the history of prophecy in west africa: indigenous, islamic, and christian

© 2007 The AuthorJournal Compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

History Compass 5/5 (2007): 1468–1482, 10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00462.x

Blackwell Publishing LtdOxford, UKHICOHistory Compass1478-0542© 2007 The Author Journal Compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd46210.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00462.xJune 2007001468???1482???AfricaThe History of Prophecy in West AfricaThe History of Prophecy in West Africa

The History of Prophecy in West Africa: Indigenous, Islamic, and Christian

Joel E. Tishken*Columbus State University

AbstractThis article examines the role of prophecy in the religious history of West Africa.Examples of prophecy are provided from indigenous religions, Islam, and Christianity.Prophetic movements were less common in the history of Islam due to Islamictheology, however, they were quite common in the history of West Africanindigenous religions and Christianity.

Introduction

This article examines the role prophets, prophetesses, and prophecy havehad throughout West African religious history. West Africa displays a greatdeal of religious plurality because of the long history of Islam and thelarge numbers of Christians. Many manifestations of prophecy within WestAfrican history often derive from a symbiotic combination of both endogamous(African indigenous religions) and exogenous (Islamic and Christian)sources.

Prophecy is the process by which a person claims a personal connectionwith supernatural forces that is unavailable to the average member of thecommunity. This link is manifested in ways accepted as tangible and credibleby members of the community.1 A prophet or prophetess is one whoengages in this process. Acceptance by a community, however small, is asimportant as the supernatural inspiration. A person who claimed super-natural revelations, but was believed by no one, would likely be consid-ered a psychotic, but not a prophet. Clearly cultural variation will alterthe precise nature of prophecy depending on how the personal connec-tion is manifested, how supernatural forces are defined, and what proof isconsidered valid. Nonetheless, prophecy can be found in virtually allknown religions.

The English word prophet derives from the Greek word prophetes, meaningone who speaks out or proclaims. For most Westerners the term prophetconjures up one of two images: an ancient Greek oracle or an OldTestament religious leader.2 Using these two models has created theassumption that prophecy involves predictive ability and/or apocalypticism.

© 2007 The Author History Compass 5/5 (2007): 1468–1482, 10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00462.xJournal Compilation © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

The History of Prophecy in West Africa 1469

However, these types of prophecy are not a standard. While they may bethe most accessible to the Western imagination, they are only two amongmany sorts of prophecy. Additionally, prophecy need not involve predictiveability at all. In some cultures prophets never predict the future but onlycomment on what has already happened.3 Thus, prophecy can manifestitself in a variety of forms, molded by cultural norms and expectations.So while prophecy is common throughout the religions of the world,regional variations can be identified. This article will examine prophecyand prophetic movements within the three religious traditions of WestAfrica – indigenous religions, Islam, and Christianity.

West Africa’s religious history began with the development of variouspolytheistic religions referred to as African indigenous religions. Each ethnicgroup had its own distinct religion, with significant regional variations,though borrowing amongst these religions was common. Prophecy in thesereligions was manifested through diviners, oracles, mediums, and individualreformers and innovators. These religions and their prophetic manifesta-tions are entirely the production of Africans and African ideas and thusderive entirely from indigenous sources.

By contrast, today the largest religions in West Africa are Islam andChristianity, both of which began outside Africa. Islam reached WestAfrica in the 9th century; Christianity was introduced in the 19th century. Bothreligions have enough history in West Africa, and are widespread enough,that one can now consider them to be indigenous. Both Islam and Christianityare heterogeneous enough to allow for their spread while they simultane-ously integrate elements from local cultures. Thus I contend that you canspeak of Afro-Islam and Afro-Christianity, to illustrate that Islam andChristianity in Africa are slightly different because they have beeninformed by African indigenous traditions.

These differences are not heretical. The same local manifestations canbe found in every part of the Islamic and Christian worlds – this is whyIslam is different in Indonesia than it is in Albania, Kuwait, or Morocco.Islam and Christianity dominate today’s world precisely because they dopermit a slight accommodation of local culture. For prophecy this meansthat African Islamic and African Christian prophets obtain their ideasprincipally from the universal ideas of Islam or Christianity, but alsoborrow from indigenous principles as well. Those other ideas in no waynegate the validity of the Islamic or Christian ideas. To the contrary, theIslamic or Christian ideas become more meaningful to Africans becauseof the symbiotic reinforcement from indigenous philosophy.

Prophecy within West African Indigenous Religions

West Africa has had as many indigenous religions as it has had ethnicgroups. While the exact number is not known, there have been manydozens, if not hundreds, of ethnic groups over the course of West African

1470 The History of Prophecy in West Africa


history. Like most parts of the ancient world, West Africa was composedof a variety of ethnically defined religions, where religion and identityreinforced one another.4 These religions dominated West Africa from theformation of the first ethnic groups until Islam and Christianity becamewidespread. (The arrival of the evangelical religions of Islam and Christianity,designed to transcend ethnicity, will be discussed in the next two sections.)Despite regional variations, all African indigenous religions manifestedcertain characteristics such as polytheism, ancestral reverence, witchcraft,and sacrifice. Additionally, followers of these religions believed that thesupernatural world constantly interacted with their own. This interactionmeant that prophecy was a customary part of religious activity and thatpeople would have expected that supernatural beings to speak to certainindividuals. Evidence of prophetic activity within African indigenous religionsis scarcer than the evidence for Islamic or Christian prophets, due to thepaucity of records for Africa’s earliest history.

The most common form of prophecy within West African indigenousreligions was divination. Divination is the process of requesting informa-tion from supernatural entities, whether gods, spirits, or ancestors. Thisinformation can be defined as occult5 because it is secret knowledge thatcan only be attained by supernatural means. Three methods of divinationcan be identified, though there is overlap in these methods. The first typeinvolved the use of physical objects, most commonly shells, animal bones,nuts, or stones. The belief was that the supernatural world guided thecasting or manipulation of the objects. The diviner would then read thesecret information revealed in the objects and pass the revealed informationto the client or community that requested it. This method could be foundamong every group in West Africa. The best-known divination of thistype is likely that of the Ifa system of the Yoruba.

A second method of divination was that of oracles. In this techniquean individual or the community would pose a question to a particular godor goddess. The priest/tess of this deity would deliver messages from thedeity to those who posed the query. The oracles typically lived in remotenatural locations away from settlements. This oracular divination was usedby the Igbo of southeastern Nigeria. In Igboland oracles served as finalcriminal courts of appeal and also linked communities together as the oracleswere patronized by multiple communities. The oracular priests were nearlyalways women. The most famous Igbo oracles were those at Aro Chukwu,Umunoha, and Awka.6

Mediumship was the third method of divination. A medium enteredinto an altered state of consciousness to access the information. A mediummay have used this technique alone or in combination with either of thefirst two techniques. For instance, oracular agents typically entered tranceswhen speaking to their god or goddess, or a trance might be part of areading of the physical objects used in the first technique. Though theremight be some overlap in these methods, the rules of divination within



any particular society were strictly observed. Diviners typically underwentyears of apprenticeship training under an existing diviner because of thewealth of knowledge and technique that needed to be mastered.

Aside from divination, practitioners of indigenous religions believedthat the gods and ancestors regularly gave instructions for worship throughprophetic means. Among the Diola, for instance, the supreme-god Emitai(literally ‘of the sky’) was believed to reveal moral teachings and advicevia dreams and visions.7 Prophecy was also a common vehicle for religiousinnovation, revitalization, or reformation. For example, an unknown godor spirit might choose to reveal itself through prophecy. The prophetwould likely begin to preach the greatness of their discovery, encouragingothers to join him or her in worship.8 Similarly, a god, spirit, or theancestors could use prophecy to point out the ways that human beingswere falling short in their adoration and needed to change their ways.Likewise new charms or medicines that could defend against witchcraft,bring rain, or prevent a disease might be discovered through propheticmeans. For example, the prophet Kinjikitile learned of a water medicine(maji) from the spirit Hongo that was employed during the Maji Majirebellion against the Germans from 1905–07. Constant adaptation andrenewal were central features of African indigenous religions and theemergence of new prophecies and prophets were common. However,details regarding these prophets are scant, particularly the further back intime one goes.

Prophecy within West African Islam

Islam came to West Africa across the Sahara. Muslims from North Africatraveled to West Africa for purposes of trade in what we now call theTran-Saharan trade network. The trade network itself is quite ancient, butMuslims (both Berber and Arab) did not begin to participate until around800 ce. After the arduous journey across the Sahara it was common fortraders to remain in West Africa for a few weeks or months. The religionspread through these peaceful trade contacts between Muslims of NorthAfrica and their fellow merchants of West Africa. In time Islam wouldgrow to a significant minority religion in West Africa. Some of themedieval world’s most significant centers of Islamic learning (madrasas)were in West Africa such as Timbuktu, Djenne, and Chinguetti. Islambecame a dominant force within many empires such as Mali, Songhai,Kanem-Borno, and the city-states of the Hausa. Islam became a majorityreligion in the northern portion of West Africa (commonly referred to asthe Sudanic belt) by the 18th century, largely through a series of locallyinspired jihads. We will explore the role of prophecy in these jihads.

Islam remains a minority religion within many parts of the southernportion of West Africa, and was not the same force upon politics that itwas in the northern portion. Most West African Muslims are Sufi; Sufi



brotherhoods (tariqas) such as the Qadiriyya, Tijaniyya, and Muridiyya,have had a significant role in West African history. Like any evangelicalreligion, Islam adapted to local circumstances as it spread. While manycore characteristics of Islam can be found in West Africa, there are alsosome unique elements within West African Islam that cannot be found inother parts of the Islamic world.

One of the core beliefs of Islam is that Muhammad is the seal of theprophets. Based upon verse 33:40 of the Qur’an,9 Muslims believe thatMuhammad was the final culmination of the chain of prophets sent byGod (Al’lah in Arabic). Hadith no. 21257 mentions 124,000 previousprophets, but the identity of only twenty-five can be known with certainty,as only these are mentioned in the Qur’an. Despite this belief, claims ofprophetic activity are not unknown throughout Muslim history and occurwith roughly the same regularity in Africa. Yet compared to a religionlike Christianity, prophetic claims are much rarer in Islam. Thus one canconclude that the belief in Muhammad as the seal of the prophets doesnot prevent the emergence of prophets in Islam, but it does appear todampen the frequency of such claims. Those involved are typically verycareful not to use the word prophet, as it would usurp Muhammad andconstitute heresy for most Muslims.

These leaders reconcile their prophetic experiences with standard Islamin one of three ways. Firstly, some claim that they are a ‘messenger’ andnot a ‘prophet’. In this way they can claim to be receiving messages fromGod, without overturning Islamic theology. Muhammad remains the finalprophet who revealed the Qur’an, while they are mere ‘messengers’. Thismay appear to be word-play to non-Muslims, but to the faithful it is theperfect way to remain an orthodox Muslim while also endorsing thepower of the new leader.

Uthman (or Usman) dan Fodio is one such Afro-Islamic leader. Dan Fodiowas born December 15, 1754, into a Fulani family of scholars. He earneda powerful reputation in adulthood for being a master of the Qur’an andHadith, which is the primary basis for leadership in Islam. From 1774–1804,Dan Fodio and his brother, Abdullah, conducted a revivalist campaign toheighten morality and strengthen faith. As the following of Dan Fodiogrew, he became increasingly interested in the moral quality of the rulers.He and his brother began to make moral and legal demands of the kingsof Gobir. The kings initially consented, fearing their popular support.

Starting in 1789 and continuing until 1804, Dan Fodio receivednumerous visions from Muhammad and Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, founderof the Qadiriyya Sufi tariqa (brotherhood), the dominant brotherhood ofWest Africa. Dan Fodio did not claim that his prophecies came directlyfrom God, thus permitting him to remain within the bounds of Islamicorthodoxy. In 1794 Dan Fodio received a vision of Al-Qadir in which hewas handed the Sword of Truth by Al-Qadir himself. Dan Fodio wouldinterpret this as permission from Allah to conduct a jihad.



In 1804, Dan Fodio declared jihad against Gobir because of Gobir’scontinued practice of mixed Islam (Islam blended with pre-Islamic prac-tices). He legitimated it with his prophetic experiences and the Sword ofTruth. Declaration of jihad began years of fighting also known as theFulani War. Jihad was initially declared against Gobir. But when Gobir formedalliances among several of the Hausa city-states, Dan Fodio expanded thejihad, noting the need to purge mixed Islam from throughout Hausaland.

Despite some initial defeats, Dan Fodio’s forces (Uthmanians) defeatedGobir in 1808. The capital city of Gobir, Sokoto, became the capital ofDan Fodio’s emerging empire and gave it its name, the Sokoto Caliphate.The Sokoto Caliphate would eventually conquer all of the area that is nownorthern Nigeria as well as portions of northern Cameroun. Mosques andQuranic schools were built throughout the caliphate and a rich Islamicliterature resulted. Qadiriyya practices were encouraged to spread theprocess of Islamification and reduce the practice of bori (indigenous healingcults). Non-canonical forms of taxation were reduced (though not eliminated).In general Dan Fodio and his successors oversaw an economically andintellectually rich empire, but it did come at the cost of conquest, signif-icant importation of slaves from the southern frontier, and conformity tothe Uthmanian definition of Islam. Dan Fodio ruled until 1817, whenleadership passed to his son, Muhammad Bello. The Sokoto Caliphatewould last until 1903 when it was defeated by the British. The Sultan ofSokoto, despite collapse of the caliphate, remains the primary religiousleader of Nigerian Muslims. The position continues to be held bydescendents of Dan Fodio, but none lay claim to prophetic powers as he did.

A second type of prophetic Islamic leader is one who explains propheticabilities through the concept of the Mahdi, the Guided One. Understand-ings of the Mahdi vary greatly throughout the Muslim world, especiallybetween Sunni and Shi’a. Yet the core belief is that the Mahdi is a manwho will arise near the Day of Judgment and transform the world fromtyranny and injustice to peace and justice. The Mahdi will bear the nameof Muhammad (though it will not be Muhammad himself ). Clearly, theMahdi would be expected to speak with God. And the Mahdi’s ability toprophesy would not challenge Muhammad as the seal of the prophets giventhe Mahdi’s distinctive nature. Thus support for a Mahdi and his abilityto prophesy can still remain orthodox Islam in the minds of the faithful.

One such individual was Muhammad Jumat Imam, an Ijebu-Yorubaman, who created the Ijebu Mahdiyya movement in 1942. He borrowedfrom Muslim notions of the Mahdi and Christian notions of the Messiahto preach a message of peace and reconciliation among West Africa’sMuslims and Christians. When fellow Muslims challenged his claims toprophecy, he explained that his ability came from the ‘eternal spirit ofprophecy’. His prophecies, he said, derived from the Archangel Gabriel.When Muhammad departed, Gabriel remained claiming, ‘And so therecan always be true prophets’.10 Muhammad Jumat Imam preached until



his death in 1959, but was regularly challenged by both Muslims andChristians who did not believe his claims of prophecy. The Mahdiyyamovement split upon his death, with leadership of various factionsassumed by Muhammad Jumat Imam’s sons. Over time the Mahdist claimsof Muhammad Jumat Imam have been deemphasized. Now MuhammadJumat Imam is remembered for being an inspired teacher and leader whoattempted to bring peace and unity to Nigeria’s Muslims and Christians.

Thirdly, other Muslim leaders claim that their version of Islam is thecorrect version of Islam. They do not worry about the fact that theirteachings might conflict with that of most Muslims. They argue that theirprophetic experiences verify the fact that they are the revealer of truthfrom God and are therefore a legitimate prophet. They would discountthose who doubt them as impure Muslims.

Al-Hajj (Alhaji) Umar Tall is one such Afro-Islamic leader. He wasfrom the Tukolor group, near Futa Toro. He was a member of the Tijaniyyabrotherhood and was famed for his knowledge of the Qur’an. Like manyTijaniyya, Umar Tall felt that non-Muslims and non-Tijaniyya Muslimswere inferior and needed to be shown the superior way of TijaniyyaIslam. Umar Tall encouraged his followers to live in separate communitiesto retain their purity. He wrote Rimah in which he condemned thepractice of mixed Islam. He began to amass a tabala (army of disciples)with modern weaponry imported from the Atlantic coast.

On September 6, 1852, after forty days and forty nights in isolation andmeditation, Umar emerged stating that he had heard the voice of God.God told him that he had permission to declare a jihad and was to purifythe country. Umar Tall and his army steadily defeated one town afteranother in Futa Toro, creating the Tukulor Empire. Strict Islamic laws andprinciples were applied in all places. Non-Muslims were forced to convertand any deviation from Tijaniyya Islam and Umar’s teachings were nottolerated. Tukulor was attacked by the French in 1859, because the Frenchfelt it a threat to Senegal. The war ended in a stalemate and boundarieswere defined between Tukulor and the French colony of Senegal. UmarTall was killed in 1863 by revolting Muslims from the Qadiriyya brotherhood,an oppressed majority in the conquered regions. Umar Tall was succeededby his son Ahmadu Seku, but he was plagued by a succession disputeinvolving two half-brothers, troubles with the French, revolts in Massinaand Segu, and officers more interested in ambition than purifying Islam.Nonetheless, the empire did manage to survive until 1890, when finallyconquered by the French.

Though Islamic theology appears to stifle prophetic activity, numerousprophets have emerged in Islamic history, in Africa and elsewhere. Suchleaders typically replicate aspects from the life of Muhammad in theattempt to generate legitimacy among Muslims. Most Muslim prophetsclaim that their prophecies come from Muhammad or the founder of aSufi brotherhood, thereby avoiding the heretical claim that they have



spoken to God/Allah. But in a minority of situations, such as Al-HajjUmar Tall, leaders do claim prophetic inspiration directly from God. Suchleaders insist that the need to rejuvenate Islam was so great, that God hadno choice but to choose an additional messenger. For these leaders andtheir followers, these Islamic movements are not forms of heresy but thebest and purist forms of Islam the world has known. Though the over-whelming majority of their activity was grounded upon Islam, someindigenous principles informed their prophetic careers. The emphasisupon personal supernatural power, belief in the supernatural power ofQur’anic verses, and the interest with healing and purity within Afro-Islamicmovements can all be traced to indigenous religious concerns that wereaddressed in a new Islamic and prophetic fashion.

Prophecy within West African Christianity

Christianity is a relative new-comer to West Africa. Numerous attemptswere made to spread Christianity in places such as Warri, Elmina, andBenin, in the 16th and 17th centuries. All the attempts failed because ofa scarcity of clergy, Christianity’s close association with the slave trade, andthe failure to gain converts beyond the court elite. Thus, Christianity’strue beginning in West Africa does not come until the 19th century, andit arrived by two means. Firstly, the foundation of Sierra Leone andLiberia was closely tied to the Christian impulse to ‘redeem’ Africa. Thesettlers of both colonies were largely Christian and took it upon them-selves to spread their faith in their new countries. Secondly, a revivalwithin European and American Christianity led to the establishment ofmission societies throughout the 19th century, initially Protestant but lateralso Catholic. Africa was among the chief targets. Nonetheless, it was notuntil a handful of African converts began to missionize themselves thatthere was any significant growth of Christianity. Africans largely spreadChristianity among Africans. In West Africa the spread of Christianitybegan on the Atlantic coastline and proceeded inland. This has led to thesouthern portion of West Africa being majority Christian while thenorthern portion remained majority Muslim.

Some mission bodies supported colonialism, while others did not. Butwhether a mission organization was or was not compliant with colonialismdid little to change the fact that they all behaved in a manner that wouldbe considered racist by today’s standards. Africans were often denied accessto positions of leadership due to racial and cultural prejudices. In the late19th century, a number of African clergy began to secede from Europeanchurches and create their own black Christian churches with their ownleadership. Such churches are typically identified as Ethiopian. The termdoes not refer to the nation of Ethiopia but to the Biblical term ofEthiopia as a metaphor for Africa.11 Prophecy played little role in the for-mation of Ethiopian-style churches.



In time, a number of African Christians from within Euro-Christianand Ethiopian churches began to challenge the theologies of both of thesetypes of churches. Through their own prophetic experiences, Biblicalexegesis, or often a combination of the two, a number of Christians becameconvinced that the Christianity currently being taught in Africa waswrong. There were assured of their beliefs because God, Christ, the HolySpirit, or angels would confirm this in prophecy. Some founded their ownchurches, while others preached their ideas within existing churches. Thenew churches of such Christian prophets are often referred to as Zionist,because they often possessed a holy city, their own Zion, or city of God.Such Zionist churches can be found throughout Africa, and West Africahas had some of the largest and most famous. Christian theology does notprevent the emergence of prophets. Christian history is replete with pro-phetic movements, in Africa and elsewhere, and there are numerousexamples of Christian prophets in West Africa.

Garrick Sokari Braide is an example of an African prophet whopreached his prophecies, but did not form his own church. He was bornin a Kalabari town in the northern Niger Delta and was baptized in 1910into the Niger Delta (Anglican) Pastorate. Braide experienced a vision in1912 and gradually came to place great faith in his healing abilities.Congregants flocked to hear him preach and receive his healing. Hisefforts originally had the blessing of the Anglican Church. He later lostthis blessing through jealousy of some Anglican leaders and accusationsthat his beliefs were heresy. Nonetheless, Braide’s fame continued to growand he became known as Elijah II. He and his followers broke from theAnglican Church in 1916. Braide roused the hostility of the AnglicanChurch and that of the colonial administration during war time, and hewas arrested and jailed. He died in prison in 1918. Braide’s followersformed separate churches, such as the Christ Army Church. However,Braide himself never formally formed a church or served as the leader ofone, despite leaving the Anglicans.

One of the most famous Afro-Christian prophets is William WadéHarris. Harris was a Grebo from Liberia. He had been raised in a Methodistminister’s home and worked as a teacher for the Episcopal Church. Whilein a Liberian prison for having raised a British flag, he had a vision of theArchangel Gabriel who told him that God was coming to anoint him. Hebelieved that the Holy Spirit descended on him. When he was releasedfrom prison, probably early in 1912, he discarded his European clothingand adopted a long white robe. He carried a Bible, cross, gourd rattle, andbowl for baptism. From time to time, he would destroy the cross and takeanother so people did not worship it. Harris proclaimed himself to be thelast of God’s prophets. He began preaching in Liberia but did not meetwith much success. He later crossed into Cote d’Ivorie where he enjoyedhuge success. He denounced the old gods and encouraged communities todestroy their ‘idols’ and other material relics of their indigenous religions.



But while condemning the old gods, he did not dismiss the supernaturalworld of Africans or their religious anxieties concerning witchcraft, evilspirits, and healing. He simply shifted the explanation; he explained thatevil and witchcraft derived from Satan while the Spirit gave the power toheal. Harris offered immediate baptism, healed people, and cast out evilspirits by beating converts on the head with his Bible. He tolerated butdid not encourage polygamy.

It is thought that Harris baptized 100,000–120,000 in just one year.After several decades in the region, the Catholic Church had been successfulin gaining just several hundred converts. In an incredibly short time, thedevotees of Harris far eclipsed the number of Catholics. Harris himselfwas expelled from Cote d’Ivorie in 1914 as his influence worried Frenchofficials.

Harris told his converts to seek the teachers with Bibles. Catholicmissions, the only ones in Cote d’Ivorie at the time, were overwhelmedwith interested parishioners. Some of his other followers began to joinProtestant churches when Protestants were admitted into Cote d’Ivorie in1924. Followers felt the Protestant emphasis on the Bible was fulfilling theinstructions of Harris. Still other followers founded their own churchesbased on the principles of Harris, which were eventually consolidated intothe Église Harriste (Harrist Church). In time several off-shoots of the ÉgliseHarriste were established including the Church of the Twelve Apostlesfounded by Grace Thannie, and the Deima Church founded by MarieLalou. Upon his return to Liberia in 1914, Harris continued to preach inLiberia until his death in 1929. Though he gained some converts, henever again enjoyed the same success he had in Cote d’Ivorie in 1913–14.

Though prophetic, the theologies of both Braide and Harris were notthat divergent from Euro-Christianity. The theology of Samuel BilehouJoseph Oshoffa, on the other hand, was quite distinct from that of WesternChristianity. The differences in his theology were prophetically inspired.Oshoffa was born to Yoruba parents in Benin in 1909. He was raisedMethodist and later served as an apprentice carpenter with a Methodistmissionary. In adulthood Oshoffa worked as both a carpenter and woodtrader. On May 23, 1947, while out gathering ebony, Oshoffa receivedhis first of many visions. These visions were often accompanied by a voicethat said ‘Grace to God’. Oshoffa claimed to have spent forty days andnights in the forest during which time he underwent almost constantprophetic revelation. In September of 1947, Oshoffa claimed he was visitedby the Archangel Gabriel who told him that he was to serve as God’smessenger, and that God was bestowing gifts of healing upon him so therecould be no doubt about his mission and power. Oshoffa’s followersbelieved that he resurrected his nephew from the dead; this event madehim famous throughout Benin and Nigeria. He traveled throughout bothcolonies, preaching and performing miracles, largely among the Yoruba.In time, Oshoffa believed he received a prophecy where Christ told him



to form his own church. He insisted that he did not invent the church,but simply revealed it; the church had already existed with Christ. Thename of the church, Celestial Church of Christ (hereafter CCC), was alsoprophetically inspired. A church member who was in trance for seven dayswas told this was to be the name of the church.

The theology of the CCC possessed a significant emphasis upon prayerand faith healing. The church additionally had a large list of prohibitionsthat are not common to other Christian churches. The CCC insisted thatthese prohibitions have been revealed by prophecy and are to be followedto encourage the cleanliness of both one’s heart and soul. Members of theCCC are forbidden to practice any form of idolatry; black magic; charms;commit adultery of fornication; drink alcohol; smoke cigarettes; eat porkor any crawling animals; wear shoes on church grounds; or wear black or redapparel. Likewise, during services men and women had to sit on separatesides of the church, only white candles may be used, and only men canlead the services. The CCC was officially recognized by Nigeria in 1958and it has grown into one of the largest Afro-Christian churches in WestAfrica. The church has become part of the modern African diaspora; aspeoples from Benin and Nigeria emigrate, they bring such Africanchurches with them. The CCC now has members in the United States,Great Britain, and France, as well as Nigeria and Benin. These propheticchurches of West Africa are undeniably Christian. However, the interestmany such movements have in witchcraft, ecstatic experiences, ancestors,and exuberant forms of worship often draw upon indigenous precedents.

Conclusion

As these examples illustrate, prophecy is a common feature of religions.The belief within African indigenous religion that the supernatural worldregularly impacted and intersected with the ordinary world caused prophecyto be a regular and normal feature of religious activity. The theology ofIslam dampened prophecy, but has never prevented the formation of pro-phetic movements in any part of the Islamic world. Prophecy is also acommon feature of Christianity in West Africa, both within the churchesbrought by Europeans as well as within those Christian theologies bornin Africa. In the case of both Islam and Christianity, traces of indigenousreligions can often be found in their prophetic movements. West Africanhistory has been profoundly shaped by prophecy. There is little doubt thatnew prophetic movements will continue to form in Afro-Islam and Afro-Christianity, with much greater frequency in the latter.

Disclaimer

There are instances where we have been unable to trace or contact thecopyright holder for the images published in this article. However, we



understand that the maps included in this article are in the public domain.If notified, the publisher will be pleased to rectify any errors or omissionsat the earliest opportunity.

Acknowledgement

Acknowledgement is made to the following source for the images con-tained in this work: The University of Texas Libraries, The University ofTexas at Austin for Figures 1 and 2.

Short Biography

Joel E. Tishken is associate professor of history and African studies atColumbus State University in Columbus, Georgia. His fields of specialtyinclude Southern and Central Africa, Liberia, prophetic Christianity, andthe theory and pedagogy of religion. He has two manuscripts forthcomingon Afro-Christian prophetic movements and the Yoruba deity Sango. DrTishken has begun preliminary research on a project investigating the roleof Christianity in the foundation of Liberia.

Fig. 1. ‘Map of Hausaland showing Captain Lugard’s and Rev. C. H. Robinson’s Routes’, Scot-tish Geographical Magazine, eds. James Geikie and W. A. Taylor, vol. 12 (Royal ScottishGeographical Society, 1896). Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University ofTexas at Austin. Available at: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/hausaland_1896.jpg.

http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/hausaland_1896.jpg



Notes

* Correspondence address: Department of History, Columbus State University, 4225 UniversityAve, Columbus, GA 31907, USA. Email: [email protected] See Joel E. Tishken, Prophets, Prophecy, and Power: A Comparative Analysis of the Nazareth BaptistChurch and Église Kimbanguiste (forthcoming). My definition of a prophet/prophecy draws onthose from Michael Adas, Prophets of Rebellion: Millenarian Protest Movements against the ColonialOrder (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), xx; Douglas H. Johnson, Nuer Prophets:A History of Prophecy from the Upper Nile in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1997), 64; David M. Anderson and Douglas H. Johnson, ‘Revealing Prophets’,

Fig. 2. ‘Islam in Africa’ (1987). Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University ofTexas at Austin. Available at: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/africa_islam_87.jpg.

http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/africa_islam_87.jpg



in Anderson and Johnson (eds.), Revealing Prophets: Prophecy in Eastern African History (London:James Currey; Nairobi: EAEP; Kampala: Fountain Publishers; Athens, OH: Ohio UniversityPress, 1995), 14, 17, 18; Karin L. King, ‘Prophetic Power and Women’s Authority: The Caseof the Gospel of Mary (Magdalene), in Women Preachers and Prophets through Two Millennia ofChristianity, edited by Beverly Mayne Kienzle and Pamela J. Walker (Berkeley, CA: Universityof California Press, 1998), 21–41; Nathaniel I. Ndiokwere, Prophecy and Revolution: The Role ofProphets in the African Independent Churches and in Biblical Tradition (London: SPCK, 1981), 77;Janet Hodgson, ‘A Study of the Xhosa Prophet Nxele’, Religion in Southern Africa, 6/2 (July 1985):20–1; Max Weber, Max Weber: The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, trans. A. M.Henderson and T. Parsons, ed. and intro. T. Parsons (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1947), 358–9;Weber, Max Weber on Charisma and Institution Building, ed. and intro. S. N. Eisenstadt (Chicago,IL: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 253; Michael L. Mickler, ‘When the Prophet is YetLiving: A Case Study of the Unification Church’, in Timothy Miller (ed.), When Prophets Die:The Postcharimatic Fate of New Religious Movements (Albany, NY: State University of New YorkPress, 1991), 188.2 Anderson and Johnson, ‘Revealing Prophets’, 2.3 David M. Anderson and Douglas M. Johnson, ‘Diviners, Seers and Spirits in Eastern Africa:Toward an Historical Anthropology’, Africa, 61/3 (1991): 294.4 Joel E. Tishken, ‘Ethnic vs. Evangelical Religions: Beyond Teaching the World ReligionsApproach’, The History Teacher, 33/3 (May 2000): 313, 316; Tishken, ‘Lies Teachers Teachabout World Religious History’, World History Bulletin, 23/1 (Spring 2007): 14–18.5 The term occult has negative connotations in our society as it is typically associated with blackmagic and diabolism. However, occult simply means that something is secret and beyond accessthrough empirical means; some sort of supernatural access is required. 6 Victor C. Uchendu, The Igbo of Southeast Nigeria (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, andWinston, 1965), 100–1.7 Robert M. Baum, Shrines of the Slave Trade: Diola Religion and Society in Precolonial Senegambia(New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1999), 39.8 Willy DeCraemer, Jan Vansina, and Renee C. Fox, ‘Religious Movements in Central Africa:A Theoretical Study’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 18/4 (Oct. 1976): 465–7.9 Qur’an 33:40 Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but (he is) the Apostle ofGod, and the Seal of the Prophets: and God has full knowledge of all things. 10 Peter Clarke, Mahdism in West Africa: The Ijebu Mahdiyya Movement (London: Luzac Oriental,1995), 138.11 Princes shall come out of Egypt; Ethiopia shall soon stretch out her hands unto God (Psalm68:31 KJV).

Bibliography

Adas, M., Prophets of Rebellion: Millenarian Protest Movements against the Colonial Orderl(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).

Anderson, D. M., and Johnson, D. H. (eds.), Revealing Prophets: Prophecy in Eastern AfricanHistory (London: James Currey; Nairobi: EAEP; Kampala: Fountain Publishers; Athens, OH:Ohio University Press, 1995).

Anderson, D. M. and D. M. Johnson, ‘Diviners, Seers and Spirits in Eastern Africa: Toward anHistorical Anthropology’, Africa, 61/3 (1991).

Baum, R. M., Shrines of the Slave Trade: Diola Religion and Society in Precolonial Senegambia(New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1999).

Clarke, P., Mahdism in West Africa: The Ijebu Mahdiyya Movement (London: LUZAC Oriental,1995).

DeCraemer, W., Vansina, J., and Fox, R. C., ‘Religious Movements in Central Africa: ATheoretical Study’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 18/4 (Oct. 1976): 458–75.

Hodgson, J., ‘A Study of the Xhosa Prophet Nxele’, Religion in Southern Africa, 6:2 (July 1985):11–36.

Hodgson, J., ‘A Study of the Xhosa Prophet Nxele’, Religion in Southern Africa, 7:1 ( January1986): 3–23.



Johnson, D. H., Nuer Prophets: A History of Prophecy from the Upper Nile in the Nineteenth andTwentieth Centuries (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987).

Tishken, J. E., Prophets, Prophecy, and Power: A Comparative Analysis of the Nazareth Baptist Churchand Église Kimbanguiste (forthcoming).

Tishken, J. E., ‘Ethnic vs. Evangelical Religions: Beyond Teaching the World ReligionsApproach’, The History Teacher 33/3 (May 2000): 303–20.

Tishken, J. E., ‘Lies Teachers Teach about World Religious History’, World History Bulletin, 23/1 (Spring 2007): 14–18.

Uchendu, V. C., The Igbo of Southeast Nigeria (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,1965).

Weber, M., Max Weber: The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Translated by A. M.Henderson and T. Parsons. Edited by T. Parsons (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1947).

Weber, M., Max Weber on Charisma and Institution Building. Edited with an introduction by S.N. Eisenstadt (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1968).

further reading

Adogame, A. U., Celestial Church of Christ: The Politics of Cultural Identity in a West AfricanProphetic-Charismatic Movement (Bern: Peter Lang Publishing, 1999).

Epega, A. A., and Neimark, P. J. (trans. and comps.), The Sacred Ifa Oracle: The First EnglishTranslation of the Complete Sacred Texts of Ifa (San Francisco, CA: Harper Collins, 1995).

Hiskett, M., Sword of Truth: Usuman dan Fodio (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973).Peek, P. M. (ed.), African Divination Systems: Ways of Knowing (Bloomington, IN: Indiana

University Press, 1991).Sanneh, L., West African Christianity (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1990 [1983]).Shank, D. A., Prophet Harris, the ‘Black Elijah’ of West Africa (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994).

the history of prophecy in west africa: indigenous, islamic, and christian

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