Mini-review

The Impacts of China’s Three Gorges Dam:

China’s Best Option for Clean Power Generation?

Chad Petersen

4/5/2014

Introduction

China’s Three Gorges Dam (TGD) Project, located in the Yangtze River Valley, began

construction in 1994 and was fully completed and functional by the summer of 2012. It is the

world’s largest hydro-power project. A record 21 million cubic yards of concrete was poured to

build the TGD. At times there were upwards of 26,000 employees working on the TGD Project.

The dam’s reservoir has a length of 660 kilometers (410 miles); while the dam itself is 185

meters (607 feet) tall, and 2,309 meters (1.4 miles) in length (“China’s Three Gorges Dam, by

the Numbers,” n.d.). The project’s official reports state that 13 cities, 140 towns, and 1,350

villages were submerged, with at least 1.3 million people displaced and thousands still needing to

be relocated. Official reports place the cost of construction at $37.2 billion (US), while

unofficial estimates hover around $88 billion. The dam is equipped with 26 generators that have

a capacity of 18,200 megawatts, the equivalent of 10 modern nuclear power plants. The TGD

has the ability to power approximately one third of China’s residences

(“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.).

There have been many positive effects of the TGD. For example, it has improved

transportation along the Yangtze River, which has also increased commerce, it has reduced

flooding, which has been responsible for thousands of fatalities in the Yangtze River Valley in

the past century, and it has the ability to power many of China’s homes. However, there have

been a number of negative impacts that were either overlooked, or ignored completely when the

TGD was being designed.

In 2011, China’s highest body of government acknowledged that there were problems

associated with the dam requiring immediate attention. Unfortunately, many of the problems

associated with the dam are expected to get worse as time goes by. For example, many factories,

mines, dumps, and industrial plants were submerged and now their wastes are polluting the

reservoir. River banks downstream have begun to erode causing massive landslides, and the

reservoir’s water weight threatens the seismic stability of the region. All of these problems also

have the cumulative ability to destroy one of the world’s largest fisheries in the East China Sea.

According to data gathered by the International Rivers Organization, “The dam has most likely

driven the famous Chinese river dolphin to extinction. Populations of the Chinese sturgeon, river

sturgeon and Chinese paddlefish have been decimated; all are now considered endangered.

Commercial fisheries in the Yangtze and off the river’s mouth in the East China Sea declined

sharply after the dam was closed” (“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.).

This paper will attempt to report on the ecological, economic, cultural, and social impacts

of the TGD Project. Emphasis will be placed on comparing the TGD to upgrading the efficiency

of pre-existing power plants.

History of the Three Gorges Project

The Three Gorges Dam Project was first proposed in 1919 by Sun Yat-sen, the first

president and founder of the Republic of China. Sun Yat-sen envisioned the dam as a symbol of

China’s development and national prestige, while also arguing that it would stop the flooding

that threatened the river communities along the Yangtze (“SAllin_010304.pdf,” n.d.). It was to

be China’s largest public works project since the construction of the Great Wall. The project

was met with disdain by many who claimed that there were technical, social, economic, and

ecological implications involved with the construction of such a large project that were not being

properly evaluated. Economic conditions, social instability, and limitations in technology were

among some of the factors that kept the dam from beginning construction until the 1990’s

(“China’s Three Gorges Dam History,” n.d.).

Population Displaced

Approximately 1.3 million people were displaced during the construction of the TGD.

Thousands have yet to be relocated, or have been relocated just to be displaced again due to

erosion and landslides. China’s government created a policy entitled Development-oriented

Resettlement, and had originally planned to resettle the displaced to higher ground, as close as

possible to their original homes. This plan contains complex formulas used to determine the

monetary compensation to be offered to the displaced, as well guidelines for the allocation of

funds for the creation of new towns, jobs, and basic infrastructure (“The Short-Term Impact of

Involuntary Migration in China’s Three Gorges: A Prospective Study - Springer,” n.d.)

The plan has worked relatively well for relocating the urban population. Resettling rural

farmers, however, has come with its own set of challenges due in part to transforming the steep

hillsides into arable land. Erosion is already a problem in the region (which this paper will

address momentarily), and deforestation of the land by farmers is considered a direct cause of an

increase in landslides and flooding in the valley. Approximately 26 thousand hectares of

farmland were lost when the reservoir was inundated (“The Short-Term Impact of Involuntary

Migration in China’s Three Gorges: A Prospective Study - Springer,” n.d.).

The reservoir area has seen a massive transformation from cropland into an urban

landscape. Urbanization accounts for 83% of the 44% reduction in farmland within the reservoir

(“Environmental impact assessments of the Three Gorges Project in China: Issues and

interventions,” n.d.). Also, to prevent landslides, the creation of farmland on hillsides steeper

than 25 degrees was prohibited, resulting in a loss of lifestyle for 77,800 farmers who were

planned to be settled in those areas (“Environmental impact assessments of the Three Gorges

Project in China: Issues and interventions,” n.d.).

The land the farmers are being resettled on is not as fertile as the rice paddies they once

inhabited, affecting crop yield, food markets, and local economy. The combination of

urbanization, land fertility, and problems associated with resettlement have led to an 8% loss in

the net primary productivity (NPP) of the reservoir region (“Impacts of China’s Three Gorges

Dam Project on net primary productivity in the reservoir area,” n.d.). This is a very significant

loss in NPP since approximately 70% of the nation’s rice and agriculture, and 40% of the

nation’s total industrial output comes from the Yangtze River Valley (“Assessing the influence

of environmental impact assessments on science and policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges

Project,” n.d.).

It is estimated that only 31% of displaced were resettled in their intended locations

(“Environmental impact assessments of the Three Gorges Project in China: Issues and

interventions,” n.d.). Many farmers left behind a culture that cannot be replaced, and were not

compensated enough for their homes to be able to buy new ones. It is estimated 12% of the

resettlement funds were embezzled by government officials, 300 of whom were later found

guilty in a court of law (“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.).

Many of the factories that were relocated “up-hill” were forced to close down due to

erosion. One city in particular, Yunyang, had only 45 of its 180 plus factories re-open and stay

operational; it is estimated that 20,000 people have lost their jobs due to these factory closures

alone (“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.). China’s government revised their

resettlement strategy in 1999, and greatly increased the amount of people to be displaced from

the region.

With few successes, there are many measurable negative impacts resulting from project-

induced migration; including damage to the social structure, kin-based networks, economic well-

being, and the mental and physical health of the displaced migrants. Challenges often arise from

learning a new dialect, learning to farm a new crop, competition for land, and the breaking up of

the larger villages into smaller, less burdensome sizes (“The Short-Term Impact of Involuntary

Migration in China’s Three Gorges: A Prospective Study - Springer,” n.d.).

Historical Sites

It is estimated that well over 1,300 archaeological sites and digs were submerged when

the reservoir was inundated; approximately 100 of which were sites uncovering artifacts from the

Ba civilization thought to have settled in the region between 4,000 and 7,000 years ago, and

which possibly held clues to the origins of the Chinese people. Archaeologists worked diligently

to rescue as many of the artifacts as possible before inundation and were able to save over 6,000

precious artifacts and approximately 50,000 commonplace items of the Ba and other early

Chinese civilizations (“Saving the Cultural Relics of the Three Gorges,” n.d.).

Before inundation, discoveries at many of these sites served to solidify the belief that the

Three Gorges region should be recognized as the birth place of Chinese civilization. It is

believed that Paleolithic culture began in the area 50,000 to 100,000 years ago (“Saving the

Cultural Relics of the Three Gorges,” n.d.).

Reservoir-Induced Seismic Activity

There has always been a considerable amount of seismic activity in the Yangtze River

Valley, even before the completion of the TGD. However, reservoir-induced seismic activity in

the region has increased the frequency of earthquakes and landslides to numbers never before

seen in the years it has been monitored. There is a positive correlation between the height of the

reservoir and the frequency and magnitude of the earthquakes. The number of earthquakes

recorded in the Yangtze River Valley jumped from 40 earthquakes in the year 2000, to 2,121

earthquakes in the year 2008 (“Environmental impact assessments of the Three Gorges Project in

China: Issues and interventions,” n.d.).

The combination of erosion directly resulting from the daily raising and lowering of the

reservoir, which can total as much as 30 meters over the span of a year, along with reservoir-

induced seismic activity, also adds to the occurrence of dangerous landslides in the region.

Erosion and Sedimentation in the Yangtze River Valley

Erosion, as a direct result of the TGD, has had many different negative effects in the

Yangtze River Valley. Effects are widespread and varied; from hillside degradation within the

reservoir due to a daily raising and lowering of the water level, to sediment build-up in the

reservoir, to not enough sediment making it downstream for deposition.

The reservoir’s depth varies greatly over the span of a year, fluctuating by as much as 30

meters. Constant raising and lowering of the reservoir’s water level is compromising the

integrity of the hillsides, causing erosion and massive landslides upstream of the dam. This

anthropogenic process also adds to the amount of siltation within the reservoir and offsets natural

hydrologic processes. In 2005 alone, before the reservoir was completely filled, there were 263

landslides and rock-falls under investigation, approximately 6-10% of which were considered

unstable, especially after inundation (“The littoral zone in the Three Gorges Reservoir, China:

challenges and opportunities - Springer,” n.d.).

It is estimated that 151 million tons of sediment per year is retained within the dam’s

reservoir, approximately two-thirds of the total yearly sediment that would spread throughout the

river delta if the TGD were not there. It is feared that the increasing siltation occurring behind

the dam could lead to parts of the Yangtze becoming impassable in the near future to commercial

traffic, which the region depends on for its economy. It is also believed that enough sediment

build-up behind the dam could lead to a blockage of the sluice gates, which control the water

levels in the reservoir; this could lead to an increase in flooding upstream, and a loss of power

generation due to a slower water speed affecting turbine efficiency (“China’s Three Gorges Dam

Environmental Impact,” n.d.). With siltation occurring at a rate of 151 million tons deposited

behind the dam per year, it is estimated that it will take approximately 150 years to fill the

reservoir completely with sediment. There are plans in the works to build four more large dams

in the area, which could possibly increase the amount of time before the reservoir is completely

full of sediment to 300 years (Yang, Zhang, & Xu, 2007).

The lack of sediment load downstream is causing erosion of the hillsides, but not at a rate

that offsets the normal sediment deposits of the valley. Sediment deposits are important for the

integrity of delta fronts because they act as a natural balance between deposition and erosion.

This balance has been affected severely, and was not originally taken into consideration when

the dam was proposed (Yang et al., 2007). Sediment load at the river’s mouth dropped to one-

third the amount previously recorded before the dam’s completion. It is estimated that about 4

kilometers of brackish wetlands are lost to erosion each year as a result. This has the ability to

destroy arable land and threaten drinking water supplies as salt water moves inland

(“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.).

Green House Gas Emissions

Hydro-electric power, for many years, has been considered “clean” energy, replacing the

need to combust fossil fuels or to build nuclear power plants as a source of energy generation.

Hydro-electric power generation is clean in the sense that no greenhouse gases (GHG’s) are

released during actual power generation from the spinning of turbines. However, the impounded

reservoirs resulting from the construction of dams are known to be major contributors to GHG’s

worldwide. Rotting vegetation and slow moving water cause stagnation and algal blooms which

release GHG’s such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide (“The-Impact-of-China-s-3-

gorges.pdf,” n.d.). It is estimated that reservoirs can account for as much as 28% of the world’s

global warming potential associated with GHG emissions, releasing as much as 104 million

metric tons of methane yearly (“annual report 1-7 - WCD_DAMS report.pdf,” n.d.).

Eutrophication within the TGD reservoir is being exacerbated by slower moving water

than is normally attributed to the hydrologic cycle, holding back much of the fertilizer run-off

and industrial waste that would have normally flowed out to sea. Before the completion of the

TGD, eutrophication was not a problem in the Yangtze River Valley (“Environmental impact

assessments of the Three Gorges Project in China: Issues and interventions,” n.d.).

Water Quality

Water quality in the Yangtze River Valley, its tributaries, surrounding catchments, and

coastal wetlands at the mouth of the river have been affected by a number of anthropogenic and

natural factors that have been exacerbated by the construction of the TGD and reservoir

inundation. It is estimated that there is discharge of 28,000 tons of nitrogen and 80 tons of

pesticides from agricultural run-off each year, and a daily discharge of 10 million tons of

industrial waste and domestic sewage upstream of the TGD (“Assessing the influence of

environmental impact assessments on science and policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges

Project,” n.d.). The Yangtze River is considered one of the most polluted water-ways in the

world with over 40% of China’s sewage and effluent wastes being released in to its waters yearly

(López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren, 2009). Also, it is estimated that 10 million tons of garbage,

trees, animal corpses, and plastic bottles have accumulated behind the dam since completion

(“China’s Three Gorges Dam, by the Numbers,” n.d.).

Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) and total phosphorus (TP) loads are good indicators

of the water quality within a given region (“Historical trend of nitrogen and phosphorus loads

from the upper Yangtze River basin and their responses to the Three Gorges Dam - Springer,”

n.d.). The reservoir shows high levels of DIN and TP loads when water is retained, and lower

levels when water is discharged, supporting a positive correlation between water speed and the

ability for the Yangtze to flush pollutants downstream. The DIN and TP loads in the reservoir

are directly affected by fertilizer and pesticide run-off, livestock effluent run-off, and industrial

waste run-off (“Historical trend of nitrogen and phosphorus loads from the upper Yangtze River

basin and their responses to the Three Gorges Dam - Springer,” n.d.).

On top of this, reservoir is estimated to contain over 1,600 abandoned mines, waste

dumps, industrial factories, and potentially toxic sites that were submerged when the dam was

completed and the reservoir was inundated(“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.). It is

believed that the contaminants associated with these sites are now spreading throughout the

reservoir affecting water quality and ecosystem biodiversity.

The Chinese River Dolphin

With approximately 6,000 plant species, 500 different species of terrestrial vertebrates,

and around 160 species of fish once recorded in the area, the Yangtze River Valley is considered

one of the richest areas in China with regards to biodiversity (López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren,

2009). The entire Yangtze River Basin, including all tributaries, is home to an incredible 361

native fish species, 148 of which are endemic. The Upper Yangtze River Valley alone is home

to 118 endemic species of fish, housing many species considered to be living fossils

(“Identifying freshwater conservation priorities in the Upper Yangtze River Basin - HEINER -

2010 - Freshwater Biology - Wiley Online Library,” n.d.) due to the area being a glacial refuge

from the Tertiary and Quaternary ice periods (López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren, 2009).

Large dams are considered one of the major threats to freshwater biodiversity and habitat,

and the TGD has had many negative impacts on the richness and the health of the multitude of

life in the region. For example, the Chinese River Dolphin (Lipotes vexillifer), which has seen

declining numbers in population since the 1950’s due to a loss of mobility, habitat, and food

resources, is now considered functionally extinct. In 2006, an international research team of

biologists, including members of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s

(NOAA) National Marines Fishery Service, were unable to find any signs of the dolphin’s

survival (Turvey et al., 2007). The apparent extinction of the Chinese River Dolphin is attributed

purely to anthropogenic activities; with fishing related deaths and the construction of large dams

(TGD in particular) topping the list of factors.

Freshwater Ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems can be extremely sensitive to variations in water temperature,

water velocity, water depth, dissolved oxygen levels, and food availability; all of which are

affected by the TGD Project. An anthropogenic process known as hydro-peaking has negatively

impacted downstream habitats due to causing extreme variations in water level directly related to

the discharge rate and reservoir levels (“Taylor & Francis Online :: Eco-hydraulics and eco-

sedimentation studies in China - Journal of Hydraulic Research - Volume 51, Issue 1,” n.d.).

Extreme changes in sediment transport related to reservoir discharge can have negative impacts

on benthic macro-invertebrates and riparian plant species, which are known to thrive in stable

stream environments with reliable fluvial properties. Hydro-peaking can occur from variations

in water level due to unexpected dam malfunctions, high prices for energy causing an increase in

dam use, and grid balancing causing more drastic changes than would occur naturally (“Slide 1 -

02_Bakken_WS Hydropeaking Zurich 2012-06-19.pdf,” n.d.). It is has been noted that hydro-

peaking has the ability to kill most species within short distances downstream of discharge

(“Taylor & Francis Online :: Eco-hydraulics and eco-sedimentation studies in China - Journal of

Hydraulic Research - Volume 51, Issue 1,” n.d.).

China does not require fish ladders to be integrated into the construction of their dams

which can often result in the complete loss of habitat for spawning species due to a

fragmentation of migration routes (López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren, 2009). Prior to the

completion of TGD, 25 species of fish were harvested commercially, providing a source of

income and food to the region’s population (“Assessing the influence of environmental impact

assessments on science and policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges Project,” n.d.). It is

estimated that there was a 50-70% decrease in annual carp harvest along with a 95% decrease in

the carp’s ability to reproduce due to impacts associated to the dam within its first 3 years of

completion (“Assessing the influence of environmental impact assessments on science and

policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges Project,” n.d.). “Fragmentation of habitat, especially the

cutting off riparian lakes from the river in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, stressed the

ecosystem and reduced the number of macro-invertebrates species by about 60% and reduced the

fishery harvest by about 80%. Re-linkage of riparian lakes and wetlands with the river may

restore the complex habitat” (“Taylor & Francis Online :: Eco-hydraulics and eco-sedimentation

studies in China - Journal of Hydraulic Research - Volume 51, Issue 1,” n.d.).

Littoral Zones

Littoral zones are an important transition, or interface, between land and water, and

provide habitat to many different flora and fauna. Littoral zones are ecological hotspots

providing an area for many important biogeochemical processes to function. Littoral zones, both

upstream and down, are fragile and extremely affected by fluctuation in the reservoir’s depth.

Slower moving water, caused by reservoir inundation, adds to the growth of phytoplankton along

these zones, which can become stagnant and cause algal blooms and eutrophication. This is

amplified by the lowering of the reservoir in summer months allowing for rapid plant growth.

When the reservoir is returned to normal levels the vegetation begins to rot. This unnaturally

rapid plant growth and decay disrupts natural hydrological processes and has the ability to

threaten entire aquatic ecosystems. Littoral zones also play an important role in helping to

control non-point source pollution, especially fertilizer run-off (“The littoral zone in the Three

Gorges Reservoir, China: challenges and opportunities - Springer,” n.d.).

Terrestrial Ecosystems

Habitat loss and fragmentation are the most visible effects of the TGD; having affected

not only humans and aquatic life, but numerous plant and animal taxa as well. Effects are varied

depending on location. For instance, plants and animals may be affected in the reservoir region

due to an increase in water causing a loss of habitat, while downstream they will be affected by a

loss of water and sediment levels changing habitat by causing a regression of wetlands,

floodplains, estuaries, deltas, and beaches (López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren, 2009).

The TGD reservoir is China’s largest artificially created wetland ecosystem resulting

from many anthropogenic alterations. A total of 47 threatened and endangered species that are

protected by law (“Environmental Impacts,” n.d.) still inhabit the area such as the golden snub-

nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta), and the

Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus) which have seen a great decline in suitable habitat due

to the construction of the TGD (López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren, 2009). Animals face less of a

threat than plant species due to having the ability to move uphill(López-Pujol & Ming-Xun Ren,

2009). Although many impacts are not fully understood, the animals at greatest risk are those

associated with low altitude grassland habitat loss, and animals affected by changes in their food

web due to reservoir inundation (“Assessing the influence of environmental impact assessments

on science and policy: An analysis of the Three Gorges Project,” n.d.).

China’s Increasing Energy Demand

China’s demand for energy is immense and growing. One study compiled by The China

Sustainable Energy Program claims that China’s air-conditioners alone have the ability to absorb

all of the power that the TGD is able to generate (“China Sustainable Energy Program Brochure

— Energy Foundation China,” n.d.). Along with holding the world’s largest population, China is

also the world’s largest energy consuming and producing nation. They are the global leader in

coal consumption for energy generation, accounting for 47% of total global coal usage in 2011

alone (a growth of 9% from the year before), nearly as much as the rest of the world combined

(“China consumes nearly as much coal as the rest of the world combined - Today in Energy -

U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA),” n.d.).

In 2013, China accounted for one-third of total global oil consumption, and was second

only to the United States in oil imports and oil consumption. It is expected to surpass the United

States in these regards in 2014 (“china.pdf,” n.d.).

In 2011, as a direct result of energy production, China led the world with nearly 9 million

metric tons of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere. China plans to reduce their total CO2 emissions

by 40% before the year 2040. They plan, in part, to do this by reducing their reliance on coal

and fossil fuels as a source for primary energy generation. In 2011, nearly 70% of energy

consumed in China was coal generated, oil accounted for about 18% of power generation, and

hydro-electric accounted for only 6%. Even though China is a world leader in the development

of sustainable, renewable energy sources, these sources only account for about 1% of the power

generated in 2011, which compares with nuclear at about 1% also (“china.pdf,” n.d.).

Conclusion

Worldwide there are approximately 48,000 dams over 50 feet in height, 26,000 of which

are found on China’s waterways(“The Dam Building Boom: Right Path to Clean Energy? by

David Biello: Yale Environment 360,” n.d.). Approximately one-half to two-thirds of the

world’s rivers are dammed. Fresh water only accounts for 2.5% of the total water on Earth, only

about 30% of which is liquid, with only about 2% of that being surface water (“annual report 1-7

- WCD_DAMS report.pdf,” n.d.). It is estimated that the second half of the 20th century saw

dams built at a rate of one dam per hour (“annual report 1-7 - WCD_DAMS report.pdf,” n.d.).

With so many dams being built and competition for water occurring at a rate never before seen,

there have been a number of critics who say China’s mega-dam model should not be replicated.

Some consider the TGD Project a social, cultural, economic, and ecological disaster. However,

there are plans in the works to build a large number of these dams along the Yangtze River, and

throughout the rest of the world.

China’s dedication to implementing renewable sources of energy into their infrastructure

is commendable, but when it comes to large scale dams like the TGD, the benefits do not

necessarily outweigh the negative impacts. It has been argued that China would have been better

off building a number of small dams, or improving the efficiency of pre-existing power plants

(due to many of their technologies being outdated) in place of the TGD. According to Douglas

Ogden, the Director for China’s Sustainable Energy Program and Vice President for China’s

Energy foundation, “It would have been cheaper, cleaner and more productive for China to

have invested in energy efficiency [than in new power-plants]

(“3gorgesfactsheet_feb2012_web.pdf,” n.d.).

Energy Efficiency Power Plants (EPP’s) are an option being explored in China. EPP’s

reduce emissions and energy use by implementing efficiency measures in existing power plants

by using cleaner technologies in areas such as improved lighting, refrigeration, and electric

motors (“Doug Ogden - JP Morgan Hands-On China Series.pdf — Energy Foundation China,”

n.d.). It is believed that these options should be explored before considering the construction of

new power plants.

Nations implementing large scale dam projects similar to the TGD should consider

weighing options by investing in non-bias, accurate, and thorough environmental impact

assessments before beginning construction. This will help to ensure that the decisions that are

made now do not have negative impacts on future generations or habitat biodiversity within a

region. It is important to realize that all ecosystems have interconnectedness; they are a chain in

which the survival of one species is often connected to the survival of another. This chain could

ultimately lead to humans being the final species being affected.

Given the negative impacts addressed by this paper, the TGD Project seems a step

backwards for China with regards to clean, safe energy generation. It does not seem a viable

option when such a large loss of species, biodiversity, human habitat, economy, and water

quality are the risks, and air conditioning is the benefit. Other options should be examined

before a nation decides to build a mega-dam. Perhaps the TGD Project should be used as a

guideline for future generations when comparing the inputs and outputs involved with such

large-scale projects.

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