4 of this chapter on model structure. The review of other similar models
revealed that there was broad agreement that the early phases should include research and
decisions, motive, planning and preparing.
The final phase of the theoretical framework is the implementation and evaluation phase. Again
the position of this is informed by section 4.2.4 of this chapter on model structure. Thiagaragan
et al (2001), Motwani & Kumar (1997) and Vrakking (1995) all advocate an implementation
phase in which the outcomes of the preparation phase are put into action. Vrakking (1995) and
Motwani & Kumar (1997) recommend a final phase of evaluation. The author decided however
to integrate implementation and evaluation into a single phase as several issues contained within
this phase had methods for evaluation built into them. These were the evaluation of benefits, the
review element of improvement planning, action and review, and the project progress
monitoring element of project management. This obviated the need for a separate evaluation
phase to the theoretical framework.
97
The final phase of implementation and evaluation is split into two parallel tracks based on the
two main issues of integration and momentum revealed in the literature review (chapter 3). This
splitting into two parallel tracks has been done because the issues included here occur
simultaneously.
The left-hand track deals with the issue of integration, which contains issues that should help to
embed or integrate the EFQM Excellence Model into the organisation. This section includes
multi-level use in the organisation (chapter 3), alignment with other organisational systems
(chapter 3), the actual uses of the EFQM Excellence Model, particularly its use in strategic
planning (chapter 2 and 3), and staff involvement and teamwork (chapter 3).
The second track of the implementation and integration phase is based on the issue of
momentum (chapter 3). This includes the issues of project management (chapter 3),
demonstrating senior management commitment (chapter 3), communication (chapter 3),
education and training (chapter 3), improvement planning, action and review (chapter 3),
recognition and rewards (chapter 3) and the evaluation of benefits (chapter 3). All these issues
have the potential to either aid or hinder the momentum of the implementation.
In the literature review in chapter 3, the issue of the pace of implementation was included in the
section on momentum. Clearly this issue is a pervasive one that needs to be considered in all
phases, not just the implementation and evaluation phase. Therefore pace has been included as
an issue to be considered in all phases. The literature supports the view that if the pace at any
phase is too fast, then it is likely to encourage resistance to the change and if it is too slow then
the momentum could be lost (section 3.4.2, chapter 3).
The theoretical outcome of the framework is effective implementation of the EFQM Excellence
Model.
4.4 Chapter Summary
In this chapter, the issues which emerged from the two literature review chapters have been
considered along with literature on the development of implementation models to construct a
theoretical framework for this study. This theoretical framework will be used to inform the
design of the research tools to be employed in gathering primary data on the attempted
implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK University academic units. This will be
described in detail in the next chapter on research methodology (chapter 5). The construction of
this theoretical framework has contributed to the achievement of the objective: To explore and
analyse the approaches used in attempted implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in a
98
number of UK University case studies in order to discover the critical issues for effective
implementation.
99
CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.0 Chapter Introduction
In this chapter the research methodology for this study will be addressed. The methodology is
the overall approach to the research process (Hussey & Hussey, 1997). This is not to be
confused with the research methods which are the various means by which data can be collected
and analysed (Hussey & Hussey, 1997).
The contents of this chapter will describe what was done, how it was done and, very importantly
why it was done, i.e. for each choice made in methodology and methods, a rationale will be
presented in order to demonstrate the rigour of the research process. Rigour has been defined as:
"The quality of being logically valid" (www.dictionary.co.uk, 2003).
"The following of high standards of behavior, actions, and rules" (Newbury House Online
Dictionary, 2003).
In order to justify the research strategy, methodology and methods chosen, references are made
in the chapter to both research methods texts and academic papers reviewed as part of the
literature review, which explained the writers' own approaches (strategies, methodologies and
methods) to conducting similar, recent studies. Thus, the approaches used in this research will
be informed by both acknowledged experts in research methodology and fellow researchers who
have researched into similar and related topics.
This chapter contains sections on the choice of research strategy, the research design,
preparation for data collection and methods for the analysis of case study data.
5.1 Choice of Research Strategy
The choice of the correct research strategy is clearly fundamental to any piece of research. This
section addresses the reasons why the case study strategy was deemed appropriate for this study.
Yin (1994) argues that there are three main purposes of research; exploratory, descriptive or
explanatory and five main research strategies; experiment, survey, archival analysis, history and
case study. Yin (1994) then goes on to describe three conditions which need to be considered in
order to distinguish the most appropriate research strategy to be employed. These three
conditions are:
(a) The type of research question posed.
(b) The extent of control an investigator has over actual behavioural events.
(c) The degree of focus on contemporary as opposed to historical events.
Yin (1994, p.6) provides a table to aid in selecting the most appropriate research strategy (table
5.1, below):
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Strategy Form of
Research Question
Requires control
over behavioural
events
Focuses on
contemporary
events
Experiment How, Why Yes Yes
Survey
Who, What, Where,
How many, How
much
No Yes
Archival Analysis
Who, What, Where,
How many, How
much
No Yes/No
History How, Why No No
Case Study How, Why No Yes
Table 5.1: Relevant Situations for Different Research Strategies
The three conditions listed above (Yin 1994) will now be discussed with respect to this research
study in order to justify the choice of research strategy:
(a) The type of research question posed.
In order to address this, the aim and objectives of the research, and the research questions posed
in chapter 1 will be revisited.
The aim of this research is to examine how the EFQM Excellence Model implementation
process has been conducted in a number of cases in UK University academic units with a view
to developing a guidance framework for implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in this
particular context. The objectives are:
• To identify the issues that impact on the implementation of the European Foundation forQuality Management's (EFQM) Excellence Model in the UK University academicenvironment.
• To assess the effectiveness of the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in thecase study organisations.
• To explore and analyse the approaches used in attempted implementation of the EFQMExcellence Model in a number of UK University case studies in order to discover thecritical issues for effective implementation.
• To explain why the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model was effective orineffective in a number of cases in UK University academic units by reference to thetheoretical framework.
The primary research question is:
How can the EFQM Excellence Model be effectively implemented in United Kingdom
University academic units?
102
The secondary research questions are:
What are the issues that impact on the implementation of the European Foundation for Quality
Management's (EFQM) Excellence Model in the UK University academic environment?
What are the possible uses of the EFQM Excellence Model?
How was implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model attempted in a number of UK
University case studies?
Why was the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model effective or ineffective in a
number of cases in UK University academic units?
The operational words within the above aim and objectives have been bolded. Thus the research
is about examining, identifying, assessing, exploring, analysing, discovering and explaining.
These verbs point to the research being both exploratory, i.e. identifying, exploring and
discovering, and also explanatory, i.e. examining, assessing, analysing and explaining.
The forms of research question contained in Yin's (1994) table 5.1 are, who, what, where, how,
why, how many and how much. The aim of this research is to examine how the EFQM
Excellence Model implementation process has been conducted in a number of cases in UK
University academic units with a view to developing a guidance framework for implementation
of the EFQM Excellence Model in this particular context. The primary research question is how
can the EFQM Excellence Model be effectively implemented in United Kingdom University
academic units? The secondary research questions ask two what questions, a how and a why
question. The final research objective is to explain why the implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model was effective or ineffective in a number of cases in UK University academic
units. Clearly then this research is predominantly posing how and why questions. According to
Yin (1994), the types of strategy best suited to answering how and why questions are
experiment, history and case study.
(b) The extent of control an investigator has over actual behavioural events.
The author of this thesis (the investigator) had no control over the actual behavioural events that
took place in the universities that were attempting to implement the EFQM Excellence Model
and so the possibility of using an experimental strategy, in which variables or factors can be
controlled, is removed. This leaves a choice between the historical and case study strategies.
103
(c) The degree of focus on contemporary as opposed to historical events.
The focus of this research is on contemporary events rather than historical events. Thus the
historical research strategy is not the most appropriate strategy. Yin (1994, p.8) argues that the
distinctive contribution of the historical strategy is in dealing with the "dead" past, when no
relevant persons are alive to report what occurred and when an investigator must rely on
primary documents, secondary documents, and cultural and physical artifacts as the main
sources of evidence.
Thus the case study strategy is the most appropriate research strategy for this study as a how
question is being asked about a contemporary set of events over which the investigator has no
control. This reasoning is further supported when the issue of context is taken into
consideration. Yin (1994, p.13) states that:
"A case study is an empirical inquiry that• Investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when• The boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.In other words, you would use the case study method because you deliberately wanted to covercontextual conditions - believing that they might be highly pertinent to your phenomenon ofstudy".
Stake (1994) argues that cases are opportunities to study phenomena. This view is supported by
Hussey & Hussey (1997) who describe a case study as an extensive examination of a single
instance of a phenomenon of interest, and argue that the importance of the context in which the
phenomenon is occurring is essential. The theoretical framework for this study, which was
derived from the literature review, includes context/culture as an issue that could be pertinent to
the phenomenon of study (the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model). The context
being UK University academic units.
Thus the case study strategy is appropriate when context could be important, as is the situation
in this study. Bardoel & Sohal (1999) observed that the use of case study based research to
explore TQM issues had been gaining momentum in the few years before their study. They
pointed to two recent studies in which it was found that the case study approach had particular
applicability to the evaluation of TQM projects. These studies showed that this method provided
the contextual detail that is often missing from other methods such as surveys. Leonard &
McAdam (2002a) researched into the role of the EFQM Excellence Model in operational and
strategic decision making and recommend, for this type of study, that a phenomenological
perspective is taken to gain insights into people's perspectives of a phenomenon. Dale (see
Silvestro 2001, p.260) advocated case study based research as the most fruitful for empirical
studies of TQM. Hartley (see Downey-Harris & Harrington 2002, p.72) argues that, because the
context is deliberately part of the design of a case study, there will always be too many variables
104
for the number of observations made. Consequently the application of standard experimental
and survey designs and criteria is not appropriate.
Thus the case study strategy is deemed the most appropriate research strategy for this study.
5.2 Research Design
Research design provides the link between the questions that the study is asking, the data that is
to be collected and the conclusions drawn (Robson, 1994). Yin (1994) has described the
research design as the logical sequence that connects the empirical data to a study's initial
research questions and, ultimately, to its conclusions. In other words, the research design can be
thought of as a blueprint dealing with at least four problems: what questions to study, what data
are relevant, what data to collect, and how to analyse the results. Yin (1994) continues that the
main purpose of the research design is to help avoid the situation in which the evidence does not
address the initial research questions.
The research design for this study is presented as a flow diagram in figure 5.1.
Yin (1994) states that a research design is supposed to represent a logical set of statements and
so the quality of any given design can be judged according to certain logical tests. He goes on to
say that four tests have been commonly used to establish the quality of any empirical social
research and, because case studies are one form of such empirical research, the four tests are
also relevant to case study research. There are a number of case study tactics, which can be
employed to deal with these four tests when doing case studies. Table 5.2 (Yin 1994, p.33)
summarises the four tests, the case study tactics and the phase of the research in which the tactic
occurs.
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Identifysources of
data
• Develop the
Research Protocolincluding the case
study researchdesign
Pilot theStructuredInterview
Modify theStructured
Interview asappropriate
Conduct theInterviews and
collect other casestudy data
Compare and contrastthe findings from thecase studies with the
theoretical frameworkand literature
Analyse andinterpret the Datausing appropriate
techniques
•
Type up theinterviews and
verify theiraccuracy
Construct a guidanceframework for EFQM
Excellence Modelimplementation in UK
University academic units
•
Draw conclusions andrecommendations.Check to ensure the
purpose, aim andobjectives of the
research have beenaddressed
Identify theResearch
need
Decide thePurpose, Aim
andObjectives ofthe Research
.4--
Develop theResearchQuestions
Decide on theScope of the
Research
----pp,
•
•
Identifyappropriatecase studies
to investigate
Conduct theLiteratureReviews
Iden ify asuitableresearchstrategy
Develop theTheoreticalFramework
A- 4--
Develop the DataCollection
Methods andInstruments, andMethods of Data
Analysis
Figure 5.1: The Research Design for this Study
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Tests Case Study Tactic Phase of Research in which
tactic occurs
• use multiple sources ofevidence
• data collection
Construct Validity• establish chain of
evidence• data collection
• have key informantsreview draft case studyreport
• composition
Internal Validity • do pattern-matching • data analysis• do explanation-building • data analysis• do time-series analysis • data analysis
External Validity • use replication logic inmultiple cases
• research design
Reliability • use case study protocol • data collection• develop case study data
base ,• data collection
Table 5.2 Case Study Tactics for Four Design Tests
In order to ensure the above tests could be met, the appropriate tactics were employed in the
appropriate phases of the research. The details of how the tactics were employed are contained
in the relevant sections of this chapter.
Kidder & Judd (see Yin 1994, p.33) define the tests as follows:
Construct validity: establishing correct operational measures for the concepts being studied.
Internal validity: establishing a causal relationship, whereby certain conditions are shown to
lead to other conditions, as distinguished from spurious relationships.
External validity: establishing the domain to which a study's findings can be generalised.
Reliability: demonstrating that the operations of a study - such as the data collection
procedures can be repeated, with the same results.
5.2.1 Case Study Research Design
This section of the chapter deals with issues in case study research design, namely, the
components of case study research design, types of case study design and the selection of cases.
5.2.1.1 Components of Case Study Research Design
Yin (1994) identifies five important components of case study research design:
1. a study's questions,
2. its propositions, if any, or its purpose,
3. its unit(s) of analysis,
4. the logic linking the data to the propositions or purpose, and
5. the criteria for interpreting the findings.
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1. The Study's Questions
The research question for this study was presented in chapter one and led to the selection of the
case study research strategy.
2. Study Propositions or Purpose
According to Yin (1994, p.21):
"...each proposition directs attention to something that should be examined within the scope ofthe study".
In this study the propositions of the study have been presented as issues in the summaries to the
two literature review chapters, chapters two and three. These issues were then incorporated into
the theoretical framework, which was developed in chapter four. This theoretical framework
will be used to design the research tools to be employed in gathering primary data from the case
studies. The overall propositions derived from the literature reviews and theoretical framework
are stated here for ease of reference.
For the EFQM Excellence Model to have been effectively implemented in a UK University
academic unit the following is likely to have occurred:
• A clear motive would have been established at an early stage. This would have included:• Establishing the objectives and expected benefits of using the EFQM Excellence Model.• Alternatives to the EFQM Excellence Model would have been considered in order to
strengthen the support for the decision to use the EFQM Excellence Model.• The intended uses of the EFQM Excellence Model would have been established.
• Senior management commitment would have been gained at an early stage, aided by theestablishment of a clear motive.
• Planning would have occurred before starting to use the EFQM Excellence model. Thisplanning would have included:• An assessment of resistance to change.• An assessment of the culture/context.• Choices specific to the use of the EFQM Excellence Model would have been made.• Plans for how senior management commitment was to be demonstrated would have
been made.• Arrangements for project management would have been put in place.• A plan for education and training would have been devised.• Communications would have been considered, resulting in a plan for communications
about the implementation.• Plans would have been made for how to involve staff and set up teams.
• Integration of the use of the EFQM Excellence model into the organisation would havetaken place via:• Multi-level use of the EFQM Excellence Model in the organisation.• Alignment of the EFQM Excellence Model with other organisational systems.• The use of the EFQM Excellence Model within the organisation in a number of ways
(as intended at the motive phase), particularly in strategic planning.• Staff involvement with the use of the EFQM Excellence Model, particularly in teams.
• Momentum of the implementation would have been maintained through:• Project management, particularly project progress monitoring.• Senior management commitment being demonstrated.• Communication about the implementation taking place.
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• Education and training in how to use the EFQM Excellence Model.• Improvement Planning, Action and Review taking place after EFQM Excellence Model
self-assessment to progress improvements in the organisation.• The use of recognition and rewards that would have been planned as part of the
culture/context assessment.• The benefits of using the EFQM Excellence Model would have been evaluated.
• The actions needed to integrate the EFQM Excellence Model into the organisation and theactions needed to maintain the momentum of the implementation would have occurred inparallel to each other and would have been facilitated by the planning which occurredearlier.
• The pace of the implementation would have occurred at a pace that was fast enough tomaintain the momentum, but not so fast as to promote resistance to the change.
For the EFQM Excellence Model to have been ineffectively implemented in a UK University
academic unit the following is likely to have occurred:
• A clear motive would not have been established at an early stage. Objectives and expectedbenefits would not have been established, alternatives to the EFQM Excellence Modelwould not have been considered to help strengthen the support for the decision to use it andthe intended uses of the EFQM Excellence Model would not have been established.
• Senior management commitment would not have been gained. This could have beeninfluenced by the lack of an established motive.
• Some or all of the elements of planning would not have been carried out:• An assessment of resistance to change would not have been carried out.• An assessment of the culture/context would not have taken place.• Choices specific to the use of the EFQM Excellence Model would not have been made.• There would have been no plans for how to demonstrate senior management
commitment.• Arrangements for project management would not have been put in place.• A plan for education and training would not have been devised.• Communications would not have been considered and therefore there would have been
no plan for communication about the implementation.• There would be no plan for how to involve staff and set up teams.
• The EFQM Excellence Model would not have been integrated into the organisation as oneor more of the following would not have occurred:• The EFQM Excellence Model would not be being used in multi-levels of the
organisation.• The EFQM Excellence Model would not have been aligned with other organisational
systems.• The EFQM Excellence Model would not have been used in a number of ways as
initially intended and, particularly, it would not have been used in strategic planning.• Staff would not have been involved in the use of the model, particularly the staff would
not have worked in teams.• Momentum would have been lost because of one or more of the following:
• Inadequate project management, particularly project progress monitoring and/or ashortage of resources.
• Senior management commitment had not been demonstrated.• Communication about the implementation had not taken place.• Education and training in how to use the EFQM Excellence Model had not occurred.• Improvement planning, action and review had not taken place after self-assessment.• Recognition and rewards had not been used.
• Some of the causes of the loss of momentum could have their roots in the lack of planningin the preparation phase.
• The actions needed to integrate the EFQM Excellence Model into the organisation and theactions needed to maintain momentum would not have occurred in parallel to each other.
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• The pace of the implementation would have been either too slow, resulting in a loss ofmomentum or too fast, resulting in resistance to the change.
3. Unit of Analysis
This is related to defining what the "case" is. In this study the "case" is both an event, the
implementation process in a UK University academic unit and the academic unit (School or
Faculty). This follows from the research question; How can the EFQM Excellence Model be
effectively implemented in United Kingdom University academic units?
Yin (1994) advocates that specific time boundaries are needed to define the beginning and end
of the case. For this study, the beginning of a case is the point in time at which the EFQM
Excellence Model was being considered for use in the UK University academic unit. The end is
the point in time when the three-year HEFCE funded projects finished (May 2003). Yin (1994)
also recommends that who was involved in the event is determined. At the top level the who, the
unit of analysis, was the School or Faculty that was attempting to implement the EFQM
Excellence Model. At the personal level this was determined by discussing the issue with the
project managers in the case study organisations after the interview questions had been
developed. It was clear that, in each case, only a few individuals would have knowledge of the
whole (or substantial parts) of the implementation process to the depth required by the interview
questions. The topic of who will be revisited in more detail later in this chapter when the
selection of interviewees is addressed (section 5.3.3.1.2.3).
4. The Logic linking the Data to the Propositions or Purpose
This will be dealt with in more detail in the later section 5.3.3, Data Collection Methods and
Instruments. The interview questions asked and the documents reviewed, and thus the data
gathered, was linked back to the theoretical framework that was developed in chapter 4. This in
turn was developed from the issues (or propositions) identified in the literature reviews. Hence
this will provide the logic linking the data to the propositions.
5. The Criteria for interpreting the Findings.
In terms of the overall assessment of whether implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model
had been effective in the UK University academic units, as stated in chapter 1, the author will
argue that the EFQM Excellence Model would have been effectively implemented when its use
has been integrated into the regular management practices of the organisation. This is based on
the definition of effectively implemented described in section 1.4. Also if an organisation was
actually using the EFQM Excellence Model in the way that it intended, then it could be argued
that it had been successfully implemented.
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The methods of analysis for the case study data will be described later in section 5.4, however
the theoretical framework developed in chapter 4 will form the main basis for interpreting the
findings from the case studies. This will maintain the link between the propositions and the data
as described in sub-section 4 above.
5.2.1.2 Types of Case Study Design
Yin (1994) indicates that there are four types of case study design:
(a) single-case (holistic) designs,
(b) single-case (embedded) designs,
(c) multiple-case (holistic) designs, and
(d) multiple-case (embedded) designs.
He continues that a primary distinction in designing case studies is between single and multiple
case designs. This means that a decision is needed, prior to any data collection, on whether a
single-case study or multiple-cases are going to be used to address the research questions.
The single-case study is an appropriate design where it represents the critical case in testing a
well-formulated theory, or the case represents and extreme or unique case, or the case is
revelatory (the phenomenon was previously inaccessible to investigation) (Yin, 1994). In terms
of this study, as there were a number of potential cases of the implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model in UK University academic units, which could be investigated that the author
was aware of, then it was not possible that a single case from within these could be claimed to
be critical, extreme or unique. A single case from within them could have been claimed to be
revelatory, as the author was aware that no rigourous research had been carried out into any of
the implementation processes (the focus of the evaluation of the two HEFCE funded projects
was on whether the EFQM Excellence Model provided benefits in HE and therefore if it was
useful in this context). However the author could not guarantee that this would remain the
situation for the length of his research study. If another researcher had carried out a similar
study on one of the cases in the same timeframe as this study, then the claim to it being a
revelatory case would have been lost and hence the justification for conducting a single-case
study would have been flawed. This was a concern to the author who was aware of the need in a
PhD for original work, which contributes to knowledge. Hence a decision was made to conduct
multiple-case studies. In addition to this defensive reason, there were also a number of positive
reasons for using multiple-cases, which will be explained later.
When a single case involves more than one unit of analysis, then this is termed an embedded
case. In this study, there were no embedded cases. Even though two of the cases of
implementation were in University Faculties that consisted of a number of Schools, the author
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was aware through discussions with the project managers, that the implementations were
planned and managed at a Faculty level. Thus the Schools could not be viewed as embedded
cases of implementation. Instead they were holistic cases, which looked at the global nature of
the implementation in the academic units (Yin, 1994).
5.2.1.3 Selection of Cases
So a multiple-case design made up of holistic cases was chosen. According to Herriot &
Firestone (see Yin 1994, p.45), the evidence from multiple cases is often considered more
compelling, and the overall study is therefore regarded as being more robust. Yin (1994, p.45)
argues that every case should serve a specific purpose within the overall scope of inquiry and
this is supported by Schofield (see Brunetto, 2001, p.472) who argues that generalisations about
processes are possible as long as the study uses multi-case sites and each site is specifically
chosen based upon its fit with a typical situation. Yin (1994, p.45) suggests that multiple cases
should be considered as one would consider multiple experiments, following a "replication"
logic. Yin (1994, p.45) states that this is far different from the mistaken analogy, which
incorrectly considered multiple cases to be similar to the multiple respondents in a survey using
a "sampling" logic.
Yin (1994) states that each case in a multiple case study must be carefully selected so that it
either:
(a) predicts similar results (a literal replication), or
(b) produces contrasting results but for predictable reasons (a theoretical replication).
Yin (1994) recommends a mixture of literal and theoretical replications, which, if all the cases
turned out as predicted, would provide compelling support for the initial set of propositions.
Yin (1994) again stresses the importance of the theoretical framework, which needs to state the
conditions under which a particular phenomenon is likely to be found (a literal replication) as
well as the conditions when it is not likely to be found (a theoretical replication). For this study,
the theoretical framework which was developed in chapter 4, indicated the issues (the
conditions) thought likely to be necessary for the phenomenon (effective implementation) to be
found, and the conditions (issues) when the phenomenon is not likely to be found (i.e.
ineffective implementation). These have been stated earlier in section 5.2.2.1 as a series of
propositions. The theoretical framework becomes the vehicle for generalising to new cases and,
if some of the cases do not work as predicted, modification must be made to the theory. Hussey
& Hussey (1997) support the views of Yin (1994) and state that similar cases will help to show
if the theory can be generalised and dissimilar cases will help to extend or modify any theory.
Yin (1994) stresses the need to distinguish the replication logic applied to experiments or case
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studies, as is described above, and the sampling logic, which is commonly used in surveys.
Surveys tend to be used to determine the frequency of a particular phenomenon. In sampling
logic, the number of potential respondents is determined and then a statistical procedure is used
to select a specific subset of respondents to be surveyed (the sample). The resulting data from
the sample are assumed to reflect the entire pool of respondents. Yin (1994) then argues that any
application of this sampling logic to case studies would be misplaced for three reasons:
• Case studies should not generally be used to determine the incidence of phenomena.• A case study would have to cover both the phenomenon of interest and its context, yielding
a large number of potentially relevant variables. This in turn would require an impossiblylarge number of cases, which would be too large to allow any statistical consideration of therelevant variables. The sampling logic would not allow the variables to be investigated insufficient depth to answer the research question.
• If a sampling logic had to be applied to all types of research, many important topics couldnot be empirically investigated. These are situations in which there are a large number ofrelevant variables impacting on a phenomenon and there are few cases of the phenomenonin existence, which is the situation with this research study. This type of study could not bedone with sampling logic, but is eminently feasible using replication logic.
Thus, in terms of the number of cases deemed sufficient for a study, the typical criteria
regarding sample size are irrelevant because sampling logic should not be used. Instead, the
decision is about the number of literal and theoretical replications to include in the study (Yin,
1994). Hussey & Hussey (1997) agree with this logic and state that it is not usually necessary to
find a representative case or set of cases because statistical generalisations are not being
attempted to generalise from a sample to a larger population. However, they continue, the
researcher may be attempting theoretical generalisations where it is proposed that the theory
applied in one set of circumstances can be generalised to another. According to Yin (1994) the
selection of the number of replications depends on the certainty required in the multiple case
results. The greater certainty lies with the larger number of cases. For the number of theoretical
replications, the important consideration is the complexity of the realm of external validity (the
domain to which a study's findings can be generalised). When a researcher is uncertain whether
external conditions will produce different case study results, then a larger number of theoretical
replications should be identified. The author noted, however, that Yin often describes his
experience in large-scale social investigations in which a team of researchers is available to
conduct the research. This is clearly not feasible for an individual PhD student. Cresswell
(1998) however warns that the more cases an individual studies, the greater the lack of depth in
any single case and typically a researcher would choose no more than four cases. Downey-
Harris & Harrington (2002) describe how the selection of cases was an important concern in
their research into quality approaches in Irish healthcare and considerable time was expended in
identifying appropriate cases. Stake (1994) states that understanding the critical phenomena may
depend on choosing the case well and argues that nothing is more important than making a
proper selection of cases. Thus a balance needs to be achieved between the certainty needed for
generalisation and the depth of investigation into each case. Care must be taken in the selection
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of appropriate cases. The next paragraph demonstrates the care taken by the author in the
selection of cases.
The scope of this research was outlined in section 1.5 and detailed in the above section on units
of analysis. To summarise, the cases were to be UK University academic units who were part of
the two consortia funded by HEFCE to evaluate the use of the EFQM Excellence Model. In
order to get an initial assessment of the number and type of potential cases, the author spoke to
the project directors for each of the two consortia in January 2003. These discussions revealed
that, across the two consortia, there were only five cases of implementation in university
academic units. There were two HE colleges and one FE/HE college, which were implementing
the EFQM Excellence Model, and across the consortia there were numerous cases of it being
implemented in administrative support areas. Having identified the number of potential cases
that fell within the scope of this research project, the author proceeded to enquire about the
degree of success in implementation in each of these cases, in the view of the project directors.
In their views, two of the implementations had made good progress, whilst three were
struggling to make progress. To confirm this view, the author then spoke with the five project
managers for the relevant cases. The project managers confirmed the views of the project
directors on the degree of success in implementation. The author also made enquiries with the
five project managers as to the number of staff in each academic unit who might be able to
provide an insight into either the whole of the implementation process or significant portions of
it. The responses indicated that very few staff in each of the cases would be in a position to
provide the necessary insight. In all of the five cases, it was revealed that only a handful of staff
had been involved with significant portions of the implementation process. In one case, the high
number of changes in the management group responsible for the implementation meant that
only four staff were in a position to offer this insight. This information was taken into
consideration when the detail of the data collection methods and instruments was decided.
The author was aware that the data collection methods and instruments would have to be piloted
before full-scale use and so one case would need to be used for this purpose. The details of this
pilot are described in section 5.3.3 on data collection methods and instruments. The author
made the decision to pilot the data collection methods and instruments in one of the cases in
which progress with the implementation was proving to be difficult. This was for two reasons,
firstly, that a case which was perceived to be struggling to make progress would be likely to
have encountered a number of problems in implementation and thus this would offer a check on
the issues in the data collection instrument which were derived from the literature, i.e. this
would provide a substantive check on the content of the interview questions in addition to
covering methodological issues in the protocols and interview questions (Yin, 1994). Secondly,
that this would leave two cases perceived to be successful in implementation and two cases
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viewed to be struggling with implementation, to be investigated in depth. This would provide
two literal replications (the two 'successful' cases) and two theoretical replications (the two
'unsuccessful' cases) according to Yin's (1994) classification, which was explained earlier in this
chapter.
The issue of anonymity was raised by two of the project managers when the author was
negotiating access to the potential case study organisations. They indicated that they were
prepared to provide access to the author on the condition that the cases were anonymised. This
was because of the potentially sensitive nature of the topic of the research, i.e. the effectiveness
of the implementation. It was agreed therefore that all the cases would be anonymised so that a
third party reading the case would not be able to identify the organisation involved. However
the cases could not be anonymised at the level of the individual, as the position of the
interviewee in the organisation and thus their perspective on the implementation would provide
important insights into the issues. Thus the interviewees would be able to be identified by staff
from within the case through their identified roles.
5.2.2 Theory Development
Yin (1994) stresses that, for case studies, theory development as part of the design phase is
essential. The reason for this is to provide guidance in determining what data to collect and the
strategies for analysing the data. In this study, the theoretical framework presented in chapter 4
was informed by a comprehensive review of the relevant literature (chapters 2 and 3) and this
theoretical framework will be the main vehicle for generalising the results of the case studies.
According to Yin (1994), the appropriately developed theory is the level at which the
generalisation of the case study results will occur. Yin (1994, p.30) refers to this as "analytic
generalization". The previously developed theory is used as a template with which to compare
the empirical results of the case study. As this impacts on the analysis of data, the issue of the
generalisability of case study findings will be dealt with in more detail in section 5.4, methods
for the analysis of case study data.
5.3 Preparation for Data Collection
Before data collection could be begin in the identified cases, significant preparation was
required in order to ensure that the issues of validity and reliability discussed earlier in this
chapter were properly addressed. Yin (1994) advises that the preparation for doing a case study
includes the development of a case study protocol, an assessment of the prior skills of the
investigator, the training and preparation for the specific case study and the piloting of the
protocols and data collection instruments.
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5.3.1 Protocol Development
A case study protocol is more than an instrument. The protocol contains the instrument but also
contains the procedures and general rules that should be followed in using the instrument. A
case study protocol is essential when using a multiple-case design, as the protocol is a major
tactic in increasing the reliability of case study research (Yin, 1994). According to Yin (1994),
the protocol should have the following sections:
• An overview of the case study project, including the research question(s). As there was onlya single investigator in this study (the author), it was not necessary to go into the greaterdetail that Yin (1994) suggests is needed in this section to brief multiple investigators.
• Field procedures. These include:• Gaining access to organisations, interviewees and documents as sources of information.• A schedule of activities, e.g. interviews, document retrieval.• Agreement on the recording of interviews.• The information provided to the interviewees prior to the interviews.• The resources needed to collect the data.• Procedures for recording, transcription and verification of interviews.• Procedures for document filing and storage.
• Case study questions.• The specific questions to bear in mind when collecting data in the field to keep the
investigator on track as data collection proceeds.• A list of probable sources of evidence for each question
• Guide for the case study report:• The format.• Consideration of the intended audience for the report.• Consideration of which documents to include in the report and which to place in the
case study database.
The guide for the case study report helps to ensure that relevant data is collected and reduces the
possibility of having to visit the case study site for further data.
The protocols for this study took the form of the notes for the project managers and
interviewees in the case study organisations (appendix 3 and appendix 4), which detailed the
data gathering procedures to be employed
5.3.2 Principles of Evidence and Data Collection
Yin (1994) describes six major sources of evidence; documents, archival records, interviews,
direct observation, participant-observation and physical artifacts. Each of these sources has
strengths and weaknesses as indicated in Table 5.3 below. It can be seen that no single source
has a complete advantage over all the others. Instead it can be seen that the sources are
complementary. Therefore a combination of sources strengthens the data collection by the
strengths of one source canceling out the weaknesses of another source and vice versa. This will
be dealt with in more detail in section 5.3.2.5 on multiple sources of evidence.
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Of the six possible sources the ones that were possible in this study were documentation,
archival records, interviews and participant observation (partially in one of the four cases).
Direct observation was not possible. To have observed four cases over 3 years was clearly not
feasible (and the study was retrospective), neither was it feasible to observe any discrete
elements of the implementations as they had already occurred (except in the case where the
author was partly a participant observer. This will be explained more thoroughly later in this
chapter). The implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK University academic units
is not a process that yields physical artifacts and so this was not an appropriate source of
evidence in this study.
Source ofEvidence
Strengths Weaknesses
Documentation • Stable - can be reviewed • retrievability - can be lowrepeatedly • biased selectivity, if collection is
• Unobtrusive - not created as a incompleteresult of the case study • reporting bias - reflects
• Exact - contains exact names,references, and details of anevent
•(unknown) bias of authoraccess - may be deliberatelyblocked
• Broad coverage - long span oftime, many events, and manysettings
Archival Records • [same as above fordocumentation]
• [same as above fordocumentation]
• precise and quantitative • accessibility due to privacyreasons
Interviews • targeted - focuses directly oncase study topic
• bias due to poorly constructedquestions
• insightful - provides • response biasperceived causal inferences • inaccuracies due to poor recall
• reflexivity - interviewee giveswhat interviewer wants to hear
Direct • reality - covers events in real • time consumingObservations time • selectivity - unless broad
• contextual - covers context of coverageevent • reflexivity - event may proceed
differently because it is beingobserved
• cost - hours needed by humanobservers
Participant • [same as above for direct • [same as above for directObservation observations] observations]
• insightful into interpersonalbehaviour and motives
• bias due to investigator'smanipulation of events
Physical Artifacts • insightful into cultural • selectivityfeatures • availability
• insightful into technicaloperations
Table 5.3: Six Sources of Evidence: Strengths and Weaknesses (Yin, 1994, p.80)
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5.3.2.1 Documentation
Yin (1994) suggests that a variety of documents might be available to the case study
investigator, such as:
• Letters, memoranda, and other communiques.• Agendas, announcements and minutes of meetings, and other written reports of events.• Administrative documents - proposals, progress reports, and other internal documents.• Formal studies or evaluations of the same "site" under study.• Newspaper clippings and other articles appearing in the mass media.
Savolainen (1999) accessed multiple written documents in his case studies, which investigated
continuous improvement. Krasachol & Tannock (1999) also employed document reviews in
their study of TQM implementation in Thailand. Silvestro (2001) reviewed a variety of
documents in his research into TQM implementation.
Specifically, the sort of documents that the author thought might have been available in this
study were:
• Letters, memoranda.• Agendas and minutes of meetings.• Reports.• Project plans, progress reports.• Strategic or business plans.• Evaluation reports for the HEFCE funded projects.• Newsletters.• Presentations.• Self-assessment reports.• Improvement planning, action and review documents.
The author wrote to the project manager in each of the four cases prior to the site visit (see
appendix 3) and indicated the types of document that he would like to access. Each of the
project managers was happy for the author to search through their project files for the EFQM
Excellence Model implementation and to copy and take away any documents that the author
thought were relevant to the investigation.
The most important use of documents in case studies is to corroborate and augment evidence
from other sources (Yin, 1994). Silvestro (2001) used case study documents to corroborate the
interviews in his case studies of TQM implementation.
5.3.2.2 Archival Records
The archival records deemed relevant to this study were organisational charts (to provide part of
the background to the case study organisation) and the personal diaries of the interviewees (to
confirm important dates and events in the implementation process). The wish to access personal
diaries was communicated to both the project managers via appendix 3 and the individual
interviewees via appendix 4.
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5.3.2.3 Interviews
Yin (1994) states that interviews are one of the most important sources of information in case
studies. He continues that interviews are an essential source of case study evidence because
most case studies are about human affairs and these human affairs should be reported and
interpreted through the eyes of specific interviewees who can provide important insights into a
situation. With these points in mind, the author paid particular attention to the design and
conduct of the interviews in this study. Gosse (see Bardoel & Sohal 1999, p.265) advises that an
interview guide helps to focus the investigation and ensures that a consistent inquiry procedure
is followed. Yin (1994) indicates that interviews can gather the facts of a matter, the
interviewees' opinions about events and her/his insights into certain occurrences.
The author decided to design and conduct interviews with a high degree of structure. This was
deemed necessary to ensure that all the major propositions of the study were covered in the
interviews. In addition the interview was structured so as to provide ease of data analysis as
described in section 5.4 below. The details of the design and conduct of the interviews is
detailed later in this chapter in section 5.3.3, data collection methods and instruments.
5.3.2.4 Participant Observation
A participant observer may assume a variety of roles within a case study situation and may
actually take part in the events being studied. The role provides the opportunity to perceive
reality from the viewpoint of someone inside the case study rather than external to it (Yin,
1994). In this study the author did not deliberately choose participant observation as a source of
evidence, he is simply reporting the situation that he was in relative to one of the cases. From
1999 to 2002 he was partly involved in one of the cases (case 'B') as a Head of School and
therefore could be seen as a participant observer. The author has reported this here in order that
concerns about potential bias associated with participant observation can be addressed. Any
observations made by the author whilst in this role will be included in the analysis of data for
that case in the next chapter, however these observations will only be used to corroborate
evidence from the other sources (interviews, documentation and archival records). This is
especially important, as the participant observer role could not be used as a source of evidence
in the other three cases. The author was also able to use his diaries to check key dates in the
implementation process in this case.
According to Yin (1994) the benefits from these sources of evidence can be maximised if three
principles are followed which can help to deal with the construct validity and reliability of the
cases. These three principles are, using multiple sources of evidence, creating a case study
database and maintaining a chain of evidence.
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ParticipantObservation
(one case only)Structured
Interview 4
ArchivalRecords
StructuredInterview 1
Documents
FACT StructuredInterview 2
StructuredInterview 3
5.3.2.5 Multiple Sources of Evidence
The rationale for using multiple sources of evidence in a case study is known as triangulation.
Multiple sources of evidence help in developing converging lines of inquiry following a
corroboratory model. The problem of construct validity is addressed because the multiple
sources of evidence provide multiple measures of the same phenomenon (Yin, 1994). Flick (see
Stake 1994, p.241) states that triangulation serves to clarify meaning by identifying different
ways the phenomenon is being seen. Hussey & Hussey (1997) agree with this view and
recommend that it is best to combine data collection methods. Denzin (see Hussey & Hussey
1997, p.74) defines triangulation as:
"The combination of methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon".
Figure 5.2 describes the effect of this triangulation of data sources using the data sources
accessed in this study.
Figure 5.2: Convergence of Multiple Sources of Evidence (adapted from Yin 1994, p.93)
5.3.2.6 Case Study Database
This is a way of organising and documenting the data collected in a case study. In principle,
other investigators can review the evidence directly. This increases the reliability of the case
study (Yin, 1994). The existence of an adequate database does not preclude the need to present
sufficient evidence in the case study report. Every report should contain enough data so that the
reader of the report can draw independent conclusions about the case study (Yin, 1994). The
case study database for each of the cases in this study will contain the following:
• The typed records of the structured interviews.• Audio tapes of the interviews.• Documents retrieved from the cases.• Information on the background to the case study organisations.
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The case study analysis matrix cites the original sources ofevidence from the case study database
•
The case study database reveals the original sources ofevidence and the circumstances under which it was collected
•
The circumstances under which the evidence was collectedare consistent with the specific procedures and questions
contained in the case study protocol. This shows that the datacollection followed the procedures stipulated in the protocol
•
•The content of the protocol links to the initial research
question and the aim and objectives of the research via thetheoretical framework and theoretical propositions
5.3.2.7 Chain of Evidence
Maintaining a chain of evidence helps to increase the reliability of the information in a case
study. The principle is to allow an external observer to follow the derivation of any evidence
from initial research questions to ultimate case study conclusions and vice versa. No original
evidence should be lost through carelessness or bias. If this is achieved then a case study will
have addressed the methodological problem of construct validity (Yin, 1994). The chain of
evidence constructed for each case within this study is shown in figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: The chain of evidence for each case within this study
5.3.3 Data Collection Methods and Instruments
This section provides the detail of the design of the data collection methods and instruments and
the detail of the conduct of the data collection within the case studies.
5.3.3.1 Design of the Data Collection Methods and Instruments
As the design of the collection of relevant documentation in the case studies was described in
detail in section 5.3.2.1 earlier in this chapter, the following sections will only describe the
document used to collect background information on the case study organisations and the design
of the main data collection instrument used in this study, the structured interview.
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5.3.3.1.1 Case Study Background Information
The author decided to collect background information from the case study organisations in order
to provide some context for the phenomenon under study, the implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model. This follows the advice of Yin (1994). The document used to collect this
data can be seen at appendix 6. The document was designed to gather information at both the
University level and the academic unit (case study) level on size, history, academic structure,
governance, academic management and the relative split of activities between teaching, research
and academic enterprise or reach out activities. The author used his knowledge of Universities
gathered from 11 years experience in the sector, including 4 years as a Head of School, in
deciding on the areas in which to gather background information. This document was reviewed
by both the author's PhD supervisor and Professor Philip Sullivan of De Montfort University to
ensure that all significant background areas were included.
Professor Sullivan was of the opinion that some of the background information being requested
might not be easy to access. The author noted this concern but decided to attempt to get as much
background information as possible in order to produce a rich context for the cases.
5.3.3.1.2 Interview Design
The author considered the following questions when designing the structured interview. Firstly,
what to ask the interviewees (i.e. the questions, the content of the interview). Secondly, how to
conduct the interviews (the procedure). Thirdly, who the interviewees should be (this selection
took place once the content of the interview had been determined so that appropriate
interviewees could be interviewed who would have sufficient knowledge to answer the
questions) and finally, when and where to conduct the interviews.
5.3.3.1.2.1 Content of the Interview
The structured interview (appendix 5) was developed from the theoretical framework (chapter
4) and the theoretical propositions outlined earlier in this chapter. This ensured that all relevant
issues were covered. Appendix 15 demonstrates the links between the interview questions and
the elements of the theoretical framework:
Within the structured interview the author decided to gather the views of the interviewees on
some of the issues using Likert scales in order that the magnitude of the views could be assessed
and so that comparisons could be made between the views of different interviewees. A seven-
point scale as recommended by Hussey & Hussey (1997) was selected in order to be able to
differentiate adequately between the views of the interviewees. Short scales are too crude to
provide differentiation whilst scales that are too long give a false sense of precision.
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The last section of the interview called on the interviewee to assess the level of EFQM
implementation in their organisation. This was left to the end as the author thought that the
accuracy of the responses would be increased by the interviewee having just been taken through
the elements of the implementation in the rest of the interview. Rather than developing a new
tool for assessing the level of EFQM implementation the author decided to use the description
of levels used by PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) in their research, which evaluated the Public
Sector Excellence Programme. This tool had already been used to assess the level of
implementation in over 800 public service organisations and consisted of three levels, entry
level, maturing level and advanced level (see Table 5.4). The author decided to ask the
interviewees to estimate their level of EFQM implementation in half levels in order to make
comparisons between the different interviewees' views in each case more accurate.
The document used to gather the background to the case study organisation, the structured
interview and the protocols (the notes to the project managers and interviewees on the research
process and procedures) were piloted with Professor Philip Sullivan who was the Project
Director for one of the HEFCE funded projects and also the Project Manager for one of the
potential case studies (the one that the author decided to use for piloting purposes as described
earlier in the chapter). This was done to provide a substantive check on the content of the
interview questions (as Professor Sullivan has much experience in the implementation of the
EFQM Excellence Model in Higher Education) in addition to covering methodological issues in
the protocols and interview questions (Yin, 1994). This pre-test approach had been used by
Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) when researching self-assessment practices in large organisations
and their data collection instrument was pre-tested on persons with great experience of self-
assessment. The outcome of this pilot was that one substantive element was added to the
structured interview (the culture of support in section 3.3.3.7 in the structured interview) and
some very minor changes to the wording of some questions were made to aid clarity.
Overall, the feedback from Professor Sullivan gave the author confidence that both the
substance of the data gathering instruments and the methodology to be employed in data
gathering were well-designed as the suggested amendments were minimal.
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Level Distinguishing features (examples)Entry Level •
•••
Some knowledge of the concepts of excellence and performanceimprovement.Limited awareness of the Excellence Model.Membership of a regional or national quality foundation.Some involvement with local and sector networks.
• Limited deployment of quality tools within the organisation.• Survey or matrix-based self-assessments have been carried out.
Maturing Level • Dedicated budgets for the Excellence Model are committed and anumber of staff have been trained externally as assessors.
• An evidence-based self-assessment has been conducted and a cycleof self-assessment is emerging.
• The Excellence Model is partially deployed across the organisationand is partially integrated with planning and improvement processes.
• Early examples of organisational improvement are emerging and theorganisation is entering or winning regional awards.
Advanced Level • Senior Managers demonstrate clear leadership and support for theprinciples of excellence.
• A culture of self-assessment and continuous improvement isestablished.
• The organisation has achieved recognition and awards for excellence,nationally and at, or close to, European level.
• The Excellence Model is fully deployed and the organisation hasintegrated it into its planning and improvement processes.
Table 5.4: Definitions of different levels of usage of the Excellence Model(PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2000, p.31).
5.3.3.1.2.2 Interview Procedure
The author decided to record the interviews, with the interviewee's permission, using a tape
recorder. All the interviewees gave their permission for the interview to be tape-recorded. The
author made detailed notes during each interview and used the tape recordings to check the
accuracy of the transcribed interview notes. It was not necessary to produce word-for-word
transcriptions of the interviews as the data analysis techniques selected (see later) did not
require this. The author was not looking to find the frequency of occurrence of set words or
phrases in the interviews as would be the situation in content analysis. The tape recordings
meant that the original source data could be returned to at any stage in the process of data
analysis (Silvestro, 2001). The typed record of each interview was sent to the interviewee to
verify that it was an accurate record of the interview. This type of approach was used by
Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) in case study interviews as part of their research, which examined
self-assessment practices in large organisations. The author then made any appropriate
amendments and asked the interviewee to verify the accuracy of the amended interview record.
As it turned out, the majority of the interviewees verified the initial interview records. The
amendments suggested by the others were of a very minor nature. This gave the author
confidence in the accuracy of the interview process and increased the reliability of the research
process.
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5.3.3.1.2.3 Choice of Interviewees for the Interviews
It was indicated earlier in the chapter that the discussions that the author had with the project
managers in each of the case study organisations had revealed that there was only a handful of
people in each case study organisation who would have sufficient knowledge of the
implementation process to be able to provide an insight into either the whole of the
implementation process or significant portions of it. This was because only a handful of staff
had been involved with significant portions of the implementation process in each of the cases.
In one of the four cases, the high number of changes in the management group responsible for
the implementation meant that only four staff were available to offer this insight.
As the interviews were to be very detailed (the interview document stretched to 18 gapped
pages and the interview was estimated to take 2 hours) and supporting documents were to be
accessed, the author was confident that this practical limitation would not significantly affect the
quality of the data collected as there would be sufficient sources of evidence for triangulation
purposes (see figure 5.2). To have interviewed staff with little knowledge of the implementation
process would not have added value to the research and might have risked encountering the
problem of reflexivity (Yin, 1994) in which interviewees "invent" answers to please the
interviewer.
It was decided therefore to conduct four in-depth interviews in each case study organisation. It
was not possible to interview direct equivalents in each organisation because of differences in
the organisational structures (this problem was also encountered by Silvestro, 2001), differences
in the ways that the organisations had approached the implementation and movements of staff
over the 3 years of the HEFCE funded projects. However, in order to get a variety of
perspectives on the implementation, the author discussed the issue of possible interviewees with
each of the four project managers. Clearly the project manager in each of the cases would need
to be one of the interviewees as they were well placed to have a good insight into the
implementation process. In all four cases, the majority of staff involved in the implementation
process were members of the academic management of the academic unit. In three of the four
cases a senior member of administrative staff had been involved in the implementation process.
The author decided that their views might offer a slightly different perspective to that of the
academic members of staff involved and so interviews were requested with these individuals.
The remainder of the interviewees came from the academic staff of the academic unit. Table 5.5
describes the positions of the four interviewees in each of the four cases.
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Interviewee Case A Case B Case C Case D
1 Project Manager,Lecturer
Project Manager,Lecturer
Project Manager.Professor, Directorof the academicunit for the first 2of the 3 years of theproject, thenresearch institutedirector.
Project Manager,senior member ofacademic staffwithin one of thesub-units of theacademic unit.
2 SeniorAdministrator,member of thesenior managementteam of theacademic unit,member of animprovementgroup, member ofthe project board.
SeniorAdministrator,member of thesenior managementteam of theacademic unit.
Senior member ofacademic staff,deputy director ofthe academic unit,
SeniorAdministrator,member of thesenior managementteam of theacademic unit.
3 Professor, a Headof Department,member of thesenior managementteam of theacademic unit,member of animprovementgroup.
Professor, Dean ofthe academic unitfor the last 2 yearsof the project,member of thesenior managementteam of theacademic unit priorto that,
Senior member ofthe academic staff,director of theacademic unit forthe last year of the3-year project,member of thediagonal slice,member of animprovementgroup.
Dean of theacademic unit.
•
4 Lecturer, memberof an improvementgroup.
Professor, memberof the seniormanagement teamof the academicunit,
Professor, memberof the seniormanagement teamof the academicunit, member of animprovement team.
Head of one of thesub-units within theacademic unit,member of thesenior managementteam of theacademic unit.
Table 5.5: The positions of the interviewees in the case study organisations
It can be seen that, because of the different roles played by the interviewees, multiple
perspectives were made available to the author. Some of the interviewees played multiple roles
within the case and therefore were rich sources of information.
5.3.3.1.2.4 Time and Location of the Interviews
The interview times were arranged to be convenient to the interviewees. The interviews took
place between 19 June 2003 and 28 July 2003, i.e. just after the HEFCE funded projects had
officially ended (May 2003). This allowed the interviewees to reflect on the whole time period
of the implementation.
All the interviews were conducted on site at the case study organisations, which allowed the
author the opportunity to access appropriate documents as planned.
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5.3.3.2 Conduct of the Data Collection within the Case Studies
The case study background document (appendix 6) and the memo to project managers
(appendix 3) were sent to the project managers several weeks before the visits in order that the
project managers were aware of the data collection procedures. The author asked if the
background information could be gathered before his visit so that he could take this away with
him. As it turned out, because of work pressures in the case study organisations, this wasn't
possible and the information was posted on at a later date.
Each interviewee received a copy of the notes for interviewees (appendix 4) several weeks
before the interview in order that they were informed of the research protocol. The interviews
went ahead as scheduled and went smoothly with very little need for the author to further
explain the interview questions. The author used his discretion to probe the interviewees'
responses and further pursue lines of enquiry as appropriate. The interviews took between one
hour and ten minutes and two hours each to complete. The author was allowed access to the
project files of each of the project managers in order to copy supporting documents for each
case.
Overall, the data collection phase ran smoothly, which warranted the time spent by the author in
designing the instruments and organising the site visits.
5.3.4 Skills
"With regard to prior skills, many people incorrectly believe they are sufficiently skilled to docase studies because they think the method is easy to use. In fact, case study research is amongthe hardest types of research to do" (Yin 1994, p.54).
Yin (1994) argues that the skills required for collecting case study data are much more
demanding than those for experiments and surveys because of the continuous interaction
between the theoretical issues being studied and the data being collected. During data collection,
only a more experienced investigator will be able to take advantage of unexpected opportunities,
rather than being trapped by them, and also to exercise sufficient care against potentially biased
procedures. Yin (1994) provides a basic list of commonly required skills for conducting case
studies:
• Be able to ask good questions and interpret the answers.• Be a good listener. Be sensitive to terminology and capture the mood and context. Capture
between the lines information.• Be adaptive and flexible to opportunities whilst maintaining the rigour of the research
design.• Have a firm grasp of the issues being studied, to focus the relevant events and information
to be sought to manageable proportions.• Be unbiased by preconceived notions by being sensitive and responsive to contradictory
evidence. Any bias can be reduced by using multiple sources of evidence.
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Many of the above skills had already been acquired by the author through previous training and
experience:
• The author is a British Standards Institute trained quality systems lead assessor and hasextensive experience of quality audits as both an auditor and an auditee. Quality Systemsauditing involves all of the above skills.
• The author is a trained EFQM Excellence Model assessor, has conducted self-assessmentsand has advised organisations carrying out self-assessments.
• The author has been trained to chair recruitment panels at his University and has extensiveexperience in chairing and being a panel member on recruitment panels in academe andindustry. The training for chairing interview panels involved the use of techniques toremove bias from the process.
• Between 1996 and 2003 the author conducted over 300 undergraduate dissertation vivavoces.
The last three elements above particularly developed the author's skills in asking questions,
listening and interpretation of the answers.
5.3.5 Training
As this study was to be conducted by a single investigator (the author), the investigator alone
had defined the problem to be studied and developed the case study design, and the investigator
already had the training, experience and skills outlined above, then little extra training was
needed. A critical self-review however, revealed that the author needed to improve his skills in
the area of the analysis of qualitative data. In addition to reading the research methods texts
referred to in this chapter, the author attended a number of development seminars at the
University of Salford as follows:
• Methodologically sophisticated enquiry. 23 October 2002, Dr Richard Varey.• Research Design Issues. 20 November 2002, Dr Sudi Shari&• Literature Review. 26 November 2002, Catherine Green and Marcus Ormerod.• Getting access to quality data. 12 February 2003, Professor Dominic Wilson.• Qualitative Analysis. 19 February 2003, Dr Sudi Shari&• Case Study Research. 19 February 2003, Professor Dominic Wilson.• Qualitative Analysis. 12 March 2003, Professor Peter Barrett.• Interviewing Technique and Skills. 19 March 2003, Dr Sudi Sharifi.
5.4 Methods for the analysis of Case Study Data
"Data analysis consists of examining, categorizing, tabulating, or otherwise recombining theevidence to address the initial propositions of a study" (Yin, 1994 p.102).
According to Yin (1994) the overall goal in data analysis is to treat the evidence fairly, produce
compelling analytic conclusions and rule out alternative interpretations.
5.4.1 General Analytic Strategies
There is a need to have a general analytic strategy to help an investigator choose among the
different analytic techniques. The general analytic strategy yields priorities for what to analyse
and why (Yin, 1994).
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Yin (1994) presents two general analytic strategies. The first and, according to Yin (1994), the
more preferred strategy is to follow the theoretical propositions that led to the case study, as the
original objectives and design of the case study would have been based on such propositions.
This is the situation in this study, where the propositions shaped the data collection plan
(described earlier in this chapter) and therefore gave priority to this as the relevant analytic
strategy. In this study, the theoretical propositions have been described in a theoretical
framework, which thus provides a framework for the analysis of case study data.
According to Yin (1994), a second general analytic strategy is to develop a descriptive
framework for organising the case study. This strategy tends to be used for case studies whose
purpose was descriptive. It is an alternative strategy when theoretical propositions are absent.
As the purposes of this study are exploratory and explanatory, as outlined earlier in this chapter,
and theoretical propositions are present, this would not be the most appropriate general analytic
strategy.
5.4.2 Analytic Techniques
There are a number of specific analytic techniques that can be employed as part of a general
analytic strategy. This section includes a review of those available with a justification for the
techniques chosen for this study.
Miles & Huberman (see Yin 1994, p.103) offer some techniques that can be used to put
evidence in some order prior to actual analysis:
• Putting information into different arrays.• Making a matrix of categories and placing the evidence within such categories.• Creating data displays - flowcharts and other devices - for examining the data.• Tabulating the frequency of different events.• Examining the complexity of such tabulations and their relationships by calculating second-
order numbers such as means and variances.• Putting information in chronological order or using some other temporal scheme.
Yin (1994) describes, firstly, Dominant Modes of Analysis and, secondly, Lesser Modes of
Analysis which are usually used in conjunction with one of the dominant modes.
5.4.2.1 Dominant Modes of Analysis
5.4.2.1.1 Pattern-Matching
Trochim (see Yin 1994, p.106) indicates that pattern-matching compares an empirically based
pattern with a predicted one or with several alternative predictions. If the patterns coincide, the
results can help a case study strengthen its internal validity. This study contains a predicted
pattern (the theoretical framework) derived from the literature review and alternative predictions
in terms of the propositions put forward in this chapter. Krasachol & Tannock (1999) used their
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theoretical framework as the basis for analysis in their study of TQM implementation in
Thailand. Therefore pattern-matching was considered as a possible mode of analysis in this
study.
5.4.2.1.2 Explanation-Building
This is a special type of pattern-matching in which the goal is to analyze the case study data by
building an explanation about the case (Yin, 1994). This procedure is mainly relevant to
explanatory case studies. According to Yin (1994, p.110) to "explain" a phenomenon is to
stipulate a set of causal links about it, and the explanations should reflect some theoretically
significant propositions, which, if correct, can lead to major contributions to theory-building. In
explanation-building, other plausible explanations for phenomena need to be entertained and
Yin (1994) recommends cross-case analysis to aid this. This approach is another possibility for
this study. The study is partly explanatory in nature (trying to explain why the implementation
of the EFQM Excellence Model was effective or ineffective in a number of cases in UK
University academic units), a set of causal links has been proposed (the theoretical framework
and propositions), the explanations generated could lead to a major contribution to theory-
building (a guidance framework for implementing the EFQM Excellence Model in UK
University academic units) and cross-case analysis is possible as there are four cases.
5.4.2.1.3 Time-Series Analysis
The ability to trace changes over time is a major strength of case studies thus making some sort
of time-series analysis possible. This is often allied with other analytical techniques (Yin, 1994).
The analysis of chronological events lends itself to this study as elements of the theoretical
framework have been placed in a logical order based on the relative time that activities are
expected to take place. In addition, a theme that runs throughout the theoretical framework is
that of pace, which is a time-related issue. The analytic goal is to compare the chronology in the
case study with that predicted by some explanatory theory, in this instance the theoretical
framework of the study. Time-related data was collected via the data collection methods and
instruments described earlier in this chapter to enable a chronological analysis to be conducted.
Yin (1994) recommends the use of time-series analysis for increasing the internal validity of a
case study.
5.4.2.1.4 Program Logic Models
This technique is a combination of pattern-matching and time-series analysis. The analysis
deliberately stipulates a complex chain of events (pattern) over time (time series), covering
independent and dependent variables. This approach is useful for explanatory and exploratory
case studies (Yin, 1994). It has already been identified above that explanation-building (a type
of pattern-matching) and chronology (a time-series analysis) would be suitable data analysis
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techniques for this study, and that this study is a both exploratory and explanatory, therefore
program logic was selected as the most appropriate data analysis technique for this study. A key
ingredient in program logic is the claimed existence of repeated cause and effect sequences of
events, which are all linked together. This is the situation in this study as mapped out in the
theoretical framework. Yin (1994) recommends this combination of pattern-matching and time-
series analysis for increasing the internal validity of a case study.
5.4.2.2 Lesser Modes of Analysis
Yin (1994) describes three lesser modes of analysis; analysis of embedded units of analysis,
repeated observations, and the case survey approach, which are incomplete analytic approaches
and must be used with one of the dominant modes in order to produce a compelling and full
case study analysis.
5.4.2.2.1 Analyzing Embedded Units
This is not relevant to this study, as there were no embedded units.
5.4.2.2.2 Making Repeated Observations
Again this is not relevant to this study, as repeated observations of the implementation were not
made. Data was collected at the end of the implementation process.
5.4.2.2.3 Case Survey
This technique is used when a large number of cases (200-300) have been completed and a
closed-ended coding instrument is then applied to each case study. The collective data are
tallied and analysed in a similar way to a large-scale survey. Therefore this was deemed to be an
inappropriate technique in this study, as a large number of already completed cases was not
available.
5.5 Chapter Summary
In this chapter the various methodological choices made by the author have been described and
justified. The research strategy to be employed is the case study strategy, a detailed research
design has been produced and four cases have been selected for investigation. The sources of
evidence have been identified and a structured interview has been designed as the primary data
collection instrument. The general analytic strategy to be employed involves the use of the
theoretical framework to analyse the data and a program logic model will be used to combine
the pattern-matching and time-series analysis analytic techniques. The research design has
considered the issues of validity and reliability in the research. The next chapter will deal with
the findings of the primary research.
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CHAPTER 6
FINDINGS
6.0 Chapter Introduction
In this chapter the findings of the primary research are presented. The appropriate data analysis
strategies and methods were described and justified in the previous chapter (chapter 5). The
general analytic strategy involves comparing the case study data with the theoretical
propositions, which have been described in a theoretical framework. A program logic mode of
analysis was used which is a combination of pattern-matching and time-series analysis (Yin,
1994). Each case was analysed independently. Any cross-case comparisons will be made in the
next chapter in which the results will be discussed.
For each case, the case study background information will be presented first followed by the
interview and document analysis in which patterns will be identified. Events from the case study
will be placed in chronological order to allow a time-series analysis. Finally the pattern-matched
data will be combined with the chronological data and then compared with the theoretical
framework in a program logic approach. This then will contribute to the achievement of the
objective: To explore and analyse the approaches used in attempted implementation of the
EFQM Excellence Model in a number of UK University case studies in order to discover the
critical issues for effective implementation. This analysis and comparison will be used to explain
the effectiveness of the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in each case and thus
address the objective: To explain why the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model was
effective or ineffective in a number of cases in UK University academic units by reference to the
theoretical framework
6.1 Case Study 'A'
6.1.1 Case Study 'A' Background (2002-2003)
Size of the University
The University in which case study 'A' took place has 3231 students, 1000 academic staff and
800 support staff.
University History
The University is a pre- 1992 institution. Its origins go back to 1946.
University Academic Structure
The University comprises six schools each with a number of departments within them.
University Governance
Senate is the principal academic body of the University. It draws its members from the
academic staff and students of the University. Its role is to direct and regulate the teaching and
research of the University. This includes approving all courses and over-seeing all aspects of
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academic quality assurance. The Vice Chancellor is the Chairman of Senate. School Boards
report to Senate.
Council is the chief executive and financial body of the University. It has responsibility for the
strategic direction of the institution, approval of major developments and the receipt of regular
reports from executive officers on the day to day operations of the University. Council has two
main sub-committees, the Finance Committee and the Audit Committee.
Court is the supreme constitutional body of the University. It offers a means whereby the wider
interests served by the University can be associated with the institution and provides a public
forum where members of Court can raise any matters about the University. Court normally
meets once each year to receive the annual report and financial statements. Major changes to the
constitution of the University require Court's approval. Court elects the independent members of
the University's Council.
A majority of the members of Court are from outside the University, representing designated
bodies with an interest in the work of the University, including the local community. Court also
includes many members and former members of University staff. All members of Senate are ex-
officio members of Court, as are the Emeritus Professors of the University. In addition, five
members of Court are elected by the Assembly of academic staff.
Academic Management
The Heads of School report to the Vice Chancellor through a Heads of School Committee.
Academic Managers (Heads of School) are appointed on a permanent basis.
Split of Activities
This University was not happy to provide the HEFCE Transparency Review data for 2001/2002,
which would have provided the split of academic time spent on Teaching, Research and
Enterprise activities. In the absence of this data, the author took the opportunity to get the
opinions of the interviewees on this split. The University's activities were split roughly as
follows:
Teaching 25%
Research 60%
Enterprise 15%
Size of the Case Study School
The case study school has 68 academic staff, 63 support staff and 364 students.
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History of the Case Study School
The School was formed from the merger of two schools in 1986.
Structure of the Case Study School
The School is made up of six departments and two enterprise centres.
Governance of the Case Study School
The School Board is the principal academic body of the School. It draws its members from the
academic staff and students of the School. Its role is to direct and regulate the teaching and
research of the School. This includes approving all courses and over-seeing all aspects of
academic quality assurance. The Head of School is the Chairman of the School Board.
Academic Management of the Case Study School
Executive decisions are made by the Senior Management Team of the School. This is chaired by
the Head of School and comprises the six Heads of Department and the Head of School
administration.
Split of Activities in the Case Study School
This University was not happy to provide the HEFCE Transparency Review data for 2001/2002,
which would have provided the split of academic time spent on Teaching, Research and
Enterprise activities in the case study school. In the absence of this data, the author took the
opportunity to get the opinions of the interviewees on this split. The School's activities were
split roughly as follows:
Teaching 25%
Research 50%
Enterprise 20%
This was corroborated by a review of the relative numbers of school staff allocated to each of
these activity streams.
6.1.2 Case Study 'A' Interview and Document Analysis
Appendix 7 is the analysis matrix for case study 'A'. The patterns emerging from the analysis
matrix are summarised here. Appendix 8 is the list of documents from Case study 'A' that are
referred to in Appendix 7. These documents are contained in the case study database for case
'A'.
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INITIAL DECISION
The EFQM Model was first considered in late 1999/early 2000. No alternatives were
considered. The decision to use the EFQM Model was taken in early 2000 by one of the Heads
of Department who was a professor in quality management.
It was not clear if the decision was supported fully by the school management team.
Interviewees A2 and A3 were both members of this but had conflicting memories of the
decision.
There was no shared motive for using the EFQM Model and there were doubts about its
applicability in HE. There was no shared view of what the EFQM Model would be used for.
Some interviewees thought it would be used for self-assessment and other uses whereas the
project manager and the documentation indicated that it wasn't really being implemented. The
project was to see if the EFQM Model was applicable in HE. There appeared to be no shared or
clear objectives or expected benefits. There was some notion of performance improvement as an
objective.
There was a shared view that it would be a long haul.
GAINING SENIOR MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT
The main action taken to try to secure the commitment of the School SMT was a presentation
by the HEFCE project consultant to the School SMT somewhere between 31/5/01 and 19/12/01.
The Project had already been running for at least 12 months by the time this happened. The
Project Board concluded that the SMT did not, in general, perceive the relevance or potential of
the EFQM Model to the school. Although two of the interviewees thought that the presentation
to the SMT took place in the first few months of the project, it actually happened between 12
and 18 months in, seemingly due to the caution of the Head of Department involved.
Two Professors from the school's SMT were appointed to improvement groups. Getting support
from the Vice Chancellor was considered but not progressed.
The Project Manager and the HEFCE consultant both carried out actions to try to gain senior
management commitment.
The perceived level of senior management commitment at the start of the project was:
Mean =3
Range 1 to 5.5
(1 = None, 7 = Full)
The project manager and the Director of School Administration thought that the level of senior
management commitment was very low. The Head of Department interviewed thought senior
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management commitment was quite high. The improvement group member thought it was
neutral.
PREPARATION
Were any change models considered for use during the implementation? (e.g. force field
analysis)
No change models were used.
Were the motive and objectives in using the EFQM Excellence Model communicated to
staff?
It seems that communication about the motive and objectives only took place with elements of
the school. Communication took place in an ad hoc way.
Culture/Context
Although two of the interviewees offered their own opinions on aspects of this, there was no
systematic attempt to assess the organisational culture/context. Any assessment of culture took
place on an individual or small group level.
Management style wasn't considered. The interviewees' perceptions of management style was:
Mean = 5.5
Range 4 to 6.5
(1 = Collegial, 7 = Managerial)
Management style was perceived as being towards the managerial end of the scale.
It appears that there was some consideration of the individualism of academic staff. The
interviewees thought that the individualism of academic staff might cause difficulties. One
interviewee thought that his less individualistic department had been chosen to work with (on
one of the improvement projects) for this reason. The interviewees' perceptions of academic
staff individualism was:
Mean = 3.8
Range 2.5 to 4.5
But with an overall range of 1 to 6.
(1 = Individual, 7 = Teamworking)
This suggests a tendency towards individualism.
The professional nature of academic staff wasn't considered. The interviewees' perceptions of
the professional nature of academic staff was:
Mean = 6.25
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Range 5.5 to 7
(1 = Low, 7 = High)
The interviewees thought that the academic staff saw themselves as professionals.
Academic freedom and the critical nature of academic staff was not considered. The
interviewees' perceptions of how much academic freedom and criticality was exercised by
academic staff was:
Mean = 4.6
Range 2.5 to 7
(1 = Low, 7 = High)
There was a broad range of opinion on the amount of academic freedom and criticality
exercised by staff, but with a tendency towards this being high.
Recognition/rewards for involvement in EFQM implementation was not considered. There was
no mechanism to reward this involvement. None of the interviewees mentioned any recognition
events taking place.
In terms of language and terminology, the project manager decided not to mention the model.
One interviewee saw this lack of explanation as a problem. One interviewee thought that it
wasn't necessary to tailor the language in the EFQM Model whilst one thought that the language
wasn't easily understood.
Two of the interviewees considered the issue of the culture of support on an individual basis.
There was some concern about support from the SMT. The interviewees' perceptions of the
culture of support in the school was:
Mean = 3.6
Range 2 to 5
(1 = Blame/Fear or Unsupportive/Uncooperative, 7 = Supportive/Cooperative)
The school culture tended towards the unsupportive end of the range, particularly for initiatives
that didn't have to be done.
Issues specific to the use of the EFQM Excellence Model
There was no clear recollection of the approach to self-assessment, which was used. The
documentation revealed that a subjective self-assessment was to be followed by a workshop.
The workshop was meant to gain the involvement of staff across the school via the diagonal
slice of staff. It was decided not to use scoring. Only the project manager had a clear view on
the reasons for not using scoring. He felt that it was only relevant for Benchmarking, it wouldn't
be accurate to start with and scoring could be demotivating if the score reduced in the second
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round. It was decided not to use RADAR logic. The school didn't get as far as full application of
the model and therefore didn't use RADAR.
Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
Senior management commitment was planned to be demonstrated through the involvement of
two professors from the SMT in the improvement groups. There was no clear view as to why
this approach to demonstrating senior management commitment was chosen.
Project Management
A Project Board was set up in November 2000 made up of the Project Manager, the Head of
Department (project leader) who had initiated the project, the Director of Finance and
Administration and a co-opted external consultant from the HEFCE project. Some meetings
were attended by the HEFCE consortium project manager. The objective was for the board to
manage and guide the project. This board met every 3-6 months (6 meetings in 2 years). A
project manager was appointed in summer 2000, who had some familiarity with the EFQM
Model and had previous project management experience. The project manager received EFQM
assessor training in 2000.
There was a project plan, which had been devised by the project manager working with the
•HEFCE consortium but it wasn't shared with the improvement groups. The pace of
implementation was considered in the project plan and there were four timed stages in the
project plan. The first stage was to be completed by April 2001 and involved the development
of a questionnaire and the development and testing of different methods of self-assessment.
Stage 2 was to be completed by February 2002 and involved running workshops with Heads of
Departments and refining the questionnaire. Stage 3 was to be completed by December 2002
and involved running workshops and follow-up meetings with Heads of School and Heads of
Department to explore incorporating the EFQM Model into the school's business planning
process. Stage 4 was to be completed by February 2003 and involved evaluating the outcomes
of the previous stages and carrying out another self-assessment exercise. The overall approach
was "slow and steady".
The implementation was done across the school rather than piloting it first. The departments in
the school were fairly small, therefore it was felt that it was better to use it across the school and
include staff from across the school and at different levels to get involvement (the diagonal
slice). On the whole, there were no other significant projects or initiatives taking place in the
school at the time. The Project Board monitored progress with the project and met about every 6
months.
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The resources allocated to the project were the Project Manager for 50% of his time, a small
amount of money and the voluntary involvement of staff. There was a feeling from the
interviewees that the project hadn't been properly resourced.
Education and Training
Very little training was planned, although some did occur; a briefing to the school's SMT and a
presentation to the improvement group members by the project manager. The lack of planned
training was because the school was not using the model in "its fullness" and there was no
funding available for training. The external consultant from the HEFCE project delivered the
briefing to the school's SMT and the project manager briefed the improvement teams. An
external consultant was used who was the Deputy Chair of the HEFCE Project Steering Group.
The reasons for using the external consultant were that there was a lack of expertise in the
school (the Head of Department of Quality Management retired about 18 months into the
project) and the consultant was supportive and lived locally.
Communication
Although there was a communications plan outlined in the project plan, it appears that there was
little knowledge of its existence. The communications plan was put together on 27 September
2000.
Planned involvement in the implementation process and use of the EFQM Excellence
Model
It was planned to involve staff from across the school in the diagonal slice self-assessment
workshops and the improvement groups. There was no clear view as to why these approaches to
involving staff had been chosen. There was some notion of getting discussion of issues. The
"diagonal slice" workshop groups deliberately included "positive troublemakers". The
membership of the improvement project teams was based on interest and experience. The reason
given for setting up teams was to get staff involved.
MOMENTUM
Improvement Planning, Action and Review after self-assessment
Improvement planning, action and review started on 31 May 2001. It wasn't clear who had
carried out the improvement planning. The project manager and the Head of School seemed to
be involved. One view was that the improvement planning was carried out by the school SMT,
based on the diagonal slice's self-assessment. The actions were to be carried out by the
improvement groups. Two teams (one of 7 and one of 8) were set up working on separate
projects. Improvement planning and action was done in this way to get different perspectives
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from within the school. The emphasis in the improvement projects was that the two projects
addressed priority improvement areas for the school.
Did the implementation progress on schedule?
The overall view was that the implementation did not progress on schedule. The perceived
reasons for the implementation not progressing on schedule were various; the high workloads of
the people involved, a lack of champions and that it wasn't a priority in the school. Momentum
wasn't regained. There was very little communication to the staff in the school to keep them
informed of progress.
Were the expected benefits of using the Excellence Model achieved?
Generally, the expected benefits of using the EFQM Excellence Model were not achieved.
The major barriers to achieving the benefits were perceived to be that the Head of School didn't
see the EFQM implementation as a key issue, people didn't see it as key to their own futures, the
lack of knowledge of the EFQM Model, the lack of knowledge of the project plan and the
reluctance of the school's SMT to commit to this improvement initiative.
Do you think the pace of implementation was: too slow, too quick, about right?
The pace of implementation was seen as being too slow. This lack of pace was put down to a
lack of staff motivation because the project wasn't valued and also there was no "quick win" in
the improvement projects.
Was senior management commitment maintained throughout the implementation?
There were mixed views on whether senior management commitment was maintained. Two
interviewees thought it was, whilst two thought strongly that it wasn't there to start with. There
were very few examples of senior management commitment to the project being demonstrated.
The overall view was that nothing had really helped to maintain senior management
commitment. Senior management commitment was not maintained because it was perceived as
not being there to start with. In addition, the improvement groups didn't ask for senior
management to participate. The Head of Department of Quality Management who had
instigated the BEFCE project retired about 18 months into the project. He was not replaced and
nobody else took over his role on the HEFCE project. The interviewees' perceptions of the
extent to which senior management commitment was demonstrated during the course of the
implementation was:
Mean = 2
Range 1 to 4
(1 = None, 7 = Full)
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The perception was that very little senior management commitment was demonstrated during
the project.
Was the planned level of resources maintained during the implementation?
The planned level of resources was maintained during the project. The overall perception was
that the level of resource was not sufficient. There was a view that there was a lack of project
champions and the staff involved had little time available to make changes.
Was the planned staff training carried out?
The small amount of staff training that had been planned was carried out. Although the training
provided some awareness, the overall lack of training meant that there was little knowledge of
the EFQM Model.
Was there any recognition of or rewards for staff involved in EFQM implementation?
There was no recognition of or rewards for staff involved in EFQM implementation.
INTEGRATION
How many organisational levels was the EFQM Excellence Model implemented in?
The EFQM Model had been used at one level, the school.
How was RADAR logic used in the implementation?
RADAR logic wasn't used in the implementation.
Was the planned level of staff involvement with the EFQM Excellence Model achieved?
The only real involvement of staff was in the 2 improvement groups.
How many rounds of self-assessment have been carried out and when?
There had been two rounds of self-assessment; the "quick and dirty" assessment in the third
quarter of 2000 and the workshops in the first and second quarters of 2001.
What has the model actually been used for and how often?
Although the interviewees had personal views on a variety of ways in which the EFQM Model
had been used, its main use had been in self-assessment and it had motivated some staff to get
involved in quality improvement activities.
Was the EFQM Model aligned with other organisational systems?
The EFQM Model had not been aligned with other organisational systems.
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GENERAL
Has anything else that we haven't already discussed helped in the EFQM implementation?
There had been some positive support for change within the improvement groups, which had
helped the implementation.
Has anything else that we haven't already discussed hindered the EFQM implementation?
In terms of other hindrances to the implementation, the project manager had concerns about
politics within the school's SMT, the lack of management experience of managers in the school,
the lack of motivation of some managers who were close to retirement, the School's SMT not
seeing the need for improvement and the overall lack of a clear direction in the school.
How were these hindrances overcome?
The hindrances weren't overcome.
How would you assess your level of EFQM implementation?
The balance of the views was that the level of implementation was in the lower half of the entry
level.
6.1.3 Case Study 'A' Time-Series Analysis
DATE ACTION PHASE OR ELEMENT OFTHE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORKLate 1999/early2000
The EFQM Model was first considered. • Decision Phase• Motive• Support for the decision
Early 2000 The decision to use the EFQM Modelwas taken.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Support for the decision
Summer 2000 A project manager was appointed. • Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
1 August 2000 "Subjective self-assessment" showed theresults of the quick and dirty self-assessment.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
Model27 September 2000 The project plan and communications
plan were put together.• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management• Communication• Pace
2000 The project manager received EFQMassessor training.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management• Education and Training
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22 November2000.
22 November 2000
14 February 2001
A Project Board was set up. Themembership and role was agreed.
"Project Board Meeting- agenda andnotes" indicated that it was not theintention to implement the EFQM Modelwithin the school during the project. Theprimary focus was to see how it could beapplied to or modified for use within theHE sector.
"2" Project Board Meeting" indicatedthat 2 workshops would be used for self-assessment.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management • Decision Phase• Motive• Objectives and expected
Benefits• Support for the decision• Intended uses of the
EFQM Model• Implementation and
Evaluation Phase• Momentum• Project Management • Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM model specific
choices• Staff Involvement and
Teamwork• Implementation and
Evaluation Phase• Momentum• Project Management
14 February 2001 "2nd Project Board Meeting". Indicatedthat the Project Board discussed thevalues and issues of scoring and agreednot to continue with scoring activities.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM model specific
choices7 and 12 March2001
"Summary of Academic and Supportgroup workshops" summarised theoutputs of the self-assessments.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
ModelApril 2001 The first stage was to be completed,
which involved the development of aquestionnaire and the development andtesting of different methods of self-assessment.
This was part of the planrather than actions taken.
31 May 2001 "3rd Project Board Meeting" recorded theplanning of a 2-3 hour session to be runby the external consultant from theHEFCE project for the SMT to look atwhat the EFQM Model could do for theschool and what projects could be donein year 2 of the project.
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior
ManagementCommitment
31 May 2001 "3rd Project Board Meeting" indicatesthat the Head of School was to be askedto support the improvement groups.
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior
ManagementCommitment
31 May 2001 "3d Project Board Meeting". Twoimprovement teams set up.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Staff Involvement and
Teamwork
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31 May 2001 Improvement planning, action andreview started.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning,
Action and ReviewSomewherebetween 31 May2001 and 19December 2001
The main action taken to try to securethe commitment of the School SMT wasa presentation by the HEFCE projectconsultant to the School SMT. TheProject had already been running for atleast 12 months by the time thishappened.
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior
ManagementCommitment
_13 December 2001 "Summary of Improvement Projects"
indicated that the Head of School hadgiven approval for two improvementprojects to be set up and two Professorswere appointed as project champions.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning,
Action and Review• Demonstrating Senior
ManagementCommitment
13 December 2001 "Summary of Improvement Projects"shows that two improvement teams wereworking on projects.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning,
Action and Review• Integration• Staff Involvement and
Teamwork19 December 2001 "4th Project Board Meeting" reflected on
the presentation to the SMT andconcluded that the SMT did not, ingeneral perceive the relevance orpotential of the EFQM Model to theschool.
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior
ManagementCommitment
19 December 2001 "4th Project Board Meeting" indicatedthat the Head of School did not supportthe setting up of a team to look at thepotential of using the EFQM Model todevelop a management system for theschool.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning,
Action and Review• Demonstrating Senior
ManagementCommitment
About 18 monthsinto the project(about December2001)
The Head of Department of QualityManagement who had instigated theHEFCE project retired.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Demonstrating Senior
ManagementCommitment
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5 February 2002 "Improvement Project Meeting" notesshowed that an improvement team of 8staff was working on a project.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning,
Action and Review• Integration• Staff Involvement and
Teamwork18 February 2002 "Improvement Project 4th Meeting
Notes" showed that an improvementteam of 7 were working on anotherproject.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning,
Action and Review• Integration• Staff Involvement and
TeamworkBy February 2002 Stage 2 was to be completed and
involved running workshops with Headsof Departments and refining thequestionnaire.
This was part of the planrather than actions taken.
4 April 2002 "5th Project Board meeting" showed thatthe Head of Department on the ProjectBoard felt that the time was not right forthe University SMT to be briefed on theEFQM Model. He agreed to brief theVice Chancellor on the progress of theHEFCE project.
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior
ManagementCommitment
By December 2002 Stage 3 was to be completed andinvolved running workshops and follow-up meetings with Heads of School andHeads of Department to exploreincorporating the EFQM Model into theschool's business planning process.
This was part of the planrather than actions taken.
By February 2003 Stage 4 was to be completed andinvolved evaluating the outcomes of theprevious stages and carrying out anotherself-assessment exercise.
This was part of the planrather than actions taken.
Table 6.1: Case Study 'A Time-Series Analysis
6.1.4 Case Study 'A' Program Logic - comparison with Theoretical Framework
Decision Phase
Motive
There was no shared motive for using the EFQM Model and there were doubts about its
applicability in HE. This is reflected below in the lack of clarity in the objectives, expected
benefits and the intended uses of the model. In addition there was no clear support for its use at
a senior level in the school.
Objectives and Expected Benefits
There appeared to be no shared or clear objectives or expected benefits.
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• Alternatives considered, support for the decision
No alternatives were considered. The decision to use the EFQM Model was taken in early
2000 by one of the Heads of Departments who was a professor in quality management.
There was no clear support for the decision from the school management team.
• Intended uses of the EFQM Model
There was no shared view of what the EFQM Model would be used for. Some interviewees
thought it would be used for self-assessment and other uses whereas the project manager
and the documentation indicated that it wasn't really being implemented. The project was to
see if the EFQM Model was applicable in HE. The author has difficulty understanding how
the EFQM Model's applicability in HE was to be assessed without using the model.
Actually, as will be seen later, there was an attempt to use the EFQM Model in the school.
• Pace
This phase was conducted at a reasonable pace. The EFQM Model was first considered in
late 1999. The decision to use it was taken in early 2000 and in summer of 2000 a project
manager was appointed. The author was generally aware that the HEFCE funded project
started officially in May 2000. There was a shared view amongst the interviewees that it
would be a long haul.
Preparation Phase
Gaining Senior Management Commitment
In May 2001 the Head of School was asked to support the improvement groups. There was an
attempt to gain senior management commitment via the HEFCE project consultant and the
project manager presenting to the school's senior management team. The perception of the
project board however was that the SMT did not perceive the relevance or potential of the
EFQM Model to the school. The perceived level of senior management commitment at the start
of the project was 3 out of 7. The Head of Department who initiated the project agreed to brief
the Vice Chancellor on the progress of the project in April 2002 but this wasn't done.
Pace
The attempt to gain senior management commitment from the school's SMT didn't happen until
12 to 18 months into the project. The EFQM Model had already started to be used well before
this. The time between the decision phase and this first element of the preparation phase would
appear to have been too long, having a negative effect on the pace of implementation.
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Planning
• Resistance to Change
No change models were used.
• Culture/Context assessment
There was no systematic attempt to assess the organisational culture/context. Any
assessment of culture took place on an individual or small group level.
Management style wasn't considered. The perception was that the management style was
managerial.
The individualism of academic staff was considered. It was thought that the individualism
of academic staff might cause difficulties. The perception was that there was a tendency
towards individualism.
The professional nature of academic staff wasn't considered. The perception was that the
academic staff saw themselves as professionals.
Academic freedom and the critical nature of academic staff was not considered. The
perception was that there was a tendency towards academic staff exercising a fairly high
degree of academic freedom and criticality.
Recognition/rewards for involvement in EFQM implementation was not considered.
The language and terminology in the EFQM Model was not tailored although one
interviewee thought that the language wasn't easily understood. The project manager had
decided not to even mention the EFQM Excellence Model to staff.
The culture of support was considered by two individuals. The perception was that the
culture in the school was relatively unsupportive, particularly for initiatives that weren't
mandatory.
• EFQM Model specific choices
A subjective self-assessment was to be followed by two workshops made up from a
diagonal slice of staff. It was decided not to use scoring.
• Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
Almost no actions were planned to demonstrate senior management commitment. The only
actions which demonstrated senior management commitment were the Head of School's
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approval for two improvement projects to be set up and the appointment of a professor to
each of these. The Head of Department who initiated the project retired in December 2001
and wasn't replaced. The Head of School did not support the setting up of a team to look at
the potential of using the EFQM Model to develop a management system for the school.
Not only were there few actions taken to demonstrate senior management commitment,
actions were taken that could be seen as undermining the project.
• Project Management
A project board was set up to monitor the progress of the project and a project manager was
appointed. There was a project champion in place (the initiating Head of Department) at the
start of the project. A project plan was developed and there were no other significant
projects taking place in the school. The project was resourced, but there was a feeling that
the resources were insufficient. The implementation wasn't piloted.
• Education and Training
Very little training was planned. An external consultant was used.
• Communication
Although there was a communications plan outlined in the project plan, it appears that there
• was little knowledge of its existence.
• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
It was planned to involve staff from across the school in the diagonal slice self-assessment
workshops and the improvement groups.
• Pace
Most of the planning element of the preparation phase took place within the first 6 months
of the project and thus was done within a reasonable timescale.
Implementation and Evaluation Phase
• Pace
The implementation actions began within 1 month of the preparation phase being
completed.
Integration
Three different approaches were used to integrate the EFQM Model.
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• Multi-level use in the organisation
The EFQM Model had been used at one level, the school.
• Alignment with other organisational systems
The EFQM Model had not been aligned with other organisational systems.
• Actual uses of the EFQM Model, particularly its use in strategic planning
Its main use had been in self-assessment and it had motivated some staff to get involved in
quality improvement activities. It had not been used in strategic planning.
• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
The only real involvement of staff was in the 2 improvement groups. About 15% of the
school's staff had been involved in using the EFQM Model.
• Pace
The self-assessments and the setting up of the improvement groups happened within the
first 12 months of the project, however the improvement groups made no real progress with
the improvement projects. No other integrative activities took place.
Momentum
Two approaches were utilised to provide momentum to the implementation.
• Project Management
The project manager was in post for the whole 3-year period of the project. The project
board met 5 times to monitor the progress of the project and there had been a project
champion for the first half of the project. An activities plan was in place but wasn't
followed. The resources allocated to the project were maintained throughout the project. A
project consultant was used throughout the project.
• Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
There were very few examples of senior management commitment to the project being
demonstrated. The perception was that very little senior management commitment was
demonstrated during the project (2 out of 7). This compares with 3 out of 7 at the start of the
project.
• Communication
Little communication took place to inform staff about the project.
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• Education and Training
The small amount of staff training that had been planned was carried out. Although the
training provided some awareness, the overall lack of training meant that there was little
knowledge of the EFQM Model.
• Improvement Planning, Action and Review
Improvement planning took place and 2 improvement teams were set up, which met on a
few occasions, however no improvement actions took place.
• Recognition and Rewards
There was no recognition of or rewards for staff involved in EFQM implementation.
• Evaluation of Benefits
Generally, the expected benefits of using the EFQM Excellence Model were not achieved.
• Pace
Few actions had taken place that would be expected to produce momentum in the
implementation. The overall view was that the implementation did not progress on
schedule. The pace of implementation was seen as being too slow.
Effectiveness of the Implementation
The balance of the views was that the level of implementation was in the lower half of the entry
level. The author's assessment of the level of implementation from his knowledge of the case
concurred with this.
Thus the implementation could be assessed as having been ineffective. This can be explained by
comparing what actually happened with the theoretical framework.
In the decision phase there wasn't a clear or strong motive for using the EFQM Model. This was
compounded by the fact that senior management commitment to the project was not gained at
the start of the preparation phase. This wasn't even attempted until the project had been
underway for over 12 months.
In the planning element of the preparation phase there was no attempt to assess potential
resistance to change and no systematic attempt to assess the culture/context. There was no clear
plan to demonstrate senior management commitment and very little education and training was
planned. On the positive side most of the expected elements of project management were put in
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place, choices were made relevant to the specifics of using the EFQM Model, a communications
plan was put in place and it was planned to involve staff in teams.
In the integration element of the implementation and evaluation phase very little integration was
achieved. The EFQM Model was used for self-assessment but was not used in strategic
planning. Staff were involved in self-assessment teams and improvement teams. The model was
only used at one organisational level and was not aligned with other organisational systems.
In the momentum element of the implementation and evaluation phase, very few of the elements
that might have produced momentum were addressed. Although project monitoring took place
and improvement planning occurred, senior management commitment wasn't demonstrated,
communication did not take place, very little education and training was carried out, the
improvement planning was not carried through into improvement actions, there were no rewards
or recognition for staff involved in the implementation and benefits were not achieved through
using the EFQM Model.
6.2 Case Study 'B'
6.2.1 Case Study 'B' Background (2002-2003)
Size of the University
The University in which case study 'B' took place has 16,432 students, 853 academic staff and
1,321 support staff.
University History
The University is a pre- 1992 institution. Its origins go back to 1896.
University Academic Structure
The University is made up of four Faculties, which contain 14 Schools. Research activity is
organised into a number of Research Institutes.
University Governance
Senate is the principal academic body of the University. It draws its members from the
academic staff and students of the University. Its role is to direct and regulate the teaching,
enterprise and research activities of the University. This includes approving all courses and
over-seeing all aspects of academic quality assurance. The Vice Chancellor is the Chairman of
Senate. Faculty Boards report to Senate.
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Council is the chief executive and financial body of the University. It has responsibility for the
strategic direction of the institution, approval of major developments and the receipt of regular
reports from executive officers on the day to day operations of the University.
Court is the supreme constitutional body of the University. It offers a means whereby the wider
interests served by the University can be associated with the institution and provides a public
forum where members of Court can raise any matters about the University. Court normally
meets once each year to receive the annual report and financial statements. Major changes to the
constitution of the University require Court's approval.
A majority of the members of Court are from outside the University, representing designated
bodies with an interest in the work of the University, including the local community. Court also
includes many members and former members of University staff. All members of Senate are ex-
officio members of Court, as are the Emeritus Professors of the University.
Executive decisions are taken by the University Executive Group, which comprises the Vice
Chancellor, the four Pro Vice Chancellors, the Registrar and the Director of Finance. The Senior
Management Team is as for the University Executive Group with the addition of the four Deans
of Faculty.
Academic Management
There are four Pro Vice Chancellors and four Deans of Faculty who all report directly to the
Vice Chancellor. There are fourteen Heads of School who all report directly to the Vice
Chancellor. The University Management Group comprises the Vice Chancellor, the Registrar
the Pro Vice Chancellors, the Deans of Faculty, the Associate Deans, the Directors of Research
Institutes, the Heads of School and the Directors of the major support services.
Academic Managers hold fixed terms of office as follows:
Vice Chancellor Normally 7 years.
Pro Vice Chancellor 2 years plus, normally, a further 2 years.
Dean of Faculty 4 years.
Associate Dean 4 years.
Head of School 4 years.
Consecutive terms of office are not allowed.
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Split of Activities
Teaching 70.2%
Research 21.6%
Enterprise 8.2%
Size of the Case Study Faculty
The case study Faculty has 240 academic staff, 128 support staff and 4,319 students.
History of the Case Study Faculty
The Faculty was formed in 1999 after a major academic reorganisation of the University.
Structure of the Case Study Faculty
The Faculty is made up of five schools.
Governance of the Case Study Faculty
The governing body of the Faculty is the Faculty Board. This comprises the Dean, the three
Associate Deans (one each for Teaching, Research and Academic Enterprise), the five Heads of
School, elected academic staff representatives from each school and student representatives.
Executive decisions are made by the Faculty Executive. This comprises the Dean, the three
Associate Deans, the five Heads of School, the Faculty Administrator and the Faculty
Accountant. The Dean's advisory group comprises the three Associate Deans, the Faculty
Administrator and the Faculty Accountant.
Academic Management in the Case Study Faculty
The three Associate Deans and the five Heads of School report to the Dean of Faculty. The
Academic Management of the Schools mirrors that of the Faculty with a School Board and a
School Executive. The School Executive comprises the Head of School, three Associate Heads,
the School Administrator and the School Finance Officer.
Split of Activities in the Case Study Faculty
Teaching 68.1%
Research 23.6%
Enterprise 8.3%
6.2.2 Case Study 'B' Interview and Document Analysis
Appendix 9 is the analysis matrix for case study 'B'. The patterns emerging from the analysis
matrix are summarised here. Appendix 10 is the list of documents from Case study 'B' that are
referred to in Appendix 9. These documents are contained in the case study database for case
'B'.
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INITIAL DECISION
The EFQM Excellence Model was first considered by the Faculty in October 1999 via a Quality
Improvement Group that had been set up to look at quality models that the Faculty might use. A
number of alternatives were considered. These were Balanced Scorecard, Learning Company
Framework, EQUIS, Charter Mark and Best Value. A qualified decision to use the model was
made on 29 March 2000. A final decision was taken on 23 October 2000. The Faculty Executive
made these decisions. Two interviewees felt that the decision had been fully supported, however
2 interviewees had some doubts about this. The documents show that the initial decision was a
qualified one.
The interviewees expressed a number of individual opinions on the motives for using the EFQM
Model but no shared view of the motive emerged from these. The documentation showed that
the Faculty was looking for a system to manage quality in its broadest sense. There was a
consistent view that the EFQM Model would be used as a self-assessment framework to aid
improvement, however there was no shared view about other intended uses. This supports the
Project Manager's statement that it was unclear what the intended uses were from the Faculty
Executive's point of view. There was no consistent view of the expected benefits of using the
EFQM Model and no clear objectives were set for its use.
Generally the expected timescales in which the benefits would be accrued was around 3 years.
The project manager had concerns that it might be difficult to get support for such a long-term
initiative as the members of the group had fixed terms of office of 4 years.
GAINING SENIOR MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT
A number of actions took place to try to gain senior management commitment. Two
presentations to the Faculty Executive (29 March 2000 and 23 October 2000) took place. The
presentations to the Faculty Executive were done by a working group, which had been set up by
the Faculty Executive to look at quality models. Individual meetings occurred between the
Project Manager and both of the Deans who were in post during the timescale of the project.
The project manager and the Head of School of the school that had been chosen to pilot the
EFQM Model in the Faculty made presentations to 2 out of the 5 School Executives. One
presentation took place around January 2001 and one around April 2002. A workshop using
RADAR logic with the Dean's Advisory Group took place in September 2002. One interviewee
had concerns about piloting the implementation in one school. By doing this it was "taken away
from the Faculty".
The perceived level of senior management commitment at the start of the project was:
Mean = 3.75
Range 2 to 5
(1 = None, 7 = Full)
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There were mixed views on the level of senior management commitment that was gained. None
thought that there was full commitment.
PREPARATION
Were any change models considered for use during the implementation? (e.g. force field
analysis)
No change models were considered for use in the implementation.
Were the motive and objectives in using the EFQM Excellence Model communicated to
staff?
The motive and objectives in using the EFQM Excellence Model were not communicated to
staff.
Culture/Context
Was there an attempt to assess the organisational culture?
There was no attempt to assess the organisational culture.
There was no collective attempt to assess the management style. One interviewee had some
concern about the lack of a "senior management champion" from the Faculty Executive. The
interviewees' perceptions of academic management style was:
Mean = 2.5
Range 1 to 5
(1 = Collegial, 7 = Managerial)
The management style was seen to be towards the collegial end of the scale, but one interviewee
thought it had been more managerial at the start of the project.
Only the project manager had considered the issue of staff individualism. It was not considered
by the Faculty Executive. The Project Manager thought that it would not be possible to impose
the use of the EFQM Model on staff and that they had "their own agendas". The interviewees'
perceptions of academic staff individualism was:
Mean = 2.75
Range 1 to 7
(1 = Individual, 7 = Teamworking)
There was a full range of views from staff being highly individualistic to being team orientated,
however the tendency was towards individualism.
The professional nature of academic staff was only considered by the project manager.
The interviewees' perceptions of the professional nature of academic staff was:
156
Mean = 6.4
Range 6 to 7
(1 = Low, 7 = High)
The perception was that staff saw themselves as professionals.
The issue of the academic freedom and criticality of staff was not considered collectively. It was
considered individually by both the project manager and the Faculty Administrator. It was
thought that the need for change would be difficult to get across. The EFQM Model might
challenge academic freedom, for example by emphasising a customer focus. The EFQM Model
might suggest possible policy changes, which could impact on academic freedom. The
standardisation of systems would clash with academic freedom. It was thought that there was an
attitude of "If it ain't broke, don't fix it". The interviewees' perceptions of how much academic
freedom and criticality was exercised by academic staff was:
Mean = 6.25
Range 5.5 to 7
(1 = Low, 7 = High)
Academic staff were seen as exercising a great deal of academic freedom and criticality.
There was no collective consideration of whether there would be rewards and /or recognition for
staff involved in the EFQM implementation.
The language and terminology of the EFQM Model was not considered by the Faculty
Executive, however the project manager and the 2" d Dean considered this individually. The
project manager thought that it would be best not to mention the Excellence Model. It was
decided to use "commonsense" terms. The term "Knowledge" within the model was to be
expressly used as a reference to knowledge as a management resource rather than knowledge as
the intellectual capital of the University. In presentations, examples were used that were linked
to HE issues.
Only the project manager considered the issue of the Faculty culture of support. Only pockets of
the Faculty are supportive of change generally. Some individuals were supportive of the use of
the EFQM Excellence Model. The interviewees' perceptions of the culture of support in the
Faculty was:
Mean = 5
Range 2 to 6.5
(1 = Blame/Fear or Unsupportive/Uncooperative, 7 = Supportive/Cooperative)
The three members of the Faculty Executive amongst the interviewees felt that the culture of the
Faculty was supportive. The Project Manager felt that it was unsupportive. This probably
157
reflected his views about the lack of progress with the EFQM implementation. The 2 Ild Dean
thought that there were some staff who are "suspicious" of new initiatives.
Issues specific to the use of the EFQM Excellence Model
There apparently was great confusion about which approach to self-assessment was used. The
documentation indicated that interviews would be used, the project manager used pro-formas
whilst other interviewees thought that workshops and pro-formas had been used. As the
interviewees all had different recollections of the approach used for self-assessment, there was
no consistent view on the reason for the choice. This probably reflected the fact that very little
self-assessment took place.
The Faculty Executive decided not to use scoring. This was debated at length. The reason for
this was that the Faculty Executive did not want yet another scoring assessment, e.g. RAE,
TQA. It was felt that it would be better to concentrate on areas for improvement.
A decision was made to use RADAR logic in the implementation. RADAR logic was used to
set key results areas.
Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
There were no specific plans for how senior management commitment to the implementation
would be demonstrated, although the project manager had some ideas on how this might have
been done.
Project Management
A steering group was set up at the University level for the wider project. It was made up of the
Pro Vice Chancellor who had first decided to get involved in the HEFCE project, a Head of
School from the Faculty, a representative of the Enterprise Division and a representative from
the other Faculty within the University that was implementing the EFQM Excellence Model.
The Project Manager believed it was set up for the wrong reasons. The PRINCE2 project
management methodology had been adopted by the consortium of universities in the HEFCE
project and this said that this should be done. This group only met once or twice. The project
manager put this down to changes in post-holders and the resulting lack of continuity.
A project manager was appointed in September 2000. One interviewee wasn't aware that a half-
time project manager had been appointed. This interviewee thought that the leader of the quality
working group had been the project manager. This probably reflected the lack of discussion of
the EFQM implementation by the Faculty Executive. The Project Manager had been trained as
an EFQM Excellence Model assessor in 1995 and had previous experience of managing
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projects. The project manager was retrained as an EFQM Excellence Model assessor in October
2000 and was trained in PRINCE2 project management methodology in December 2000.
An outline project plan existed but its existence wasn't well known. The pace of implementation
was considered in planning. Year one was to involve a pilot in one of the five schools in the
Faculty. This was then to be rolled out to the other 4 schools at 3-month intervals. The Project
Manager and the Head of School of the pilot school (referred to as the "local champion" by one
interviewee) devised the project plan and then had this approved by the Faculty Executive
although the other interviewees did not recollect this. The implementation had been piloted in
one school with the intention of rolling it out across the Faculty, but this roll out did not occur.
The primary reason for this was the Dean at the time had wanted to pilot it first. The secondary
reason was so that the benefits gained in the pilot school could be demonstrated to the other
schools.
A very large number of other major initiatives/projects were taking place at the same time as the
EFQM Excellence Model implementation. One interviewee thought that there had perhaps been
too many initiatives. Lots of "initiatives" groups had been set up. The Faculty had been trying to
move on all fronts at once.
Only the project manager was aware of the project progress monitoring arrangements. This
occurred at the consortium level, there were no arrangements within the Faculty.
The following resources were allocated to the project:
A half-time project manager from September 2000. EFQM self-assessor training was made
available through the expert centre but nobody was trained. The Faculty Executive was aware
that this resource was available. Some of the "champion's" time in the pilot school.
Education and Training
Although training was available from the expert centre, none was ever requested and therefore
none was planned. The project manager had an expectation that some self-assessor training
would be carried out in the schools. The reason he gave for this was that self-assessment was
needed to identify issues to be addressed. The project manager's hope was that 6 staff in each of
the 5 schools and all the members of Faculty Executive would receive self-assessor training.
The assessor training would take place about 3 months into the process for each of the schools
(staged rollout) with the aim of schools carrying out their own self-assessments within 12
months. This wasn't carried out though. The training would have been carried out by staff from
the expert centre and the project manager. Internal consultants from the expert centre were
159
available but were not used. The expert centre had expertise in the use of the EFQM Model in
another part of the public sector.
Communication
What communication was planned about the implementation?
Although there was an overall communications plan for the consortium there was no local
communications plan.
Planned involvement in the implementation process and use of the EFQM Excellence
Model
There was no generally understood plan for involving staff in the implementation. The project
manager had a clear idea of who he would have liked to have been involved (The Faculty
Executive members, the School Executive members and about 6 other staff in each school).
These were the people who would have the information needed for self-assessment. They could
then act as advocates to involve more people in improvement activities. The project manager's
intention was to involve these staff in self-assessment and subsequent improvement activities.
The pilot school had a plan to set up an improvement group but this didn't get started.
The use of teams was only considered by the project manager and the Faculty Administrator.
There was no collective decision to use teams. The project manager and the Faculty
Administrator had differing views on how teams would be deployed. The Faculty Administrator
thought that teams would be used to carry out self-assessments. The project manager thought
that teams would be used to carry out improvement actions. Although there were some ideas of
how teams might be used, they were never set up and deployed.
MOMENTUM
The first attempt at starting self-assessment in the Faculty was with the Faculty Executive led by
the 2nd Dean (around 2 years into the project). The Project Manager met individually with the
Dean, one of the three Associate Deans and the Faculty Administrator. A workshop using
RADAR Logic was run with the Dean's Advisory Group (Dean, 3 Associate Deans, Faculty
Administrator and Faculty Accountant). Unfortunately there was no subsequent agreement on
key results. The group spent much of the time challenging the wording of the model. The
Project Manager felt that they had lost sight of the original motives because the majority of
people hadn't been party to the original decision to use the model (because of significant
changes to the membership of the Faculty Executive).
Improvement Planning, Action and Review after self-assessment
Improvement planning, action and review was not carried out.
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Did the implementation progress on schedule?
The implementation did not progress on schedule. The interviewees thought that there were a
number of reasons for the implementation nit proceeding on schedule:
The implementation didn't pass the "first hurdle" of conducting a self-assessment. The Faculty
Administrator thought that there was a lack of ownership at a senior level in the Faculty, that the
Project Manager wasn't forceful enough and that the outputs from the Dean's Advisory Group
workshop weren't what the Faculty Office expected. The Dean thought that the project slipped
in the pilot school. There were several reasons for this. The school had just undergone two
mergers within two years and this resulted in other issues for the school to address. In addition,
the Head of School changed two years into the project. There were many changes in the senior
management of the Faculty.
There was an attempt to regain momentum through the workshop that the project manager ran
with the Dean's Advisory Group (DAG) in September 2002 to try to construct some key result
areas for the Faculty using RADAR Logic, but this didn't generate the required momentum. No
communication took place to inform staff about progress with the implementation.
Were the expected benefits of using the Excellence Model achieved?
The expected benefits of using the Excellence Model were not achieved.
There was a range of views on the major barriers to achieving the benefits:
A lack of senior management commitment. The scepticism of new members joining the Faculty
Executive who hadn't bought in to the initiative. The pilot approach was not successful. There
were too many initiatives competing for resources. A concentration on external agendas rather
than internal initiatives.
Do you think the pace of implementation was: too slow, too quick, about right?
The pace of implementation was seen as being too slow. There was a sense that the project
never properly got going, there was no obvious impact.
Was senior management commitment maintained throughout the implementation?
Senior management commitment was not maintained throughout the implementation. Senior
management commitment was not demonstrated during the implementation, there was no
visibility. One of the Heads of Schools felt the EFQM implementation needed to be on the
Faculty Executive's agenda. There was nothing that helped to maintain senior management
commitment. The interviewees thought that a number of issues had affected senior management
commitment:
The stop/start cycle. The high turnover of staff in the Faculty Executive. The previous Dean
"sidelined" it by pushing it into the pilot school. Too many initiatives were taking place. The
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EFQM Excellence Model implementation wasn't "core", it wasn't integrated. The decision to
use the EFQM Excellence Model was seen as an "imposed" decision. The information supplied
by the Project Manager to the Faculty Office wasn't easily understood. The next steps after the
workshop with the Dean's Advisory Group weren't clearly defined. There was an extremely high
number of changes in the membership of the Faculty Executive. Of the 12 members who had
made the decision to use the EFQM Model, only 2 remained at the end of the 3-year period of
the FIEFCE project. One of these two (the Faculty Administrator) thought that, as a result of
this, there was a change in priorities and visions. The interviewees' perceptions of the extent to
which senior management commitment was demonstrated during the course of the
implementation was:
Mean = 2
Range 0
(1 = None, 7 = Full)
The shared view was that senior management commitment had hardly been demonstrated at all
during the implementation.
Was the planned level of resources maintained during the implementation?
Apart from a brief period of sickness absence of the project manager, the planned level of
resources had been maintained throughout the implementation. The level of resources was seen
as being sufficient, however they weren't utilised properly. One interviewee thought that
perhaps a different approach was needed by the Project Manager to overcome the difficulties
with senior management commitment.
Was the planned staff training carried out?
No training was carried out, apart from that for the project manager. The training that was made
available wasn't taken up by the Faculty Executive. The lack of training had a negative effect on
the implementation. The project couldn't proceed beyond the stage of the Project Manager doing
self-assessment because there weren't enough staff who were knowledgeable. As a result the
project stalled.
Was there any recognition of or rewards for staff involved in EFQM implementation?
There wasn't any recognition of or rewards for staff involved in the EFQM implementation.
INTEGRATION
How many organisational levels was the EFQM Excellence Model implemented in?
The EFQM Model was partly implemented in two levels, the Faculty Executive and one pilot
school.
162
How was RADAR logic used in the implementation?
RADAR logic was used with some small groups on particular issues, e.g. Annual Programme
Review development. It was used with the Dean's Advisory Group to try to set some key
objectives, but this was not concluded.
Was the planned level of staff involvement with the EFQM Excellence Model achieved?
Staff involvement with the EFQM Model was not achieved. The project manager thought that
the reason for the lack of involvement of staff was that senior management commitment had not
really been gained, therefore it was difficult to involve other staff.
How many rounds of self-assessment have been carried out and when?
The documentation and the participant observer indicated that one round of self-assessment had
taken place in the pilot school in early 2001.
What has the model actually been used for and how often?
The EFQM Model had been used once (partly) for self-assessment and once as a strategic tool
(it partially helped the DAG with key results).
Was the EFQM Model aligned with other organisational systems? E.g. Subject Review,
Institutional Audit, Individual Performance Appraisal System, Internal Quality Reviews.
Although the Quality Working Group had shown in October 2000 how various initiatives could
be aligned with the EFQM Model, no attempts were made to align it with other organisational
systems.
GENERAL
Has anything else that we haven't already discussed helped in the EFQM implementation?
The only factor not already mentioned that helped the EFQM implementation was that
successful examples of the model's use elsewhere in the University resulted in renewed interest
from the 2"d Dean.
Has anything else that we haven't already discussed hindered the EFQM implementation?
Other factors that were perceived to have hindered the EFQM implementation were the closure
of schools and staff redundancies elsewhere in the University, which one interviewee thought
had produced a climate of fear. General staff workloads had increased in the time period of the
implementation. One interviewee thought that changes in the nature of students and
relationships with students had affected staff. One interviewee felt he was waiting to see "what
will hit us next?"
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The Quality Working Group had reported to the Faculty Executive back in March 2000 that
they had concerns about how the EFQM Model might be implemented and recommended that
an appropriate implementation plan be developed. No such plan was developed.
How were these hindrances overcome?
These hindrances were not overcome. One interviewee was of the opinion that the EFQM
Excellence Model would need to be core to the University's quality assurance activity to be
successfully implemented.
How would you assess your level of EFQM implementation?
The shared view (with one marginal exception) was that the level of EFQM implementation was
in the lower half of the entry level.
6.2.3 Case Study 'B' Time-Series Analysis
DATE ACTION PHASE OR ELEMENT OFTHE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK7 October 1999 "Email from author to Faculty Executive
re: Quality Working Group" showed thatthe Faculty were considering a systemfor managing quality at that time.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered,
support for the decision_14 February 2000 "Email from author to Quality Working
Group members re: outcomes ofmeeting" showed that the EFQMExcellence Model was being considered.This also showed that a number ofalternatives were also being considered.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered,
support for the decision
17 February 2000 "Email from Quality Working Groupmember to group members re: outcomesof meeting on 14/2/00" showed that anumber of alternatives to the EFQMModel were also being considered.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered,
support for the decision
28 February 2000 "Written notes of a meeting of theQuality Improvement Group with 2Heads of Schools to collect requirementsfor quality improvement" showed thatthe Faculty were considering a systemfor managing quality at that time.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered,
support for the decision
2 March 2000 "Notes of Quality Group meeting"showed that the Faculty wereconsidering a system for managingquality at that time.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered,
support for the decision29 March 2000 "Presentation by Quality Working Group
to Faculty Executive" showed that thegroup recommended the use of theEFQM Excellence Model to the FacultyExecutive and that a number ofalternatives to the EFQM Model hadbeen considered.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered,
support for the decision
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29 March 2000 "Email from author to Quality WorkingGroup members re; Faculty Executivepresentation" 31/3/00 showed that aqualified decision to use the model wasmade on 29/3/00. It was conditional onthe working group showing how theEFQM Model would incorporate currentinitiatives and potential future initiatives.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered,
support for the decision• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior
ManagementCommitment
8 August 2000 "Consortium Programme ManagementFramework" indicated that self-assessment would be carried out byinterviews using questionnaires andoutlines a communications plan for theoverall programme.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM Model specific
choices• Communication
August 2000 Implementation to start in the pilotschool (planned).
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
September 2000 A project manager was appointed. • Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
October 2000 The project manager was retrained as anEFQM Excellence Model assessor(previously trained in 1995)
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Education and Training
23 October 2000 "Presentation by Quality Working Groupto Faculty Executive" was an attempt tosell the benefits of the EFQM Model tothe Faculty Executive and address theissues raised in the previouspresentation.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Objectives and Expected
Benefits• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior
ManagementCommitment
23 October 2000 "Email from author to Quality WorkingGroup members re; Faculty Executivepresentation" 31/3/00 showed that theFaculty Executive made the decision touse the EFQM Excellence Model on23/10/00.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered,
support for the decision
December 2000 The project manager was trained inPRINCE2 project managementmethodology.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management• Education and Training
January 2001 Presentation to 1 of the 5 SchoolExecutives by the Project Manager to tryto gain senior management commitment.
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior
ManagementCommitment
Early 2001 One round of self-assessment had takenplace in the pilot school.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
Model
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9 July 2001 "Email from the Project Manager to theauthor re: improvement groups and rollout" included an outline plan with datesand a plan to set up an improvementgroup in the pilot school.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management• Staff Involvement and
TeamworkBetween June andSeptember 2001
"Presentation by Project Manager toconsortium project board" (undated)included an outline plan for rolling theimplementation out to the Faculty.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
September 2001 Implementation to start in the FacultyOffice (planned).
This was part of the planrather than actions taken.
November 2001 Implementation to start in the secondschool (planned).
This was part of the planrather than actions taken.
January 2002 Implementation to start in the thirdschool (planned).
This was part of the planrather than actions taken.
March 2002 Implementation to start in the fourthschool (planned).
This was part of the planrather than actions taken.
April 2002 Presentation to 1 of the 5 SchoolExecutives by the Project Manager to tryto gain senior management commitment.
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior
ManagementCommitment
May 2002 Implementation to start in the fifthschool (planned).
This was part of the planrather than actions taken.
September 2002
•
A workshop using RADAR logic withthe Dean's Advisory Group to try toagree on some key results areas for theFaculty.
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior
ManagementCommitment
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
Model
Table 6.2: Case Study 'B' Time-Series Analysis
6.2.4 Case Study 'B' Program Logic - comparison with Theoretical Framework
Decision Phase
Motive
There was no shared motive for using the EFQM Model. The Faculty was looking for a system
to manage quality in its broadest sense.
• Objectives and Expected Benefits
There was no consistent view of the expected benefits of using the EFQM Model and no
clear objectives were set for its use.
• Alternatives considered, support for the decision
A number of alternatives were considered. A qualified decision was made to use the EFQM
Model followed by a full decision to use it.
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• Intended uses of the EFQM Model
The main intended use of the EFQM Model was as a self-assessment framework to aid
improvement.
• Pace
The decision phase took place over a protracted period of time. It took the Faculty
Executive over 12 months to consider the alternatives and arrive at a decision to use the
EFQM Model. The HEFCE project had already been underway for 6 months by this time.
Generally the expected timescales in which the benefits would be accrued was around 3
years.
Preparation Phase
Gaining Senior Management Commitment
As the Faculty Executive initiated the project and were informed by the quality improvement
group the process of gaining senior management commitment actually started during the
decision phase and continued into the early part of the preparation phase. As the implementation
was planned to start with a pilot and then a roll out to each of the other schools in turn, the
project manager had to attempt to gain senior management commitment from each School
Executive at each stage. Two years into the project there was an attempt to try to regain senior
management commitment to the project in the Faculty Executive. The perceived level of senior
management commitment at the start of the project was 3.75 out of 7.
Pace
The initial actions that were taken to try to gain senior management commitment took place in
the first few months of the project. At this point the pace could be seen as acceptable, however
two years later the project manager had to try to regain senior management commitment as
progress with the project had stalled.
Planning
• Resistance to Change
No change models were considered for use in the implementation.
• Culture/Context assessment
There was no attempt by the Faculty Executive to assess the organisational culture. Any
assessment of culture took place on an individual level.
Management style wasn't assessed collectively. The perception was that the management
style was collegial.
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Only the project manager considered the individualism of academic staff. He thought that
this could be a barrier. The perception was that there was a tendency towards individualism.
The professional nature of academic staff was only considered by the project manager. The
perception was that the academic staff saw themselves as professionals.
Academic freedom and the critical nature of academic staff were not considered
collectively. The two staff who considered this thought that it might be a barrier. The
perception was that academic staff exercised a great deal of academic freedom and
criticality.
Recognition/rewards for involvement in EFQM implementation was not considered.
The language and terminology in the EFQM Model was not considered by the Faculty
Executive. The project manager had decided that it would be best not to mention the EFQM
model.
Only the project manager considered the Faculty culture of support. The general perception
was that the culture in the Faculty was supportive, although the project manager perceived it
as unsupportive.
• EFQM Model specific choices
There was great confusion about the approach used in self-assessment. It was decided not to
use scoring. It was decided to use RADAR Logic.
• Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
There were no specific plans for how senior management commitment to the
implementation would be demonstrated.
• Project Management
A steering group was set up at the University level for the wider project, but not at the
Faculty level. A project manager was appointed and an outline project plan was developed.
A pilot and rollout approach was decided on. A very large number of other major
initiatives/projects were taking place at the same time as the EFQM Excellence Model
implementation. Only the project manager was aware of the project progress monitoring
arrangements. The project was resourced.
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• Education and Training
The only planned training was for the project manager. Internal consultants were available
but not used.
• Communication
Although there was an overall communications plan for the consortium there was no local
communications plan.
• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
There was no generally understood plan for involving staff in the implementation.
• Pace
The small amount of planning that took place in the preparation phase mainly occurred
early in the preparation phase, although the project plan was redone later in the project as
progress had stalled.
Implementation and Evaluation Phase
• Pace
The implementation actions began within 3 months of the preparation phase being
completed.
Integration
Two different approaches were used to integrate the EFQM Model.
• Multi-level use in the organisation
The EFQM Model was partly implemented at two levels.
• Alignment with other organisational systems
No attempts were made to align the EFQM Model with other organisational systems.
• Actual uses of the EFQM Model, particularly its use in strategic planning
Once for self-assessment and once (partly) in strategic planning.
• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
Staff involvement with the EFQM Model had not been achieved. Only about 3% of the
Faculty's staff had any involvement with the use of the EFQM Model.
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• Pace
The initial self-assessment in the pilot school took place within the first six months of the
project, however the next time the model was used was 2 years into the project. The pace of
the integration element of the implementation and evaluation phase was very slow.
Momentum
No approaches were utilised to provide momentum to the implementation.
• Project Management
The project manager was in post for the whole 3-year period of the project. No progress
monitoring took place at the Faculty level. An activities plan was in place but wasn't
followed. The resources allocated to the project were maintained throughout the project.
The available internal consultant was not used.
• Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
There were no examples of senior management commitment to the project being
demonstrated. There was an extremely high number of changes in the membership of the
Faculty Executive. The perception was that very little senior management commitment was
demonstrated during the project (2 out of 7). This compares with 3.75 out of 7 at the start of
the project.
• Communication
No communication took place to inform staff about the project.
• Education and Training
No education and training took place apart from that planned for the project manager.
• Improvement Planning, Action and Review
Improvement planning, action and review was not carried out.
• Recognition and Rewards
There wasn't any recognition of or rewards for staff involved in the EFQM implementation.
• Evaluation of Benefits
The expected benefits of using the EFQM Model were not achieved.
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• Pace
Almost no actions had taken place that might have produced momentum in the
implementation. The overall view was that the implementation did not progress on
schedule. The pace of implementation was seen as being too slow.
Effectiveness of the Implementation
The shared view (with one marginal exception) was that the level of implementation was in the
lower half of the entry level. The author's assessment of the level of implementation from his
knowledge of the case concurred with this.
Thus the implementation could be assessed as having been ineffective. This can be explained by
comparing what actually happened with the theoretical framework.
In the decision phase there had been a fairly clear internal motive for using the EFQM Model. A
reasonable degree of senior management commitment to the project had been gained at the start
of the preparation phase.
In the planning element of the preparation phase there was no attempt to assess potential
resistance to change and no systematic attempt to assess the culture/context. There was no plan
to demonstrate senior management commitment, very little education and training was planned
and there was no plan to involve staff. On the positive side some of the expected elements of
project management were put in place, choices were made relevant to the specifics of using the
EFQM Model and a communications plan was put in place.
In the integration element of the implementation and evaluation phase very little integration was
achieved. The EFQM Model was used to a small extent for self-assessment but was only used in
strategic planning in a marginal way. The model was only used to a small extent in two
organisational levels and was not aligned with other organisational systems. Staff were not
involved in teams.
In the momentum element of the implementation and evaluation phase, very few of the elements
that might have produced momentum were addressed. Little project monitoring took place and
improvement planning did not occur, senior management commitment wasn't demonstrated,
communication did not take place, very little education and training was carried out, there were
no rewards or recognition for staff involved in the implementation and benefits were not
achieved through using the EFQM Model.
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6.3 Case Study 'C'
6.3.1 Case Study 'C' Background (2002-2003)
Size of the University
The University in which case study 'C' took place has 16,755 students, 727 academic staff and
1,276 support staff.
University History
The University is a post 1992 institution. Its origins go back to 1825.
University Academic Structure
The University comprises six Faculties each with a number of Schools within them.
University Governance
The Academic Board is the principal academic body of the University. It draws its members
from the academic staff and students of the University. Its role is to direct and regulate the
teaching, enterprise and research of the University. This includes approving all courses and
over-seeing all aspects of academic quality assurance. The Vice Chancellor is the Chairman of
the Academic Board.
The Executive Board of the University is comprised of the Vice Chancellor, four Pro Vice
Chancellors and the Directors of the major service departments. The Strategic Management
Group is as for the Executive Board with the addition of the Deans of Faculty and two more
directors of service departments. The Management Group is as for the Strategic Management
Group plus all other Heads of School and Managers of service departments.
Academic Management
The Deans of Faculty report to the Vice Chancellor. Heads of School report to their Dean of
Faculty. All Academic Managers are appointed on a permanent basis.
Split of Activities
This University was not happy to release the HEFCE Transparency Review figures that would
have indicated the relative amount of academic staff time spent on Teaching, Research and
Enterprise activities. The interviewees did not feel sufficiently informed to offer a view on this.
Size of the Case Study School
The case study school has 60 academic staff, 49 support staff and 1,040 students.
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History of the Case Study School
The School was formed in 1997 from the merger of two schools. The school was placed into a
new Faculty-based structure in 2003.
Structure of the Case Study School
The school is made up of a number of discipline -based groups.
Governance of the Case Study School
The School Board is the principal academic body of the School. It draws its members from the
academic staff and students of the School. Its role is to direct and regulate the teaching and
research of the School. This includes approving all courses and over-seeing all aspects of
academic quality assurance. The Director of the School is the Chairman of the School Board.
Academic Management of the Case Study School
Executive decisions are made by the Senior Management Team of the School. This is chaired by
the Director of the School and comprises the Deputy Director and senior academic staff (often
Professors) representing each of the discipline groups.
Split of Activities in the Case Study School
Teaching 50%
Research 20%
Enterprise 30%
6.3.2 Case Study 'C' Interview and Document Analysis
Appendix 11 is the analysis matrix for case study 'C'. The patterns emerging from the analysis
matrix are summarised here. Appendix 12 is the list of documents from Case study 'C' that are
referred to in Appendix 11. These documents are contained in the case study database for case
'C'.
INITIAL DECISION
The Excellence Model was first considered in late 1999/early 2000. No alternatives were
considered. It was unclear when the decision was taken to use the EFQM Model. It was
somewhere between late 1999 and October 2000. The decision was either taken by the Vice
Chancellor, having located a willing pilot school or by the School's management team with a
strong steer from the Vice Chancellor. Three of the four interviewees were involved in making
this decision. It would appear that the decision was fully supported by the School's management
team. Although the interviewees all phrased their responses differently, the themes that emerged
about the motives for using the EFQM Model were:
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School improvement. Benefits in management decision-making. Becoming more proactive, less
reactive.
The main intended use of the EFQM Excellence Model was:
Self-assessment framework to aid improvement. In addition the project manager listed the
following:
To provide a holistic, broader view of the business. A means of integrating other quality and
management initiatives and tools. To motivate staff to get involved in quality improvement
activities (partly). The Professor interviewed (C4) thought that it would be used as a
performance management tool.
The interviewees mentioned a number of expected benefits or objectives:
To improve the school. To improve the management of the school. To become proactive. The
project manager (Director of the School) had an objective to develop a strategic planning
system.
The anticipated timescale in which the expected benefits would be accrued was 2-3 years, but
then it would be continual.
GAINING SENIOR MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT
Three main actions were taken to gain senior management commitment: The Head of School
made a presentation to the School's Senior Management Team (SMT). There was a specific one-
day training session on 9 November 2000 for the SMT plus the managers of those staff to be
included in the diagonal slice. This was run by a consultant from the HEFCE consortium and
was designed to increase awareness and understanding. The Vice Chancellor was involved in
various training sessions and meetings. These actions took place in the last quarter of 2000 and
the early part of 2001. The perceived level of senior management commitment at the start of the
project was:
Mean = 6.25
Range 5.5 to 7
(1 = None, 7 = Full)
Senior management commitment was seen as being very high, although the project manager
(Director of the School) thought that it ranged from 3 to 7.
PREPARATION
Were any change models considered for use during the implementation? (e.g. force field
analysis)
No change models were considered for use in the implementation.
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Were the motive and objectives in using the EFQM Excellence Model communicated to
staff?
The motive and objectives in using the EFQM Excellence Model were communicated to staff in
the school. These were communicated by a staff newsletter and an address to staff by the
Director of the school. There was an invitation to school staff to join the diagonal slice that was
to carry out self-assessment. This happened in late 2000. One interviewee thought that this
communication only took place with the diagonal slice members.
Culture/Context
Was there an attempt to assess the organisational culture?
There was no collective attempt to assess the organisational culture
The management style wasn't considered in the preparation. The interviewees' perceptions of
management style was:
Mean = 4.9
Range 4 to 6.5
(1 = Collegial, 7 = Managerial)
The management style was seen as quite managerial.
Only the project manager had considered the individualism of staff in the preparation phase.
The project manager thought that some individuals were anti-managerial and were against
management models. Some individuals would not want to be in a team. The interviewees'
perceptions of academic staff individualism was:
Mean = 4.9
Range 4 to 5.5
(1 = Individual, 7 = Teamworking)
The staff were seen as team-centred with some pockets of individualism.
The professional nature of academic staff was not taken into consideration in the preparation.
The interviewees' perceptions of the professional nature of academic staff was:
Mean = 6.25
Range 5.5 to 7
(1 = Low, 7 = High)
The interviewees thought that the academic staff saw themselves as professionals.
Academic Freedom/critical nature of academic staff was not taken into consideration in the
preparation. The interviewees' perceptions of how much academic freedom and criticality was
exercised by staff was:
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Mean = 5.9
Range 4 to 7
(1 = Low, 7 = High)
It was thought that the academic staff exercised a great deal of academic freedom and criticality.
Recognition/rewards for involvement in EFQM implementation was considered but it was
decided not to plan any. The reasons for not planning any rewards/recognition were:
If work on this project was rewarded then other things would have to be. A concern that
volunteers might not come forward for the "right" reasons. Cash was not within the Director's
gift.
The language/terminology in the EFQM Model was not tailored to suit the culture/context. The
reasons for not changing the language/terminology were:
The language was seen as OK (the public sector version was used). The school was guided by
the HEFCE consultant, who indicated that the school would then be using the same model as
anyone else using it. One interviewee thought that some staff "struggled" with the language.
Only the project manager considered the school culture of support in the preparation. The
project manager thought that there would be an expectation from the school members of
management support. The interviewees' perceptions of the culture of support in the school was:
Mean = 4.3
Range 2 to 5.5
(1 = Blame/Fear or Unsupportive/Uncooperative, 7 = Supportive/Cooperative)
There was a range of opinions on the culture of support in the school. It was seen to be moving
towards being supportive/co-operative. There had been a blame culture in the past.
Issues specific to the use of the EFQM Excellence Model
A workshop approach to self-assessment had been used with a diagonal slice of staff. This
approach was recommended by the BEFCE consultant. A decision was taken on 14 September
2000 to use scoring. The reasons why it was decided to score were:
The academic discipline of the staff in the school meant that they would be attracted to
numbers. It is part of the culture. It was chosen by the self-assessment teams because they had
been trained to score. On reflection, one interviewee thought that perhaps using scoring wasn't a
good thing. The intended uses of the scores were:
For comparison of problems in order to identify areas for improvement that would have the
most impact. To check possible improvement. "To see where we stood".
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It was decided not to change the criterion weightings in the model. There was no clear reason
for leaving the criterion weightings as they were. The project manager thought that this would
aid Benchmarking.
A decision was made to use RADAR logic in the implementation. The reason for using
RADAR logic was to help with scoring.
Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
A number of actions were planned in order to demonstrate senior management commitment to
the implementation:
Two members of the diagonal slice came from the SMT. It was a standing item on the SMT
agenda. The Director of the School coordinated meetings. The diagonal slice members didn't
have to make an appointment to see the Director of the School. The Head of School facilitated
some of the training sessions. The Head of School undertook EFQM Assessor training. The
Vice Chancellor was "visible" during the training sessions. These approaches were chosen to
demonstrate visibility and practical involvement.
Project Management
There was no separate steering committee. This function was to be carried out by the school's
SMT. The Director of the School was appointed as the Project Manager in summer 2000. The
Project Manager had no previous knowledge of or experience with the EFQM Excellence
Model, however he had previous experience of managing projects. The project manager
received EFQM assessor training in March/April 2002. He thought that this would have been
better before the first self-assessment in Spring 2001. There was no detailed project plan. The
project timetable was constructed by the consortium members and the consultants. The pace was
dictated by the HEFCE funded consortium. The first self-assessment had to be done by Spring
2001. The implementation was done across the school. The reasons for this were:
The School was a pilot for the whole University. The School had reasonable staff numbers to do
it across the School. (About 60 academics and 40 support staff). It was better politically to self-
assess all the school rather than some of it. The "Diagonal Slice" was school-wide and it pulled
members of the school together. There were some other initiatives/projects taking place at the
same time as the EFQM implementation:
One part of the school underwent an external Subject Review. There was a "budgeting crisis".
The new Vice Chancellor was making structural changes to the University. As a result, the
School became part of a Faculty. Many new programmes were being validated. "The usual
heavy workload".
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Progress of the project was to be monitored by the project manager and the SMT and also by the
HEFCE consortium project manager.
The following resources were allocated to the project:
The Project Manager (No specific % of time but averaged about one to one and a half days per
week on the project). The Diagonal Slice Team (14 staff), between half and one day per week
each. Some money for training and the release of staff from other duties.
Education and Training
The following training was planned to support the implementation:
A one-day seminar for senior managers planned for 8 November 2000. A three-day training
session in the model and improvement tools and techniques for a team of 10 planned for 14-16
November 2000. A one-day training session for the team of 10 on gathering and analysing
evidence for self-assessment. The planned training was recommended by the consortium
consultant and the training was carried out by the external consultant and the HEFCE
consortium Project Manager.
Consultants from the HEFCE consortium were used. The reasons for using the consultants
were:
Experience was needed early in the project. Money was available from the HEFCE project to
pay for this support. The consultants were experts in the use of the EFQM Model.
Communication
There was no initial communications plan.
Planned involvement in the implementation process and use of the EFQM Excellence
Model
It was planned to involve staff in the implementation process and use of the EFQM Excellence
Model in the following ways:
In the diagonal slice, made up of some selected members and some volunteers (these were
selected from a pool in order to get a good cross-section of the school), that would conduct the
self-assessment. This approach to staff involvement was chosen to get a good cross-section of
the school to carry out self-assessment and was designed to get wide involvement and views.
Involvement in the improvement groups. The improvement teams were to implement
improvements. Improvement team members were suggested by the SMT based on appropriate
expertise, but with some flexibility to include volunteers.
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The use of teams was considered. Teams were used to get staff involved across the school
through the groups described above. Three Improvement Groups with 6 staff in each were set up
after the self-assessment. The Improvement Group members were half from the Diagonal Slice
and half who were not.
MOMENTUM
Improvement Planning, Action and Review after self-assessment
Improvement Planning, Action and Review after self-assessment took place on 8 March 2001.
This was carried out by he Diagonal Slice facilitated by the consultant. Pareto Analysis was
used. It was difficult but consensus on which improvement projects to address was reached. The
self-assessment outcomes were linked with the strategic priorities of the University.
Improvement teams were set up with members of the diagonal slice joined by other staff who
had particular experience that would be useful to the projects. This approach maintained the
involvement and ownership of the diagonal slice. It was seen as an advantage to do it this way
as the group had lost their inhibitions to discuss problems. The improvement projects addressed
3 key issues in the school. The emphasis was to get some quick wins (12 of these were planned),
which could be used to serve as examples of improvement. Three others were chosen to have a
big impact on the school.
Did the implementation progress on schedule?
The overall view was that the first year of the project progressed on schedule, but only one of
the three improvement projects progressed on schedule. The perceived reasons for the project
falling behind schedule were:
The improvements groups didn't bed down quickly. Sometimes there was more talking than
action. There were some negative views of "it can't be done" and "why are we doing this?" from
members who hadn't been in the diagonal slice. Organisational changes affected the staff focus.
Particularly the Head of School was about to move to the role of Research Institute Director.
Momentum was lost in the improvement project stage because of the pressures of other work.
There were attempts to regain momentum. The Project Manager stepped in and guillotined some
issues with all three of the improvement groups. The Chairs for the improvement groups were
appointed from within the diagonal slice. The overall view though was that momentum was lost
and not regained.
Little communication took place to inform staff about progress with the implementation. There
was a Newsletter and the Director of the School's "State of the Nation" address to the school.
One interviewee said that there was very little formal communication. "Thank goodness for the
grapevine". The project manager thought that perhaps more communication was needed after
the self-assessment and before the improvement groups got started.
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Were the expected benefits of using the Excellence Model achieved?
The expected benefits were only partly achieved. The self-assessment helped with strategic
planning, problems were grouped and prioritised and consensus was gained in the diagonal slice
group but not in the improvement groups. Initially the process helped to pull the school
together, however suggested improvements were not implemented. The major barriers to
achieving the benefits were seen to be:
That members of the improvement groups who hadn't been in the diagonal slice needed to see
the evidence for the areas for improvement for themselves. The members of the improvement
groups were powerless to implement their recommendations for improvement. Between January
2002 and September 2002 only one of the three improvement teams was active. The Director of
the School changed in August 2002, so in effect the project did not have a project manager for
the last year. The focus on other projects to help ease the financial pressures on the school. The
above led to a loss of focus, direction and momentum.
Do you think the pace of implementation was: too slow, too quick, about right?
There were mixed views on the pace of implementation. One interviewee thought it was too
quick, one too slow and two about right (one of these thought it slowed down considerably after
the first 12 months). The reason given by the project manager for believing that the
implementation was too quick, initially, was that the first self-assessment was "pushed" by the
HEFCE consortium. He felt it would have been better to fit it in with the cycle of the academic
year. The interviewee who thought that it was too slow thought that too much time was spent on
the initial workshops. More effort was needed to manage the improvement projects. The one
who felt that the pace had slowed thought that the EFQM implementation had become a
"distraction" to some staff. One interviewee thought that the rate of progress was about right
considering all the other commitments in the school.
Was senior management commitment maintained throughout the implementation?
The Director and Deputy Director of the school thought that senior management commitment
had been maintained but the other two interviewees appeared not to be convinced of this. One
thought that some of the SMT remained committed, others focussed on other priorities. The
fourth interviewee offered no comment but raised his eyebrows. The author took this to mean
that he didn't think that senior management commitment hadn't been maintained. Senior
management commitment was demonstrated during the implementation in a number of ways:
Two members of the diagonal slice came from the SMT. It was a standing item on the SMT
agenda. The Director of the School coordinated meetings. Diagonal slice members didn't have
to make an appointment to see the Director of the School. Senior management were involved in
the training. By senior management involvement in the improvement teams. The "HEFCE
Consortium Briefing Document" September 2000 was part prepared by the Vice Chancellor of
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the case study school's University. The Vice Chancellor opened the "School Action Planning
Meeting" on 8 March 2001.
The following helped to maintain senior management commitment:
The overall aims were seen as important. The improvement projects were seen as important.
There was enthusiasm for the EFQM Model.
The issues which negatively affected senior management commitment were:
The focus on other priorities. Two of the three improvement projects did not make progress.
The implementation was not discussed at the school's senior management team meetings. There
was much crisis management. Developmental projects such as this one took a back seat. The
Director of the School stepped down 2 years into the project and no longer led the project. As a
consequence, there was no Project Manager for the last year. One interviewee thought that
momentum had been lost by then anyway.The interviewees' perceptions of the extent to which
senior management commitment was demonstrated during the course of the implementation
was:
Mean = 3.9
Range 2.5 to 5
(1 = None, 7 = Full)
It was felt that senior management commitment was demonstrated to a reasonable extent.
Was the planned level of resources maintained during the implementation?
There were mixed views on whether the planned level of resources was maintained during the
implementation. One interviewee thought that the loss of the project manager for the last year of
the project meant that the planned level of resources wasn't maintained throughout the project.
In addition not all the available funding was used. It was thought that more training and support
for the improvement groups was needed.
Was the planned staff training carried out?
The planned staff training was carried out. The training had a number of positive effects:
There was a positive effect on behaviour, particularly the values and vision of the diagonal slice
members. It helped to put things into context using examples, cases and discussion and it helped
to familiarise staff with basic quality tools. Staff started to use the terminology of the EFQM
Model.
Was there any recognition of or rewards for staff involved in EFQM implementation?
There were no rewards for staff involved in the EFQM implementation, however there were a
number of instances of recognition:
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Verbal thanks to various staff. Verbal support from the Vice Chancellor. Written thanks from
the VC to the project manager. The Vice Chancellor ran a draw with the winners receiving
tickets to one of the Queen's Garden Parties at Buckingham Palace.
INTEGRATION
How many organisational levels was the EFQM Excellence Model implemented in?
There were mixed views on how many levels the self-assessment had been carried out in. The
only documented self-assessment was at the school level.
How was RADAR logic used in the implementation?
RADAR Logic was used:
To aid scoring, to help define priorities for improvement and to guide logical thought supported
by evidence.
Was the planned level of staff involvement with the EFQM Excellence Model achieved?
The planned level of staff involvement was mainly achieved. J8 Dot of 85 staff in the school
were involved in the diagonal slice. Only one of the three improvement groups was really
active. The partial lack of staff involvement was because of the focus on other priorities.
How many rounds of self-assessment have been carried out and when?
One round of self-assessment was carried out in March 2001.
What has the model actually been used for and how often?
The model was actually used:
As a self-assessment framework.
As a strategic tool (the school's 2002 strategic plan was based on the self-assessment outcomes).
To provide a holistic, broader view of the business.
To motivate staff to get involved in quality improvement activities.
Was the EFQM Model aligned with other organisational systems? E.g. Subject Review,
Institutional Audit, Individual Performance Appraisal System, Internal Quality Reviews.
The EFQM Model was not aligned with other organisational systems.
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GENERAL
Has anything else that we haven't already discussed helped in the EFQM implementation?
One interviewee thought that the application of commonsense provided by the EFQM Model,
particularly for those who were not management or control orientated had helped in the
implementation.
Has anything else that we haven't already discussed hindered the EFQM implementation?
There were some other issues that the interviewees felt had hindered the implementation:
There were some instances of some senior University staff (outside the School) feeling
"threatened" by the pilot project in the School. The change of school leadership. The multi-
tasking of individuals who had a plethora of roles. Differing levels of commitment. No time was
allocated to staff for improvement project work. Momentum was "killed" in April to June 2002
because of exam pressures.
How were these hindrances overcome?
The first of the hindrances was overcome by the Director of the School talking through their
concerns with them. Mostly though the hindrances weren't overcome.
How would you assess your level of EFQM implementation?
There were mixed views on the level of implementation. 2 interviewees thought this was in the
lower half of the maturing level and 2 in the upper half of the entry level.
6.3.3 Case Study 'C' Time-Series Analysis
DATE ACTION PHASE OR ELEMENT OFTHE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORKLate 1999/early2000
The Excellence Model was firstconsidered.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Intended uses of the
EFQM ModelSomewherebetween late 1999and October 2000
It was unclear when the decision wastaken to use the EFQM Model.
• Decision Phase• Motive• Intended uses of the
EFQM ModelSummer 2000 The Director of the School was
appointed as the Project Manager.• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
September 2000 The "HEFCE Consortium BriefingDocument" was part prepared by theVice Chancellor of the case studyschool's University.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Demonstrating senior
management commitment
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14 September 2000 "Memo to SMT from Director ofSchool" showed that it was planned toapply the model's scoring mechanismand showed an outline timetable for theconsortium.This also showed three planned elementsof training:A one-day seminar for senior managersplanned for 8/11/00.A three-day training session in the modeland improvement tools and techniquesfor a team of 10 was planned for 14-16/11/00.A one-day training session for the teamof 10 on gathering and analysingevidence for self-assessment wasplanned for 14 December 2000.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM Model specific
choices• Education and Training• Communication• Staff Involvement and
Teamwork
Late 2000 The Director of the School made apresentation to the School's SeniorManagement Team (SMT) to explain theuse of the EFQM Model.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Communication• Education and Training• Demonstrating senior
management commitment9 November 2000 There was a specific one-day training
session to introduce the EFQM Modelfor the SMT plus the managers of thosestaff to be included in the diagonal slice.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Education and Training
Late 2000 The motive and objectives in using theEFQM Excellence Model werecommunicated to staff in the school.There was an invitation to join thediagonal slice.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Communication
14-16 November2000.
A three-day training session in the modeland improvement tools and techniquesfor a team of 10 was run.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Education and Training
14 December 2000 A one-day training session for the teamof 10 on gathering and analysingevidence for self-assessment was run.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Education and Training
12-13 February2001
"Consensus Workshop Agenda" showedthe involvement of the consultants fromthe HEFCE Consortium.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
Model• Staff Involvement and
TeamworkMarch 2001 One round of self-assessment was
carried out. The school's 2002 strategicplan was based on the self-assessmentoutcomes.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
Model, particularly its usein strategic planning.
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8 March 2001 "School Action Planning Meeting"showed that Improvement Planning,Action and Review took place. The ViceChancellor opened the meeting, Theemphasis was to get some quick wins(12 were planned), which could be usedto serve as examples of improvement,Three others were chosen to have a bigimpact on the school.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning
Action and Review• Demonstrating senior
management commitment
Late 2000/Early2001
The Vice Chancellor was involved invarious training sessions and meetings.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Demonstrating senior
management commitment21 June 2001 "Memo from VC to Project Manager"
shows the Vice Chancellor recognisingthe project manager's presentation onEFQM at a conference.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Recognition & Rewards
Between January2002 andSeptember 2002
Only one of the three improvementteams was active.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Pace
April to June 2002 Momentum was "killed" because ofexam pressures.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Pace
March/April 2002 The project manager received EFQMAssessor training. He thought that thiswould have been better before the firstself-assessment in Spring 2001.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Education and Training
August 2002 The Director of the School changed. Soin effect the project did not have aproject manager for the last year.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Demonstrating senior
management commitment
Table 6.3: Case Study 'C' Time-Series Analysis
6.3.4 Case Study 'C' Program Logic - comparison with Theoretical Framework
Decision Phase
Motive
There were shared internal motives for using the EFQM Excellence Model.
• Objectives and Expected Benefits
A number of objectives and expected benefits were expressed.
• Alternatives considered, support for the decision
No alternatives were considered and the decision to use the EFQM Model was supported by
the school's senior management team.
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• Intended uses of the EFQM Model
The main intended use was as a self-assessment framework to aid improvement.
• Pace
The decision phase was completed within about the first six months. The expected timescale
in which the benefits would be accrued was 2-3 years.
Preparation Phase
Gaining Senior Management Commitment
Much effort was put into gaining senior management commitment. The perceived level of
senior management commitment at the start of the project was very high at 6.25 out of 7.
Pace
The initial actions that were taken to try to gain senior management commitment took place in
the first three months of the project. This first element of the preparation phase happened at a
good pace.
Planning
• Resistance to Change
No change models were considered for use in the implementation.
• Culture/Context assessment
There was no collective attempt to assess the culture/context, although the project manager
had given some thought to some of the elements of this.
Management style wasn't considered in the preparation. The perception was that the
management style was quite managerial.
Only the project manager considered the individualism of academic staff in the preparation
phase. He thought that this could be a barrier. The perception was that the staff were team-
centred with some pockets of individualism.
The professional nature of academic staff was not taken into consideration in the
preparation. The perception was that the academic staff saw themselves as professionals.
Academic freedom and the critical nature of academic staff were not taken into
consideration in the preparation. The perception was that academic staff exercised a great
deal of academic freedom and criticality.
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Recognition/rewards for involvement in EFQM implementation was considered but it was
decided not to plan any.
The language and terminology in the EFQM Model was not tailored to suit the
culture/context.
Only the project manager considered the School culture of support in the preparation. The
project manager thought that there would be an expectation from the school members of
management support. There was a range of opinions on the culture of support in the school.
It was seen to be moving towards being supportive/co-operative. There had been a blame
culture in the past.
• EFQM Model specific choices
The workshop approach to self-assessment was chosen. A decision was made to use scoring
and to leave the criterion weightings in the EFQM Model as they were. It was decided to
use RADAR Logic in the implementation.
• Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
Many actions were planned in order to demonstrate senior management commitment to the
implementation.
• Project Management
The steering function was planned to be carried out by the school's SMT. A project manager
was appointed. The Vice Chancellor acted as the project champion and a project consultant
was used. There was a general timetable for the implementation and resources were
allocated to the project. The implementation wasn't piloted. There were some other
initiatives/projects taking place at the same time as the EFQM implementation.
• Education and Training
A very comprehensive training plan was put in place. Consultants were used to carry out the
training.
• Communication
There was no initial communications plan.
• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
Extensive involvement of staff in teams was planned.
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• Pace
The planning element of the preparation phase was carried out quickly within the first
month of the project.
Implementation and Evaluation Phase
• Pace
The implementation actions began within one and a half months of the preparation phase
being completed.
Integration
Three different approaches were used to integrate the EFQM Model.
• Multi-level use in the organisation
The EFQM Model was used in one level.
• Alignment with other organisational systems
The EFQM Model was not aligned with other organisational systems.
• Actual uses of the EFQM Model, particularly its use in strategic planning
The main use of the model was as a self-assessment framework, it provided a holistic,
broader view of the business and motivated staff to get involved in quality improvement
activities. The school's 2002 strategic plan was based on the self-assessment outcomes.
• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
The planned level of staff involvement was mainly achieved through the diagonal slice and
the three improvement groups. About 30% of the school's staff were involved with the use
of the EFQM Model.
• Pace
The initial use of the EFQM Model happened within the first 7 months of the start of the
project. The integration element of the implementation and evaluation phase started quickly,
however the use of the EFQM Model and the staff involvement stopped around 18 months
into the project.
Momentum
Five approaches were utilised to provide momentum to the implementation, but these were
mostly only used in the first 18 months.
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• Project Management
The project manager was only in post for the first two years of the 3-year period of the
project. Little progress monitoring took place at the school level. An activities plan was in
place for the first year of the project and was followed. The resources allocated to the
project were not maintained throughout the project.
• Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
Senior management commitment was demonstrated during the implementation in a number
of ways, particularly in the first year. There were some signs that it had waned over the last
two years. The perception was that some senior management commitment was
demonstrated during the project (3.9 out of 7). This compares with 6.25 out of 7 at the start
of the project.
• Communication
Some communication took place within the school about the EFQM implementation but this
was mostly in the first six months. There was a feeling that there hadn't been enough
communication.
• Education and Training
A considerable amount of training took place during the first six months of the project.
• Improvement Planning, Action and Review
This started about six months into the project and some minor improvement actions were
carried out, however the three improvement groups lost momentum in years 2 and 3.
• Recognition and Rewards
There were no rewards for staff involved in the EFQM implementation, however there were
a number of instances of recognition.
• Evaluation of Benefits
The expected benefits were only partly achieved.
• Pace
Many actions had taken place that would be expected to produce momentum in the
implementation. The overall view was that the first year of the implementation progressed
on schedule. The pace of implementation was seen as being about right in the first year but
it had slowed down considerably after that.
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Effectiveness of the Implementation
The view was that the level of implementation was about on the boundary of the upper half of
the entry level and the lower half of the maturing level. The author's assessment of the level of
implementation from his knowledge of the case concurred with this.
Thus the implementation could be assessed as having been somewhat effective. This can be
explained by comparing what actually happened with the theoretical framework.
In the decision phase there had been clear internal motives for using the EFQM Model, clear
objectives and expected benefits, and clear views on the intended uses of the EFQM Model. A
high degree of senior management commitment to the project had been gained at the start of the
preparation phase.
In the planning element of the preparation phase there was no attempt to assess potential
resistance to change and only the project manager had attempted to assess the culture/context.
There was a strong plan to demonstrate senior management commitment, extensive education
and training was planned and there was a clear plan to involve staff. Most of the expected
elements of project management were put in place, choices were made relevant to the specifics
of using the EFQM Model, but no communications plan was put in place.
In the integration element of the implementation and evaluation phase very little integration was
achieved. The EFQM Model was used once for self-assessment and was only used in strategic
planning on one occasion. The model was only used in one organisational level and was not
aligned with other organisational systems. Staff were involved in teams.
In the momentum element of the implementation and evaluation phase, most of the elements
that might have produced momentum were addressed. Some project monitoring took place and
improvement planning did occur, senior management commitment was demonstrated in the
early stages of the project, some communication took place, extensive education and training
was carried out, there was some recognition for staff involved in the implementation and some
of the expected benefits were achieved through using the EFQM Model. On the negative side,
momentum was lost because the improvement groups did not function properly and therefore
did not produce the expected improvements and the fact that the project manager who was also
the Director of the School moved to a different role after 2 years meant that senior management
commitment was lost.
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6.4 Case Study 'D'
6.4.1 Case Study 'D' Background (2002-2003)
Size of the University
The University in which case study 'D' took place has 16,432students, 853 academic staff and
1,321 support staff.
University History
The University is a pre-1992 institution. Its origins go back to 1896.
University Academic Structure
The University is made up of four Faculties, which contain 14 Schools. Research activity is
organised into a number of Research Institutes.
University Governance
Senate is the principal academic body of the University. It draws its members from the
academic staff and students of the University. Its role is to direct and regulate the teaching,
enterprise and research activities of the University. This includes approving all courses and
over-seeing all aspects of academic quality assurance. The Vice Chancellor is the Chairman of
Senate. Faculty Boards report to Senate.
Council is the chief executive and financial body of the University. It has responsibility for the
strategic direction of the institution, approval of major developments and the receipt of regular
reports from executive officers on the day to day operations of the University.
Court is the supreme constitutional body of the University. It offers a means whereby the wider
interests served by the University can be associated with the institution and provides a public
forum where members of Court can raise any matters about the University. Court normally
meets once each year to receive the annual report and financial statements. Major changes to the
constitution of the University require Court's approval.
A majority of the members of Court are from outside the University, representing designated
bodies with an interest in the work of the University, including the local community. Court also
includes many members and former members of University staff. All members of Senate are ex-
officio members of Court, as are the Emeritus Professors of the University.
Executive decisions are taken by the University Executive Group, which comprises the Vice
Chancellor, the four Pro Vice Chancellors, the Registrar and the Director of Finance. The Senior
Management Team is as for the University Executive Group with the addition of the four Deans
of Faculty.
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Academic Management
There are four Pro Vice Chancellors and four Deans of Faculty who all report directly to the
Vice Chancellor. There are fourteen Heads of School who all report directly to the Vice
Chancellor. The University Management Group comprises the Vice Chancellor, the Registrar
the Pro Vice Chancellors, the Deans of Faculty, the Associate Deans, the Directors of Research
Institutes, the Heads of School and the Directors of the major support services.
Academic Managers hold fixed terms of office as follows:
Vice Chancellor Normally 7 years.
Pro Vice Chancellor 2 years plus, normally, a further 2 years.
Dean of Faculty 4 years.
Associate Dean 4 years.
Head of School 4 years.
Consecutive terms of office are not allowed.
Split of Activities
Teaching 70.2%
Research 21.6%
Enterprise 8.2%
Size of the Case Study Faculty
The case study Faculty has 260 academic staff, 112 support staff and 4,976 students.
History of the Case Study Faculty
The Faculty was formed in 1999 after a major academic reorganisation of the University.
Structure of the Case Study Faculty
The Faculty is made up of three schools.
Governance of the Case Study Faculty
The governing body of the Faculty is the Faculty Board. This comprises the Dean, the three
Associate Deans (one each for Teaching, Research and Academic Enterprise), the three Heads
of School, elected academic staff representatives from each school and student representatives.
Executive decisions are made by the Faculty Executive. This comprises the Dean, the three
Associate Deans, the three Heads of School, the Faculty Administrator and the Faculty
Accountant.
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Academic Management in the Case Study Faculty
The three Associate Deans and the three Heads of School report to the Dean of Faculty. The
Academic Management of the Schools mirrors that of the Faculty with a School Board and a
School Executive. The School Executive comprises the Head of School, three Associate Heads,
the School Administrator and the School Finance Officer.
Split of Activities in the Case Study Faculty
Teaching 82.6%
Research 11.5%
Enterprise 5.9%
6.4.2 Case Study 'D' Interview and Document Analysis
Appendix 13 is the analysis matrix for case study 'D'. The patterns emerging from the analysis
matrix are summarised here. Appendix 14 is the list of documents from Case study 'D' that are
referred to in Appendix 13. These documents are contained in the case study database for case
'D'.
INITIAL DECISION
The EFQM Excellence Model was first considered in the summer of 2000. The Faculty was
approached by a Centre within the University that had expertise in using the EFQM Excellence
Model with a view to them getting involved in the HEFCE funded project. No alternatives were
considered. The decision to use the EFQM model was taken in July 2000 by the Faculty
Executive.
The Faculty Executive were generally happy to support the Dean, however it was seen as a "Fait
Accompli", the HEFCE project had already been committed to as one of the University's Pro
Vice Chancellors had agreed with the expert centre mentioned above to be involved in the
HEFCE funded project.
There wasn't a single shared motive for using the EFQM Model. There were a number of stated
motives:
"To get ourselves sorted out". To get commonality, as there were 3 schools with different
cultures and also some specific quality problems. The Faculty had been told that the body that
would make the decision on the award of a major teaching contract would be using the EFQM
Model to review the contract. The Faculty was being monitored on quality by both internal and
external agencies and by different methods. It was felt that it would be better to have one. The
Heads of Schools in the Faculty wanted something to help with the development and
operationalising of strategy. To improve the Faculty's image with external agencies.
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The intended uses of the EFQM Excellence Model were:
Self-assessment framework to aid improvement. Strategic Tool (integrating the outputs of the
self-assessment into the business planning process). To motivate staff to get involved in quality
improvement activities. Benchmarking tool (to a small extent).
The expected benefits of using the EFQM Model were:
To look at things in a broader manner than in the past. To help decide and deliver on key
outcomes. To improve quality. To focus more clearly on customers. To review the
appropriateness of systems. To provide information for the allocation of resources. "To be able
to measure ourselves more effectively". However the project manager thought that the Faculty
"didn't know what they were going into".
The expected timescales in which the benefits would be accrued were between 2 and 4 years.
GAINING SENIOR MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT
The following actions were taken to gain senior management commitment:
A presentation was made to the Faculty Executive setting out the expectations and requirements.
The Dean thought that "We will all need to make time for this". The project manager met and
discussed the EFQM Model with the Heads of Schools and School Executives. The project
manager met and discussed the EFQM Model with the Faculty Executive and on a one-to-one
basis with some individuals from the Faculty Executive to clarify issues. Away days were used
to explain the benefits and shortcomings of the EFQM Model to the Faculty Executive.
Members of the school management committees attended two one-day workshops on 16 and 17
July 2001. Mostly these actions took place within the first 6 months of the project and the final
actions were in July 2001. The project manager, the Dean and the experts from the expert centre
were involved in these sessions. The perceived level of senior management commitment at the
start of the project was:
Mean = 5.4
Range 4.5 to 6
(1 = None, 7 = Full)
A high level of senior management commitment to the EFQM implementation was gained
PREPARATION
Were any change models considered for use during the implementation? (e.g. force field
analysis).
No change models were considered for use in the implementation.
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Were the motive and objectives in using the EFQM Excellence Model communicated to
staff?
The motive and objectives in using the EFQM Excellence Model were communicated to staff.
In September/October 2000 an email was sent to all staff in the Faculty by the Project Manager.
The project manager made a one hour presentation to each of the 3 school executives and made
presentations to staff in the sub-units of her own school.
Culture/Context
Was there an attempt to assess the organisational culture?
There was no collective attempt to assess the organisational culture, however the Dean and the
project manager discussed some cultural/contextual issues within the first 6 months. (Only the
Dean recalled this at this point in the interview, however the project manager recalled some of
the detailed issues that came up next in the interview). The Dean and the project manager
discussed the following cultural/contextual issues within the first 6 months:
The perceptions of the Faculty Office staff. The cultures of the 3 schools and the types of
leadership in them. The possibility of the schools choosing to use the EFQM Model in different
ways to suit their own needs. This helped the project manager to better understand the cultures
of the 3 schools.
The Dean and the project manager took the management style into consideration in their
preparation. The issue that was considered was that each of the 3 schools had different
management styles. A choice was therefore made not to be prescriptive in how each school
would use the EFQM Model. The interviewees' perceptions of management style was:
Mean = 4
Range 2 to 5.5
(1 = Collegial, 7 = Managerial)
There was a very wide range of views on the management style in the Faculty from collegial to
managerial. One interviewee thought that there was a tendency to be more collegial within
Faculty and School Executive meetings.
Three of the interviewees considered the issue of the individualism of academic staff. The
project manager felt that the culture of the Faculty was one in which teamwork prevailed. The
interviewees' perceptions of academic staff individualism was:
Mean = 4.75
Range 4 to 5.5
(1 = Individual, 7 = Teamworking)
There was close agreement that the staff were more team orientated than individualistic.
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The project manager and the Dean considered the issue of the professional nature of academic
staff. The issues considered were:
Staff were used to quality models within the public sector that they engaged with and therefore
would be accepting of the EFQM Model. Staff see their professional responsibility to their
discipline/vocational background, but some consideration of themselves as HE staff was starting
to emerge. The interviewees' perceptions of the professional nature of academic staff was:
Mean = 6.5
Range 6 to 7
(1 = Low, 7 = High)
It was felt that staff see themselves as professionals to a high extent.
The issue of academic freedom/criticality was considered. This issue provided differing views.
One interviewee thought that the questioning nature of academics might help with self-
assessment but another thought that staff were bound to critique and analyse the EFQM Model
and this probably would be in a negative way (this actually happened and some amendments
were made as a result). As a result the Dean thought that the Faculty Executive needed to be
ready to give a positive spin. The interviewees' perceptions of how much academic freedom and
criticality was exercised by academic staff was:
Mean = 4.5
Range 3 to 5
(1 = Low, 7 = High)
The academic staff were mainly seen as exercising a reasonable amount of academic freedom
and criticality.
Recognition/rewards for involvement in EFQM implementation were not considered.
Funding for staff time was considered but not given.
The language/terminology used in the EFQM Excellence Model was tailored to suit the
culture/context. It was felt that some language and concepts in the EFQM Model (e.g. RADAR
Logic, Enablers) might be difficult to communicate. A decision was made to stick with the
terminology, but to use HE examples to help explain the concepts. Examples that reflected the
HE environment and live situations were included in workshops. Early workshops had been run
by the expert centre and had been seen as too generic.
The issue of the Faculty culture of support was considered. There was some apprehension. "Will
people support it?" The Dean realised that the Faculty Executive had to be seen to be
committed. The interviewees' perceptions of the culture of support in the Faculty was:
Mean = 5.4
Range 5 to 5.5
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(1 = Blame/Fear or Unsupportive/Uncooperative, 7 = Supportive/Cooperative)
There was a strongly shared view that the culture in the Faculty was supportive. One
interviewee thought that there were some pockets of blame/fear.
Issues specific to the use of the EFQM Excellence Model
The approach to self-assessment that was chosen was a hybrid approach of workshop and pro-
forma. This approach was chosen because the Faculty had been told to use it by the expert
centre and it had been included in the HEFCE project specification. The decision was taken not
to use scoring. The reasons for not using scoring were:
Not using scoring was part of the process recommended by the expert centre. Staff would loathe
being marked. There was a culture of "marking". The Faculty didn't want to start competition. It
was felt that the Faculty didn't have enough data to measure properly. Concerns about the
"league table effect". It was felt that they weren't sufficiently sophisticated to score.
The issue of whether to amend the criterion weightings given in the model wasn't considered.
It was decided to use RADAR logic in the implementation. Its use wasn't planned in the early
days because of a lack of understanding. It "emerged" later as a planning tool. The project
manager had suggested its use and the HEFCE project group had recommended it to her. The
reason for this was that it would provide a methodology for looking at things. It would be used
to review and evaluate the business plan and to inform the next year's business plan.
Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
The following actions were planned in order to demonstrate senior management commitment to
the implementation:
It was decided not to leave everything to the project manager. The Dean and the Heads of
Schools would support the workshops. On reflection the Dean thought that the Associate Deans
and the Faculty Administrator were not as "high profile" as they might have been. All the
members of the Faculty Executive (bar one) committed their time to be interviewed by the
project manager as part of the first self-assessment. In July 2001 the Faculty Executive
committed to carrying out 6 monthly self-assessments. The reasons for these approaches were to
get the Heads of Schools involved as it was felt that commitment had to be shown.
Project Management
The Dean thought that a steering committee had been set up and the documentation indicated
that there was an intention to set one up. The project manager corroborated this. There was an
attempt to set one up, but it didn't meet. The project manager saw this as a weakness. Examples
from other members of the HEFCE project consortium had demonstrated the value of a steering
group to her. There was also some confusion about who was running the HEFCE project within
the expert centre. A project manager was appointed in July 2000 who was an Associate Head
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from one of the schools in the Faculty. The project manager had a little insight into the EFQM
Model from work in one of the public sectors and some superficial information on it. The
project manager had been involved in many quality projects within her own school but had no
experience of large, funded projects. The Dean said that the project manager was very keen to
get involved. The project manager received the following training:
3-4 day EFQM self-assessment training September 2000. PRINCE 2 project management
methodology training in December 2000. Training in the expert centre's implementation
approach, about March 2001.
There was an outline project plan in the Faculty. It appeared that the expert centre also had a
project plan but the project manager didn't see the expert centre's project plan until the project
had been underway for about 6 months. The views on the planned pace of implementation were
varied, from slow to relatively quick. The implementation was fitted in around the business
planning cycle. The project manager stated that the project plan had been constructed by the
expert centre. The other three interviewees thought that the project manager had constructed it.
The project manager reworked it about 12-18 months into the project.
The implementation was Faculty-wide (all 3 schools) but didn't include the Faculty Office to
start with. The reasons for the Faculty-wide implementation were:
"It just seemed logical". It seemed to be the right thing to do. The Faculty was cohesive and
compliant. The Faculty was used to carrying out Faculty-wide initiatives. It provided everyone
with a chance to be involved. A pilot would have limited the sharing of good practice.
There were some initiatives and projects taking place at the same time as the EFQM
implementation. One of the interviewees didn't think there was anything major and another
thought that there weren't too many competing projects.
Progress of the project was monitored by the project manager reporting to the Dean about every
2 months. It was sometimes discussed at the Faculty Executive. The project manager reported to
the HEFCE consortium about every 3 months and met with another project manager from
another Faculty in the same university and the programme manager from the expert centre on a
monthly basis. The project manager attended "sharing the learning" meetings in the expert
centre about every 3 months.
The resources which were allocated to the project were:
A half-time project manager for the period July/September 2000 to May 2003. Some staff got
workload relief in the schools, for others the time spent on self-assessments was a substitute for
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other management activities. Some of the School Executive members' time when the self-
assessments were being conducted.
Education and Training
Several education and training activities were planned to be carried out to support the
implementation:
A presentation to Faculty Executive. A presentation to Faculty Staff. The Faculty Executive
were to attend the EFQM study days on 20/21 March 2001. Two full day workshops were
planned for 16 and 17 July 2001. A self-assessment workshop with the Faculty Office staff
planned for 4 October 2002. It was planned not to carry out assessor training for staff.
The reasons for the planned training were:
To explain the use of the model and raise awareness. The project manager was to be the main
knowledge base. Assessor training was seen as "too traumatic".
Most of the training took place within the first 12 months of the project. Initial sessions were
run by staff from the expert centre with subsequent ones run by the project manager. An internal
consultant from the expert centre and the project manager for the HEFCE funded project were
used. The reasons for using these consultants were:
The expert centre had acquired the project initially and were expected to be involved. To get
some expert support at the start. The HEFCE project manager was a free resource and this was a
way of gaining from the experiences of the other HEIs.
Communication
There didn't appear to have been a communications plan, although various means of
communication were employed such as email, meetings and word of mouth. The
communication didn't really go much below the members of the school executives. The main
reason for this approach to communication was that Heads of School were seen to be best-
placed to know about the politics and practicalities of getting support within the schools so
communication was left to them. This was to be supported by the project manager. There was
no real plan for when the communication would take place.
Planned involvement in the implementation process and use of the EFQM Excellence
Model
It was planned to involve the Faculty Executive, the Project Manager and a link person from
each of the three schools in the Faculty. The Dean's and Project Manager's expectations were:
The schools' SMTs and a broad spectrum of staff in each school. The involvement was planned
in this way because the advice from the expert centre was to go top-down to get commitment.
The main mechanism for involvement was self-assessment workshops. The use of teams was
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considered. Teams were seen as the best way to focus on the seven key result areas that the
Faculty Executive had decided on. The teams would help to get ownership by more people not
just the Head of School. The 3 schools each set up a team but the Faculty Office didn't. The
school teams assisted the Heads of Schools in developing and evaluating business plans and the
annual review of taught programmes. The self-assessments were done differently in the 3
schools:
One school Head didn't have a team, but used the EFQM Model to restructure the school. One
school used the SMT of the school. One school used staff from outside the school's SMT to
carry out the self-assessments.
MOMENTUM
Improvement Planning, Action and Review after self-assessment
Improvement Planning, Action and Review after self-assessment was carried out in November
2001, May 2002 and November 2002. This took place by the Dean, 3 Associate Deans and the
Faculty Administrator meeting with teams of three from each school. The Project Manager took
notes of the agreed actions. The school action plans were based on objectives from an initial
evaluation. The Faculty Office produced action plans. Two-hour sessions made up of a
presentation to the Faculty Office from the school and the discussion and agreement of actions
for the next 6 months took place. It was done in this way as this approach was outlined by the
expert centre. This ensured that the improvement actions fitted with the Key Performance
Indicators. It seemed sensible to the Dean to talk around the table as it was a "touchy, feely"
Faculty.
This approach was seen to have helped the Faculty Office and the schools to learn about each
other. The emphasis was on some quick wins so that changes were seen to be happening and
some bigger projects which focussed on the University's agreed objectives. The emphasis was
different for each school.
Did the implementation progress on schedule?
The implementation progressed on schedule although one interviewee thought that the Faculty
Office had to be "pushed" to use the model, i.e. to conduct self-assessment on itself. Progress
with the implementation was communicated by circulating the project web site to Faculty
academic staff in February 2001. The project manager presumed that the action plans were
shared with staff in the schools by the school executives.
Were the expected benefits of using the Excellence Model achieved?
The expected benefits of using the Excellence Model were achieved. The Faculty know a lot
more about each other by using the EFQM Model. The Faculty is results driven, but now there
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is more focus on enablers too. The model was growing in value to one interviewee's school. It
was being used in all 7 sub-units. The Directors of the sub-units were starting to involve some
other staff in the process. In addition there were some unexpected benefits. The school
executives stopped to think about objectives and improvements. The dialogue between the
Faculty and school executives resulted in better understanding. Issues raised by schools from
self-assessment were reinforced at Faculty level. It was an aid to business planning.
The major barriers to achieving the benefits were:
The Faculty Office didn't carry out their actions after the self-assessments and this annoyed the
schools. The project manager chose not to "interfere" too much in the schools and Faculty team.
This was because they needed to become self-sufficient. However the Faculty team didn't
always carry out the action plans.
Do you think the pace of implementation was: too slow, too quick, about right?
Overall the pace of implementation was seen as being about right. The project manager thought
that the pace was too quick to start with because enough time hadn't been allowed for education
and training, but the pace was about right for the implementation of self-assessment. As the self-
assessments were fitted into an annual cycle, it was not realistic for it to have happened more
quickly. The approach used enabled people to come on board at their own pace. There had been
an assumption that staff had prior knowledge of the EFQM Model and so the education and
training needs had been underestimated according to the project manager.
Was senior management commitment maintained throughout the implementation?
Overall it was felt that senior management commitment had been maintained throughout the
implementation. One interviewee thought that senior management commitment was waning in
the Faculty Executive towards the end. The fact that the Faculty Office didn't self-assess in the
first round and didn't share their self-assessments with the schools in the 2nd round meant that
one interviewee doubted the senior management commitment. Senior management commitment
was demonstrated during the implementation by:
The Dean was present at all but one of the school review meetings. The Dean provided support
to the Project Manager. The Dean spoke about the project with each Head of School. The
Faculty "kept at it" despite a lack of support and understanding from the rest of the University
(except for one Pro Vice Chancellor). The Faculty Office reviewed the School self-assessments.
The School Executives produced self-assessment documents.
The following helped to maintain senior management commitment:
The Faculty Executive had agreed to the project and felt loyal to it. The personality of the Dean.
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The Faculty was committed to the 3 year HEFCE funded project. Some use of "the stick". The
formal report to the Dean (Faculty Office). Some use of "the carrot". The schools were getting
value from using it. The Faculty Executive all believed it was a good thing to do.
The only issue that affected senior management commitment negatively was the fact that the
Faculty Office didn't self-assess at first and didn't deliver on their action plan elements from the
first set of school self-assessments.
There had only been very minor changes in the senior management during the implementation.
The Dean thought that this degree of consistency in the membership of the Faculty Executive
had helped. One Associate Dean had changed in the very early part of the implementation.
Otherwise the Faculty Executive had been a very stable group. The interviewees' perceptions of
the extent to which senior management commitment was demonstrated during the course of the
implementation was:
Mean = 5.25
Range 5 to 6
(1 = None, 7 = Full)
There was a consistent view that senior management commitment had been maintained to quite
a high extent during the implementation. The project manager thought that senior management
"stuck with it".
Was the planned level of resources maintained during the implementation?
The planned level of resources was maintained throughout the implementation. There were
some concerns that the level of resources was not sufficient. The project manager had
difficulties in managing her overall workload. The Dean thought that some clerical support for
the Project Manager would have helped. The senior Faculty Administrator felt that not enough
resource was provided in the schools because of competing priorities.
Was the planned staff training carried out?
The planned staff training had been carried out. The project manager felt that there should have
been some "consolidation" training in year 3. The training had the effect of helping staff think
more inclusively and holistically. The commitment of the project manager enthused the staff,
and the EFQM Model was sold well. One interviewee was concerned that there was a lack of
widespread awareness of the EFQM Model in the Faculty. The project manager thought that the
gap between when the training took place and the involvement of staff was sometimes too large.
Was there any recognition of or rewards for staff involved in EFQM implementation?
There was no recognition of or rewards for staff involved in EFQM implementation.
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INTEGRATION
How many organisational levels was the EFQM Excellence Model implemented in?
The EFQM Model was implemented in 2 organisational levels generally, the Faculty and the
schools, and in the sub-units (a third level) in one school.
How was RADAR logic used in the implementation?
RADAR Logic was used in a number of ways in the implementation:
As a planning tool, e.g. for the use of teaching rooms. As a way of thinking about constantly
reviewing what staff were doing. It was used as the basis for the self-assessment report.
Was the planned level of staff involvement with the EFQM Excellence Model achieved?
The planned level of staff involvement with the EFQM Excellence Model had been achieved,
but involvement was patchy with more involvement in some schools than others. The plan was
to involve School Executives and this had been achieved. There hadn't been much involvement
of staff beyond this. There had been problems caused by the use of "champions" in one school.
This had resulted in the School Executive not being fully involved in the self-assessment.
How many rounds of self-assessment have been carried out and when?
Three rounds of self-assessment were carried out in November 2001, May 2002 and November
2002.
Which of the following has the model actually been used for and how often?
The EFQM Model has actually been used for:
Self-assessment (3). Strategic tool, for business planning (2). Performance Management tool (to
develop key performance indicators). To provide a holistic, broader view of the business. To
motivate staff to get involved in quality improvement activities (to a small extent). As a means
of integrating other quality and management initiatives and tools (has fed into school review and
institutional audit). Benchmarking tool (sharing of internal good practice). The EFQM Model
was used to restructure one school, which now has more of a strategic focus. The EFQM Model
was used in a contract bidding process, as it had been specified by the customer.
Was the EFQM Model aligned with other organisational systems?
The EFQM Model was aligned with other organisational systems. It had been linked to Internal
Quality Reviews and Institutional Audit but wasn't fully aligned with these. One teaching
contract review was based on the EFQM Model. The November 2001 self-assessment was
linked to an external review in January 2002. EFQM became integrated into the cycle. The
performance reviews of the Heads of School and the Associate Deans were linked with the
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EFQM Model. The EFQM model was used in strategic planning. There was a link with the
annual monitoring of taught programmes.
GENERAL
Has anything else that we haven't already discussed helped in the EFQM implementation?
Other factors that helped in the EFQM implementation were:
The culture of the Faculty valued systems for quality. The project manager was the "right
person". There was some existing understanding of the EFQM Model in the Faculty. One school
already had Investors in People. The acceptance that the University didn't already have an
"overarching" model for quality. There was no "pressure" to use the model from the outside
funders. The drive to use the model was an internal one.
Has anything else that we haven't already discussed hindered the EFQM implementation?
Other factors that hindered the EFQM implementation were:
The EFQM Model was not embraced by the University as a whole. This made it difficult to
influence university-wide processes. Some staff viewed it as a "five minute wonder" because the
university as a whole was not committed to it. The lack of external pressures to use the EFQM
Model. The Faculty Office should have self-assessed from the start. Each school "doing their
own thing". People asking "why do we need to do this?" The EFQM Model is not yet fully
integrated on a day to day basis (view of the Dean).
How were these hindrances overcome?
These hindrances were overcome by:
Drive from within the Faculty. The Faculty tried to influence the University where possible.
Improvements were demonstrated to the University's SMT, e.g. business planning. By focussing
on the benefits gained:
A better focus to what the faculty is trying to do. It helped to pull the Faculty together. The
model's concepts had started to be integrated into people's thinking. A focus on Key
Performance Indicators had been used to drive enablers. The Faculty was still committed to
using the EFQM Model.
How would you assess your level of EFQM implementation?
The level of EFQM implementation was seen as being about half way into the maturing level.
The project manager felt the Faculty were "experienced, but there was a lot of work to do". The
Dean thought that the Faculty would still use the EFQM Model now that the 3-year BEFCE
funded project had finished, although the view of the new Dean (in 12 months) would need to
be considered. The Faculty Executive had not yet taken a firm decision to continue its use.
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6.4.3 Case Study 'D' Time-Series Analysis
DATE ACTION PHASE OR ELEMENT OFTHE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORKSummer of 2000 The EFQM Excellence Model was first
considered.• Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered,
support for the decisionJuly 2000 The decision to use the EFQM model
was taken.• Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered,
support for the decision• Intended uses of the
EFQM ModelJuly 2000 The project manager was appointed. • Preparation Phase
• Planning• Project Management
21 September 2000 "EFQM Assessor Training Certificate"indicated that the project manager wastrained.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Education and Training
September/October2000
An email was sent to all staff in theFaculty by the Project Manager. Themotive and objectives in using theEFQM Excellence Model werecommunicated to staff.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Communication
September 2000 toFebruary 2001
The Dean and the project managerdiscussed some cultural/contextualissues within the first 6 months.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/Context
assessment3 October 2000 "Meeting notes Dean and Project
Manager" indicated that the intentionwas to use the EFQM Model for self-assessment and to look at how theoutputs from self-assessment could beintegrated into the business planningprocess. "Meeting note Dean and ProjectManager" also indicated planned self-assessments for April 2001, October2001 and April 2002. It was planned toinvolve the Faculty Executive, theProject Manager and a link person fromeach of the three schools in the Faculty.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM Model specific
choices• Project Management• Staff Involvement and
Teamwork
2 November 2000 "Presentation to Faculty Executive" isthe content of a presentation to improveknowledge of the EFQM ExcellenceModel, which was made to the FacultyExecutive. The plan for the scheduledself-assessments was shared with theFaculty Executive.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Education and Training• Preparation Phase• Gaining senior
management commitment• Planning• Project Management
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• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum .
17 November 2000until 18 January2001
"Schedule for Project Managerinterviews with Faculty Executivemembers" (undated) showed theinterviews scheduled.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management• Demonstrating senior
management commitmentDecember 2000 "Update meeting notes-Dean and project
manager" 26/2/01 showed that theproject manager had undergone PRINCE2 project management methodologytraining.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management• Education and Training
26 February 2001 "Update meeting notes-Dean and ProjectManager" showed that the projectmanager planned to speak to each schoolmanagement team in March/April 2001and indicated that the Director of theExpert Centre was to set up a projectsteering group. A discussion on theproject's progress took place. There wasa plan to invite the Faculty Executive tothe EFQM study days on 20/21 March2001. The notes record that the projectweb site was circulated to Facultyacademic staff in February 2001.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Communication• Project Management• Education and Training• Staff Involvement and
Teamwork
20/21 March 2001 The Faculty Executive attended theEFQM study days.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Education and Training• Demonstrating senior
management commitment1 May 2001 "EFQM Workshop invitation" invited
members of the school managementcommittees to two one day workshopson 16 and 17 July 2001.
Preparation PhasePlanningEducation and Training
16 and 17 July
Two full day workshops were run.2001.
• Education and Training• Demonstrating senior
management commitmentJuly 2001 The Faculty Executive committed to • Preparation Phase
carrying out 6 monthly self-assessments. • Planning• EFQM Model specific
choices• Demonstrating senior
management commitmentNovember 2001 Self-assessment was carried out. • Implementation and
Evaluation Phase• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
Model• Demonstrating senior
management commitment
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November 2001 Improvement Planning, Action andReview after self-assessment was carriedout.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning,
Action and Review• Demonstrating senior
management commitmentJanuary 2002 The November 2001 self-assessment was
linked to an external review in oneschool.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Integration• Alignment with other
organisational systemsMay 2002 Self-assessment was carried out. • Implementation and
Evaluation Phase• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
Model• Demonstrating senior
management commitmentMay 2002 Improvement Planning, Action and
Review after self-assessment was carriedout.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning,
Action and Review• Demonstrating senior
management commitment3 July 2002 "School Management Team Strategic
Planning Morning" is the agenda for ameeting in one of the schools in whichthe outcomes of the EFQM self-assessment were being fed into businessplanning.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
Model, particularly its usein strategic planning
• Multi-level use in theorganisation
• Staff Involvement andTeamwork
19 September 2002 "Project Board Meeting" is the notes ofthe meeting in which progress waschecked.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Project Management
4 October 2002 A self-assessment workshop was runwith the Faculty Office staff.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
Model• Demonstrating senior
management commitmentNovember 2002 Self-assessment was carried out. • Implementation and
Evaluation Phase• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM
Model• Demonstrating senior
management commitment
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November 2002. Improvement Planning, Action andReview after self-assessment was carriedout.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning,
Action and Review• Demonstrating senior
management commitment25 November 2002 "Project Board Meeting" is the notes of
the meeting in which progress waschecked.
• Implementation andEvaluation Phase
• Momentum• Project Management
Table 6.4: Case Study 'D' Time-Series Analysis
6.4.4 Case Study 'D' Program Logic - comparison with Theoretical Framework
Decision Phase
Motive
A range of motives was expressed which were mainly internal.
• Objectives and Expected Benefits
A number of objectives and expected benefits were expressed.
• Alternatives considered, support for the decision
No alternatives were considered and the decision to use the EFQM Model was supported by
the Faculty Executive.
• Intended uses of the EFQM Model
The main intended uses were as a self-assessment framework to aid improvement and as a
strategic tool. It was intended to integrate the outputs of the self-assessment into the
business planning process. In addition it was intended to use the EFQM Model to motivate
staff to get involved in quality improvement activities and, to a small extent as a
Benchmarking tool.
• Pace
The decision phase proceeded quickly. It happened between early summer of 2000 and
September 2000. The expected timescale in which the benefits would be accrued was 2-4
years.
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Preparation Phase
Gaining Senior Management Commitment
Many activities took place to gain senior management commitment. The perceived level of
senior management commitment at the start of the project was high at 5.4 out of 7.
Pace
The actions that were taken to gain senior management commitment happened between
September 2000 and January 2001. Thus the first element of the preparation phase occurred
quickly.
Planning
• Resistance to Change
No change models were considered for use in the implementation.
• Culture/Context assessment
The Dean and the project manager discussed some cultural/contextual issues in the planning
element of the preparation phase.
Management style was considered in the planning element of the preparation phase. There
was a wide range of perceptions of the management styles in the Faculty.
The individualism of academic staff was considered in the planning element of the
preparation phase. The perception was that the staff were mainly team-centred.
The professional nature of academic staff was taken into consideration in the preparation.
The perception was that the academic staff saw themselves as professionals.
Academic freedom and the critical nature of academic staff were taken into consideration in
the preparation. The perception was that academic staff exercised a reasonable amount of
academic freedom and criticality.
Recognition/rewards for involvement in EFQM implementation were not considered.
The language and terminology in the EFQM Model was tailored to suit the culture/context.
The issue of the Faculty culture of support was considered. The Dean realised that the
Faculty Executive had to be seen to be committed. There was a strongly shared view that
the culture in the Faculty was supportive.
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EFQM Model specific choices
The approach to self-assessment that was chosen was a hybrid approach of workshop and pro-
forma. A decision was made not to use scoring. It was decided to use RADAR Logic in the
implementation.
• Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
Many actions were planned in order to demonstrate senior management commitment to the
implementation.
• Project Management
The steering and monitoring function was planned to be carried out by a steering group. A
project manager was appointed. An internal project consultant was used. There was an
outline project plan for the implementation and resources were allocated to the project. The
implementation wasn't piloted. There were some other initiatives/projects taking place at the
same time as the EFQM implementation but nothing major.
• Education and Training
Several education and training activities were planned to be carried out to support the
implementation. The internal consultant was used for some of this.
• Communication
There was no communications plan.
• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
The involvement of staff in teams was planned with an emphasis on involving senior staff in
the schools.
• Pace
The planning element of the preparation phase was carried out quickly within the first three
months of the project.
Implementation and Evaluation Phase
• Pace
The implementation actions began within 2 months of the preparation phase being
completed.
Integration
Four different approaches were used to integrate the EFQM Model.
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• Multi-level use in the organisation
The EFQM Model was used in two levels and a third level in one school.
• Alignment with other organisational systems
The EFQM Model was aligned with five other organisational systems.
• Actual uses of the EFQM Model, particularly its use in strategic planning
The EFQM Model had been used 3 times for self-assessment, twice as a strategic tool and
also for a number of other uses.
• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
The planned level of staff involvement was mainly achieved. About 6% of the Faculty's
staff were involved with the use of the EFQM Model. Only senior staff were planned to be
involved.
• Pace
The initial use of the EFQM Model happened within the first 3 months of the start of the
project. The integration element of the implementation and evaluation phase started quickly.
Thereafter the integrative activities occurred at regular intervals over the three years of the
project.
Momentum
Five approaches were utilised to provide momentum to the implementation.
• Project Management
The project manager was in post for the whole of the 3-year period of the project. Some
progress monitoring took place at the Faculty level. An activities plan was in place for the
project and was followed. The resources allocated to the project were maintained
throughout the project. The internal project consultant was used in the first year of the
project.
• Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
Senior management commitment was demonstrated during the implementation in a number
of ways. The perception was that senior management commitment was demonstrated during
the project (5.25 out of 7). This compares with 5.4 out of 7 at the start of the project.
• Communication
Little communication took place to inform staff of progress with the implementation.
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• Education and Training
A considerable amount of training took place during the first 12 months of the project.
• Improvement Planning, Action and Review
This started about 14 months into the project and continued over the following 18 months.
The review of the improvement actions was linked into the self-assessment and business
planning cycle that had been established.
• Recognition and Rewards
There was no recognition of or rewards for staff involved in EFQM implementation.
• Evaluation of Benefits
The expected benefits of using the model were achieved.
• Pace
Many actions had taken place that would be expected to produce momentum in the
implementation. The overall view was that the implementation progressed on schedule. The
pace of implementation was seen as being about right.
Effectiveness of the Implementation
The view was that the level of implementation was about half way up the maturing level. The
author's assessment of the level of implementation from his knowledge of the case was that the
level of implementation was slightly ahead of this.
Thus the implementation could be assessed as having been effective. This can be explained by
comparing what actually happened with the theoretical framework.
In the decision phase there had been clear internal motives for using the EFQM Model, clear
objectives and expected benefits and clear views on the intended uses of the EFQM Model. A
high degree of senior management commitment to the project had been gained at the start of the
preparation phase.
In the planning element of the preparation phase there was no attempt to assess potential
resistance to change, however the project manager and the Dean had attempted to assess the
culture/context. There was a strong plan to demonstrate senior management commitment,
extensive education and training was planned and there was a clear plan to involve staff. Most
of the expected elements of project management were put in place, choices were made relevant
to the specifics of using the EFQM Model, but no communications plan was put in place.
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In the integration element of the implementation and evaluation phase substantial integration
was achieved. The EFQM Model was used three times for self-assessment and was used in
strategic planning on two occasions. The model was used in two to three organisational levels
and was aligned with other organisational systems. Staff were involved in teams to a limited
extent.
In the momentum element of the implementation and evaluation phase, most of the elements
that might have produced momentum were addressed. Some project monitoring took place and
improvement planning did occur, senior management commitment was demonstrated
throughout the project, extensive education and training was carried out and the expected
benefits were achieved through using the EFQM Model. On the negative side, little
communication took place and recognition and rewards were not used.
6.5 Chapter Summary
The findings of the primary research have been presented in this chapter. The case study
background information for each case was presented first followed by the interview and
document analysis in which patterns were identified. Events from the case study were placed in
chronological order to allow a time-series analysis. Finally the pattern-matched data was
combined with the chronological data and then compared with the theoretical framework in a
program logic approach. This then has contributed to the achievement of the objective: To
explore and analyse the approaches used in attempted implementation of the EFQM Excellence
Model in a number of UK University case studies in order to discover the critical issues for
effective implementation. This analysis and comparison was used to explain the effectiveness of
the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in each case and thus address the objective:
To explain why the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model was effective or ineffective
in a number of cases in UK University academic units by reference to the theoretical framework
The implementations in cases 'A' and 'B' had been ineffective and comparisons with the
theoretical framework offered explanations for these outcomes. The implementation in case 'C'
had been somewhat effective and the implementation in case 'D' had been effective. Again,
comparisons with the theoretical framework offered explanations for these outcomes.
In the next chapter the findings of the fieldwork will be discussed by making comparisons and
contrasts with the literature.
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CHAPTER 7
DISCUSSION
7.0 Chapter Introduction
In this chapter the findings of the fieldwork which emerged from the data analysis in the
previous chapter will be discussed by making comparisons and contrasts with the literature. The
discussion of the findings consists of four main sections. The first section will discuss the four
case studies separately. Then the theoretical framework, which was developed from the
literature reviews and was used to facilitate the program logic approach to data analysis in the
previous chapter, will be used to structure the cross-case discussion of the findings. Thus the
objective: To assess the effectiveness of the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in
the case study organisations will be addressed. The theoretical framework will be discussed in
light of the case study findings and amendments will be proposed in order to fulfil the general
purpose of the study that was described in chapter 1: To construct a guidance framework for
EFQM Excellence Model implementation in UK University academic units. In the final part of
the discussion the conduct of the research and the research methodology will be reviewed. The
limitations of the research will be discussed, operational recommendations for the case study
organisations will be made, recommendations for further related research will be made and the
contributions of the research will be described.
7.1 Discussion of Case Studies
7.1.1 Case 'A'The University in which this case occurred has a heavy emphasis towards research and
enterprise activity with relatively little teaching activity. This emphasis is mirrored in the case
study school. This perhaps explained why the involvement with the HEFCE project was viewed
as a research project. Unusually for a pre-1992 University, the Heads of School are appointed
on a permanent rather than a fixed-term basis and yet the management structures and processes
described could be seen as collegial. The school has 131 staff in total, however these staff are
located in 16 different buildings across the university's campus. Interestingly, when asked about
the school by the author, one of the interviewees replied "what school?" Further discussion
revealed that the interviewee felt this way because of the geographical dispersion of staff. This
physical barrier to staff mixing coupled with the perception of staff being individualistic and the
perception that there wasn't a culture of support in the school for voluntary projects such as the
implementation of the EFQM Model provided a less than conducive background for the
implementation process. The interviewees felt a lack of motivation because they felt that the
project wasn't valued. This then concurs with Harvey (1995, p.29) who states:
"In many respects this [Teamwork] is an alien process for many academics who are not only
used to working alone but are valued by their institutions for their individual contribution".
There was a complete reluctance in this case to even mention that the EFQM Excellence Model
was being used and the only person to receive any training was the project manager. There was
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very little senior management commitment apparent. Perhaps this was reflected in the fact that
this was the only one of the four cases in which the author was not able to interview the most
senior academic manager in the unit, i.e. the Head of School or Dean of Faculty. The author got
the feeling from spending some time with the project manager that he was a very determined
individual who had wanted the project to succeed but he had become worn down by the lack of
support from a senior level in the school
In summary, over the 3-year period, very little progress was made in using the EFQM
Excellence Model in this case. The author believes it unlikely that the school would consider a
second attempt to implement the EFQM Excellence Model, as there does not appear to be any
senior management commitment to doing this.
7.1.2 Case 'B'
The University in which this case occurred has an emphasis towards teaching with some
research and enterprise activity. The case study Faculty has a slightly higher emphasis on
research than the University as a whole. This case occurred in a pre-1992 University, the
academic managers (Dean of Faculty, Associate Deans and Heads of School) are appointed on a
fixed-term basis and the management structures and processes described could be seen as
collegial.
This was the only case in which any research into alternatives to the EFQM Excellence Model
was carried out and the requirements of the Faculty Executive for a model for quality
improvement were taken into consideration. As such, the objectives in using the EFQM Model
were very clear and this contributed to a strong internal motive for using the EFQM Model. The
decision to join one of the consortia of universities was actually made outside the Faculty by
one of the Pro-Vice-Chancellors.
In this particular case the fixed-term appointments of academic managers caused major
difficulties for the implementation. This then reflected the concerns about the effect of fixed-
term academic management roles on implementation expressed in the literature (Raanan, 1998;
Harvey, 1999; Engelberg, 2000; Aly & Akpovi, 2001; Davies et al, 2001). The extremely high
and continual turnover of staff in these academic management roles meant that the initial
commitment to using the EFQM Model was lost and meant that the first element of the
preparation phase (gaining senior management commitment) had to be revisited on almost a
continual basis in a sort of Groundhog Day scenario. This became very frustrating for the
project manager and meant that the EFQM Model was hardly used at all in this case.
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This was also the only case in which it was decided to pilot the implementation in one of the
five schools in the Faculty before rolling it out to the other schools. By the time the pilot had
been carried out there had been significant changes in the membership of the Faculty Executive
as outlined above and thus any learning that had taken place in the pilot was lost. The project
manager could not move to implementation in the next school because he had to concentrate on
trying to regain senior management commitment and reworking the project plan to reflect the
new situation.
In summary, over the 3-year period, the EFQM Excellence Model was hardly used in this case.
Although only the project manager received training in the use of the EFQM Model and he has
since left the University, there are a number of other staff in the Faculty who, because of their
subject expertise and experience, would be capable of carrying out self-assessment. Despite this
the author believes it is unlikely that there will be a second attempt to implement the EFQM
Excellence Model in this case, as there appears to be insufficient motive in the Faculty
Executive to pursue this.
7.1.3 Case 'C'
The case study school had an emphasis on teaching activities but with sizeable amounts of
research and enterprise activities. This case occurred in a post-1992 University, the academic
managers are appointed on a permanent basis and the management structures and processes
described could be seen as tending towards managerial.
This was the only case in which the Vice-Chancellor was actively involved or demonstrated any
commitment to the implementation project. Indeed the initial motivation to use the EFQM
Excellence Model came from the Vice Chancellor who then went about gaining the
commitment of a willing school to use the model. The implementation progressed very well in
the first year or so with a considerable amount of training taking place, an initial self-assessment
being conducted, the selection of three improvement projects and the setting up of improvement
teams. Unfortunately, since then, there has been almost no progress. There appeared to be two
main reasons for this; the lack of progress in developing and then implementing
recommendations from the improvement groups and the fact that the project manager who was
also the Director of the School moved to another role. This left the project with no local senior
management champion. It would be interesting to carry out a more detailed investigation into
what occurred in the improvement groups as the failure of these to make a significant impact
played a role in the overall implementation process losing momentum and eventually stopping.
This finding emerged from the author's detailed research into this case and wasn't apparent at
the stage at which the author had initial discussions with the project manager in order to select
appropriate cases to research. All four interviewees were involved in improvement groups but
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only one was not in a management position at the time. Perhaps the views of more non-
management academic staff who were involved in the improvement groups would have
provided another perspective on why these groups did not produce the expected improvements.
It is not surprising that the lack of progress in the improvement groups led to the loss of
momentum of the implementation as a whole. It is these improvement groups which should
have provided the main source of benefits, as the intended primary use of the EFQM Model in
this case was as a framework for self-assessment and improvement. Why should the
organisation continue to use something from which it is not gaining benefits?
In summary, in this case the use of the EFQM Model got off to a good start, however it has only
been used for one self-assessment and that was in the early part of 2001. The author believes it
would be possible in this case for the implementation to be restarted as the school has a number
of trained staff who could carry out self-assessment and the new Director of the School and his
Deputy appeared keen to make use of the EFQM Excellence model. The author is also aware
that there is supporting expertise available within this University and that the University is now
using the EFQM Excellence Model at a corporate level.
7.1.4 Case 'D'
The University in which this case occurred has an emphasis towards teaching with some
research and enterprise activity. The case study Faculty has a much higher emphasis on teaching
than the University as a whole with very little research activity. This case occurred in a pre-
1992 University, however the vast majority of staff in the Faculty joined the University when
there was a merger with a HE College in 1996, which might help to explain the low level of
research activity and the relatively high tendency towards teamworking. As such, the culture of
the Faculty appears to be closer to that of a post-1992 University than a pre-1992 University.
The academic managers (Dean of Faculty, Associate Deans and Heads of School) are appointed
on a fixed-term basis and the management structures and processes described could be seen as
collegial.
In this case the combination of a strong project manager and a project champion (the Dean)
provided a strong impetus for the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model. This case
displayed the most effective implementation of the four with three rounds of self-assessment
having been carried out and the outputs of the self-assessment having been used twice in the
business planning cycle. Almost all of the elements of the theoretical framework had been
addressed in the implementation process.
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The author thought that a thorough discussion of the cultural and contextual issues in this case
might help in shedding some light on the reasons for this effective implementation. Perhaps
significantly, the Dean and the project manager in this case discussed some cultural/contextual
issues in the planning element of the preparation phase. This appeared to have been done in
more detail in this case than in any of the other three and reflected the views in the literature that
there was a need to understand the culture of an organisation before proceeding with
implementation (Buch & Rivers, 2001; Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure, 1994; Anjard, 1995) and
that a cultural assessment should take place (Poirier & Tokarz, 1996; Atkinson, 1990;
Vermeulen, 1997; Chin & Pun, 2002; Bardoel & Sohal, 1999; Wright et al, 1998).
Management style was considered and it was perceived that there was a wide range of
management styles in the Faculty from quite collegial to quite managerial. The management
style within the management group (the Faculty Executive) that managed and were most
involved in the implementation was considered to be collegial. This then provided some support
for the view in the literature that a collegial management style was best-suited to gaining staff
involvement (Davies et al, 2001; Harvey, 1999; Srikanthan & Dalrymple, 2002).
The individualism of academic staff was considered and the perception was that the staff were
mainly team-centred. Thus some support could be drawn from this case for the view in the
literature that a teamworking environment would be more conducive to implementation than an
individualistic one (Taylor & Hill, 1992; Oakland, 1999; Mersha, 1997; Krasachol & Tannock,
1999; Van der Wiele et al, 1996).
The professional nature of academic staff was taken into consideration and the perception was
that the academic staff saw themselves as professionals. The issue of professionalism was seen
as a potential barrier to implementation in the literature (Downey-Harris & Harrington, 2002;
Brunetto, 2001; Savolainen, 1999; Silvestro, 2001, Holmes & McElwee, 1995) but this
appeared not to have occurred in this case.
Academic freedom and the critical nature of academic staff were taken into consideration and
the perception was that academic staff exercised a reasonable amount of academic freedom and
criticality. This then appeared not to be a significant barrier in this case as had been suggested in
the literature (Ho & Wearn, 1996; Michael et al, 1997; Giertz, 1999; Raanan, 1998). In this case
however very few staff from outside the Faculty and School Executives had been involved in
the use of the EFQM Model. If the Faculty were to attempt to gain a wider involvement of
academic staff in its use then this would be a potential barrier for them to be aware of.
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Recognition and rewards for involvement in EFQM implementation were not considered by the
Dean and the Project Manager and no forms of recognition and reward were used, yet
implementation was effective. This goes against the argument presented in the literature that
recognition and rewards are necessary to change the behaviour of staff in the implementation
process (Thiagarajan & Zairi, 1997; Mersha, 1997; Poirier & Tokarz, 1996; Koehler &
Pankowski, 1996; Thiagaragan et al, 2001). This is a very interesting finding that warrants some
more detailed discussion.
Poirier & Tokarz (1996) list recognition and rewards as one of twelve critical TQM factors, but
in this case recognition and rewards appear not to have been critical. Perhaps an explanation for
this can be found in the fact that the staff involvement in this case was mainly limited to senior
managers within the Faculty (mainly the members of the Faculty Executive). It is possible that
they perceived their rewards as coming from the overall benefits to the organisation accruing
from the use of the EFQM Excellence Model. The benefits were mainly in improved
management of the Faculty, e.g. the impact on business planning, so it could be that the use of
the EFQM Model was perceived by these managers as having made it easier for them to
manage. This in turn might have been perceived as a reward. Recognition of a sort may have
come through a richer dialogue between the School Executive and the Faculty Executive. The
notes of the review meetings show that the Dean particularly was appreciative of the work being
put into the use of the EFQM Model by the School Executives. Although the author didn't ask
the interviewees for their views on the lack of recognition and rewards, he didn't get any sense
of dissatisfaction from the interviewees in this regard. This is perhaps corroborated by the
continuing high level of senior management commitment to the use of the EFQM Model at the
end of the three-year period. Perhaps the fact that overt rewards were not used was
advantageous, particularly the reward of individuals. If this had been attempted it could have
undermined the teamworking ethos that was apparent in this case. This view is supported by
Mersha (1997), who emphasises that the reward and recognition system should be designed to
foster co-operation and teamwork, and Tan (1997), who identified that most organisations find
it hard to install TQM because of the reward of individuals rather than teams. A further
discussion of the issue of rewards and recognition is included in the cross-case discussion in
section 7.2.3.2 on momentum.
The language and terminology in the EFQM Model was tailored to suit the culture/context in
this case through the use of context specific examples. This had been suggested as an aid to
implementation in the Higher Education sector in the literature (Helms et al, 2001; Martin &
Weill, 1999; Taylor & Hill, 1991; McAdam & Welsh, 2000; Pupius, 1998; Zink & Voss, 1998;
Owlia & Aspinwall, 1997; Zink & Voss, 1999). In addition, education had been carried out to
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help the staff understand the language and terminology used in the EFQM Excellence Model, as
had been suggested by Osseo-Asare & Longbottom (2002).
The issue of the Faculty culture of support was considered. The Dean realised that the Faculty
Executive had to be seen to be committed. There was a strongly shared view that the culture in
the Faculty was supportive and this was at a higher level than in any of the other three cases.
This then offers support to the view expressed in the literature that a co-operative and
supportive environment would be conducive to effective implementation (Raisbeck, 2001:
Moeller & Sonntag, 2001).
From the above it would appear that a culture that would be conducive to the implementation of
the EFQM Excellence Model would have a collegial management style, team-centred staff and a
co-operative and supportive environment. In addition, the use of language and terminology in
education and training which is appropriate to the HE culture appears to be an aid in
implementation. This is an issue that would be interesting to research further.
In summary, in this case the use of the EFQM Model has been integrated into the management
processes of the organisation and it has been used for three self-assessments. The challenge then
is to sustain the use of the EFQM Excellence Model. One of the threats to its continued use is
the system of fixed-term appointments for academic managers, which operates in this
University. If the new Dean (due in 2004) is not a supporter of its use then this could cause its
use to stop, particularly as a relatively low number of staff from outside the management teams
have used it. The author is also aware that there is a large reliance on the Project Manager to
facilitate the use of the EFQM Model in the Faculty and that this person is now a Head of
School. The demands of this job may make it difficult for her to dedicate sufficient time to this
facilitation role.
7.2 Cross-Case Discussion
7.2.1 Decision Phase
Motive
This research has highlighted the importance of motive in the decision phase of the
implementation. This supports the research of Wells (2001), Ritchie & Dale (2000), Chin & Pun
(2002), and Sullivan-Taylor & Wilson (1996). In case 'A' there wasn't a clear or strong motive
for using the EFQM Model and this contributed to the ineffective implementation. In contrast,
in cases 'C' and 'D' there were shared internal motives for using the EFQM Excellence Model
and this contributed to some degree of effectiveness in implementation in case 'C' and a
relatively high degree of effectiveness in implementation in case 'D'. In case 'B' there had been a
fairly clear internal motive for using the EFQM Model, however the implementation had been
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ineffective. A possible explanation for this in this case was that the motive was shared by the
Faculty Executive members at the time the decision was made, however there was a significant
number of changes in the membership of this decision-making body over a short period of time
and it is conceivable that the motive became diluted or lost in this process.
There is debate in the literature about whether internal or external motives provided the best
impetus for the implementation. Poirier & Tokarz (1996) argued for external motives whilst
Van der Wiele et al (2000) and Chapman (2000) argued for internal motives. This research
supports the latter view that internal motives are preferred, as cases 'B', 'C' and 'D' were all
driven by internal motives.
Objectives and Expected Benefits
Ryan (1996) and Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) argued that the objectives of the implementation
need to be clear. In case 'A' there appeared to be no shared or clear objectives or expected
benefits. This could have contributed to the lack of motive described in the section above. In
case 'B' there was no consistent view of the expected benefits of using the EFQM Model and no
clear objectives were set for its use. In spite of this, there had been a fairly clear internal motive
for using the EFQM Model. In cases 'C' and 'D' a number of objectives and expected benefits
were expressed. This could have contributed to the strong internal motives in the two cases
described in the section above.
One of the barriers to TQM implementation described in much of the literature is that of short-
termism with regards to the expected timescales in which objectives will be met and benefits
achieved. There is unanimity in the literature reviewed that an expectation of quick results is
one of the factors that results in the failure of TQM implementations (Atkinson, 1990; Munro-
Faure & Munro-Faure, 1992; Harvey, 1995; Sullivan-Taylor & Wilson, 1996; Mersha, 1997;
McAdam & Welsh, 2000). In all four cases in this research there was a view that objectives
would not be met or benefits achieved in the short-term. In case 'A' it was described as a "long
haul", in case 'B' the expectation was 3 years, in case 'C' it was 2 to3 years and in case 'D' it was
2 to 4 years. So short-termism was not a barrier in these cases.
Alternatives considered and support for the decision
Of the four cases examined, in only one were alternatives to the EFQM Excellence Model
considered (case 'B'). It is not clear from the cases examined whether the consideration of
alternatives positively or negatively affected the development of motive. In the three cases in
which an initial motive was developed, one considered alternatives whilst the other two did not.
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In case 'A' there was no clear support for the decision from the school management team. This is
likely to have contributed to the lack of motive described earlier. In case 'B' a qualified decision
was made by the Faculty Executive to use the EFQM Model followed by a full decision to use
it. This decision would have helped to produce the initial motivation to use the EFQM Model.
In case 'C', the decision to use the EFQM Model was supported by the school's senior
management team and this decision would have helped to produce the motivation discussed
earlier. In case 'D', the decision to use the EFQM Model was supported by the Faculty
Executive that would have helped to produce the motive discussed earlier. This early display of
senior management commitment to the use of the EFQM Model would appear to be a very
important element in producing the necessary motive. Demonstration of senior management
commitment will be discussed more fully in later sections of this chapter.
Intended uses of the EFQM Model
In addition to the main use of the EFQM Excellence Model as a means to carry out self-
assessment with the aim of identifying strengths and areas for improvement in an organisation, a
number of other uses of the model have been identified in the literature. Apart from case 'A' in
which the intended use of the EFQM Model wasn't clear, the other three cases clearly intended
to use it as a self-assessment framework to aid improvement. There is great debate in the
literature on its appropriateness as a strategic tool, although some examples of its use in this
way were reviewed in the literature. Only case 'D' of the four cases examined in this research
intended to use the EFQM Model as a strategic tool. It was intended to integrate the outputs of
the self-assessment into the business planning process. Whether this intention became a reality
will be discussed later in this chapter within the implementation and evaluation phase.
There is some evidence in the literature (Gadd, 1995; Leonard & McAdam, 2002a; Chapman,
2000) that the EFQM Excellence Model can be used to provide a holistic, broader overview of
the organisation, although none of the four cases had this as a shared, intended use of the model.
It can be seen that, according to the majority of literature reviewed, the EFQM Excellence
model provides a framework for performance management in organisations. Again, none of the
four cases had this as a shared, intended use of the model. The review of the literature showed
that the EFQM Excellence Model can provide a common framework which facilitates
benchmarking, provided that the emphasis is on comparing and contrasting strengths and areas
for improvement and not on a simplistic comparison of scores. Again, none of the four cases
had this as a shared, intended use of the model.
The literature revealed that the EFQM Excellence model could provide a means for both
mapping the areas of impact within an organisation of various quality and management
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initiatives and tools and selecting initiatives in a proactive way to support the development of
areas for improvement. None of the four cases intended to use the EFQM Model in this way.
Few organisations use the EFQM Excellence Model as a means of applying for a quality award
and none of the case organisations had intended to apply for a quality award. The EFQM
Excellence Model is often used to motivate staff to get involved in quality improvement
activities and can be used to reinvigorate improvement initiatives that have started to lose
momentum. Case 'D' intended to use the EFQM Model to motivate staff to get involved in
quality improvement activities.
So case 'A' had no clear intended uses of the EFQM Model and this is likely to have contributed
to the lack of motive in that case. Cases 'B' and 'C' intended to use it as a self-assessment
framework to aid improvement and this is likely to have contributed to the initial motives in
those cases. Case 'D' had three intended uses of the EFQM Model. This is likely to have
contributed to the development of the motive in this case.
Pace in the Decision Phase
The pace at which the decision phase was undertaken varied across the four cases. The fastest
pace was demonstrated in case 'D' in which the decision phase took about 3 months. This case
also demonstrated the most effective implementation. In case 'A' the decision phase took about
3-4 months, however senior management commitment was not gained and the implementation
was relatively ineffective. In case 'C' the decision phase took about 6 months. This case
demonstrated the second most effective implementation. In case 'B' the decision phase took over
12 months and the implementation was ineffective.
In the literature Vermeulen (1997) indicated that failure of TQM implementation can occur
when the implementation process outpaces acceptance of the change and the understanding of
the need and benefits, whilst Vrakking (1995) took the opposite view and argued that the
chances of successful implementation increase if the time between generation of the idea and
the implementation is kept to a minimum. The evidence from the cases would tend to support
Vrakking's view, as the most effective implementations tended to be those in which the decision
phase was completed relatively quickly.
7.2.2 Preparation Phase
Gaining Senior Management Commitment
It emerged from the literature review that gaining senior management commitment to
implementing the EFQM Excellence Model was clearly a crucial step in the implementation
process and one that needed to take place at the outset before involving other employees. There
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is much evidence in the literature that failure to secure this senior management commitment
leads to failures in implementation. There were examples in the literature that the task of
gaining senior management commitment was further complicated in some universities by the
issue of fixed-term roles for academic managers. Savolainen (1999) raised a very interesting
point in relation to continuous improvement implementation in Finland. If advocates did not
exist or support could not be found on the superior management level that was closest to the
group implementing the initiative (that is, in the next level up in the management hierarchy),
then the efforts tended to be abandoned.
The critical nature of the issue of gaining senior management commitment to implementation of
quality programmes (including the EFQM Excellence Model) has been addressed extensively in
the literature (Thiagarajan & Zairi, 1997; Spector & Beer, 1994; Hillman, 1994; Helms et al.
2001; Ritchie & Dale, 2000; Cullen & Hollingum, 1987; Savolainen, 1999; Buch & Rivers,
2001; Kumar & Douglas, 2002; Cabinet Office, 2001; Melan, 1998; Charlesworth, 2000;
McCarthy et al, 2002). The critical nature of this issue of gaining senior management
commitment was borne out by the four cases examined in this research.
In case 'A' senior management commitment wasn't gained and implementation did not move
beyond the lower half of the entry level. The main action taken to try to secure the commitment
Of the School SMT was a presentation by the HEFCE project consultant to the School SMT
somewhere between 31 May 2001 and 19 December 2001. The Project had already been
running for at least 12 months by the time this happened. The Project Board concluded that the
SMT did not, in general, perceive the relevance or potential of the EFQM Model to the school.
In case 'B' senior management commitment was gained initially, but this was not maintained
and implementation did not move beyond the lower half of the entry level. A number of actions
took place to try to gain senior management commitment. Two presentations to the Faculty
Executive (29 March 2000 and 23 October 2000) took place. The presentations to the Faculty
Executive were done by a working group, which had been set up by the Faculty Executive to
look at quality models. Individual meetings occurred between the Project Manager and both of
the Deans who were in post during the timescale of the project. The project manager and the
Head of School of the school that had been chosen to pilot the EFQM Model in the Faculty
made presentations to 2 out of the 5 School Executives. One presentation took place around
January 2001 and one around April 2002. A workshop using RADAR logic with the Dean's
Advisory Group took place in September 2002. It is interesting at this point to refer to the views
of Spector & Beer (1994) who warned not to confuse top management compliance with top
management commitment. In case 'B', the project manager wasn't convinced that senior
management commitment had been gained and another of the four interviewees was not sure if
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the decision to use the EFQM Model could be described as 'fully supported", he preferred to
say that there were no objections raised. This could have been an example of confusing
commitment with compliance.
In case 'C' a high level of senior management commitment was gained and implementation
reached the boundary of the entry level and the maturing level. Three main actions were taken
to gain senior management commitment: The Head of School made a presentation to the
School's Senior Management Team (SMT). There was a specific one-day training session on 9
November 2000 for the SMT plus the managers of those staff to be included in the diagonal
slice. This was run by a consultant from the HEFCE consortium and was designed to increase
awareness and understanding. The Vice Chancellor was involved in various training sessions
and meetings. These actions took place in the last quarter of 2000 and the early part of 2001.
In case 'D' a high level of senior management commitment was gained and implementation
reached around half way into the maturing level. The following actions were taken to gain
senior management commitment. A presentation was made to the Faculty Executive setting out
the expectations and requirements. The Dean thought that "We will all need to make time for
this". The project manager met and discussed the EFQM Model with the Heads of Schools and
School Executives. The project manager met and discussed the EFQM Model with the Faculty
Executive and on a one-to-one basis with some individuals from the Faculty Executive to clarify
issues. Away days were used to explain the benefits and shortcomings of the EFQM Model to
the Faculty Executive. Members of the school management committees attended two one-day
workshops on 16 and 17 July 2001. Mostly these actions took place within the first 6 months of
the project and the final actions were in July 2001. The project manager, the Dean and the
experts from the expert centre were involved in these sessions.
Shergold & Reed (1996), Oakland (2000), and Koehler & Pankowski (1996) all emphasised that
senior management commitment should be gained in the early phase of the implementation.
This emphasis was supported by the evidence from the four cases in this research. In cases 'B',
'C' and 'D' the actions taken to try to gain senior management commitment were all carried out
at an early stage in the process and all resulted in some initial commitment to the
implementation. In case 'A' however the action to try to gain senior management (a presentation
to the school's senior management team) only occurred between 12 and 18 months into the
process. Senior management commitment was not gained in this case.
Several researchers (Aly & Akpovi, 2001; Engelberg, 2000; Davies et al 2001; Raanan, 1998)
drew attention to the negative impact on the effectiveness of implementation of changes in
senior management. This is often manifested in universities through the fixed-term roles of
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academic leaders and can impact on senior management commitment. Examples of this were
evident in the cases examined in this research. In case 'A' there was almost no senior
management commitment, however the Head of Department who had initiated the EFQM
project retired about 18 months into the three-year project and this coincided with the time when
the small amount of progress that had been achieved ceased. In case 'B' some initial senior
management commitment had been gained, however there was a very large number of changes
in the senior management group which had made the initial decision. This was due to the policy
of having fixed term academic management posts (10 out of the 12 were no longer in post at the
end of the 3-year period). This could explain the interviewees' views that the level of senior
management commitment that had been demonstrated in case 'B' was very low. In case 'C' a
high level of senior management commitment was gained initially, but this had reduced
somewhat by the end of the 3-year period. Some of the interviewees linked this to the fact that
the project manager, who was also the Director of the School, moved to a different role 2 years
into the project. The facts of the case show that there was no activity related to the EFQM
Model in the last year of the project. In case 'D' a high level of senior management commitment
was gained at the start of the project and this was demonstrated at a high level throughout the
project. The senior managers involved in this case remained in post throughout the
implementation with one minor exception.
Savolainen's (1999) point about advocates not existing or support not being found on the
superior management level that was closest to the group implementing the initiative resulting in
the efforts being abandoned, was partly demonstrated in case 'D'. This case produced the most
effective implementation of the four cases and yet the issue of lack of senior management
commitment to the implementation from levels above the Faculty was clearly a concern with the
interviewees, particularly the Dean.
So this research supported the literature in terms of the critical nature of senior management
commitment and that it should be gained at an early stage of the process. This research also
offered some support to the concern about changes in senior management roles and the negative
impact on senior management commitment.
Pace in the gaining Senior Management Commitment element of the Preparation
Phase
The pace at which the gaining Senior Management Commitment element of the preparation
phase was undertaken varied across the four cases. In case 'C' this was completed within the first
3 months of the project and this implementation was relatively effective. Case 'D' had carried
out the actions to gain senior management commitment within the first 4 months and
implementation was effective. In case 'B' the initial actions to gain senior management
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commitment took place within the first 6 months, however senior management was lost and the
project manager attempted to regain senior management about 2 years into the project.
Implementation was ineffective in this case. In case 'A' the action which was taken to try to gain
senior management commitment only occurred between 12 and 18 months into the project.
Implementation in this case was largely ineffective.
The evidence from the cases would therefore tend to support Vraldcing's (1995) argument that
the chances of successful implementation increase if the time between generation of the idea
and the implementation is kept to a minimum, as the most effective implementations tended to
be those in which the gaining Senior Management Commitment element of the preparation
phase was completed relatively quickly.
Planning
The extent to which planning took place varied in the four cases, both in the detail of the
planning and in the emphasis on the various planning elements. The importance of planning was
emphasised in that elements that had been planned for tended to occur within the
implementation and elements that had not been planned for invariably did not occur in the
implementation. This supported the views of Hansson et al (2003) who argued that planning
helped to identify obstacles and driving forces.
Resistance to Change
Although there was much emphasis in the literature on the negative effect that resistance to
change can have on the implementation of quality programmes (Ryan, 1996; Dale et al, 2000;
Tan, 1997; Motwani & Kumar, 1997; Aly & Akpovi, 2001; Owlia & Aspinwall, 1997), in none
of the four cases were any change models considered for use in the implementations. However it
was clear that, although there had been no explicit use of change models in the cases, some prior
thought had often been given to culture/context assessment from which potential sources of
resistance to change could be identified. In addition, many of the mechanisms recommended in
the literature to reduce resistance to change had been considered in the preparation phase. For
example Oakland (1999) listed education and communication, participation and involvement,
facilitation and support, and negotiation and agreement as the major methods for overcoming
resistance to change. The planning of the use of these methods is discussed in the following
sections on education and training, communication, and staff involvement and teamwork.
Culture/Context assessment
In the literature review, several authors emphasised the need for an understanding of the culture
of an organisation as being crucial to successfully implementing quality programmes (Chin 8c
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Pun, 2002; Buch & Rivers, 2001; Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure, 1994; Anjard, 1995; Sousa-
Poza et al, 2001).
Poirier & Tokarz (1996), Vermeulen (1997), Chin & Pun (2002), Bardoel & Sohal (1999) and
Wright et al (1998) discussed carrying out a cultural assessment of an organisation before
implementing TQM or similar initiatives, in order to identify potential barriers to change and to
help in designing the implementation programme. In cases 'A', 'B' and 'C' there was no attempt
to assess the overall culture. In cases 'A' and 'B' implementation was ineffective and in case 'C'
implementation was initially effective but use of the EFQM Model was not sustained. In case
'D' however, the Dean and the project manager discussed some cultural/contextual issues as part
of their planning for the implementation and the implementation was effective in this case.
There was great debate in the literature about the appropriate management style necessary for
the successful implementation of TQM or the EFQM Excellence Model in the UK University
context. On the whole it appeared that any approach perceived by academic staff to be
managerial in nature was likely to be greeted with scepticism and resistance. There appeared to
be support for a collegial approach combined with leadership rather than a managerial approach
(Srikanthan & Dalrymple, 2002; Davies et al, 2001). The management style was only taken into
consideration in case 'D'. The perceptions of management style in each of the cases was:
Case 'A', managerial, and implementation was ineffective.
Case 'B', collegial, and implementation was ineffective.
Case 'C', quite managerial, and implementation was somewhat effective.
Case 'D', a wide-range of management styles, but with a collegial approach in the Faculty
Executive, and implementation was effective.
This suggests that the most appropriate management style for the implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model in UK university academic units is likely to be collegial, however the failure
to effectively implement the EFQM Model in case 'A' and 'B' was more likely to be because of
causes other than an inappropriate management style and these have been examined elsewhere
in this discussion. It is interesting that implementation was somewhat effective in case 'C' and
yet this had a management style that was quite managerial. Given the range of issues that have
been identified as impacting on the effectiveness of the implementation it seems unlikely then
that the management style would be one of the most prominent of these issues.
In the literature review, individualism was seen as a potential barrier to the effective
implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK University academic units (Raanan,
1998; Chadwick, 1995; Motwani & Kumar, 1997; Stawicki, 1999; Roffe, 1998; Raisbeck,
2001). Apart from in case 'D', very little consideration was given to the issue of individualism. It
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was interesting to note, however, that there was a perception of the staff being individualistic in
cases 'A' and 'B' and the implementation in both these cases was ineffective. On the other hand,
in the two cases in which implementation was either effective or somewhat effective (cases 'C'
and 'D'), the culture was perceived as team-centred rather than individualistic. This lends weight
to the argument that individualism is a barrier to the effective implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model in UK University academic units. It is interesting to note that the two cases in
which the academic staff were perceived as individualistic, were also the two cases in which the
highest proportion of staff time was spent on research activities. Research is often an individual
pursuit in universities.
There emerged no clear view from the literature on whether the critical nature of academic staff
would be an aid or a barrier to EFQM Excellence Model implementation. The issue of academic
freedom and the criticality of academic staff was only taken into consideration in case 'D'. Case
'D' also had the lowest level of perceived academic freedom and criticality exercised by staff. It
was thought that the academic staff might critique the EFQM Model and the facilitators would
need to be prepared for this. This actually happened during the implementation phase. An
incident of this also happened in case 'B' when the Dean's advisory grouped critiqued the EFQM
Model at a workshop run by the project manager. The small amount of evidence from this
research therefore lends weight to the argument (Ho & Wearn, 1996) that academic staff
freedom and criticality is likely to present a barrier to effective implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model.
Savolainen (1999) found that resistance to the implementation of continuous improvement
initiatives was embedded in professional cultures. Apart from case 'D', almost no consideration
was given to the issue of the professional nature of academic staff. In this case it was thought
that staff were used to quality models within the public sector that they engaged with and
therefore would be accepting of the EFQM Model. Case 'D' exhibited the most effective
implementation. This supported Brunetto's (2001) research, which argued that, in the Swedish
higher education sector, the professional authority associated with professionals in organisations
needed to be understood in order to implement new policies. In all four cases the perception was
that academic staff saw themselves as professionals to a high extent. This research therefore
offered no further insight into the issue of whether the professional nature of academic staff
might aid or hinder the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UK university
academic units.
Raisbeck (2001) identified a culture of openness and co-operation as one of the fundamentals
for the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model. This view was supported by Moeller &
Sonntag (2001) who identified a supportive organisational environment as one of the success
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factors in facilitating successful self-assessments in German healthcare. The culture of co-
operation and support was considered to some extent in all four cases. In case 'A' the culture
was seen as unsupportive, apart from for mandatory initiatives, and there were some particular
concerns about whether there would be support from the school's senior management team. The
implementation was ineffective in this case. In case 'B' only pockets of the Faculty were seen as
generally supportive of change. The implementation was also ineffective in this case. In case 'C'
the culture was seen as moving towards being supportive and co-operative and the Director of
the school thought that there would be an expectation from the school members of management
support. The implementation was somewhat effective in this case. In case 'D' there was a
strongly shared view that the culture in the Faculty was supportive and the Dean had realised
that the Faculty Executive would have to be seen to be committed. In this case the
implementation was effective. The trend exhibited then was one in which the effectiveness of
the implementation increased along with the perceived level of the culture of support in the
academic unit. This concurs with the literature. It is interesting to note that, in three of the four
cases, the interviewees linked the issue of the culture of support with the issue of support from
the senior management.
From the literature review it was seen that there was broad support that recognition for staff
involved in implementation could have a positive effect on staff motivation and willingness to
change, and this in turn could be an aid to effective implementation. However, there was some
concern expressed about the appropriateness of linking rewards to staff involvement in
implementation and also the issue of internal awards. In both cases, the concern was about the
potential to negatively impact on staff motivation. The other major issue across the area of
recognition and rewards was whether to recognise and reward at the individual or team level.
There appeared to be more support in the literature for team rewards and recognition rather then
this being done on an individual basis. Despite the emphasis on rewards and recognition in the
literature, only in case 'C' was the issue considered in the planning element of the preparation
phase and in none of the four cases were any rewards or recognition planned.
It appeared from the literature that amending the language and terminology of the EFQM
Excellence Model so that it was more suited to the HE context could have been an aid in
implementation. This issue was considered in all four cases. In cases 'A' and 'B' the project
managers decided not to mention the EFQM Model and this caused some confusion. In case 'C'
the decision was taken not to tailor the language and terminology in the EFQM Model and in
case 'D' a decision was made to use HE examples to explain concepts. This approach was
supported by Zink & Voss (1999) who argued that the EFQM Excellence Model must be
illustrated by definite examples. Thus there was no evidence that tailoring the language and
terminology to suit the HE context was a significant issue in aiding implementation.
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In general then, the cases in which the most consideration was given to cultural/contextual
issues ('C' and, particularly, 'D') in the planning element of the preparation phase exhibited the
most effective implementations. This supported the literature review, in which several authors
emphasised the need for an understanding of the culture of an organisation as being crucial to
successfully implementing quality programmes (Chin & Pun, 2002; Buch & Rivers, 2001;
Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure, 1994; Anjard, 1995; Sousa-Poza et al, 2001).
EFQM Model specific choices
As part of the planning element of the preparation phase, organisations have a number of
choices relevant to the use of the EFQM Excellence Model which can be made and these were
identified in the literature review in chapter 2.
A number of approaches to self-assessment were identified; questionnaire, matrix chart,
workshop and pro-forma (EFQM, 2003b). Cases 'A' and 'C' used the workshop approach and
case 'D' used a hybrid of workshop and pro-forma. It was unclear which approach to self-
assessment was chosen in case 'B'. Clearly the workshop approach was favoured in the cases.
The benefits associated with this approach are that it; is an excellent way to familiarise
management teams to understand the Model, supports team building and allows for discussion
and agreement regarding the strengths and areas for improvement, which provides motivation
towards improvement actions (EFQM 2003b). Of the three cases in which workshops were
used, 'C' and 'D' used them because the consultants had recommended them and the reason for
the choice in case 'A' was to involve staff. So the choice of self-assessment approach was not
generally given much thought because of the involvement of consultants.
EFQM (2002) recommended the use of RADAR Logic. Case 'A' chose not to use RADAR
Logic as they were not fully using the EFQM Model. Cases 'B', 'C' and 'D' all chose to use
RADAR Logic, but for different reasons. In case 'B' it was to set key results areas, in case 'C' it
was to help with scoring and in case 'D' it was to be used as a planning tool. Clearly RADAR
Logic was seen as a useful tool, however there was no consistent reason for choosing to use it.
An interesting point in respect to the use of RADAR Logic was that Awkati (2000, p.27) had
recommended applying the model "back to front" using RADAR and not mentioning the model
or its criteria. This approach was used unsuccessfully in case 'B'.
When self-assessing using the EFQM Excellence Model a decision needs to be made whether or
not to use scoring. In the literature, Gadd (1995) presented the benefits of scoring as to decide
on award winners, to benchmark and to identify relative strengths and areas for improvement.
Only case 'C' chose to score and the reason given was that scoring suited the academic culture of
the school, i.e. not for any of Gadd's reasons. Many writers warned of the potential negative
232
effects of scoring, which were the use of figures to control behaviour and the risk that scoring
could divert attention away from striving for improvement (Dale et al, 1998; Dale et al, 2000;
Conti, 1997; Samuelsson & Nilsson, 2002; Lewis, 1999). The reasons given in the three cases in
which it was decided not to use scoring coincided with those in the literature, namely that it was
better to concentrate on areas for improvement (case 'B'), scoring could be demotivating (case
'A') and concerns about scoring resembling "marking", and the competitive "league table effect"
(case 'D'). Thus this research adds weight to the argument for not using scoring in EFQM
Excellence Model self-assessment.
In relation to scoring, Oakland (1999) argued that consideration should be given to changing the
weightings of the elements of the EFQM Model. In the single case in which scoring was used, it
was decided not to change the weightings. There was no clear reason given for leaving the
criterion weightings as they were. The project manager thought that this would aid
Benchmarking.
Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
It could be clearly seen from the literature review that demonstrating senior management
commitment to the implementation was a key factor if implementation was to be successful,
furthermore this commitment had to be active and visible (Aly & Akpovi, 2001; Owlia &
Aspinwall, 1997; Oakland, 1999; Atkinson, 1990; Dale et al, 1998; Poirier & Tokarz, 1996;
Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure, 1994; Thiagaragan et al, 2001; Bardoel & Sohal, 1999;
Krasachol & Tannock, 1999; Raisbeck, 2001; O'Brien & O'Hanlon, 2000; Lewis, 1999; Zink &
Voss, 1998; Warwood & Antony, 2003). In case 'A' very few actions were planned that would
have demonstrated senior management commitment and in case 'B' there were no plans for how
senior management commitment to the implementation would be demonstrated. In both of these
cases implementation was ineffective. In cases 'C' and 'D' many actions were planned to involve
senior management in the implementation. In these cases implementation was effective to some
extent. Clearly though, these planned actions would only have aided the implementation if they
had actually been deployed. This is discussed later as part of the implementation and evaluation
phase.
Project Management
In general, most of the elements for project management were put in place in the planning
element of the preparation phase in all four cases.
In all the cases a steering committee was set up, however in case 'B' this did not have any
members from within the Faculty senior management. This goes against the advice in the
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literature to have senior managers in the steering committee (Ho & Wearn, 1996; Jackson,
2001; Kumar & Douglas, 2002; Conti, 1997).
Project Managers were appointed in all four cases. All had some experience of managing
projects and experience of the university context, although only the project manager in case 'B'
had any detailed previous knowledge of the EFQM Excellence Model. These appointments then
went against the advice of Jackson (2001) who recommended that the project manager should
have expertise in the use of the EFQM Model. All the cases had project consultants available to
them (see later in this sub-section), which reduced the need for the project manager to have this
expertise.
Three out of the four cases had project champions. Case 'B' did not have one and
implementation was ineffective in this case. In case 'A' the project champion was the Head of
Department who had initiated the project. In case 'C' the Vice Chancellor championed the
project and in case 'D' the Dean was the champion. Melan (1998) identified that the existence of
advocates to facilitate change was a key factor for successful implementation of improvement
and Atkinson (1990) advocated that a manager of high status should champion the
implementation, the higher the status the better. Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) identified the
need for a member of staff who is accepted at all levels to convince everyone. Thus cases 'C'
and 'D' would appear to have been in the strongest position in relation to champions and case 'B'
in the weakest position. Clearly there is a link with the previous section on senior management
commitment, as being a project champion is a way of exhibiting senior management
commitment.
All four cases had consultants with extensive knowledge of the EFQM Model available to them
through the HEFCE consortia. How these were actually used will be discussed in the
implementation and evaluation phase. In the literature there was support for the position of
project consultant to aid effective implementation. This is someone with expert knowledge of
the EFQM Excellence Model and the balance of opinion was that this should be someone within
the organisation rather than external to it (Koehler & Pankowski, 1996; Arcelay et al, 1999;
Samuelsson & Nilsson, 2002). There was some limited support for the use of external
consultants at the start of the implementation process (Van der Wiele et al, 1996).
Vrakking (1995), Owlia & Aspinwall (1997), Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002), Henderson et al
(1999), Michael et al (1997), Hillman (1994), Taylor & Hill (1992) and Taylor & Hill (1991)
emphasise the importance of a project activities plan. This heavy emphasis was reflected in all
four cases in which project activities plans with outline timescales were developed. The
literature advocated that the plan be developed, and therefore owned, by the senior managers
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(Conti, 1997; Chin & Pun, 2002; Vrakking, 1995). This only occurred in case 'D'. In case 'B' the
plan was developed by the project manager and in cases 'A' and 'C' the plan was developed at
the consortium level. Another factor that emerged from the literature when planning an EFQM
Excellence Model implementation was the existence of other projects, which could divert
attention, time and resources away from the implementation. PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000)
in their evaluation of the UK Public Sector Excellence Programme, identified initiative overload
as a significant barrier to achieving excellence. This potential barrier was only seen in case 'B',
in which a significant number of projects and initiatives were running at the same time as the
EFQM implementation.
Arrangements for project progress monitoring were put in place in the preparation phase in all
four cases. This was seen as important in the literature (Ho & Wearn, 1996; Samuelsson &
Nilsson, 2002; Melan, 1998; Jackson, 2001; Burke 1993).
The literature stressed the importance of resource allocation (Dale et al, 2000; Aly & Akpovi,
2001; Cabinet Office, 2001; Mersha, 1997; Michael et al, 1997; Zink & Voss, 1998; Jackson,
2001; Zink & Schmidt, 1998; Moeller & Sonntag, 2001; Van der Wiele et al, 1996; Dadzie,
2004). All the cases had resources allocated to them (funded by the HEFCE projects) in the
early stages of the implementation. This was mainly funding for a half-time project manager
and money for training.
A project pilot was only planned in case 'B'. Harvey (1995) reported on a number of cases of
TQM implementation in Higher Education in which it had been piloted in one small area before
extending the process. However, he reported that there was little evidence to suggest that these
small-scale, limited introductions led to full-scale implementation. This turned out to be the
situation in case 'B'. This was perhaps an example of Vrakking's (1995, p.43) "experimental
garden". He argued that the piloting approach indicated that the faith in the innovation was
insufficient. This would result in an unsettling of the main decision to proceed and a
lengthening of the implementation which would open it up to risks. Particularly, this could
present a very effective opportunity for those who were not happy with the innovation to display
resistance. Some of the interviewees in case 'B' shared the same concerns about the piloting
arrangement with one saying "it had been taken away from the Faculty".
Education and Training
In the literature education and training were clearly seen as key factors in effective
implementation in order to affect staff knowledge and attitudes, and to introduce the necessary
skills to carry out EFQM Excellence Model self-assessment (Mersha, 1997; Munro-Faure &
Munro-Faure, 1992; Oakland, 1999; Poirier & Tokarz, 1996; Antony et al, 2002; Krasachol &
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Tannock, 1999; Ho & Wearn, 1996; Owlia & Aspinwall, 1997; Warwood & Antony, 2003;
Hansson et al 2003). Taylor & Hill (1992, p.9) argued that:
"Attempting a TQM initiative without providing the training necessary to provide those involvedwith the appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes would be a recipe for disaster".
The amount of planned education and training varied considerably across the four cases. In case
'A' very little training was planned and in case 'B' none was planned. As a contrast considerable
amounts of training were planned in cases 'C' and 'D'. This mirrored the effectiveness of the
implementations ('A' and 'B' ineffective, 'C' and 'D' effective) and offered strong support for
Taylor & Hill's (1992, p.9) view that not providing training "would be a recipe for disaster".
Communication
Vraldcing (1995), Poirier & Tokarz (1996), Henderson et al (1999), Pupius (2002), Lewis
(1999), Zink & Voss (1998), Oakland (1999) and Hillman (1994) emphasised the importance of
communication to the implementation process, and Oakland (1999) and Conti (1997) stressed
the importance of a communications plan in the implementation process. In case 'A', although
there was a communications plan outlined in the project plan, it appears that there was little
knowledge of its existence. In case 'B', although there was an overall communications plan for
the consortium there was no local communications plan. In case 'C' there was no initial
communications plan and in case 'D' there was no communications plan. So, despite the
emphasis in the literature, communication planning was almost non-existent in the four cases
studied.
Staff Involvement and Teamwork
The literature indicated that the involvement of staff in various ways was crucial in
implementation (Poirier & Tokarz, 1996; Harvey, 1995; Mersha, 1997; Vrakking, 1995;
Thiagarajan & Zairi, 1997; Taylor & Hill, 1992; Jackson, 2001; Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure,
1992). Furthermore, the use of teams was seen as the primary mechanism for this involvement
(Conti, 1997; Taylor & Hill, 1992; Oakland, 1999; Mersha, 1997; Ho & Wearn, 1996;
Chapman, 2000; Krasachol & Tannock, 1999; Van der Wiele et al, 1996; Warwood & Antony,
2003).
Apart from case 'B' in which there was no plan for involving staff, all the other three planned to
involve staff in teams. In cases 'A' and 'C' the plans were similar, to involve a diagonal slice of
staff in self-assessment teams and then to set up improvement teams to work on improvement
projects. In case 'D' the plan was to involve senior staff in self-assessment teams in each school
within the Faculty.
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Pace in the Planning element of the Preparation Phase
Vermeulen (1997) indicated that failure of TQM implementation could occur when the
implementation process outpaced acceptance of the change and the understanding of the need
and benefits. Vraklcing (1995) took the opposite view and argued that the chances of successful
implementation increased if the time between generation of the idea and the implementation
was kept to a minimum. In the two most effective implementations ('C' and 'D') the planning
was completed quickly in one and three months respectively. Conversely, the planning in the
other two cases, in which implementation was relatively ineffective, took 6 months in case 'A'
and was never really completed in case 'B' as the plan had to be redone due to lack of progress
with the implementation. Thus this research strongly supports Vrakking's (1995) view that the
time between the generation of the idea and the implementation should be kept to a minimum,
i.e. planning should occur quickly.
Pace with which the Preparation Phase moved to the Implementation and
Evaluation Phase
Three of the four cases moved quickly from preparation to implementation. In case 'A' the self-
assessment workshop took place just one month after the planning had finished. In case 'C' the
training for the school's senior management team took place about 6 weeks after the planning
had finished and in case 'D' a presentation to the Faculty Executive occurred 2 months after the
end of the planning element. In case 'B' however there was a gap of about 3 months from the
end of the planning element to the self-assessment in the pilot school. Case 'B' was the least
effective of the four implementations. This then offers further support to Vrakking's (1995)
view that the chances of successful implementation are increased if the time between generation
of the idea and the implementation are kept to a minimum.
7.2.3 Implementation and Evaluation Phase
7.2.3.1 Integration
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000, p.35), in their evaluation of the UK Public Sector Excellence
Programme, stated that:
"Detractors of the Excellence Model are more likely to be found in an organisation where thereis a low level integration of the use of the model in the day-to-day running of the business".
Four issues emerged from the literature that suggested that implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model was more likely to be successful if it was integrated into the organisation and
its processes in various ways. Attempts were made in the cases to use these integrative
approaches. In case 'A' three of the four were attempted but with little success. In case 'B' only
two were attempted with almost no success. Case 'C' attempted three integrative approaches
with some degree of success and case 'D' attempted all four integrative approaches with a good
237
degree of success. Thus there is some support for Bauer's (2002) view that the more that
integration takes place, the more likely it is that implementation will be effective. In the next
sections these integration issues are discussed in the light of the case study findings.
Multi-level use in the organisation
In cases 'A' and 'C' the EFQM Model was only used in one level, the school. There was an
unsuccessful attempt to use it in two levels in case 'B'. Only in case 'D' was the EFQM Model
used successfully in more than one level. It was used in 2 levels for most of the Faculty (Faculty
and school levels) and in three levels in one school with the addition of school sub-units. Case
'D' exhibited the most effective implementation and the EFQM Model was used in the most
levels. In the implementation of TQM, Thiagaragan et al (2001) recommended establishing
activities in all the levels of the organisation. The author suggested in the literature that this
might also be applicable with the EFQM Excellence Model having the effect of a "tap root",
helping to ensure integration into the organisation. This research offers some support for this
view.
Alignment with other organisational systems
The literature indicated that if the EFQM Excellence Model could be aligned with activities
which were already taking place within an organisation, then it was more likely to become
integrated into the organisation and thus aid effective implementation (Melan, 1998; Poirier &
Tokarz, 1996; Dale et a/, 1998; Oakland, 2000; Jackson, 200)). In cases 'A', 'B' and 'C' theYe
were no attempts to align the use of the EFQM Excellence Model with other organisational
systems, however in case 'D' the EFQM Model was aligned with 5 other organisational systems.
It was linked with internal quality reviews, the institutional audit, a teaching contract review, the
performance reviews of the Heads of Schools and the annual monitoring of taught programmes.
Case 'D' had the most effective implementation. This then offers support to the views offered in
the literature. In addition, this issue appears to be important enough to merit its inclusion in the
planning element of the preparation phase of the theoretical framework when this is revisited
later in this chapter. It could be argued that this might be included in the issue of EFQM Model
specific choices or intended uses of the EFQM Model, however the alignment of the EFQM
Model with other organisational systems is not explicit within these issues in the framework.
Actual uses of the EFQM Model, particularly its use in strategic planning
It was identified from the literature in chapter 2 that there were a number of potential uses of the
EFQM Excellence Model; as a self-assessment framework to aid improvement, as a strategic
tool, to provide a holistic, broader view of the business, as a performance management tool, as a
benchmarking tool, as a means of integrating other quality and management initiatives and
tools, as a means of gaining a quality award and to motivate staff to get involved in quality
238
improvement activities. All four case study organisations used the EFQM Excellence Model for
self-assessment, two used it to motivate staff to get involved in quality improvement activities,
one used it to provide a holistic, broader view of the business and two used it as a strategic tool.
It appeared from the literature that linking EFQM Excellence Model self-assessment with the
strategic planning processes of an organisation had the potential to help integrate the EFQM
Excellence Model into the organisation's processes and thus aid effective implementation
(Conti, 1997; Wells, 2001; Henderson et al, 1999; Van der Wiele et al, 1996; Bardoel & Sohal,
1999; Zink & Voss, 1998; Pupius, 2002; Hansson et al, 2003). In case 'C' the school's 2002
strategic plan was based on the outcomes of their 2001 self-assessment and in case 'D' the self-
assessment was integrated into the annual business planning process on two occasions. These
two cases exhibited the most effective implementations. McCarthy et al (2002) believed that the
important aspect of this issue was whether the actions arising from self-assessment were agreed
as important and reviewed by senior management, and the integration of the action plan into the
business plan was simply a means of achieving this. This is exactly the process that was adopted
in case 'D'. Thus this research offers some support for the view expressed in the literature that
linking EFQM Excellence Model self-assessment with the strategic planning processes of an
organisation has the potential to help integrate the EFQM Excellence Model into the
organisation's processes. This is because it legitimises the action plan through the involvement
of senior management.
In chapter two there was great debate in the literature on the use of the EFQM Excellence
Model as a strategic tool. Three potential arguments were distilled from this:
• That the EFQM Excellence Model could be used as a strategic planning model, however,despite some examples of its use in this way in the literature, there was no consensus on themodel's appropriateness as a strategic planning model.
• That the outputs of self-assessment using the EFQM Excellence Model could be used asinputs to the strategy and business planning process. There was much evidence from caseexamples and surveys in the literature to support its use in this way.
• That the EFQM Excellence Model could be used as a means of operationalising strategydevised through other means.
In cases 'C' and 'D' the self-assessment was used in the second of these ways, as an input to the
strategy and business planning process (McAdam & Welsh, 2000; Stahr, 2001; Gadd, 1995;
Porter et al, 1996; Pitt, 1999). There was no evidence in the cases of its use in either of the other
two ways.
Staff Involvement and Teamwork
The amount of staff involvement with the EFQM Excellence Model varied significantly across
the four cases, but was broadly in line with the planned involvement, with the exception of case
'B'. In case 'C' around 30 % of the school's staff were involved in self-assessment and
239
improvement teams. In case 'A' around 15 % of the school's staff were involved in self-
assessment and improvement teams. In case 'D' around 6% of the Faculty's staff (mainly senior)
were involved with the EFQM Model and in case 'B' only about 3% of the Faculty's staff had
any sort of involvement with the EFQM Model and no teams were formed. A high level of staff
involvement didn't therefore necessarily result in the integration of the EFQM Model into the
case study organisation.
Teams were formed in three of the four cases, however there was little progress on planned
improvements in the improvement teams in these three cases. This perhaps lends some support
to the views of Harvey (1995) and Moeller & Sonntag (2001) who saw teamwork as a potential
barrier to quality improvement initiatives in Higher Education.
Pace in the Integration element of the Implementation and Evaluation Phase
The pace at which the integrative activities took place within the implementation and evaluation
phase varied across the four cases. In cases 'A', 'B' and 'C' the use of the EFQM Model was not
integrated into the organisations. In case 'A' the self-assessment and the setting up of the
improvement teams took place within the first 12 months, but the improvement groups made no
real progress. In case 'B' the initial self-assessment in the pilot school took place within the first
6 months, but the EFQM Model was not used then for 20 months. In case 'C' the initial use of
the EFQM Model occurred 7 months into the project, but integrative activities stopped around
18 months into the project. In case 'D' the EFQM was initially used 3 months into the project
and integrative activities then occurred regularly throughout the three years of the project. These
were mainly linked into the business planning cycle. Thus the integrative activities occurred at a
good pace in this case. This again lends weight to Vrakking's (1995) view that the chances of
successful implementation are increased if the time between generation of the idea and the
implementation are kept to a minimum.
7.2.3.2 Momentum
Bardoel & Sohal (1999) emphasised the importance of follow-through if an organisation is
attempting to develop long term commitment to any continuous improvement initiative. The
literature review identified a number of actions which, if carried out effectively by
organisations, could help to ensure that the implementation process maintained its momentum.
Generally, the greater the number of these actions that occurred in a case, the greater the
momentum and the greater the effectiveness of the implementation. In case 'A' only two
approaches that might have produced momentum were used and the implementation was
ineffective. In case 'B' no approaches were used and the implementation was ineffective. In case
'C' five approaches were used, but these were mostly only used in the first 18 months after
which momentum was lost. The implementation was somewhat effective in this case. In case 'D'
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five approaches were used and momentum was maintained throughout the three years. The
implementation was effective in this case.
Project Management
Within the implementation and evaluation phase the four cases exhibited varying degrees of
usage of the elements of project management. In general, the cases in which effective project
management was carried out were more effective in implementation of the EFQM Model. This
then supports the view of Hides et al (2000) who argued that project management could
facilitate total quality. Case 'D' exhibited the most effective implementation and in this case the
project manager and the project champion were in post for the whole of the 3 years, there was
some progress monitoring at the Faculty level, the activities plan was followed, resources were
maintained over the 3 year period and the project consultant was used in the first year.
Case 'C' had the next most effective implementation and in this case the activities plan was
followed for the first year, the project consultants were used and the project champion was in
place for the three year period, however the project manager was only in place for two years,
meaning that the resources were not maintained and little progress monitoring took place.
Case 'A' had the next most effective implementation, although this was relatively ineffective. In
this case the project manager was in place for the whole 3 years, the steering committee met 5
times to monitor progress, the resources were maintained and the project consultant was used,
however the project champion retired half way through the project and the activities plan was
not followed.
Case 'B' exhibited the least effective implementation. In this case the project manager was in
place for the whole of the three years and the resources were maintained, however the activities
plan was not followed, there was no project champion, the project consultant was not used and a
Faculty-level steering committee was not set up, and so no progress monitoring took place.
Thus this research provided evidence to support the arguments presented in the literature that
effective project management helped to produce momentum in the implementation phase. There
was a heavy emphasis in the literature on the importance of a project activities plan (Vrakking,
1995; Owlia & Aspinwall, 1997; Samuelsson & Nilsson, 2002; Henderson et al, 1999; Michael
et al 1997; Hillman, 1994; Taylor & Hill, 1992; Taylor & Hill, 1991). The only case that kept to
its project plan (case 'D') produced the most effective implementation. Thus this research
supports the importance of a project activities plan identified in the literature.
241
On the issue of having a project champion, MeIan (1998) identified that the existence of
advocates to facilitate change was a key factor for successful implementation of improvement
and Atkinson (1990) advocated that a manager of high status should champion the
implementation, the higher the status the better. Samuelsson & Nilsson (2002) identified the
need for a member of staff who is accepted at all levels to convince everyone. In the two cases
which exhibited the most effective implementations ('C' and 'D') the project champions stayed in
post for the full 3 years and they were both of high status (Vice Chancellor and Dean). This then
offers support for the importance of a project champion.
Project progress monitoring was seen as important in the literature (Ho & Wearn, 1996;
Samuelsson & Nilsson, 2002; Melan, 1998; Jackson, 2001; Burke 1993). In case 'B' no progress
monitoring took place at the Faculty level and implementation was ineffective. In case 'A' there
was regular progress monitoring yet implementation was ineffective. In cases 'C' and 'D' only a
small amount of progress monitoring took place and yet these were the two most effective
implementations. Thus this research does not support the importance of project progress
monitoring which was identified in the literature.
The literature stressed the importance of resource allocation (Dale et al, 2000; Aly & Akpovi,
2001; Cabinet Office, 2001; Mersha, 1997; Michael et al, 1997; Zink & Voss, 1998; Jackson,
2001; Zink & Schmidt, 1998; Moeller & Sonntag, 2001; Van der Wiele et al, 1996). The level
of resources allocated was maintained in three of the four cases. In case 'C' the project manager
moved to another role after 2 years and was not replaced. The implementation in this case
stalled at this point. Thus this research offers some support to the argument for the importance
of resources.
Burke (1993) argued that the role of the project manager was one of the key aspects influencing
project success. In three of the four cases the project managers stayed in their roles for the full
three years, however in case 'C' there was no project manager for the last year of the project and
the implementation stalled at this point. This offers some support for the importance of the role
of project manager.
The balance of opinion in the literature was that the project consultant should be someone
within the organisation rather than external to it (Koehler & Pankowski, 1996; Arcelay et al,
1999; Samuelsson & Nilsson, 2002). This was the situation in cases 'B' and 'D'. There was some
limited support for the use of external consultants at the start of the implementation process
(Van der Wiele et al, 1996) and this occurred in cases 'A' and 'C'. So this research offers some
support for the position of project consultant.
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Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
There was a strong trend for effective implementation to have occurred in cases where senior
management commitment was strongly demonstrated. The most effective implementation took
place in case 'D' in which senior management commitment was demonstrated in several visible
ways and the perception of the demonstration of senior management commitment was high
(5.25 out of 7). The next most effective implementation was in case 'C' in which there were
some demonstrations of senior management commitment in the first year, but this was thought
to have waned in the final two years (this coincided with the Director of the School stepping
down as project manager at the end of year 2). The perception of the demonstration of senior
management commitment was reasonable at 3.9 out of 7. The implementation in case 'A' was
ineffective, there were very few examples of senior management commitment being
demonstrated and a low perception of this at 2 out of 7. The least effective implementation
occurred in case 'B' in which there were no examples of senior management commitment and a
low perception of it at 2 out of 7.
This research then offers strong support to the argument put forward in the literature that
demonstrating senior management commitment to the implementation was a key factor if
implementation was to be successful, furthermore this commitment had to be active and visible
(Aly & Akpovi, 2001; Owlia & Aspinwall, 1997; Oakland, 1999; Atkinson, 1990; Dale et al,
1998; Poirier & Tokarz, 1996; Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure, 1994; Thiagaragan et al, 2001;
Bardoel & Sohal, 1999; Krasachol & Tannock, 1999; Raisbeck, 2001; O'Brien & O'Hanlon,
2000; Lewis, 1999; Zink & Voss, 1998; Taylor and Wright, 2003; Hansson et al, 2003; Taylor
& McAdam, 2003; Oakland & Porter, 2004).
Communication
Across the four cases there was very little communication to staff about the project. This
reflected the lack of communications planning discussed earlier. Despite this, two cases
managed to implement the EFQM Model effectively. So this research suggests that
communication does not impact significantly on the effectiveness of the implementation. This
goes against the views in the literature on the importance of communication to the
implementation process (Vrakking, 1995; Poirier & Tokarz, 1996; Henderson et al, 1999;
Pupius, 2002; Lewis, 1999; Zink & Voss, 1998; Oakland, 1999; Hillman, 1994).
Education and Training
The case study evidence pointed to the importance of education and training to the effectiveness
of the implementation. In case 'B' no training took place and the implementation was
ineffective. In case 'A' only a small amount of training took place resulting in little knowledge
of the EFQM Model and ineffective implementation. In cases 'C' and 'D' a considerable amount
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of training took place and implementation was effective. In the literature education and training
were clearly seen as key factors in effective implementation in order to affect staff knowledge
and attitudes, and to introduce the necessary skills to carry out EFQM Excellence Model self-
assessment (Mersha, 1997; Munro-Faure & Munro-Faure, 1992; Oakland, 1999; Poirier &
Tokarz, 1996; Antony et al, 2002; Krasachol & Tannock, 1999; Ho & Wearn, 1996; Owlia &
Aspinwall, 1997). This research offers strong support to this argument.
Koehler & Pankowski (1996) and Thiagarajan & Zairi (1997) advocated just-in-time education
and training to ensure what was learnt was applied right away and not lost. In case 'D' the
project manager did express some concerns that some of the training occurred too early, in that
the skills were not used immediately after the training.
Improvement Planning, Action and Review
In the literature, the importance of improvement planning, action and review was demonstrated
(Van der Wiele et al, 1996; Shergold & Reed, 1996; Zink & Schmidt, 1998; Pitt, 1999;
Samuelsson & Nilsson, 2002; Arcelay et al, 1999; Chapman, 2000). This turned out to be one of
the least developed issues in the cases. In case 'B' this stage was not reached at all and in case
'A' two improvement teams were set up but no improvement actions took place. In case 'C' three
improvement groups were set up and some minor initial improvements were actioned, however
these groups lost momentum in years two and three. In case 'D' improvement actions started
around 14 months into the project and continued over the following 18 months. The review of
these was linked into the self-assessment and business planning cycle that had been established.
This approach of linking improvement planning and review into the business plan was
recommended in the literature (Samuelsson & Nilsson, 2002; Arcelay et al, 1999).
There was much support in the literature for identifying some quick wins in improvements to
hold up as examples in the organisations (Cullen & Hollingum, 1987; Atkinson, 1990;
Chapman, 2000; Jackson, 2001; Moeller & Sonntag, 2001). This approach was only used in
case 'C' and produced some initial improvements, however this was not followed by the larger,
higher impact improvements that had been hoped for.
In cases 'A' and 'C' the implementation process lost momentum when the improvement projects
lost momentum and no further use of the EFQM Model happened in either case after this time.
This supported the view of the Cabinet Office (2001) in which it was recommended that it was
ensured that an organisation acted on improvement opportunities as failure to do so would
undermine the organisation's credibility. Neither of these case study organisations has managed
to resurrect the use of the EFQM Model since the improvement teams stalled. This is not
surprising, as the improvement actions would be the main source of benefit to the organisation.
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Without these benefits it is hardly surprising that an organisation would lose momentum in its
use of the EFQM Model.
Recognition and Rewards
As recognition and rewards were not planned in any of the cases, it came as no surprise that
there was little activity in this regard in the cases. There was no recognition of or rewards for
staff in three of the cases ('A', 'B' and 'D'). In case 'C' there were no rewards, however there were
a number of instances of recognition. Case D' still exhibited effective implementation despite
not using recognition and rewards. This then diminishes the argument presented in the literature
of the importance of recognition and rewards (Jackson, 2001; Thiagaragan et al, 2001; Brunetto,
2001; Mersha, 1997; Poirier & Tokarz, 1996; Koehler & Pankowski, 1996; Thiagaragan &
Zairi, 1997).
Evaluation of Benefits
In 7.2.1 it was identified that only in cases 'C' and 'D' were clear objectives and expected
benefits set. In terms of the achievement of expected benefits, in cases 'A' and 'B' benefits were
not achieved, in case 'C' they were partly achieved and in case 'D' they were fully achieved. This
then reflected the expected benefits. Where clear objectives and benefits had been set, these
tended to be achieved. This emphasised the critical nature of setting objectives and expectations
of benefits (Ryan, 1996; Samuelsson & Nilsson, 2002).
Pace in the momentum element of the Implementation and Evaluation Phase
The cases in which many of the actions which were expected to produce momentum took place
exhibited momentum and, in turn, effective implementation. In case 'B' almost no actions that
might have produced momentum took place, the implementation did not progress on schedule
and the pace was perceived as too slow. In case 'A' only a few actions that might have produced
momentum took place, the implementation did not progress on schedule and the pace was
perceived as too slow. In case 'C' many actions that might have produced momentum took
place, the first year progressed on schedule and the pace was perceived as about right in the first
year, but then it was perceived to have slowed down considerably. In case 'D' many actions that
might have produced momentum took place, the implementation progressed on schedule and the
pace was perceived as about right. This research then adds weight to Vraklcing's (1995)
research. After investigating many cases of seized-up implementation processes, he argued that
if implementation is slow then it is doomed to fail. Taylor & McAdam (2003, p.396) refer to
"Fast track implementation" in which the transferability of earlier learning helps to fast-track
the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model.
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7.2.4 Effectiveness of the Implementation
It was seen from the defmitions examined in chapter one, section 1.4 that implementation infers
effectiveness. Therefore something that is effectively implemented is something that is in
operation or use.
The author argued that the EFQM Excellence Model would have been effectively implemented
when its use had been integrated into the regular management practices of the organisation. This
was based on the definition of effectively implemented described above. For example, had
ownership of the self-assessment process been demonstrated by staff in
schools/departments/divisions carrying out their own self-assessments and/or were the
improvement plans generated in self-assessment linked in to the organisation's strategy and/or
business planning process? Fullan & Pomfret (see Vralcking 1995, p.44) describe the goal of
implementation as:
"maximization of the degree in which the actual use of an innovation corresponds with its
intended use".
So if an organisation was actually using the EFQM Excellence Model in the way that it
intended, then it could be argued that it had been successfully implemented. The following table
(table 7.1) compares the intended and actual uses of the EFQM Excellence Model in each case.
Using the definition of effective implementation that was developed in chapter one that if an
organisation was actually using the EFQM Excellence Model in the way that it intended, then it
could be argued that it had been successfully implemented, the effectiveness of the
implementation in each of the four cases can be assessed from the above table.
In case 'A' the intended use was not clear and the EFQM Model was barely used at all.
Therefore the implementation can be described as ineffective. This corresponds with the
assessment of the implementation using the PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) framework in
which it was viewed to be in the lower half of the entry level.
In case 'B' there was a clear intention to use the EFQM Model as a self-assessment framework
to aid improvement, however it was barely used at all in the 3-year period. Therefore the
implementation can be described as ineffective. This corresponds with the assessment of the
implementation using the PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) framework in which it was viewed to
be in the lower half of the entry level.
In case 'C' the intended and actual uses of the EFQM Model corresponded reasonably well,
however the Model was only used on one occasion and hasn't been used for over two years.
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Therefore the implementation can be described as having been somewhat effective. This
roughly corresponds with the assessment of the implementation using the
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) framework in which it was viewed that the level of
implementation was about on the boundary of the upper half of the entry level and the lower
half of the maturing level.
In case 'D' the EFQM Model was used for all its intended uses and some extra ones. It was used
on a regular basis over the 3-year period. Therefore the implementation can be described as
having been effective. This corresponds with the assessment of the implementation using the
PriceWaterhouseCoopers (2000) framework in which it was viewed that the level of
implementation was about half way up the maturing level.
Case Intended Uses Actual Uses
A Not clear, possibly self-assessmentframework to aid improvement.
• One crude self-assessment.• Some limited involvement in quality
improvement.B Self-assessment framework to aid
improvement.One outline self-assessment in the pilotschool.
C • Self-assessment framework to aidimprovement.
• To provide a holistic, broader viewof the business.
• A means of integrating otherquality and management initiativesand tools.
• To motivate staff to get involvedin quality improvement activities(lesser intent).
• One self-assessment.• To provide a holistic, broader view of
the business.• Once as a Strategic Tool (informed the
business plan).• To motivate staff to get involved in
quality improvement activities.
D • Self-assessment framework to aidimprovement.
• Strategic Tool (to inform thebusiness plan).
• To motivate staff to get involvedin quality improvement activities,
• Benchmarking (lesser intent).
• Three self-assessments.• Twice as a Strategic Tool (informing
the business plan).• To motivate staff to get involved in
quality improvement activities (to asmall extent).
• Benchmarking (internal).• Performance Management Tool.• To provide a holistic, broader view of
the business.• A means of integrating other quality
and management initiatives and tools.
Table 7.1: Comparison of intended and actual uses of the EFQM Excellence Model
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7.3 Discussion of the Theoretical Framework
In two cases ('A' and 'B') implementation was ineffective, whilst in one case ('C') the
implementation was partly effective. In case 'D' the implementation was effective. The
examination of the four cases in light of the theoretical framework has highlighted the relative
importance of the various issues to effective implementation. The following issues were seen to
be essential to effective implementation in that the absence of one or more of them in a case led
to ineffective implementation and the presence of all of them in a case led to effective
implementation:
• A clear motive, particularly setting out clear expected benefits and objectives.• Gaining senior management commitment.• Demonstrating senior management commitment.• Education and training• Staff involvement and teamwork.• The overall pace of the implementation• Integration of the EFQM Excellence Model into the organisation.• Activities to maintain momentum.
Two issues were desirable in effective implementation (culture/context assessment and project
management). Both of these issues appeared to help in one of the cases in which
implementation was successful (case 'D'), but weren't essential as culture/context assessment
didn't occur in the other partly effective implementation (case 'C'). A detailed discussion of the
culture/context assessment in case 'D' has been included in section 7.1.4. Although a
culture/context assessment hadn't occurred in case 'C', the interviewees' views on the
culture/context in this case revealed some similarities and some differences with the culture in
case 'D', the effective implementation. It too was perceived to have a teamwork culture and
general support for initiatives, although the management style was seen as being more
managerial than that in case 'D'. This suggests that the major elements of culture/context that
impact on effective implementation are teamworking and a culture of support. The second
desirable element in effective implementation, project management, had been carried out
effectively in case 'A' but the implementation was still ineffective.
Some issues did not appear to have an impact on the effectiveness of the implementations. The
first of these was the assessment of resistance to change via change models, as this did not occur
in any of the cases. The second issue was communication planning and communication during
the implementation, as this was done poorly in all the cases. The third issue was the planning
and use of recognition and rewards, as this was hardly attempted in any of the cases. It is
possible that appropriate use of recognition and rewards could have helped to provide some
momentum, however it is not possible to draw any firm conclusions from this research. In
addition, the EFQM Model specific choices did not appear to have any major bearing on the
effectiveness of the implementation. The choice of self-assessment approach did not appear to
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influence the outcome and the two cases in which implementation was effective included one in
which scoring was used and one in which it was not. Clearly these EFQM Model specific
choices need to be considered in light of the expected benefits and objectives in using the
EFQM Excellence Model.
The implementation issues can be categorized into three categories; generic issues that could
apply in any implementation process; context specific issues, which only apply in the UK
university academic unit context, and issues that are specific to the implementation of the
EFQM Excellence Model. Of the essential issues identified above, all bar one are generic issues.
The exception to this is the integration of the EFQM Excellence Model into the organisation,
which is an EFQM Excellence Model specific issue. Considering the desirable issues, project
management is a generic issue and culture/context assessment could be seen as a generic issue,
however, because of the content of the cultural/contextual issues included in this research, then
it is probably more appropriate to view this as a UK university academic unit context specific
issue. Thus, in terms of the impact on the effectiveness of the implementation, the major impact
comes from generic issues with some impact from EFQM Excellence Model specific and
context specific issues.
In the literature, taking the right steps (or phases) towards implementation and in the right
sequence is important in the construction of an implementation model (Spector & Beer, 1994;
Motwani & Kumar, 1997; Vraldcing, 1995; Thiagaragan et al, 2001). This informed the
development of the theoretical framework in chapter 4 (figure 4.2). The subsequent case studies
have provided support for this argument of conducting the elements of the implementation in a
time-phased sequence. In case 'D' in particular (in which implementation was effective) the
phases contained in figure 4.2 were followed in that order. The order of the phases was also
followed in case 'C' in which the implementation was initially effective. In case 'B' the decision
phase was followed by the gaining senior management commitment element of the preparation
phase and this was followed by many of the parts of the planning element. Unfortunately hardly
any of the elements of the implementation and evaluation phase followed in this case and
implementation was ineffective. In case 'A' large sections of the decision phase were missed
along with the first element of the preparation phase in which senior management commitment
should have been gained. Some parts of the planning element were carried out followed by an
ineffective attempt to enter the implementation and evaluation phase. There was a belated (and
failed) attempt to gain senior management commitment at this time, which was out of sequence
with the implementation model. This offers support then to the views of Spector & Beer (1994,
p.65) who describe a number of ingredients which must be present in TQM implementation and
argue that there is a necessary sequence to their application:
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"The above steps, in other words, are sequential and hierarchical: each ingredient forms abasis for the subsequent step. Organizations which violate the sequence will find their effortsweakened, and will be forced to return to and then address earlier overlooked steps".
This is exactly what occurred in case 'A', in which the sequence was violated. The author
concluded that the phases described in the theoretical framework needed to be followed in the
order presented, for effective implementation to occur, and so they would remain unchanged in
the revision of this framework. This decision is not just based on the single case of effective
implementation (case 'D') but on the evidence from case 'C' in which the implementation was
initially effective but was not sustained, and from evidence from the other two cases in which
some of the elements of the framework were effectively addressed. The decision phase was
particularly well addressed in case 'B' in which there was a clear motive and a range of
alternatives was considered before deliberately choosing the EFQM Model. The project
management was carried out well in case 'A' even though the overall implementation effort was
ineffective.
Hermel & Ramis-Pujol (2003), Chin & Pun (2002), Thiagaragan et al (2001), Jackson (2001),
Silvestro (2001) and Taylor & Hill (1992) argued strongly for a framework that provides
guidance for flexible implementation that fits the context rather than a prescriptive model for
implementation. There was also support for a contingent approach to implementation (Silvestro,
2001; Melan, 1998; Savolainen, 1999) and that this should manifest itself through a tailored
implementation plan (Mersha, 1997; Michael et al, 1997; McAdam & Welsh, 2000; Raisbeck,
2001; Sousa-Poza et al, 2001; McCarthy et al, 2002). These views are supported by this
research as effectiveness in the various elements of the implementation guidance framework has
been achieved in different ways in the different cases. In case 'D' in particular there was an
attempt to fit the implementation to the context and this helped in producing an effective
implementation. Therefore the author's proposal to present the framework as a guidance
framework for implementation in UK University academic units is supported by the primary
research. This decision was made on the evidence from the effective implementation (case 'D'),
the initially effective implementation (case 'C') and the two ineffective implementations as they
all provided some evidence of tailored implementation plans in elements of the framework. This
research found no evidence to support an argument for a prescriptive implementation
framework.
The theoretical framework was revisited in light of the findings from the case studies. As a
result, some amendments were made to the framework and degrees of emphasis were placed on
the issues contained within it (figure 7.1). The red boxes emphasise the essential issues to be
addressed in implementation and the blue boxes are the desirable issues to be addressed. The
issues that were in the theoretical framework derived from the literature but did not appear to
have an impact on the effectiveness of the implementation in the cases have been removed from
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the guidance framework. The boxes highlighted with an asterisk (*) contain sub-issues as
follows:
Intended uses of the EFQM Model (details in chapter 2):
• Its use as a strategic tool.• Its use as a means of providing a holistic, broader view of the business.• Its use as a tool for performance management.• Its use as a benchmarking tool.• Its use as a means of integrating other quality and management initiatives and tools.• Its use in gaining a quality award.• Its use as a means of motivating staff to get involved in Quality Improvement activities.
Culture/Context assessment (details in chapter 3):
• Management style.• Individualism.• The critical nature of staff and academic freedom.• Professionalism and the nature of Professional Services.• Co-operation and support.• Recognition and rewards.• The overall "academic culture" of an organisation.• The language and terminology of the EFQM Excellence Model and whether it should be
changed to suit the culture of Universities.
Project Management (details in chapter 3):
• Steering Committee.• Project manager.• Project champion.• Project consultant.• Project activities plan.• Project progress monitoring.• Project resources allocation.• Project pilot.
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Pace
Staff Involvement and Teamwork
Pace
Implementation andEvaluation Phase
--I Pace Multi-level use inthe organisation
Alignment withother
organisationalsystems
Integration
V
Actual uses of *the EFQM model,particularly its use
in strategicplanning
1 Pace Staff Involvementand Teamwork
Phase
Objectives and Expected Benefits
DecisionPhase
I Pace
MotiveAlternatives considered, support for the decision
Intended uses of the EFQM Model *
PreparationPhase
Gaining SeniorManagementCommitment
riPlanning
Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
Culture/Context assessment *
Alignment with otherorganisational systems
Project Management *
Education and Training1
Project Management *
Demonstrating SeniorManagementCommitment
Education and Training
Improvement Planning,Action and Review
Evaluation of Benefits
Pace
Momentum
Effective Implementation
Figure 7.1: Guidance framework for EFQM Excellence Model implementation in UK,
University academic units
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7.4 Discussion on the conduct of the Research and the Research Methodology
The choice of research strategy was justified in 5.1 and the author decided that the most suitable
strategy was the case study strategy. Case study research can answer how and why questions,
particularly where phenomena are being studied within a context (Yin, 1994; Stake, 1994;
Hussey & Hussey, 1997; Bardoel & Sohal, 1999; Leonard & McAdam, 2002a). The research
was successful in answering the how and why questions posed in the purpose, aim and
objectives of the research through the application of the detailed research design. Thus the
author would argue that the choice of research strategy was appropriate.
The choice of appropriate case studies was explained in section 5.2.1.3. The author decided to
investigate multiple cases. According to Herriot & Firestone (see Yin 1994, p.45), the evidence
from multiple cases is often considered more compelling, and the overall study is therefore
regarded as being more robust. This was balanced against the view of Cresswell (1998) who
pointed out the likelihood that as the number of case studies increases, the depth of investigation
in each case would decrease. Hussey & Hussey (1997) support the views of Y j)) (i994) aDd
state that similar cases will help to show if the theory can be generalised and dissimilar cases
will help to extend or modify any theory. The author selected four cases. From preliminary
research, two of these were expected to have been effective and two ineffective. This was done
in order that there would be similar and dissimilar cases to enable both generalisation from the
theory and modification of the theory. Once the detailed research had been carried out it was
discovered that the two expected ineffective cases had indeed been ineffective, however only
one of the expected effective cases was really effective with the other one being only partly
effective. The author still felt that the cases provided a basis for generalisation (i.e. for
explaining the reasons for the effectiveness or not of the implementations) and for modification
of the theory, (i.e. the changes to the theoretical framework to produce the guidance framework
for EFQM Excellence Model in UK University academic units, which is shown in figure 7.1).
The author felt confident to do this as the research still provided similar and dissimilar cases.
Even with four cases the author was still able to research in sufficient depth to reveal the
reasons for the level of effectiveness in each case.
Multiple sources of evidence were selected in order to triangulate the data. The sources (four
interviews, documents, archival records and participant observation (in one case)) meant that it
was possible to corroborate facts and gain a range of insights to the phenomenon of
implementation. Although it would have been possible to interview more staff in each case, the
author is confident that sufficient sources of evidence were accessed to provide construct
validity. The only area in which there was great variance in the responses from interviewees was
when questions were asked to get the interviewees to express their personal views on aspects of
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the implementation, e.g. the degree of senior management commitment. There was a good
degree of agreement on factual aspects of the implementation process.
Much time and effort was spent developing the data collection methods and instruments, and
methods of data analysis. This ensured that a chain of evidence was maintained from the
original research question through to the ultimate conclusions of the study as recommended by
Yin (1994). The main vehicle for providing this was the theoretical framework. This approach
helped to provide construct validity.
The data collection instruments (the document used to gather the background to the case study
organisation, the structured interview and the protocols, which comprised of the notes to the
project managers and interviewees on the research process and procedures) were reviewed by
the author's PhD supervisor and piloted with Professor Philip Sullivan of De Montfort
University. This provided a substantive check on the content of the interview questions (as
Professor Sullivan has much experience in the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model
in Higher Education) in addition to covering methodological issues in the protocols and
interview questions (Yin, 1994). This pre-test approach had been used by Samuelsson &
Nilsson (2002) when researching self-assessment practices in large organisations and their data
collection instrument was pre-tested on persons with great experience of self-assessment. This
approach proved to be very useful and the outcome of this pilot was that one substantive
element was added to the structured interview (the culture of support in section 3.3.3.7 in the
structured interview, appendix 5) and some very minor changes to the wording of some
questions were made to aid clarity. Unfortunately, because of Professor Sullivan's busy
schedule, it was not possible to do this in person. Instead this was done by email which
prevented the author from gaining an estimate of the likely time to conduct the structured
interview. The author estimated from previous experience that it would take around two hours
to complete each interview and the author's PhD supervisor expressed his concern that potential
interviewees might be reluctant to agree to such an extended interview. The author noted this
concern and made sure that potential interviewees were fully aware of the likely time needed for
the interview. In doing this, the author avoided any situations in which the interviewees rushed
their responses to fit in with unrealistic time estimates. Overall, the feedback from Professor
Sullivan gave the author confidence that both the substance of the data gathering instruments
and the methodology to be employed in data gathering were well-designed as the suggested
amendments were minimal. On reflection it might have been better to have piloted the data
collection instruments with more staff in Professor Sullivan's organisation in order to have
gained a wider variety of views.
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Each interviewee received a copy of the notes for interviewees (appendix 4) several weeks
before the interview in order that they were informed of the research protocol. This proved to be
very useful as the author was able to optimise his time at the case study organisations
conducting interviews and reviewing documentary evidence rather than explaining the aim of
the research and the background.
The interviews went ahead as scheduled and went smoothly with very little need for the author
to further explain the interview questions. The author used his discretion to probe the
interviewees' responses and further pursue lines of enquiry as appropriate. Unfortunately some
of the interviewees didn't have their last three years' diaries available to confirm key dates in the
implementation process, however a combination of the diaries that were available and other
documents enabled the author to identify the vast majority of key dates in each case and make
informed estimates of others. The chosen interviewees were able to offer insights into most of
the elements of the implementation process, however it was discovered in one case (case 'C')
that a particular element (the operation of improvement groups) had caused particular
difficulties. Although all four interviewees had been involved in the improvement groups, it
would have been interesting to have gained a wider variety of views on the reasons for this and
this has therefore been carried forward into the recommendations for further related research
(section 7.7).
The interviews were typed up by the author and emailed to the interviewees for verification.
Most interview records were verified promptly whilst some interviewees needed a gentle
reminder to verify them. Of the sixteen interviews the author managed to gain positive
verification of fifteen. The author requested positive verification of the sixteenth interview on
many occasions without success and had to resort to suggesting to the interviewee that the
author would have to presume that, in the absence of any feedback, a lack of response would be
seen as verification.
7.5 Limitations of the Research
The author has demonstrated the care taken in the design and conduct of this research in chapter
4. Nevertheless, every piece of research has its limitations and it is important to consider these
as the limitations have the potential to impact on the conclusions that can be drawn.
The first limitation was the limited number of potential case study organisations. From the
author's knowledge of the sector, only a small number of UK University academic units had
attempted to implement the EFQM Excellence Model. The author decided to only include the
organisations that had been involved with the two HEFCE funded Consortia within the scope of
the research. By doing this, the cases had all had 3 years available to them to progress their
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implementations and funds available to resource the project. Of the four cases that were
investigated, only one was seen to have effectively implemented the EFQM Excellence Model.
As the purpose of the study was to construct a guidance framework for EFQM Excellence
Model in UK University academic units, this limited the extent to which the framework could
benefit from the learning developed from effective cases. Fortunately, learning from the three
other cases was used to inform the development of the framework to help to overcome this
limitation. The second limitation was the number of potential interviewees in each of the case
study organisations. This number was limited because few staff had been involved sufficiently
in the implementation process to be able to answer the detailed interview questions. Some of the
interviewees had played multiple roles in the implementation and therefore had multiple
perspectives on the implementation process, which helped to alleviate this limitation. It was not
possible to interview staff from lower levels in the hierarchy of the case study organisations as
they had had insufficient involvement in the implementation processes to offer informed views.
The third limitation was the memories of the interviewees. As the implementation process took
place over a three-year period, some of the interviewees' recollections of some of the events
weren't clear. The impact of this limitation was restricted by interviewing four people in each
case, asking them to refer to their diaries (where available) and by reviewing documentary
evidence. Another approach to this issue would have been to have carried out a longitudinal
study over the three-year implementation period, however this was not feasible within the time
constraints of a PhD. The fourth limitation was the amount of documentation that was
accessible in each of the cases. Fortunately the project managers in each of the cases had kept
project files, which contained a good deal of information. Despite this there were some activities
in the cases for which there was no appropriate documentary evidence available and the author
had to rely on the information gathered from the interviewees.
7.6 Operational Recommendations
It is clear from the fact that in only one of the four cases of attempted implementation examined
was implementation really effective, that there were areas within the implementation processes
that could have been improved on in the case study organisations. Therefore recommendations
for how the implementation process might have been improved have been produced for each
case. The guidance framework (figure 7.1) was used to develop these recommendations. These
might be helpful to the organisations involved in the event that they were to choose to attempt to
implement the EFQM Excellence Model in other parts of their Universities.
7.6.1 Case 'A'
In case 'A' a strong motive for using the EFQM Excellence Model needed to be developed. This
would have helped in gaining senior management commitment to the implementation. In this
case more consideration of the culture/context was required along with consideration of how the
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use of the EFQM Model would be aligned with other organisational systems. Planning of how
senior management commitment would be demonstrated and planning for the education and
training required needed to be carried out.
Through the progress monitoring function that was in place, progress checks needed to be made
to ensure that education and training took place and that this was followed by self-assessment,
improvement planning, action and review. The project monitoring also needed to ensure that
senior management commitment was being demonstrated, that staff were being involved in
teams, that the use of the EFQM Model was being aligned with other organisational systems,
that the benefits of using the EFQM Model were evaluated and that the pace of the
implementation was maintained. These actions would have ensured that momentum was
maintained whilst simultaneously integrating the use of the EFQM Model into the organisation.
7.6.2 Case 'B'
In this case there was a strong motive for using the EFQM Model and senior management
commitment was gained initially, but this was quickly lost when the Faculty pushed the
implementation down to a pilot school. This was compounded over time by a significant
number of changes in the senior management group. If implementation had started at the
Faculty level (the level at which the commitment had been gained), then it might have been
possible to gain some initial momentum in the implementation. From that point in the
implementation process, the organisation needed to address all the remaining issues contained
within the guidance framework (figure 7.1).
7.6.3 Case 'C'
In this case consideration needed to be given in the planning stage as to how the use of the
EFQM Model would be aligned with other organisational systems and this alignment needed to
be monitored by an improved project monitoring function to ensure integration of the EFQM
Model into the organisation. The progress of and support for the improvement groups needed to
be improved to ensure that benefits were accrued and momentum was not lost. A second round
of self-assessment should have been planned. A replacement for the project manager should
have been appointed.
7.6.4 Case 'D'
As the implementation was effective in this case, few operational recommendations are offered.
The implementation did not succeed in involving significant numbers of staff, therefore the
recommendation in this case is to set up self-assessment teams and improvement groups on a
wider basis within the schools in the Faculty in order to get more widespread involvement. This
would require further education and training.
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7.7 Recommendations for Further Related Research
A number of interesting areas for further related research emerged from this thesis:
• Research into other cases of the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UKUniversity academic units as they appear in order to further develop the guidanceframework produced from this research. This could possibly be done by actually using theguidance framework in an organisation and then evaluating its use.
• Research into the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in non-academic units ofUK Universities to see if the implementation issues are the same or different.
• Research into the views of a wider range of staff in each of the case studies on the type ofculture in their University academic units. This research was not designed to gather theviews of a wide range of staff in each case study, just those staff who were closely involvedwith the implementation process. Particularly, it was designed to find out if they hadattempted to assess the cultural aspects as part of their preparations for implementation.
• Research into the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in the Higher EducationColleges that were part of the HEFCE Consortia. These were deliberately left out of thisstudy as its focus was on University academic units.
• Research into the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in University academicunits in other European countries, paying particular attention to the cultural and contextualissues.
• Research into the implementation of other initiatives in United Kingdom Universityacademic units by exchanging the EFQM Model specific issues contained within thetheoretical framework of this study for appropriate issues that are relevant to the initiativebeing implemented. This would help to develop the understanding of the cultural/contextualissues in implementation in UK Universities.
• Research into the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in other areas of thepublic sector by exchanging the cultural/contextual issues contained within the theoreticalframework of this study for appropriate issues that are relevant to the context and culture inwhich the EFQM Model is being implemented.
• A more detailed investigation into what occurred in the improvement groups in case 'C' asthe failure of these to make a significant impact played a role in the overall implementationlosing momentum and eventually stopping.
• Research into how the use of the EFQM Excellence Model can be sustained over time oncean initial implementation has been effective. All four case study organisations made a startin using the EFQM Model, however only one of the four is currently using it three and ahalf years after the start of the HEFCE projects.
• A comparison of mandatory approaches to the management of quality in UK Universities,e.g. QAA, with voluntary approaches such as the EFQM Excellence Model.
7.8 Contributions of the Research
The intention of this study was to contribute to the body of knowledge on the implementation of
the EFQM Excellence Model in the UK Higher Education sector by attempting to bridge the
gap between existing theories, knowledge and approaches of EFQM Excellence Model
implementation and that required for guiding effective implementation in UK university
academic units. Particularly the main contribution was a guidance framework for implementing
the EFQM Excellence Model in academic units of UK universities (figure 7.1). There is now an
abundance of literature on the EFQM Excellence Model, some of which addresses
implementation. The majority of case studies in the literature deal with private sector
organisations, fewer with public sector organisations, even fewer with UK HE and fewer still
(almost none) with UK university academic units. It is this gap in knowledge that this thesis was
designed to address. From an application standpoint it is hoped that the framework will
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contribute to increasing the degree of effectiveness in implementation of the EFQM Excellence
Model within this sector.
Thiagaragan et al (2001, p.290) identified that the literature is full of "everything you need to
know about TQM implementation", but most of the information is based on personal
experiences and anecdotal evidence. According to Dean & Bowen (see Thiagaragan et al 2001,
p.291) leaders question the lack of empirically sound models to assist in effective quality
management. Therefore another contribution of this research is in the realm of empirically
sound Total Quality implementation models.
This research has made a contribution to knowledge in the area of implementation in general, as
it has added weight to issues in implementation that are clearly generic and provided doubt of
the significance in implementation of other issues, such as the use of change models to manage
change and whether communication plays a major role.
The important difference between gaining senior management commitment and demonstrating
senior management commitment in implementation has been highlighted. In the current
literature these are usually considered as a single issue.
Another contribution of this research is the production of four detailed case studies of attempted
EFQM Excellence Model implementation in UK University academic units.
The research has contributed to the knowledge of the uses of the EFQM Excellence Model and
particularly its use in strategic planning.
This research has contributed an analysis and synthesis of the literature in the multi-disciplinary
area of implementation.
A further contribution is a synthesis of the cultural issues that impact on implementation within
the University academic context.
7.9 Chapter Summary
In this chapter the findings of the fieldwork which emerged from the data analysis in the
previous chapter were discussed by making comparisons and contrasts with the literature. Thus
the objective: To assess the effectiveness of the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model
in the case study organisations was addressed. In order to conduct the discussion systematically
the theoretical framework, which was developed from the literature reviews and was used to
facilitate the program logic approach to data analysis in the previous chapter, was used to
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structure the major part of the discussion. Ultimately this discussion surfaced the
implementation issues that were essential to effective implementation of the EFQM Excellence
Model in UK University academic units, those that were desirable and those that appeared to
have no impact. An alternate categorization showed that generic implementation issues had the
most impact on effective implementation with EFQM Excellence Model and context specific
issues having relatively less impact on the effectiveness of implementation. The theoretical
framework presented as figure 4.2 was revised in light of the discussion and presented as figure
7.1 the guidance framework for EFQM Excellence Model implementation in UK University
academic units. This then fulfilled the general purpose of the study that was described in chapter
1: To construct a guidance framework for EFQM Excellence in UK University academic units.
The limitations of the research, operational recommendations, recommendations for further
related research and the contributions of the research were presented.
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CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS
8.0 Chapter Introduction
In the final chapter of this thesis, the conclusions will be drawn. Particularly this will include
revisiting the original aim, objectives and purpose of this research, and the research questions.
The recommendations for further related research will be summarised.
8.1 Conclusions
In drawing the conclusions to this research it is important to reflect on the aim, objectives and
purpose of this research, which was described in chapter one. The objectives of the research
were designed to support the aim, which in turn was designed to fulfill the purpose. Therefore
they will be considered in this order.
The first objective was to identify the issues that impact on the implementation of the European
Foundation for Quality Management's (EFQM) Excellence Model in the UK University
academic environment based on knowledge of the model's implementation in other sectors,
knowledge of the UK University sector and on established good practice in implementing
similar quality programmes, such as Total Quality Management (TQM). This provided an
answer to the secondary research question: What are the issues that impact on the
implementation of the European Foundation for Quality Management's (EFQM) Excellence
Model in the UK University academic environment?
These issues were identified through a comprehensive literature review (chapters 2 and 3) and
were summarised in 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. The issues summarised in 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 were then placed
into a theoretical framework (Figure 4.2) in order that the relationship between the issues that
had been identified could be conceptualised.
The second objective was to assess the effectiveness of the implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model in the case study organisations, i.e. in which ways had the use of the EFQM
Excellence Model become part of the normal management activities of the institutions
involved? In order to assess the effectiveness of the implementation the possible uses of the
EFQM Excellence Model were identified in the literature (chapter 2) and summarised in section
2.5. This provided an answer to the secondary research question: What are the possible uses of
the EFQM Excellence Model?
The effectiveness of the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in the case study
organisations was assessed using the description of levels used by PriceWaterhouseCoopers
(2000) in their research, which evaluated the Public Sector Excellence Programme. This tool
had already been used to assess the level of implementation in over 800 public service
organisations and consisted of three levels, entry level, maturing level and advanced level (see
262
I
Table 5.4). The author decided to ask the interviewees to estimate their level of EFQM
implementation in half levels in order to make comparisons between the different interviewees'
views in each case more accurate. This was left to the end of the interview as the author thought
that the accuracy of the responses would be increased by the interviewee having just been taken
through the elements of the implementation in the rest of the interview. In the data analysis
(chapter 6), the author then used his detailed knowledge of each case to corroborate the views of
the interviewees. In the discussion chapter (chapter 7, section 7.2.4) the definition of effective
implementation, which was developed in chapter 1 section 1.4 was used as another means of
discussing and deciding on whether implementation had been effective in each of the cases. The
effectiveness of implementation in each case was concluded to have been as follows:
• The implementation in case 'A' had been ineffective.
• The implementation in case 'B' had been ineffective.
• The implementation in case 'C' had initially appeared to be effective but ultimately had been
ineffective.
• The implementation in case 'D' had been effective.
The third objective was to explore and analyse the approaches used in implementation of the
EFQM Excellence Model in a number of UK University case studies in order to discover the
critical issues for effective implementation. This provided an answer to the secondary research
question: How was implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model attempted in a number of
UK University case studies? This objective was pursued via the identification, selection and
conduct of four case studies. The issues explored in the case studies were devised from the
theoretical framework (figure 4.2). The theoretical framework was also the primary tool for
analysis of the case study data. This analysis (chapter 6) and the comparison with the literature
(chapter 7) identified the issues that appeared to be critical for successful implementation. The
following issues were seen to be essential to effective implementation in that the absence of one
or more of them in a case led to ineffective implementation and the presence of all of them in a
case led to effective implementation (from chapter 7):
• A clear motive, particularly setting out clear expected benefits and objectives.• Gaining senior management commitment.• Demonstrating senior management commitment.• Education and training• Staff involvement and teamwork.• The overall pace of the implementation• Integration of the EFQM Excellence Model into the organisation.• Activities to maintain momentum.
The fourth objective was to explain why the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model
was effective or ineffective in a number of cases in UK University academic units by reference
to the theoretical framework. This provided an answer to the secondary research question: Why
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was the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model effective or ineffective in a number of
cases in UK University academic units? This objective was achieved by comparing and
contrasting the results from each case study with the elements of the theoretical framework. The
detailed explanations are contained in chapter 6.
The aim of this research was to examine how the EFQM Excellence Model implementation
process had been conducted in a number of cases in UK University academic units with a view
to developing a guidance framework for implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in this
particular context. This was to be drawn from the successes and difficulties identified in the case
studies and the existing literature on the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model and
other Total Quality Management (TQM) approaches in other contexts. This aim was achieved
through the pursuit and achievement of the four objectives discussed above. It was concluded
that a number of issues contained in the theoretical framework were seen to be essential to
effective implementation (listed above) and that two issues were desirable in effective
implementation (culture/context assessment and project management). Some issues that were
contained within the theoretical framework did not appear to have an impact on the
effectiveness of the implementations. The first of these was the assessment of resistance to
change via change models, the second issue was communication planning and communication
during the implementation process and the third issue was the planning and use of recognition
and rewards. In addition, the EFQM Model specific choices did not appear to have any major
bearing on the effectiveness of the implementation. The choice of self-assessment approach did
not appear to influence the outcome and the two cases in which implementation had been at
least initially effective included one in which scoring was used and one in which it was not.
The implementation issues were placed into three categories; generic issues that could apply in
any implementation process; context specific issues, which only apply in the UK university
academic unit context, and issues that were specific to the implementation of the EFQM
Excellence Model. In terms of the impact on the effectiveness of the implementation, it was
concluded that the major impact came from generic issues with some impact from EFQM
Excellence Model specific and context specific issues.
The aim of the research then linked through to the purpose of the research, which was to
construct a guidance framework for EFQM Excellence Model implementation that could be
used in UK University academic units. The theoretical framework was revisited in light of the
findings of the research. As a result, some amendments were made to the framework and
degrees of emphasis were placed on the issues contained within it in order to produce a
guidance framework for EFQM Excellence Model implementation in UK University academic
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units (figure 7.1). This formed the major contribution to knowledge from this research. The
other contributions are described in section 7.8.
Ultimately then the primary research question posed in chapter one (How can the EFQM
Excellence Model be effectively implemented in United Kingdom University academic units?)
has been answered. One answer to the research question could be with great difficulty, as only
one of the four (25 per cent) attempted implementations turned out to be effective. Harari (see
Sousa-Poza et al 2001, p.745) postulates that only 20 per cent of companies that implement
TQM do so successfully. Yandrick (see Sousa-Poza et al 2001, p.745) is more positive and
claims that about two-thirds are successful. This research suggests that Harari's postulation was
the more accurate. Spector & Beer (1994, p.63) discuss the dichotomy they have found between
the overwhelming support expressed in organisations for TQM principles coupled with
overwhelming failure in implementation. They contend that this suggests that organisations
need to become more expert at implementing the "sweeping organisational transformation that
lies at the core of TQM". Roger et al (see Chin & Pun 2002, p.273) argue that one of the main
reasons for the failure of TQM can be attributed to implementation problems. This research
supports this argument for organisations becoming more expert in implementation in order to
prevent and avoid implementation problems.
The detailed answer to the research question is that the EFQM Excellence Model can be
effectively implemented in United Kingdom University academic units by having a strong
motive for using the EFQM Excellence Model, preparing for implementation by gaining senior
management commitment and planning. Within planning a number of sub-issues should be
considered. There should be an assessment of the culture/context and consideration of how the
EFQM Excellence Model will be aligned with other organisational systems. There should be
consideration of how senior management commitment will be demonstrated, arrangements for
project management should be put in place, education and training should be planned and
consideration should be given to how staff will be involved in teams in the implementation.
Once implementation has started, actions should occur in parallel to both integrate the use of the
EFQM Excellence Model into the organisation and to produce momentum. The whole process
should happen at a good pace, without extended periods of inactivity, in order to ensure that
momentum is not lost.
8.2 Recommendations for Further Related Research (Summary)
• Research into other cases of the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in UKUniversity academic units as they appear.
• Research into the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in non-academic units ofUK Universities.
• Research into the views of a wider range of staff in each of the case studies on the type ofculture in their University academic units.
265
• Research into the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in the Higher EducationColleges that were part of the HEFCE Consortia.
• Research into the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in University academicunits in other European countries.
• Research into the implementation of other initiatives in United Kingdom Universityacademic units by exchanging the EFQM Model specific issues contained within thetheoretical framework of this study for appropriate issues that are relevant to the initiativebeing implemented.
• Research into the implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model in other areas of thepublic sector by exchanging the cultural/contextual issues contained within the theoreticalframework of this study for appropriate issues that are relevant to the context and culture inwhich the EFQM Model is being implemented.
• A more detailed investigation into what occurred in the improvement groups in case 'C'.• Research into how the use of the EFQM Excellence Model can be sustained over time once
an initial implementation has been effective.• A comparison of mandatory approaches to the management of quality in UK Universities,
e.g. QAA, with voluntary approaches such as the EFQM Excellence Model.
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1
EFQM EXCELLENCE MODEL CRITERIA
Criterion 1, Leadership
DefinitionExcellent Leaders develop and facilitate the achievement of the mission and vision. Theydevelop organisational values and systems required for sustainable success and implement thesevia their actions and behaviours. During periods of change they retain a constancy of purpose.Where required, such leaders are able to change the direction of the organisation and inspireothers to follow.
Sub-criteriaLeadership covers the following five criterion parts that should be addressed.I a. Leaders develop the mission, vision, values and ethics and are role models of a culture ofExcellence.lb. Leaders are personally involved in ensuring the organisation's management system isdeveloped, implemented and continuously improved.1 c. Leaders interact with customers, partners and representatives of society.ld. Leaders reinforce a culture of excellence with the organisation's people.1 e. Leaders identify and champion organisational change.
Criterion 2, Policy and Strategy
DefinitionExcellent Organisations implement their mission and vision by developing a stakeholderfocused strategy that takes account of the market and sector in which it operates. Policies, plans,objectives, and processes are developed and deployed to deliver the strategy.
Sub-criteriaPolicy and Strategy cover the following four criterion parts that should be addressed.2a. Policy and Strategy are based on the present and future needs and expectations ofstakeholders.2b. Policy and Strategy are based on information from performance measurement, research,learning and external related activities.2c. Policy and Strategy are developed, reviewed and updated.2d. Policy and Strategy are communicated and deployed through a framework of key processes.
Criterion 3, People
DefinitionExcellent organisations manage, develop and release the full potential of their people at anindividual, team-based and organisational level. They promote fairness and equality and involveand empower their people. They care for, communicate, reward and recognise, in a way thatmotivates staff and builds commitment to using their skills and knowledge for the benefit of theorganisation.
Sub-criteriaPeople cover the following five criterion parts that should be addressed.3a. People resources are planned, managed and improved.3b People's knowledge and competencies are identified, developed and sustained.3c People are involved and empowered.3d People and the organisation have a dialogue.3e People are rewarded, recognised and cared for.
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Criterion 4, Partnerships and Resources
DefinitionExcellent organisations plan and manage external partnerships, suppliers and internal resourcesin order to support policy and strategy and the effective operation of processes. During planningand whilst managing partnerships and resources they balance the current and future needs of theorganisation, the community and the environment.
Sub-criteriaPartnerships and Resources cover the following five criterion parts that should be addressed.4a. External partnerships are managed.4b. Finances are managed.4c. Buildings, equipment and materials are managed.4d. Technology is managed.4e. Information and knowledge are managed.
Criterion 5, Processes
DefinitionExcellent organisation's design, manage and improve processes in order to fully satisfy, andgenerate increasing value for, customers and other stakeholders.
Sub-criteriaProcesses cover the following five criterion parts that should be addressed.5a. Processes are systematically designed and managed.5b. Processes are improved, as needed, using innovation in order to fully satisfy and generateincreasing value for customers and other stakeholders.5c Products and Services are designed and developed based on customer needs andexpectations.5d Products and Services are produced, delivered and serviced.5e Customer relationships are managed and enhanced.
Criterion 6, Customer Results
DefinitionExcellence organisations comprehensively measure and achieve outstanding results with respectto their customers.Sub-criteriaCustomer Results cover the following two criterion parts that should be addressed.6a. Perception Measures.6b. Performance Indicators.
Criterion 7. People Results
DefinitionExcellent organisations comprehensively measure and achieve outstanding results with respectto their people.
Sub-criteriaPeople Results cover the following two criterion parts that should be addressed.7a. Perception Measures.7b. Performance Indicators.
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Criterion 8, Society Results
DefinitionExcellent organisations comprehensively measure and achieve outstanding results with respectto society.
Sub-criteriaSociety Results cover the following two criterion parts that should be addressed.8a Perception Measures.8b. Performance Indicators.
Criterion 9, Key Performance Results
DefinitionThe measures are key results defined by the organisation and agreed in their policy andstrategies.
Sub-criteriaKey Performance Results cover the following two criterion parts that should be addressed.Depending on the purpose and objectives of the organisation some of the measures contained inthe guidance for Key Performance Outcomes may be applicable to Key Performance Indicatorsand vice versa.9a Key Performance Outcomes.9b Key Performance Indicators.
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Appendix 2 Extracts from example given in EFQM booklet 'Assessing for Excellence.A Practical Guide for Self-Assessment'. (EFQM 1999).
Criterion 1
Leadership
How leaders develop and facilitate the achievement of the mission and vision, develop values
required for long-term success and implement these via appropriate actions and behaviours,
and are personally involved in ensuring the organisation's management system is developed
and implemented.
Sub-criterion la
Leaders develop the mission, vision and values and are role models of a culture of
Excellence.
Evidence
Competencies model available on organisation's intranet
Staff survey data from surveys of 1994, 1996 and 1998 appropriately segmented and
individual leader's improvement actions included in their appraisement process
Approach
Deployment
Assessment & Review
Overall Score
60%
50%
20%
45%
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Areas to address
How leaders:
• develop and role model ethics and values
which support the creation of the
organisation's culture
• are personally and actively involved in
• improvement activities
• review and improve the effectiveness of
their own leadership and act upon future
leadership requirements
• stimulate and encourage collaboration
within the organisation
Strengths
• The senior management team has
developed a management competencies
model that supports the organisation's
values
Effectiveness of leaders is assessed by
employee survey and 360 degree
appraisals
Areas for improvement
• Leaders are not personally involved in
improvement activities
I
Appendix 3
Implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model inUK University Academic Units
Data Collection Process in Case Study OrganisationsNotes for EFQM Implementation Project Managers
General
Thank you for agreeing to contribute to this PhD research. The intention is to answer the researchquestion:
How can the EFQM Excellence Model be effectively implemented in United Kingdom UniversityAcademic Units?
The overall aim of the research is to examine how the EFQM Excellence Model implementation processhas been conducted in a number (4) of cases in UK University academic units with a view to developing aframework which will provide guidelines for implementation in this particular context.
As agreed, each of the cases will be made anonymous and no individuals will be identified directly orindirectly. This design was chosen to ensure that those taking part in the research would be at ease inproviding what, potentially, could be sensitive information. This will help increase the validity andreliability of the data collected.
The data collection will be made up of three elements:
1. General Background to the case study organisation.2. Interviews with staff involved in the EFQM Excellence Model implementation process.3. Examination of documents relevant to the process of implementation.
1. General Background to the Case Study Organisation
Please find attached a pro-forma entitled Case Study Organisation - Background It would be most usefulif you could collect the information for this and fill it in, in advance of my visit to your organisation. Thiswill help to provide a context for the implementation.
2. Interviews with staff involved in the EFOM Excellence Model implementation process
I will interview 4 individuals (the project manager and three others) in each case study organisation. Thisis because there are only a few individuals in each organisation who might know the hows and whys ofthe implementation process that has taken place. I estimate that each interview will take approximatelytwo hours and we would need a room to conduct the interviews in which would be free of interruptionsfrom other staff or telephone calls.
The interviews will be structured (based on a theoretical framework derived from literature) to ensure allmajor issues are covered and it would be very useful if each interviewee had to hand their personaldiaries for the period of the implementation process during the interviews, to confirm important dates andevents in the implementation process.
The interviewer will make notes of the interviewees' responses and the interview will also be taperecorded (with your agreement) to enable the interviewer to confirm the main points of the interviewees'responses when writing up the interview. It is not the intention to write up a word-for-word transcriptionof the interview but to capture and check the main points made.
A draft of the responses from each interviewee will be sent back to the individual to verify the detail andthus ensure that accurate responses are collected.
The tape recordings will only be accessed by the researcher for checking purposes and will be kept in asecure place. As previously stated, the individuals will not be identified in the responses.
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3. Examination of documents relevant to the implementation process
In order to triangulate data collected in the interviews it is necessary for me to access documents thatcould provide important information about the implementation process. This will significantly improvethe rigour of the research, which is vital for a PhD thesis. Therefore I would appreciate it if you couldprepare copies of any documents that you might have that are relevant to the implementation process inadvance of my visit so that I could then take them away with me. This would enable me to examine themaway from your organisation so as not to take up too much of your valuable time. I assure you that thedocuments will not be made available to any other person and will be kept in a secure place.
The sorts of documents that might be relevant are:
• Letters, memoranda• Agendas, minutes• Reports• Progress reports, Project plans• Strategic & Business Plans (If the EFQM Excellence Model has been used to help develop these)• Self-Assessment Reports• Improvement Planning action and review documents• Evaluation documents for the HEFCE GMP project• Newsletters• Presentations• Any other documents you consider would provide information on the implementation process
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Appendix 4
Implementation of the EFQM Excellence Model inUK University Academic Units
Data Collection Process in Case Study OrganisationsNotes for Interviewees
General
Thank you for agreeing to contribute to this PhD research. The intention is to answer the researchquestion:
How can the EFQM Excellence Model be effectively implemented in United Kingdom UniversityAcademic Units?
The overall aim of the research is to examine how the EFQM Excellence Model implementation processhas been conducted in a number (4) of cases in UK University academic units with a view to developing aframework which will provide guidelines for implementation in this particular context.
As agreed, each of the cases will be made anonymous and no individuals will be identified directly orindirectly. This design was chosen to ensure that those taking part in the research would be at ease inproviding what, potentially, could be sensitive information. This will help increase the validity andreliability of the data collected.
The data collection will be made up of three elements:
1. General Background to the case study organisation.2. Interviews with staff involved in the EFQM Excellence Model implementation process.3. Examination of documents relevant to the process of implementation.
Information and documents for 1 and 3 above will be supplied by the EFQM Implementation ProjectManager in your organisation. Below are some notes for your attention, which are relevant to theinterviews.
Interviews with staff involved in the EFOM Excellence Model implementation process
I will interview 4 individuals (the project manager and three others) in each case study organisation. Thisis because there are only a few individuals in each organisation who might know the hows and whys ofthe implementation process that has taken place. I estimate that each interview will take approximatelytwo hours and we would need a room to conduct the interviews in which would be free of interruptionsfrom other staff or telephone calls.
The interviews will be structured (based on a theoretical framework derived from literature) to ensure allmajor issues are covered and it would be very useful if each interviewee had to hand their personaldiaries for the period of the implementation process during the interviews, to confirm important dates andevents in the implementation process.
The interviewer will make notes of the interviewees' responses and the interview will also be taperecorded (with your agreement) to enable the interviewer to confirm the main points of the interviewees'responses when writing up the interview. It is not the intention to write up a word-for-word transcriptionof the interview but to capture and check the main points made.
A draft of the responses from each interviewee will be sent back to the individual to verify the detail andthus ensure that accurate responses are collected..
The tape recordings will only be accessed by the researcher for checking purposes and will be kept in asecure place. As previously stated, the individuals will not be identified in the responses.
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Appendix 5
EFQM IMPLEMENTATION INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Person Interviewed:Case Study Organisation:Position:Date:
1. INITIAL DECISION
1.1 When was the EFQM Excellence Model first considered?
1.2 Were any alternatives considered?
1.3 When was the decision made to use the EFQM Excellence Model?
1.3.1 Who made this decision?
1.3.2 Was this decision fully supported by the decision-making group?
1.4 What was/were the motive(s) for using the EFQM Model?
1.5 What were the intended uses of the EFQM Excellence Model?
• Self-assessment framework to aid improvement• Strategic Tool• To provide a holistic, broader view of the business• Performance Management Tool• Benchmarking Tool• A means of integrating other quality and management initiatives and tools• A means of gaining a quality award• To motivate staff to get involved in quality improvement activities• Other (please specify)
1.6 What were the expected benefits of using the EFQM Excellence Model? (Were clearobjectives set?)
1.7 What were the expected timescales in which the benefits would be accrued?
2. GAINING SENIOR MANAGEMENT COMMITMENT
2.1 Which actions were taken to gain senior management commitment?
2.2 When were these actions taken?
2.3 Who did this?
2.4 To what extent do you think senior management commitment was gained?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7None Full
275
3. PREPARATION
3.1 Were any change models considered for use during the implementation? (e.g. force fieldanalysis)Yes /No
3.1.1 If so, how were they used and when?
3.1.2 If so, why were they used?
3.2 Were the motive and objectives in using the EFQM Excellence Model communicated tostaff? Yes / No
3.2.1 If so, how and when?
3.3 Culture/Context
3.3.1 Was there an attempt to assess the organisational culture? Yes/No
3.3.2 If so, how and when?
3.3.3 Were any of the following aspects of culture/context taken into consideration in thepreparation?
3.3.3.1 Management Style? Yes / NoIf yes, which issues were considered?How would you assess the management style?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7Collegial Managerial
3.3.3.2 Individualism of academic staff? Yes /NoIf yes, which issues were considered?How would you assess the level of academic staff individualism?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7Individual Teamworking
3.3.3.3 Professional nature of academic staff? Yes / NoIf yes, which issues were considered?To what extent do you think that the academic staff see themselves as professionals?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7Low High
3.3.3.4 Academic freedom/critical nature of academic staff? Yes /NoIf yes, which issues were considered?How much academic freedom and criticality do you think the academic staff exercise?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7Low High
3.3.3.5 Recognition/Rewards for involvement in EFQM implementation?Yes / No / Not consideredIf yes, why and which forms of recognition/rewards were planned?If no, why not?
276
3.3.3.6 Language/Terminology used in the EFQM Excellence Model?Was it tailored to suit the culture/context? Yes / No / Not consideredIf yes, why and what changes were made?If no, why not?
3.3.3.7 Department/School/Faculty Culture of Support. Yes / No?If yes, which issues were considered?Which of the points on this scale best describes the culture of support in yourDepartment/School/Faculty?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7Blame/Fear Supportive/CooperativeUnsupportive/Uncooperative
3.4 Issues specific to the use of the EFQM Excellence Model
3.4.1 Which approach to self-assessment was chosen?
• Questionnaire approach• Matrix chart approach• Workshop approach• Pro-forma approach• Award simulation approach• Hybrid approach (please describe)• Why was this approach chosen?
3.4.2 Was a decision taken on whether to use scoring as part of the self-assessment process? Yes / No / Not consideredIf yes, why?What were the intended uses of the scores?If no, why not?
3.4.3 Was a decision taken on whether to amend the criterion weightings givenin the model? Yes / No / Not consideredIf yes, why and what were they changed to?If no, why were they used as in the model?
3.4.4 Was a decision made to use RADAR logic in the implementation?Yes/No/Not considered
If yes, why and how?If no, why not?
3.5 Demonstrating Senior Management Commitment
What actions were planned in order to demonstrate senior management commitment to theimplementation?Why were these approaches chosen?
3.6 Project Management
3.6.1 Was a Steering Committee set up? Yes / NoIf yes, why, when and who was involved?
3.6.2 Was a Project Manager appointed? Yes / NoIf yes, when?
277
Did the Project Manager have previous knowledge of or experience with the EFQM ExcellenceModel?Did the Project Manager have previous project management experience?What training did the project manager receive and when?
3.6.3 Was a project plan constructed? Yes/NoWas the pace of implementation considered in the planning, if so how?Who was involved in constructing the project plan?Was the implementation piloted and then rolled out or done across the case study organisation?Why was this approach chosen?Which other major initiatives/projects were taking place at the same time as the EFQMExcellence Model implementation?
3.6.4 How was progress of the project monitored and by whom?
3.6.5 What resources were allocated to the project and when?
3.7 Education and TrainingWhat Education and Training was planned to be carried out to support the implementation?Why?Who for?When?Who by?Was an external consultant used? Yes / NoWhat was the reason for this choice?
3.8 CommunicationWhat communication was planned about the implementation?Why?When?
3.9 Planned involvement in the implementation process and use of the EFQM ExcellenceModel.Who?Why?How?Was the use of teams considered? Yes / NoIf yes, why were teams used and how were they deployed?If no, why weren't teams used?
4 MOMENTUM
4.1 Improvement Planning, Action and Review after self-assessmentWhen was this carried out?Who by?How was this carried out?Why was it done in this way?Was there any particular emphasis? E.g. quick wins, impact
4.2 Did the implementation progress on schedule? Yes / NoIf not, why not?How was momentum regained?What communication took place to inform staff about progress with implementation?
278
4.3 Were the expected benefits of using the EFQM Excellence Model achieved? Yes / NoIf not, what were the major barriers to achieving these benefits?
4.4 Do you think the pace of implementation was:
• Too slow?• Too quick?• About right?
Why do you think this?
4.5 Was Senior Management Commitment maintained throughout the implementation?Yes / No
How was senior management commitment demonstrated during the implementation?What helped to maintain senior management commitment?If senior management commitment was not maintained what affected it?Were there any changes in senior management during the course of the implementation? Yes /NoIf so, which positions and when?To what extent do you think senior management commitment was demonstratea duting aleimplementation?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7None Full
4.6 Was the planned level of resources maintained during the implementation? Yes / NoIf not, what affected this?If yes, was the level of resources sufficient?
4.7 Was the planned staff training carried out? Yes/NoIf not, why not?What effect did this have on the implementation?
4.8 Was there any recognition of or rewards for staff involved in EFQM implementation?
5 INTEGRATION
5.1 How many organisational levels was the EFQM Excellence Model implemented in?
5.2 How was RADAR logic used in the implementation?
5.3 Was the planned level of staff involvement with the EFQM Model achieved? Yes/NoIf not, why not?
5.4 How many rounds of self-assessment have been carried out and when?
5.5 Which of the following has the model actually been used for and how often?
• Self-assessment framework• Strategic Tool• To provide a holistic, broader view of the business• Performance Management Tool• Benchmarking Tool• A means of integrating other quality and management initiatives and tools• A means of gaining a quality award
279
• To motivate staff to get involved in quality improvement activities• Other (please specify)
5.6 Was the EFQM Model aligned with other organisational systems? E.g Subject Review,Institutional Audit, Individual Performance Appraisal System, Internal Quality Reviews.
6 GENERAL
6.1 Has anything else that we haven't already discussed helped in the EFQMimplementation?
6.2 Has anything else that we haven't already discussed hindered the EFQMimplementation?
6.3 How were these hindrances overcome?
6.4 How would you assess your level of EFQM implementation?
Level Distinguishing features (examples)Entry Level •
••••
Some knowledge of the concepts of excellence and performanceimprovement.Limited awareness of the Excellence Model.Membership of a regional or national quality foundation.Some involvement with local and sector networks.Limited deployment of quality tools within the organisation.
• Survey or matrix-based self-assessments have been carried out.Maturing Level • Dedicated budgets for the Excellence Model are committed and a
number of staff have been trained externally as assessors.• An evidence-based self-assessment has been conducted and a cycle
of self-assessment is emerging.• The Excellence Model is partially deployed across the organisation
and is partially integrated with planning and improvement processes.• Early examples of organisational improvement are emerging and the
organisation is entering or winning regional awards.Advanced Level • Senior Managers demonstrate clear leadership and support for the
principles of excellence.• A culture of self-assessment and continuous improvement is
established.• The organisation has achieved recognition and awards for excellence,
nationally and at, or close to, European level.• The Excellence Model is fully deployed and the organisation has
integrated it into its planning and improvement processes.
Definitions of different levels of usage of the Excellence Model (PriceWaterhouseCoopers,2000, p.31).
280
Number of Support Staff
Number of Students
Appendix 6
CASE STUDY ORGANISATION BACKGROUND
Name of Case Study Organisation:
1. THE UNIVERSITY AS A WHOLE
1.1 SIZE OF UNIVERSITY (CURRENT)
Number of Academic Staff
1.2 UNIVERSITY HISTORY
Year founded:
Predecessors of the University with dates:
1.3 UNIVERSITY ACADEMIC STRUCTURE
E.g. Faculties, Schools, Departments.
Please provide an organisation chart.
1.4 UNIVERSITY GOVERNANCE
Please provide a brief description of the University mechanism of governance, e.g. Senate,Council, Management Committee.
1.5 ACADEMIC MANAGEMENT
Please provide an organisation chart, which shows the academic management posts thatexist in the University and shows their relationship to each other (e.g. Deans, Heads,PVCs):
Do Academic Managers (e.g. Heads of School, Deans, Pro-Vice-Chancellors) holdpermanent or fixed terms of office? (Delete as appropriate):
Fixed / Permanent
If fixed terms then please describe the length of the terms of office:
281
1.6 SPLIT OF ACTIVITIES (AS RETURNED TO HEFCE TRANSPARENCYREVIEW FOR 2001/2002)
Teaching %
Research %
Enterprise, "Reach Out", Commercial %
2.THE CASE STUDY FACULTY/SCHOOL/DEPARTMENT
2.1 SIZE (CURRENT)
Number of Academic Staff
Number of Support Staff
Number of Students
2.2 HISTORY
Year founded:
Predecessors of the Faculty/School/Department with dates:
2.3 STRUCTURE
Please provide an organisation chart.
2.4 GOVERNANCE
Please provide a brief description of the mechanism of Faculty/School/Departmentgovernance:
2.5 ACADEMIC MANAGEMENT
Please provide an organisation chart, which shows the academic management posts thatexist in the Faculty/School/Department and shows their relationship to each other (e.g.Deans, Heads, Associate Deans, Associate Heads):
2.6 SPLIT OF ACTIVITIES (AS RETURNED TO HEFCE TRANSPARENCYREVIEW FOR 2001/2002)
Teaching %
Research %
Enterprise, "Reach Out", Commercial %
282
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Appendix 8: Case Study 'A' Document List
DocumentReference
Document Name Date
A(i) Project Plan 27/9/00A(ii) Subjective Self-Assessment. 1/8/00A(iii) 1st Project Board Meeting- agenda and notes 22/11/00A(iv) 2nd Project Board Meeting 14/2/01A(v) Summary of Academic and Support group workshops 7 and
12 March 20017 and 12/3/01
A(vi) 3rd Project Board Meeting 31/5/01A(vii) Summary of Improvement Projects 13/12/01A(viii) 4th Project Board Meeting 19/12/01A(ix) Improvement Project Meeting Notes 5/2/02A(x) Memo from a improvement project team to all school staff 11/2/02A(xi) Improvement Project 4 th Meeting Notes 18/2/02A(xii) 5th Project Board meeting 4/4/02A(xiii) 6th Project Board Meeting 17/9/02
320
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Email from author to Faculty Executive re: Quality Working 7/10/99Group
Appendix 10: Case Study 'B' Document List
DocumentReference
Document Name Date
B(i)
B(ii) Email from author to Quality Working Group members re:outcomes of meeting on 14/2/00
15/2/00
B(iii) Email from Quality Working Group member to groupmembers re: outcomes of meeting on 14/2/00
17/2/00
B(iv) Written notes of a meeting of the Quality ImprovementGroup with 2 Heads of School to collect requirements forquality improvement
28/2/00
B(v)B(vi)B(vii)
Notes of Quality Group meetingPresentation by Quality Working Group to Faculty ExecutiveEmail from author to Quality Working Group members re;
2/3/0029/3/0031/3/00
Faculty Executive presentationB(viii) Presentation by Quality Working Group to Faculty Executive 23/10/00B(ix) Consortium Programme Management Framework 8/8/00B(x) Presentation by Project Manager to consortium project board Undated but
between June andSeptember 2001
B(xi) Email from the Project Manager to the authsr re;improvement groups and roll out
9/7/011 1
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Appendix 12: Case Study 'C' Document List
DocumentReference
Document Name Date
C(i) Memo to SMT from Director of School 14/9/00C(ii) HEFCE Consortium Briefing Document September 2000
12-13/2/01C(iii) Consensus Workshop AgendaC(iv) School Action Planning Meeting 8/3/01C(v) Memo from VC to Project Manager 21/6/01C(vi) BQF letter to the Project Manager re: assessor training stage
218/2/02
C(vii) BQF letter to the Project Manager re: assessor training stage1
22/2/02
C(viii) HEFCE Project Director notes on team selection and projectmanagement
Undated
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Appendix 14: Case Study 'D' Document List
DocumentReference
Document Name Date
D(i) EFQM Assessor Training Certificate 21/9/00D(ii) Meeting note Dean and Project Manager 3/10/00D(iii) Presentation to Faculty Executive 2/11/00D(iv) "Schedule for Project Manager interviews with Faculty
Executive members"Early November
2000D(v) Letter to interviewee re: self-assessment interview 27/11/00D(vi) Update meeting notes-Dean and Project Manager 26/2/01D(vii) Head of School self-assessment review feedback form 23/3/01
D(viii) EFQM Workshop invitation 1/5/01
D(ix) Workshop A 16/7/01
D(x) Workshop B 17/7/01
D(xi) EFQM School Review meeting and Action Plan 19/11/01
D(xii) EFQM School Review meeting and Action Plan 27/11/01
D(xiii) EFQM School Review meeting and Action Plan 27/11/01
D xiv EF • M 2n School Review meetin g 14/5/02
D(xv) EFQM 2'' School Review meeting 7/5/02
D(xvi) EFQM 2nd School Review meeting 21/5/02
D xvii School Mana:ement Team Strate:ic Plannin • morning 3/7/02
D(xviii) Project Board meeting 19/9/02D(xix) Faculty Office Workshop agenda 4/10/02D(xx) EFQM 3 rd School Review meeting 12/11/02D(xxi) Project Board meeting 25/11/02D(xxii) School presentation, business planning and the EFQM Model UndatedD(xxiii) Planning document for EFQM self-assessment Undated
471
Appendix 15: Links between the interview questions and the elements of thetheoretical framework
Interview Section or Question Phase or Element of the TheoreticalFramework
Further Explanation(where necessary)
1. INITIAL DECISION • Decision Phase1.1 When was the EFQM ExcellenceModel first considered?
• Pace To find out when theimplementation processstarted.
1.2 Were any alternatives considered? • Decision Phase• Motive• Alternatives considered
To find out whether therewas any support for anyalternative models toEFQM.
1.3 When was the decision made to use theEFQM Excellence Model?
• Decision Phase• Pace
1.3.1 Who made this decision? • Decision Phase• Motive• Support for the decision
1.3.2 Was this decision fully supported bythe decision-making group?
• Decision Phase• Motive• Support for the decision
1.4 What was/were the motive(s) for usingthe EFQM Model?
• Decision Phase• Motive
1.5 What were the intended uses of theEFQM Excellence Model? (A list ofpossible uses derived from the literaturereview was provided for the interviewee toselect from along with an 'other' option).
• Decision Phase• Motive• Intended uses of the model
1.6 What were the expected benefits ofusing the EFQM Excellence Model? (Wereclear objectives set?)
• Decision Phase• Motive• Objectives and expected benefits
1.7 What were the expected timescales inwhich the benefits would be accrued?
• Decision Phase• Motive• Objectives and expected benefits
To find out whether a longor short-term view wasbeing taken on theimplementation. Short-termism had been identifiedas an issue in the literature.
2. GAINING SENIOR MANAGEMENTCOMMITMENT (SMC)
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior Management
Commitment2.1 Which actions were taken to gainsenior management commitment?
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior Management
Commitment2.2 When were these actions taken? • Preparation Phase
• Gaining Senior ManagementCommitment
• Pace
To assess the time betweenthe initial decision to usethe model (1.3 above) andtaking actions to securesenior managementcommitment.
2.3 Who did this? • Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior Management
Commitment
To find out who wasinvolved in helping to gainsenior managementcommitment.
2.4 To what extent do you think seniormanagement commitment was gained? ALikert Scale was provided which rangedfrom 1 None to 7 Full,
• Preparation Phase• Gaining Senior Management
Commitment
To get an indication of theperceived level of SMC atthe start of theimplementation process.
3. PREPARATION • Preparation Phase3.1 Were any change models consideredfor use during the implementation? (e.g.force field analysis) Yes/No
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Resistance to Change
To find out if the issue ofresistance to change hadbeen approached in astructured way or at all.
472
3.1.1 If so, how were they used and when? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Resistance to Change• Pace
To see how resistance tochange had been addressedand to see when in theprocess of implementationthis had happened.
3.1.2 If so why were they used? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Resistance to Change
To find out the reasons whychange models were used.
3.2 Were the motive and objectives inusing the EFQM Excellence Modelcommunicated to staff? Yes/No
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Communication• Resistance to Change
To find out if staff hadbeen told about the reasonsfor using the EFQMExcellence Model. Thiswas recommended in theliterature as a way ofreducing resistance tochange.
3.2.1 If so, how and when? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Communication• Pace
To find out the mechanismused for communicationand when in the sequenceof activities this took place.
3.3 Culture/Context • Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
3.3.1 Was there an attempt to assess theorganisational culture? Yes/No.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
3.3.2 If so, how and when? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment• Pace
To find out how cultureassessment had beenapproached and when inthe sequence of activitiesthis took place.
3.3.3 Were any of the following aspects ofculture/context taken into consideration inthe preparation?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
To find out which issueswere considered and to getthe interviewee's perceptionof each of the issues intheir own case study.
3.3.3.1 Management Style? Yes/No. • Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
If yes, which issues were considered? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
How would you assess the managementstyle? A seven point Likert scale wasprovided ranging from 1 Collegial to 7Managerial.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
3.3.3.2 Individualism of academic staff?Yes/No.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
If yes, which issues were considered? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
How would you assess the level ofacademic staff individualism? A sevenpoint Likert scale was provided rangingfrom 1 Individual to 7 Teamworking.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
3.3.3.3 Professional nature of academicstaff? Yes/No.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
If yes, which issues were considered? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment .
473
To what extent do you think that theacademic staff see themselves asprofessionals? A seven point Likert scalewas provided ranging from 1 Low to 7High.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
3.3.3.4 Academic Freedom/critical nature • Preparation Phaseof academic staff? Yes/No. • Planning
• Culture/context assessmentIf yes, which issues were considered?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
How much academic freedom and
• Preparation Phasecriticality do you think the academic staff
• Planning
exercise? A seven point Likert scale was • Culture/context assessmentprovided ranging from 1 Low to 7 High.3.3.3.5 Recognition/Rewards for • Preparation Phaseinvolvement in EFQM implementation?
• Planning
Yes/No/Not considered. • Culture/context assessmentIf yes, why and which forms of
• Preparation Phase
recognition/rewards were planned?
• Planning• Culture/context assessment
If no, why not?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
3.3.3.6 Language/Terminology used in the • Preparation PhaseEFQM Excellence Model. Was it tailored • Planningto suit the culture/context? Yes/No/Not • Culture/context assessmentconsidered.If yes, why and what changes were made? • Preparation Phase
• Planning• Culture/context assessment
If no, why not?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
3.3.3.7 Department/School/Faculty culture • Preparation Phaseof support. Yes/No. • Planning
• Culture/context assessmentIf yes, which issues were considered?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
Which of the points on this scale bestdescribes the culture of support in yourDepartmen/School/Faculty? A seven pointLikert scale was provided ranging from Iblame/fear or unsupportive/uncooperativeto 7 supportive/cooperative.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Culture/context assessment
3.4 Issues specific to the use of the • Preparation Phase
To see which choices hadEFQM Excellence Model • Planning
been made and why.
• EFQM Model specific choices3.4.1 Which approach to self-assessment
• Preparation Phase
was chosen? A list of possible approaches • Planningwas provided derived from the literature • EFQM Model specific choicesreview.Why was this approach chosen?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM Model specific choices
3.4.2 Was a decision taken on whether to • Preparation Phaseuse scoring as part of the self-assessment • Planningprocess? Yes/No/Not considered. • EFQM Model specific choicesIf yes, why?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM Model specific choices
474
What were the intended uses of the scores? • Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM Model specific choices
If no, why not? • Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM Model specific choices
3.4.3 Was a decision taken on whether to • Preparation Phaseamend the criterion weightings given in the • Planningmodel? Yes/No/Not considered. • EFQM Model specific choicesIf yes, why and what were they changed • Preparation Phaseto? • Planning
• EFQM Model specific choices
If no, why were they used as in the model? • Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM Model specific choices
3.4.4 Was a decision made to use RADAR • Preparation Phaselogic in the implementation? Yes/No/Not • Planningconsidered. • EFQM Model specific choicesIf yes, why and how? • Preparation Phase
• Planning• EFQM Model specific choices
If no, why not? • Preparation Phase• Planning• EFQM Model specific choices
3.5 Demonstrating Senior Management • Preparation PhaseCommitment • Planning
• Demonstrating SMCWhat actions were planned in order to • Preparation Phasedemonstrate SMC to the implementation? • Planning
• Demonstrating SMCWhy were these approaches chosen? • Preparation Phase
• Planning• Demonstrating SMC
3.6 Project Management • Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
3.6.1 Was a Steering Committee set up? • Preparation PhaseYes/No. • Planning
• Project ManagementIf yes, why, when and who was involved? • Preparation Phase To find out when this took
• Planning place in the sequence of
• Project Management activities.
• Pace3.6.2 Was a Project Manager appointed? • Preparation PhaseYes/No. • Planning
• Project ManagementIf yes, when? • Preparation Phase To find out when this took
• Planning place in the sequence of
• Project Management activities.
Did the Project Manager have previous • Preparation Phaseknowledge of or experience with the • PlanningEFQM Excellence Model? • Project ManagementDid the Project Manager have previous • Preparation Phase
•.. I la, 6• Project Management
What training did the Project Managerreceive and when?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management• Pace
To find out when this tookplace in the sequence ofactivities.
3.6.3 Was a project plan constructed?Yes/No.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
475
Was the pace of implementationconsidered in the planning, if so how?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management• Pace
Who was involved in constructing theproject plan?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
To check on theinvolvement ofmanagement.
Was the implementation piloted and thenrolled out or done across the case studyorganisation?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
Why was this approach chosen? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
Which other major initiatives/projects weretaking place at the same time as the EFQMExcellence Model implementation?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
3.6.4 How was progress of the projectmonitored and by whom?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management• Momentum
To check on theinvolvement ofmanagement.To see if projectmonitoring was being usedto keep up the momentumof the implementation.
3.6.5 What resources were allocated to theproject and when?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Project Management
To find out when this tookplace in the sequence ofactivities.
3.7 Education and Training • Preparation Phase• Planning• Education and Training
What education and training was plannedto be carried out to support theimplementation?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Education and Training
Why? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Education and Training
Who for? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Education and Training
When? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Education and Training• Pace
To find out when this tookplace in the sequence ofactivities.
Who by? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Education and Training
Was an external consultant used? Yes/No. • Preparation Phase• Planning• Education and Training
What was the reason for this choice? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Education and Training
3.8 Communication • Preparation Phase• Planning• Communication
What communication was planned aboutthe implementation?
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Communication
Why? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Communication
When? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Communication• Pace
To find out when this tookplace in the sequence ofactivities.
476
3.9 Planned involvement in theimplementation process and use of theEFQM Excellence Model.
• Preparation Phase• Planning• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
Who? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
To check on the extent ofplanned involvement.
Why? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
How? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
Was the use of teams considered? Yes/No. • Preparation Phase• Planning• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
If yes, why were teams used and how werethey deployed?
• Preparation Phase• PlanningStaff Involvement and Teamwork
If no, why weren't teams used? • Preparation Phase• Planning• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
4. MOMENTUM • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum4.1 Improvement Planning, Action andReview after self-assessment
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning, Action and
ReviewWhen was this carried out? • Implementation and Evaluation
Phase• Momentum• Improvement Planning, Action and
Review• Pace
To find out when this tookplace in the sequence ofactivities.
Who by? • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning, Action and
Review
To check on theinvolvement ofmanagement.
How was this carried out? • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning, Action and
ReviewWhy was it done in this way? • Implementation and Evaluation
Phase• Momentum• Improvement Planning, Action and
ReviewWas there any particular emphasis? E.g.quick wins, impact.
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Improvement Planning, Action and
Review4.2 Did the implementation progress onschedule? Yes/No.
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Pace
If not, why not? • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Pace
To identify barriers toimplementation.
477
How was momentum regained? • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Pace
To identify how anybarriers were overcome.
What communication took place to informstaff about progress with theimplementation?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Communication
4.3 Were the expected benefits of usingthe Excellence Model achieved? Yes/No.
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Evaluation of benefits
To see if an evaluation ofbenefits had occurred.
If not, what were the major barriers toachieving these benefits?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum
To identify barriers toimplementation.
4.4 Do you think the pace ofimplementation was: too slow, too quick,about right?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Pace
Why do you think this? • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Pace
4.5 Was senior managementcommitment maintained throughout theimplementation? Yes/No
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Demonstrating SMC
How was senior management commitmentdemonstrated during the implementation?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Demonstrating SMC
What helped to maintain seniormanagement commitment?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Demonstrating SMC
If senior management commitment was notmaintained what affected it?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Demonstrating SMC
Were there any changes in seniormanagement during the course of theimplementation? Yes/No
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Demonstrating SMC
If so, which positions and when? • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Demonstrating SMC
To find out when this tookplace in the sequence ofactivities. To see the extentof any changes in seniormanagement.
To what extent do you think seniormanagement commitment wasdemonstrated during the implementation?A Likert scale was provided from 1 Noneto 7 Full,
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Demonstrating SMC
To get an indication of theperceived level of SMCduring the implementationprocess. To compare thiswith perceived levels at thestart of the implementation.
4.6 Was the planned level of resourcesmaintained during the implementation?Yes/No
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Project Management
If not, what affected this? • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Project Management
478
II
If yes, was the level of resourcessufficient?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Project Management
4.7 Was the planned staff trainingcarried out?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Education and Training
If not, why not? • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Education and Training
What effect did this have on theimplementation?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Education and Training
4.8 Was there any recognition of orrewards for staff involved in EFQMimplementation?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Momentum• Recognition and Rewards
5. INTEGRATION • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Integration5.1 How many organisational levels wasthe EFQM Excellence Modelimplemented in?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Integration• Multi-level use in the organisation
5.2 How was RADAR logic used in theimplementation?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM Model
5.3 Was the planned level of staffinvolvement with the EFQM ExcellenceModel achieved?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Integration• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
If not, why not? • Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Integration• Staff Involvement and Teamwork
5.4 How many rounds of self-assessmenthave been carried out and when?
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM Model• Pace
To find out when this tookplace in the sequence ofactivities.
5.5 Which of the following has the modelactually been used for and how often? (Alist of possible uses derived from theliterature review was provided for theinterviewee to select from along with an'other' option).
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Integration• Actual uses of the EFQM Model
5.6 Was the EFQM Model aligned withother organisational systems? E.g.Subject Review, Institutional Audit,Individual Performance Appraisal System,Internal Quality Reviews.
• Implementation and EvaluationPhase
• Integration• Alignment with other
organisational systems6 GENERAL6.1 Has anything else that we haven'talready discussed helped in the EFQMimplementation?
To offer the interviewee theopportunity to add anyother relevant views.
6.2 Has anything else that we haven'talready discussed hindered the EFQMimplementation?
To offer the interviewee theopportunity to add anyother relevant views.
6.3 How were these hindrancesovercome?
To offer the interviewee theopportunity to add anyother relevant views.
479
To gather the interviewee'sview on the level of EFQMimplementation. This thencould be used tocorroborate the initial viewof the Project Managerwhen the author wasselecting the cases.
6.4 How would you assess your level ofEFQM implementation?A table used by Price WaterhouseCoopersto assess the different levels of usage of theExcellence Model was shown to theinterviewee who was asked to indicatewhich level they thought their organisationwas at to the nearest half level. Seeappendix 5.
480
REFERENCES
References
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