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The Himalayas of India: A treasury of medicinal plantsunder siegeHemant K. Badola a & Stephen Aitken ba Conservation of Biodiversity G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment andDevelopment, Mohal-Kullu, H.P., India, 175 126 E-mail:b Tropical Conservancy, 94 Four Seasons Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K2E 7S1 E-mail:Version of record first published: 12 Dec 2011.

To cite this article: Hemant K. Badola & Stephen Aitken (2003): The Himalayas of India: A treasury of medicinal plants undersiege, Biodiversity, 4:3, 3-13

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3B I O D I V E R S I T Y 4 ( 3 ) 2 0 0 3

The Himalayas of India:A treasury of medicinal plants under siege

T R O P I C A L C O N S E R V A N C YA R T I C L E S

Hemant K. Badola

Scientist-Conservation of BiodiversityG.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment andDevelopment,Mohal-Kullu, H.P. India 175 126Email: hkbadola@rediffmail.com,badolahk@gbpiku.nic.in

Stephen Aitken

International CoordinatorTropical Conservancy,94 Four Seasons DriveOttawa, Ontario, Canada K2E 7S1Email: aitken@tc-biodiversity.org

Abstract. Wild plant raw material is in great demandaround the world for use by pharmaceutical companies,ethnomedicinal practitioners, and a variety of traditionalmedicines. India is one of the world’s major exporters ofraw herbal drugs and the Himalayas are renowned fortheir vast storehouse of medicinal plants. The domesticand international demand is met mainly throughunsustainable in-situ harvesting which has become amajor threat to the survival of many Himalayan plantspecies. Additional conservation initiatives are urgentlyrequired as well as more research on the cultivation ofwild Himalayan taxa. This study reviews the biodiversityof the Indian Himalayan region as a whole, the specificeffects of climate, geography and anthropogenic activitieson the endangered and threatened species, with particularreference to the Himachal Region. An assessment hasbeen given of the highlights and shortcomings of currentconservation initiatives.

INTRODUCTIONIt is estimated that close to 15 % of the approximately70,000 known plant species have medicinal propertieswhich means that over 10,000 plant species are usedin medicine at one time or another (Chevallier 1996).Over 5700 plant-based traditional medicines are listedin the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. On average, 50 % ofthe plant species of any ecosystem in India are usedby various communities in ethnomedicine. The tribalpeople use over 7500 plant species in primary healthcare and over 2000 species are also used in the Indiantraditional system of medicine. India possesses vastcu l tu ra l and geographica l d ivers i ty and thecommunities of each region offer their own uniqueway of practising indigenous medicine. There are over460,000 medicinal practitioners in India, including

30,456 institutionally trained “professionals” (Bajajand Williams 1995).

A large quantity of raw, wild plant material is used bypharmaceutical companies all over the world and there hasbeen an unprecedented global increase in the use of herbalmedicine since 1980. Consequently, many plants havecome under close scrutiny for the presence of activemedicinal components (Aryal 1993). In recent years, Indiahas been ranked as the second largest volume exporter ofraw herbal drugs, following the lead of China (Lange1997). The demand for medicinal plants, whether for thedomestic sector or for international export, is met mainlythrough in-situ harvesting . This has resulted inoverharvesting, one of the biggest threats to the importantmedicinal plant species in the Himalayas. Conservationinitiatives to remedy this situation are urgently requiredas there is still a paucity of research to show the potentialof the natural Himalayan habitats in terms of medicinalplant production. More information is required on thebiology, adaptation mechanisms, and habitat ecology ofthe majority of threatened trade taxa as well as field-baseddemonstrative agro-technology for the various agro-climatic zones in the Himalaya.

Various studies indicate that the availabil i ty ofinformation on medicinal plants of the Himalayan Regionis meagre and mainly restricted to inventory. Dhar et al.(2000) noted that 50% of the contributions focussed ondistribution and availability, 16.3% on status (21% onpopulation studies, 79% general), 24.4% on cultivationand propagation, 4.7% on extraction and trade and 4.7%on conservation. This lack of information hinders

ABOUT THE AUTHORSHemant K. Badolahas been conductingbiodiversityconservation researchon Himalayan sensitiveand protected areas forover 20 years. Hiswork on species/habitatdiversity; the use,trade, and cultivationof threatened medicinalplants; tree biology;morpho-anatomy, eco-physiology; andphenology has beenpublished extensively.Dr. Badola convenedan internationalworkshop,“Endangered medicinalplants in HimachalPradesh,” in Mohal-Kullu, India, in March2002.Stephen Aitken is abiologist, writer andillustrator. In additionto his position asManaging Editor ofBiodiversity andInternationalCoordinator of TropicalConservancy, hisbooks, articles andpoems have beenpublished in Canada,Switzerland, Norway,the United States andBritain.

Figure 1.Map of India andstates

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researchers andnatural resourcemanagers in makingadequate judgementsof the quantitativeharvesting of medi-cinal plants from thewild. Location-specific data cove-ring different clima-tic and geographicalregions of the Hima-laya is vital to pin-point the relativethreats to naturalpopulations of taxa,particularly thosec o n s i d e r e dthreatened (Badolaand Pal 2002, 2003).

This paper investi-gates the status of

medicinal plant biodiversity, particularly the threatenedspecies of the Indian Himalayan Region with specialreference to the state of Himachal Pradesh. It discussesthe specific effects of climate, geography and humanactivity on medicinal plants. Furthermore, it highlightsthe success and constraints of the various conservationinitiatives.

TARGET AREAThe Himalayas are among the youngest and most unstablemountain ranges in the world. They isolate the Indiansubcontinent securely from the rest of Eurasia. Thesummer monsoon determines the pattern of rainfall,which amounts to more than 2500 mm annually on theouter ranges (Singh and Singh 1987), with the amountdecreasing from east to west. These mountains separatethe monsoon climate of south Asia from the dry and coldclimate of central Asia.

The 2400 km long and 300 to 400 km wide Indian HimalayanRegion (IHR) comprises five major biogeographical zones

(see Fig. 3). The IHR has an altitudinal range of 300 to8000 m and the recorded forest cover varies from 9.08%(Jammu & Kashmir) to 67% (Uttaranchal).The primary region of concern for this article, HimachalPradesh (HP) in the northwest Himalayas has an area of55,673 km2 and covers 1.69 % of the country, 9.42 % of theIHR. HP has an international border at its northern andnorth-eastern extremities. In the west it meets with the plainsof Punjab, in the south with Haryana, with Uttaranchal onthe southeast, and with the mountains of Jammu & Kashmir(J&K) to the north. HP offers a range of climates and foresttypes from subtropical to alpine. The average rainfall variesconsiderably from 1800 mm in the mid-hills to less than200 mm in the cold dry zone. Over 34% of its geographicalarea rises above 4000 m. The entire state is divided intotwelve administrative districts.

Indian Remote Sensing data (IRS 1C/1D WiFS) recentlyassessed the forest cover of HP as 17.15% of the statearea (Joshi et al. 2001). These forests can be describedas temperate conifer, mixed (Himalaya moist and drytemperate), sub-alpine, subtropical (subtropical moistdeciduous, swamp and subtropical pine) and broad-leaved(tropical dry deciduous and subtropical dry evergreen).The majority of the population in the state earns itslivelihood through agriculture and horticulture with majorcrops including wheat, maize, and rice as well assubsidiary crops of gram, buckwheat, lentils, sorghum,and potatoes. Apples have become an important cash cropin the last couple of decades.

HIMALAYAN FOREST BIODIVERSITY:A BRIEF OVERVIEWFlora: The Himalayas are rich in biodiversity due to thevariety of habitats available. This is evidenced by thepresence of 21 vegetation types, 10 forest types and 11forest formations, as reviewed by Dhar (2002). Broadlyspeaking, the Himalayan mountains, encompassingAfghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, northMyanmar and southwest China have about 70%endemism. India as a whole possesses a rich floristicdiversity (17,000 species of flowering plants) with 33.5%endemism (Nayar 1996). Out of the total number ofendemics reported for India, about 46% are found in theIndian Himalaya. About 3471 endemic species offlowering plants are reported in the Himalaya. Singh andHajra (1996) reviewed the availability of about 8000species of angiosperms (40% endemic), 44 species ofgymnosperms (15.91% endemic), 600 species ofpteriodophytes (ferns) (25% endemic), 1737 species ofBryophytes (32.53% endemic), 1159 species of lichens(11.22% endemic) and 6900 species of fungi (27.39%endemic). Berberidaceae, Saxifragaceae, Ranunculaceae,Rosaceae and Umbelliferae are some of the leadingHimalayan families with a high degree of endemism, i.e.98.7%, 92.3%, 72.7%, 70.4% and 68.8%, respectively.Of a total of 111 monotypic genera, 68 are confined to

Figure 2.A characteristic high

altitude conifer forestof Himachal Pradesh.

(All photographs inthis article copyright of

Dr. Hemant Badola).

Figure 3.The biogeographical

zones of the IndianHimalayan Region

(based on: Dhar andSamant 1993).

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the Himalayas, in most cases the Himalayan endemicplant diversity is greater than that of the adjacentmountain regions (Dhar 2002).

The north western (mainly HP) and western Himalayasexhibit dense tropical forests in the warm, lowland Bhabharand Siwalik hills, deciduous mixed forests in the middlemountains, and scattered arctic-type and alpine vegetationat higher altitudes (see Figure3). The Lesser Himalaya(lower altitudes) supports luxuriant trees of Pinusroxburghii and Alnus nitida on the slopes devoid of goodsoil while the moist rich slopes are occupied by Alnusnepalensis, Quercus leucotrichophora, Rhododendronarboreum, etc. The forests of Q. semecarpifolia, Q.floribunda, and Pinus wallichiana are characteristic of thehigher altitude zones of the Lesser Himalaya. The dominantspecies Abies sp., Betula utilis, R. campanulatum, andJuniperus communis represent the forests of the GreatHimalayan range. The higher altitudes beyond the tree line(above 3600 m) provide a rich assemblage of herbs in thealpine meadows and grasslands (Figure 2). The variousspecies of herbs of the genera Aconitum, Arnebia,Picrorhiza, Rheum, and Meconopsis and the scrubsRhododendron anthopogon and R. lepidotum are some ofthe important plants of these heights. In Uttaranchal, Sal(Shorea robusta) and Oak (Quercus spp.) forests formclimax communities, representing warmer and coolerclimates, respectively, along 300-2500 m transects (Singhand Singh 1987). However, old-growth climax forests arebeing replaced by even-aged successional Pinus roxburghiiforests. This is further reflected by the low availability ofS. robusta and Quercus spp. seedlings over most areas.

The Eastern Himalayan ranges are known for their highnumber of endemic taxa (1808 vs 1195 in the westernsector). The large canopy broad leaf forests growing inthe eastern sub-montane belts (<1000 m) are comparableto typical tropical rain forests.

Shorea sp. is the dominant component of tropical lowaltitude deciduous forests (below 800 m). The sub-tropicalzone (800-1800 m) is dominated by Schima-Castanopsisand Pinus sp. forests in association with Alnus nepalensisand Rhus javanica. The higher ranges (1800-3000 m)provide broad-leaved forest combinations of Quercus-Mechelia-Acer, Rhododendron-Quercus-Magnolia andTsuga dumosa-Quercus sp. Between 2800 and 4000 mthere are good forests of temperate and sub-alpineconifers, predominantly Fir (Abies), Pine (Pinus), and Yew(Taxus) in the lower belts and Fir, Juniper (Juniperus),Larch (Larix), Spruce, (Picea) and Hemlock (Tsuga) inthe higher belts. There is a dominance of Abies densaforests found at 3000-4000 m. On slightly higher slopesat 4000-5500 m there are patches of Rhododendronanthopogon and Delphinium sp. grows abundantly. It isinteresting to note that tree ferns are mostly reported fromthe eastern Himalayan region (where epiphytes are alsofound in abundance) that become rarer towards the north

western Himalaya.

Fauna: Protected areas of the Himalayan ranges havebeen marked out either as biosphere reserves, nationalparks, or wildlife sanctuaries. Most of these areas earnedtheir protected status decades ago primarily due to theirpotential for game-hunting. Gradually, with the adventof modern conservation management, the focus hasswitched to wildlife conservation. For the past severalyears medicinal plants, as well as fauna and habitatconservation, have become vital components in protectedarea management planning.

Mammals and pheasants have been given major attentionin conservation management. The Manas BiosphereReserve (MBR) alone harbours 59 mammal species. TheGreat Himalayan National Park (GHNP) and KanawarWildlife Sanctuary (KWLS) in HP harbour largemammals, including carnivores (eg. Black Bears &Leopards), small mammals (eg.Yellow-ThroatedMarten), ungulates (Musk Deer, Himalayan Thar andGoral), primates (Rhesus and Langur), and large rodentssuch as the giant Indian Flying Squirrel. Many of theprotected areas are known for their key taxa such as thegreat Indian One-Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinocerosunicornis) in the Manas and Bibru Saikhowa Biosphere

Figure 4 (top).A tree-line meadow ofWest Himalayashowing Rhododendroncampanulatum patchesalong the gullies (to theleft).

Figure 5 (bottom).An alpine pasture(altitude ~4000 m) ofNorth West Himalaya.

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Reserves in Assam, the SnowLeopard (Panthera uncia) inGHNP and Nanda Devi Bio-sphere Reserve (Uttaranchal),and the Himalayan Thar(Hemitragus jemlahicus) inGHNP and KWLS. Severalmammals are listed in CITESand/or Schedule I of the IndianWildlife Protection Act (1972),such as the Himalayan Black

Bear (Selenarctos tibethanus), Brown Bear (Ursus arctos),Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus), and the Red Panda(Ailurus fulgens). The Western Tragopan (Tragopanmelanocephalus), known locally as “Jijurana”, accordingto popular folk-lore contains the entire spectrum of colourson earth. This endangered pheasant has a marked presencein the GHNP of HP. Similarly, the state bird of HP, theMonal Pheasant (Lophophorus impejanus) (Figure 13) withits beautifully coloured male is found widely in GHNPand KWLS (Badola 1998). Its plumage is used by villagersto decorate caps, worn particularly during religiousceremonies in the Kullu valley of Himachal. Endangeredreptiles include the common Indian monitor (Varanusbengalensis) and the Indian Rock Python (Python molurus).

MEDICINAL PLANT BIODIVERSITYThe treasury of diverse medicinal plants available in theHimalayas has been recorded in ancient Indian scriptsas far back as 1000 BC. In the IHR, there are over 1748plant species; (1685 – angiosperms, 12 – gymnospermsand 51 – pteridophytes), including 1020 herbs, 335 shrubsand 330 trees of medicinal value (Samant et al., 1998).

A high nativity of 31%, endemism of 15.5% andthreatened status (14% of total Red Data plant speciesof IHR) manifest the region’s unique and sensitivemedicinal plant diversity. Out of the above 1748medicinal plants, about 548 species are identified in HP(though estimates range as high as 1000 to 1200 species),compared with 707 in Sikkim and Darjeeling and 701 inthe Uttaranchal states (Figure 7). The number of species,in proportion to geographical area of the state, is highestfor Sikkim & Darjeeling at 0.0996, while in HP it is0.0098. The number of medicinal plant species per km2

of forestland coverage is also highest for Sikkim andDarjeeling at 0.267 and fourth in H.P. at 0.0155 (see Chart1). Nayar (1996) has listed 6 species out of 78 endemicsin Meghalaya State, 8 out of 74 endemics in Manipur-Nagaland and 7 out of 114 endemics in Arunachal Pradesh(in north-east states); 51 (of 569 endemics) in Sikkim(including Darjeeling Himalaya), 16 of 116 endemics inUttaranchal, 4 of 15 endemics in Himachal Pradesh and11 of approximately 314 endemics in Jammu & Kashmir.

The literature cites over 45 medicinal plant taxa recordedthroughout the IHR. These include; Acorus calamus(Bach), Artemisia nilagarica, Bergenia ciliata (see Figure6) (Pashanbhed; near endemic), Cannabis sativa (Bhang),Celastrus paniculatus (Mal-kangani), Centella asistica(Brahmi), Chenopodium album (Bethu), Cinnamomumtamala (Tejpatra; near endemic), Dactylorhiza hatagirea(Panja; near endemic), Dioscorea bulbifera (Barahi),Gloriosa superba (Kalihari) , Hedychium spicatum(Banhaldi or Kapurkachri; near endemic), Juglans regia(Walnut; near endemic) , Litsea glutinosa, Papaversomniferum (Post), Picrorhiza kurrooa (Karu), Rumexnepalensis, Solanum nigrum (Makoi) , Taraxacumofficinale (Dudhi), Urtica dioica (Stinging nettle) andZanthoxylum armatum (Timru). An analysis of 360medicinal plant species of HP showed 18% trees, 21%shrubs, 55% herbs, and 6% others (climbers, a fernand a mushroom) (Badola 2001). This coincides withthe Indian Himalaya as a whole, with a breakdown of19% trees, 19% shrubs, 58% herb species and theremainder Pteridophytes (ferns).

Protected areas such as national parks and biospherereserves are an in-situ opportunity to conserverepresentative ecosystems and to focus on the sustainablemanagement of threatened species. The availability of327 important medicinal plants of Himachal Himalaya hasbeen reviewed for 3 unique high altitude areas; the GreatHimalayan National Park (GHNP) (192 species), Lahaul-Spiti (L-S) a suggested site for Biosphere Cold-desert(213 species), and Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (NDBR)(95 species) in Uttaranchal Himalaya. There are 39 speciescommon to all 3 areas with the 2000-3000 m altitudinalzone offering suitable habitat to about 56% of the species.A similar trend is also seen for the herb, shrub and treespecies (Figure 8) . Some representative species of this

Figure 7.Medicinal plant species

diversity and its ratiowith forest cover for

different geographicalregions of the

Indian Himalaya.

Figure 6.A Monal Pheasant

showing offits crown feathers.

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zone are; Aconitum heterophyllum (Patish or Aconite),Angelica glauca (Chora), Berberis aristata (Kashmal),Gentiana kurrooa (Kadu), Hedychium spicatum,Heracleum candicans (Patrala), Podophyllum hexandrum(Himalayan Mayapple, Bankakri), and Valeriana jatamansi(Nihanu or Mushakbala). Only about 4 % of the species,

such as Delphinium brunonianum (Laskar), Lapidiumcapitatum, Ranunculus hyrtellus (Sarsaupatal), andSaussurea bracteata are adapted to altitudes beyond 5000m.

EFFECTS OF GEOGRAPHY, HABITAT AND CLIMATEThe distribution and growth of medicinal plants are

Figure 8.Distribution ofmedicinal plants,common among GreatHimalayan NationalPark (GHNP) (speciesbased on Singh andRawat 2000), H.P.;Nanda Devi BiosphereReserve (NDBR)(species based on Joshiet al. 1999), UA; andCold Desert H.P.(species based on,Aswal and Mehrotra1994), alongaltitudinal zones.

Figure 9.Distribution ofthreatened medicinalplant species ofHimachal Pradesh.

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Centella asiatica, Dioscorea deltoidea, G. superba, Hedychium spicatum, Rauwolfia serpentina, Tinospora cordifoliea, W. fruticosa

Acorus calamus, Atropa acuminata, Berberis aristata, B. lycium, Colchicum luteum, Delphinium denudatum, Dioscorea deltoidea, G. kurroo, Gloriosa suberba, H. spicatum, H. candicans, Valeriana jatamansi, Woodfordia fruticosa

Aconitum heterophyllum, A. violaceum, Arnebia benthamii , Jurinea dolomiaea, Nardostachys jatamansi

Aconitum ferox, A. heterophyllum, Arnebia benthamii, Berberis aristata, B. lycium,Codonopsis affinis, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Heracleum candicans, Jurinea dolomiaea, Meconopsis aculeata, Moringa longifolia, Nardostachys jatamansi, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Podophyllum hexandrum, Swertia chirata, Taxus baccata, Valeriana jatamansi

Aconitum ferox, Angelica glauca, Atropa acuminata, Berberis aristata, Betula utilis, Codonopsis affinis, Delphinium denudatum, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Gentiana kurroo, Hedychium spicatum, Heracleum candicans, Jurinea dolomiaea, M. aculeata, P. hexandrum, T. baccata, V. jatamansi

Picrorhiza kurrooa, Rhododendron campanulatum, Saussurea bracteata, S. obvellata, S. gossypiphora

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2000 m (305 species) and 2500-3000 m(297 spec ies ) range a re the r i ches treservoirs (Badola 2001) (Figure 9).

A declining trend above 5000 m reflects thesnowy, severe climatic conditions and theshorter growing period of high altitudes.Most of the Himalayan trade taxa ofmedicinal value grow naturally in highaltitude zones; however, the severe climateof the higher altitudes affects the plantsreproductive methods, specifically the

flower and seed yields. To safeguard progeny highaltitude medicinal plants adopt various vegetative meansof multiplication. These means include: the belowground rhizomatous structures of medicinal forbs likeAngelica glauca, Arctium lappa (Burdock) ,Megacarpaea polyandra, Rheum (Rhubarb) , andSaussurea, the production of stolons, as in P. kurrooa,Gentiana sp . , and V. jatamansi, the formation ofseparate fragments of the genets through slowcentrifugal spread in herbaceous rosettes, and the roottubers of Aconites. The ramets are attached with stolonsand/or runners developed above or below ground andrhizome clusters later produce free individuals. Thesemechanisms need the support of undisturbed soilsurfaces and space to spread. The fragmentation ofhabitats has proven fatal to the natural regeneration ofspecies in numerous locations in the Himalayas.Excessive uprooting of the underground parts of A.glauca, A. heterophyllum, P. kurrooa, and P. hexandrumin the wild has eclipsed their life support systems andhas resulted in population loss in the Mari-Rohtangmountains of Manali-Kullu (HP) and in several locationsin upper Parvati valley, Kullu (HP). Knowledge of the

directly related to the specific climate and geography oftheir respective ecological niches. For the herbs, suchspecificity of the microhabitat often becomes the limitingfactor in their distribution, availability and population size.The more specific the climatic and habitat requirement,the more restricted becomes the species distribution,either along altitudinal or latitudinal lines. Widelydistributed taxa have relatively more resistance tochanging environmental conditions, while species ofnarrow distribution are highly susceptible to climatechange and habitat alteration. In most of the mountainecosystems, in order to withstand the local climaticconditions, endemic plants often occupy rocky cliffs anddrier habitats. Such affiliation is more common in alpinetaxa (Dhar 2002).

The climate of any ecosystem is not merely the resultof its latitude and longitude, but is also due to thealtitude which governs the micro-climate. In HP thealtitudinal range of 1000-3000 m provides the mostsuitable habitats for medicinal plants such as Centellaasiatica, Dioscorea deltoidea, Jurinea dolomiaea,Podophyl lum hexandrum, Taxus baccata , andValeriana jatamansi. To be more specific, the 1500-

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Figures 10-16.10, Allium humile in

flower; 11, Bergenia ciliata

flowering in its typicalrocky habitat;

12, Caltha palustris, acharacteristic plant of high

altitude meadows;blooming in moist rocky

terrain;13, A close-up of the

enchanting Geraniumwallichianum flower;

14, High-altitude Primularosea in bloom;

15, Heracleum candicansof HP,

16, An endangeredHimalayan Blue Poppy(Meconopsis aculeata).

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adaptive mechanisms of threatened medicinal plants isvery important for both in-situ and ex-situ conservationresearch programmes. This knowledge is crucial whenattempting a large scale cultivation programme to meetthe bulk demand of pharmaceutical companies, becausegrowing plants within their suitable agro-climaticenvironment not only helps in producing higher yieldsbut also high levels of active components.

Altitude, to some extent, may influence the quality andquantity of the active medicinal components in plants.Studies suggest that the concentration of these activecomponents is higher in some Himalayan plants growingnaturally in higher elevations, when compared to thoserepresenting low altitude populations, such as Aconite sp.(Bahuguna et al. 2000). Similarly in the HimalayanMayapple (P. hexandrum), known for its use in anticancerdrugs, a higher medicinal content is reported for plantsgrowing at higher altitudes (Purohit et al. 1999). However,some low elevation populations also had high levels of theactive components which would indicate that altitude aloneis not fully responsible for such variations. Naturalenvironments too have influence over the activeingredients’ availability in medicinal plants. A higherconcentration of the active ingredients, demmaranesaponins (or ginsenosides) has been clinically reported inwild Ginseng (Cottrell et al. 1996) when compared tocultivated varieties. In high altitude Himalayan Rhubarbs(Rheum emodi and R. nobile), active constituents decreasedmarginally when the plants were grown at lower altitudes(Prasad and Purohit 2001). In addition, seasons alsoinfluence the degree of availability of different activecontents in Himalayan medicinal plants (Bahuguna et al.2000. The understanding of climate dependent adaptivemechanisms is crucial to the development of the ex-situcultivation programme of medicinal plant conservationinitiatives (Badola and Pal 2002).

Phenotypic plasticity explains the adaptation advantageof specific characters to the immediate plantenvironment. The plant morphology of some high altitudemedicinal plants may show marked variations amongdifferent populations. For example, leaf polymorphismand variation in leaf number is commonly seen in P.hexandrum . Narrow and broad leaf variants of P.

kurrooa, a high altitude, endangered, and highly tradedmedicinal plant from Himalaya, show variations inactive ingredient levels, the broad leaf variety appearingto be the most beneficial medicinally (Nautiyal et al.2001). This species has recently been prioritized forimmediate action in the ex-situ cultivation conservationprogram of endangered medicinal plants in HP (Badolaand Pal 2003). In terms of habitat selection, the narrowleaf variant commonly grows in open pastures and alongsprings whereas the broad leaf variant is often found inhabitats under shrub and scrub canopies. Similarexperiences have been gained with a few HimalayanAconites. This indicates the importance ofmorphological and genetic traits in identifying superiorgermplasm in the pursuit of either in-situ or ex-situc o n s e r v a t i o n(Badola 2002).

ANTHROPOGENICINFLUENCESMost of the speciesextinctions beforethe start of the 20th

century took placeas a gradualprocess overhundreds and evenmil l ions of years .However , a rapidglobal loss of species dur ing the past century,par t icular ly over the las t f ive decades is anunprecedented phenomenon caused principally byextensive human interference in nature. The collectingof medicinal plants from nature for domestic use or intrade has been a common practice for centuries. ForHP, about 66% of these taxa are usedethnomedicinally and 50% have commercial value.To meet the increasing demand of pharmaceuticalcompanies in recent years , Himalayan medicinalplants have been harvested f rom the wild in anunsustainable manner. This has compounded the threatof populat ion destruct ion, consequent habi ta tfragmentation, and species endangerment. Nativevillagers in Himachal Pradesh are legally allowed toharvest medicinal herbs from the designated forestlands as a traditional right under state forest law. Oftenthis is an important source of village income throughmany parts of the Himalayas (see Figure 18). Due togrowing competition among collectors, it is commonpractice to conduct early in-situ harvesting often whenthe plants are at an immature reproductive stage. Thisresults in not only the insufficient collection of rawmaterial but also in larger habitat area destruction anda situation where the natural regeneration of the plantsis adversely affected. A population structure of speciesshould provide not only their natural relationship withhabitats but also indicate the trend of loss of individuals

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Figure 18.Rhododendronarboreum (Burans)flowers being sold bylocal children in HP

Figure 17.A tree-line pasture ofWest Himalaya underanthropogenicdegradation.

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in degraded areas due to anthropogenic factors, whencompared with re la t ively conserved s i tes . ForHimalayan medicinal plants, such studies are few andlocal ised (Air i et al . 2000, Uniyal et al . 2002);however, they remain a useful tool to indicate the trendin species conservation.

Species Endangerment and High Priority TaxaUnderstanding the nature of the threats to the survivalof species is necessary in developing managementstrategies for their conservation. For this purpose, theassessment of taxa using quantitative parameters,ranging from population structures to distribution dataare vitally necessary. The IUCN definition for anendangered taxon is “.. .when it is not ‘CriticallyEndangered’ but is facing a very high risk of extinctionin the wild in the near future”. All taxa l isted asCrit ically Endangered qualify for Vulnerable andEndangered, and all listed as Endangered qualify forVulnerable; whi le the term “threatened” is usedcumulatively for these categories (Hilton-Taylor 2000).

The principal reason for species endangerment inHimalayan medicinal plants is the human interventionin natural ecosystems, resulting in habitat destruction,as well as a host of other natural and biological factors.The use of wild plant resources and the subsequentecosystem al tera t ion of ten leads to habi ta tfragmentation. This results in species susceptible toslack habitat niches and a decline in genetic variability.Fragmented habitats are more fragile and have moredifficulty sustaining populations, (especially small andnarrowly distributed ones), and consequently this oftenleads to species endangerment . Habi ta t loss anddegradation have been identified as the major factors,threatening 91% of plant species globally. In the 2000IUCN red list, India is ranked sixth for having thehighest number of threatened plant species. In the RedData Book of Indian Plants (Botanical Survey of India(BSI)), out of a list of 620 threatened species, 550 areendemic in nature. However, 62 endemic and 209 nearendemic (geographical distribution extends to adjacentareas) medicinal plant species are noted for the IndianHimalaya (Samant et al . 1998) . The major i ty ofendemic taxa with small geographical distributions aredestined to be rare and prone to being threatened andconsequently in want of habitat conservation. The rarespecies are highly vulnerable to extinction, and thefuture loss of biological diversity may be delayed orreduced if we better understand the mechanisms thataccount for their rarity. For Indian Himalaya, someimportant threatened medicinal endemic plants include,Aconitum ferox (Sikkim Himalaya), A. deinorrhizum(Himalaya) , A. falconeri (H.P.) , Angelica glauca(Indian Himalaya), A. nubigena (Sikkim), Coptis teetaand Panax pseudo-ginseng (eastern Himalaya), P.kurrooa (Himalaya), and Podophyllum emodii var.

axillaris (Sikkim). Considerable depletion of these taxahas occurred mainly due to unsustainable exploitationfrom the wild for domestic and international trade. Arecent study (Badola and Pal 2003) assessed 133medicinal plants, (belonging to 59 families), of HPreferred to as rare , sensi t ive , threatened and/orendangered for the state and/or other parts of theHimalaya. A broad range of conservation threats werenoted. These 133 taxa include over 53% nativity toHimalayan region and 33.93 % endemism (IHR). Threefamilies (Apiaceae, Asteraceae and Rannunculaceae)are under the highest threat category for having tenthreatened high value medicinal plant taxa per family,e.g. Angelica glauca, Centella asiatica, Inula racemosa,Jurinea dolomiaea, and Saussurea costus. Table 1provides a list of some important medicinal plants,considered threatened for the Himalaya in general, orlocally for different regions of the Himalaya. Thisincludes endemic taxa of high conservation concernsuch as Aconitum ferox, Angelica glauca, Codonopsisaf f inis , I . racemosa and Saussurea bracteataparticularly due to their high altitude habitats. Sixtynine per cent of these total threatened taxa have asuitable habitat niche from 3000-4000 m (see Fig. 9).

More studies are required for assessing these Himalayanspecies for the exact nature of their endangerment,morpho-ecological behaviour, adaptive biology and thedevelopment of effective agro-technology. There maybe several factors responsible for the endangerment ofa species. Brown et al. (1984) defined 63 factors.Understanding the diversity of endangerment factorsindicates the complexity of the required conservationefforts . Unfortunately, to date, except for a fewattempts (Dhar et al . 2000) there are hardly anycomprehensive analyses available covering the entireHimalayan region under a matr ix, project ing thediversity of endangerment factors for medicinal plants.

Conservation InitiativesThe implementation of plant species conservationinvolves two broad approaches; ( i ) in-s i tu , theprotection of species within habitats where the protectedarea networks play a crucial role and (ii) ex-situ, theuse of botanical gardens, arboreta, and in-vitro methodsincluding high-tech cryopreservat ion. Ex-s i tucultivation of threatened plant taxa, particularly thosein high demand for trade, has been seen as a practicalstep, not only in-directly supporting in-situ conservation(by diverting attention from in-situ harvesting) but alsoin reaching a sustainable supply of raw material.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (USA), widely regardedas the strongest law ever devised for species preservation byany nation (see: Flather et al., 1994) can be used as a model forspecies by species conservation. In many countries the regulatorycontrols on the wild harvesting of endangered medicinal plantshave not proven effective due to numerous complications. In the

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Indian Himalaya, various state forest departments govern theregulation of extraction, marketing and export of medicinal herbsand maintain lists of plants for issuing appropriate licenses toharvesters and exporters. Several of these taxa iave beenmentioned in the negative list of export from India, viz., Aconitumheterophyllum (Aconite or Patish), Acorus calamus (Bach),Berberis sp., Dactylorhiza hatagirea (Panja), Dioscoreadeltoidea (Singli-mingli), Picrorhiza kurrooa (Karu),

Podophyllum hexandrum (Bankakri), Saussurea costus (Kuth)and Taxus baccata (Rikhar). It is important to note that there is avibrant trade network that openly ignores these regulations, anopen fact throughout the entire Himalaya. Trans-border illegalexports between Himalayan countries are known, including thoseof Nardostachys grandiflora and P. kurrooa from Nepal to India(Mulliken 2000). In India, there are over 75 national parks and 421

Table 1.PLANT NAME FAMILY HABITAT PART IN USE

TRADE

PREVENTIONENDEMIC STATUS TO RHI

xorefmutinocA *egnireSxellaW eaecalucnunaR epolsyssarg,seirebburhs,tseroF tnalP pxeN cimednE

mullyhporetehmutinocA xe.llaW*elyoR eaecalucnunaR epolsyssargpeets,seirebburhs,tseroF tooR pxeN cimedneraeN

sumalacsurocA .L eaecarA dnaletsaw-tew,enirevir,wodaemyhsraM emozihR pxeN -

acualgacilegnA *wegdE eaecaipA sgnirpsgnola,sepolsydahs,tseroF tooR - cimednE

iimahtnebaibenrA *enotsnhoj.M.I eaecanigaroB erutsap,epolsnepo,seirebburhseniplA tooR - cimedneraeN

atanimucaaportA .elyoR eaecanaloS dnaletsaw,tseroF toor,faeL - -

atatsirasirebreB CD eaecadirebreB epolsnepo,seirebburhS ,krab,metStoor,doow pxeN cimedneraeN

alamatmumomanniC ),maH-hcuB(*.seeN eaecaruaL tseroF krab,faeL - cimedneraeN

siniffasisponodoC *.hT&.f.kH eaecalunapmaC seirebburhS tooR - cimednE

aerigatahazihrolytcaD *ooS)noD( eaecadihcrO yhsram,epolsyssarg,epolsnepOwodaem )srebut(tooR pxeN cimedneraeN

anaidraregardehpE .fpatSxe.llaW eaecardehpE debrutsid,epolsykcoryrd,enireviRstatibah

,tiurf,mets,faeLtoor pxeN -

oorrukanaitneG *elyoR eaecanaitneG burcsnihtiwspag,seirebburhS tnalP pxeN cimedneraeN

abrepusasoirolG .L eaecailiL tseroF emozihR pxeN -

mutacipsmuihcydeH *htimS eaecarebigniZ ,ecalpydahs-tsiom,seirebburhs,tseroFkcornedalssom,serutsapnepoyssarg emozihR - cimedneraeN

asomecaralunI *.f.kooH eaecaretsA saeradetavitluC toor,rewolF - cimednE

aeaimolodaeniruJ *ssioB eaecaretsA erutsapenipla,epolsnepO tooR - cimedneraeN

ataelucasisponoceM *.elyoR eaecarevapaP ,sgolnettor,seciverckcor,epols-nepOerutsapenipla tooR - cimedneraeN

isnamatajsyhcatsodraN *.CD eaecanairelaV epolsnepoyssarg,epolsykcoR tooR IIC,pxeN -

aoorrukazihrorciP *htneB eaecairaluhporcS epolsykcor,epolsykcortsioM tooR IIC,pxeN -

murdnaxehmullyhpodoP *elyoR eaecadirebreB ,epolsykcortsiom,epolsnepo,tseroFkcornedal-ssom

toor,tiurF)emozihr( IIC,pxeN -

anitnepresaiflowuaR .zruKxe.htneB eaecanycopA tseroF tooR IIC,pxeN -

elartsuamuehR *noD.D eaecanogyloP erutsapenipla,epolsnepO emozihR pxeN cimedneraeN

nogopohtnanordnedodohR *noD.D eaecacirE epolsnepo,erutsapenipla,seirebburhS faeL pxeN cimedneraeN

mutalunapmacnordnedodohR .D*noD eaecacirE egnirftserof,seirebburhs,tseroF toor,rewolf,faeL pxeN cimedneraeN

ataetcarbaerussuaS *enceD eaecaretsA epolsnepO tnalP - cimednE

sutsocaerussuaS *.hcspiL)claF( eaecaretsA saeradetavitluc,serutsapykcoR tooR lIC,pxeN -

muilofiunetmunileS .B.Cxe.llaW*ekralC eaecaipA kcor,epolsnepoyssarg,epolsnepO

egnirftserof,seciverc tooR - cimedneraeN

atarihcaitrewS ).melFxe.bxoR(*.sraK eaecanaitneG secalptsiom,tseroF tnalP pxeN cimedneraeN

ataccabsuxaT .psbus.L anaihcillawregliP).ccuZ( eaecaxaT enivar,tserofdexiM krab,faeL IIC,pxeN -

isnamatajanairelaV *senoJ eaecanairelaV kcor,epolsykcortsiom,epolsnepOsaeradetavitluc,seciverc emozihR - -

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wildlife sanctuaries, representing over 4.2 % of thenation’s geographical area. These are targeted tosupport in-situ conservation of species, particularlythose with threatened status. In Himalaya, protectedarea networking is relatively moderate. Nayar (1996)listed 25 protected areas in north-east states, 5 inSikkim-Darjeeling, 9 in Uttaranchal and 19 in Jammu& Kashmir. Cur ren t ly, Himacha l Pradesh has 2national parks and 32 wildlife sanctuaries. In recentyears, management of several of these protected areashave identified medicinal plants as one of the topconservation priorities. Attempts have been made toimplement in-si tu as well as ex-si tu managementstrategies. Since a species needs specif ic habitatrequirements in order to survive, emphasis has beengiven to the protection of ecosystems, the maintenanceof viable populations, and the management of naturalhabitats. The priorit ization of threatened taxa forimmediate action as well as for long term planninghas a high bearing on the success of any managementplanning and conservation initiative. Various forumshave taken up the prioritization of taxa in recent years,however the results have been limited due to the widearray of geographical and local climatic conditions inHimalaya Research is required on many levels, fromthe collection of data on habitat based populations,reg iona l and loca l d i s t r ibu t ion pa t te rns , in - s i tuharvesting pressure and the conservation perceptionof the local people regarding the targeted taxa to assessthe endangered status. Thenecessity of attemptingmore assessments to p r io r i t i ze medic ina l p lan tspecies covering different agro-climatic zones in theHimalayan regions is indicated in recent studies andexperts’ group exercises (see; Dhar et al . , 2000;

Badola and Pal, 2002). Table 1 includes speciessuch as ; Aconi tum he terophyl lum (vu lnerab le ) ,Codonops is a f f in i s ( ra re ) , Dioscorea de l to idea(vu lnerab le ) , Inu la racemosa (vu lnerab le ) ,Nardostachys grandiflora (vulnerable) , Picrorhizakurrooa (vu lnerab le ) and Saussurea cos tus(endangered), which are included in the Red DataBook of Indian Plants . Recent ly, 14 endangeredHimalayan medicinal plants were assessed in anexper t ’s g roup exerc i se and pr io r i t i zed fo rconservation through ex-situ cultivation in four agro-climatic zones of HP (Badola and Pal, 2002). Figure19 i l lus t ra tes the ava i lab i l i ty o f some of theseprioritized taxa in different districts of the Himachalstate. This exercise ranked Nardostachys grandiflora(Jatamansi; listed in Indian Red Data; in Appendix IIof CITES) and Swertia chirata (Chirayita; sensitive,Dhar et al., 2000) as the top level endangered taxafor the i r r espec t ive agro-c l imat ic zones in HPDactylorhiza hatagirea (Panja), the second rankedtaxon for the cold-desert zone in the above exercise,was noted as critically endangered for HP, adoptingIUCN cr i t e r ia (Ved and Tandon , 1998) . In animmediate action for ex-situ cultivation, the expertsprioritized Picrorhiza kurrooa (Karu). As a signatoryto the Convention on Biodiversity, the Governmentof India is legislating to restrain the over-exploitationof endangered medicinal plants in the wild. RecentGovernment po l ic ies such as the much deba tedBiodiversity Bill, National Policy and MacrolevelAct ion S t ra tegy on Biodivers i ty (1999) and theNat iona l Agr icu l tu re Po l icy (1999) have beenencouraging. Recently a Bioresource Board alongwith a Medicinal Plant Board were established inthe Central Government. Very recently, differentstate governments in the Indian Himalaya have setup b io technology depar tments to dea l wi th theconservation and sustainable use of medicinal plantresources. Many organizations in Himalaya haverecently taken up medicinal plant conservation asone of the priorities on their agenda. These initiatives,though laudab le , wi l l be severe ly l imi ted i fcomprehensive and long term field studies are notconduc ted . A co l labora t ive , mul t ip le exper t i se ,scientific approach is required for these efforts to besuccessful. Limited and insufficient agro-technologyand field trials lead to confusion among farmers andfores t a rea managers . Be t te r synchron iza t ionbetween the scientific community and the naturalarea mangers i s v i ta l for e f fec t ive conservat ionac t ion in the wi ld . Fur thermore , the long- te rmconserva t ion miss ion fo r medic ina l p lan t s ,particularly threatened taxa in Himalaya, requiresthe par t ic ipa t ion of the na t ive communi ty for asuccessful, sustainable approach. There is an urgentneed for cooperation among national and international

Figure 19.Map of HimachalPradesh showing

district levelavailability of some top

threatened Himalayanmedicinal plant

species. (H.K. Badola& S. Aitken).

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organizat ions to create re l iable and real is t ical lyviable conservation initiatives for medicinal plantsin Himalaya (Badola and Pal 2002, Dhar et al. 2002).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe senior author is grateful to the Director of his institute forproviding the necessary facilities and encouragement. He isindebted to Dr. U. Dhar, Head of the Conservation of BiodiversityCore, for his motivation and consistent support to run theBiodiversity conservation programme in Himachal Pradesh.

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of availability and habitat preference of Jatamansi- a criticallyendangered medicinal plant of west Himalaya. Current Science79: 1467-1471.

Aswal, B.S. and Mehrotra, B.N. 1994. Flora of Lahaul-Spiti. B.Singh-M.P. Singh, Dehradun, India. 761 pp..

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Badola, H.K. , and Pokhriyal , A. 2001. Documentat ion onAgrotechniques and Post Harvest Processing of Medicinal Plantsof the Indian Himalayan Region. IUCN-HIMAL Project FinalReport (Himachal Pradesh) , GBPIHED, Mohal-Kullu.(unpublished).

Badola, H.K. 2002. Endangered medicinal plant species-prioritiesand action. Theme Paper, International Workshop, EndangeredMedicinal Plant Species in Himachal Pradesh, GBPIHED,Mohal-Kullu, India (18-19 March, 2002). Pp. 11.

Badola, H.K., and Pal, M. 2002. Endangered medicinal plant speciesin Himachal Pradesh. Current Science 83: 797-798.

Badola, H.K., and Pal, M. 2003. Threatened medicinal plants andtheir conservation in Himachal Himalaya. Indian Forester 129:55-68.

Bahuguna, R., Purohit, M.C., Rawat, M.S.M., and Purohit, A.N.2000. Qualitative and quantitative variations in alkaloids ofAconitum species from Garhwal Himalaya. Jour. Plant Biol.27(2): 179-183.

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Dhar, U., and Samant, S.S. 1993. Endemic plant diversity in IndianHimalaya I: Ranunculaceae and Paeoniaceae. Jour. Biogeography20: 659-668.

Dhar, U., Rawal, R.S. and Upreti, J. 2000. Setting priorities forconservation of medicinal plants-a case study in the IndianHimalaya. Biological Conservation 95: 57-65.

Dhar U., Majjkhola S., Joshi M., Bhatt A., Bisht A.K. and JoshiM.2002. Current status and future strategy for development ofmedicinal plants sector in Uttaranchal, India. Current Science 83:956-964.

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Nautiyal B.P., Prakash V., Chauhan R.S., Purohit H. andNautiyal M.C. 2001. Assessment of germinability, productivityand cost benefit analysis of Picrorhiza kurrooa cultivated at loweraltitudes. Current Science 81: 579-585.

Nayar, M.P. 1996. Hot Spots of Endemic Plants of India, Nepal andBhutan. Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute,Thiruvananthapuram, India, pp. 254.

Prasad, P., and Purohit, M.C. 2001. Altitude acclimatization andconcentration of active constituents and calorific value of twomedicinal plant species Rheum emodi and R. nobile (Rhubarb)in Sikkim Himalaya. Current Science 80: 734-736.

Purohit, M.C., Bahuguna, R., Maithani, U.C., Purohit, A.N. andRawat, M.S.M. 1999. Variations in podophylloresin andpodophyllotoxin contents in different populations of Podophyllumhexandrum. Current Science 77: 1078-1080.

Samant, S.S., Dhar U.and Palni L.M.S. 1998. Medicinal Plantsof Indian Himalaya: Diversity, Distribution Potential Values.HIMAVIKAS Publication No. 13, Gyanodaya Prakashan,Nainital. P. 163.

Singh, D.K. and Hajra, P.K. 1996. Floristic diversity. Pp. 23-38.Gujral and V.Sharma, (eds.) In: Biodiversity Status in theHimalaya. British Council, New Delhi.

Singh, J.S. and Singh, S.P. 1987. Forest Vegetation of the Himalaya.Botanical Review 53: 80-192.

Singh, S.K. and Rawat, G.S. 2000. Flora of Great Himalayan NationalPark. Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, India. Pp. 304.

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Uniyal, S.K., Awasthi, A.,and Rawat, G.S. 2002. Current statusand distribution of commercially exploited medicinal andaromatic plants in upper Gori valley, Kumaon Himalaya,Uttaranchal. Current Science 82: 1246-1252.

FURTHER READINGAkerele, O., V. Heywood and H. Synge (eds) 1991. Conservation of

Medicinal Plants, Cambridge University press, Cambridge, UK.Dhar, U., 1997 (Ed.), Himalayan Biodiversity: Action Plan.

Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital. pp. 166.Chopra, R.N., Nayar, S.L. and Chopra, I.C. 1992. Glossary of

Medicinal Plants. Publication and Information Directorate,CSIR, New Delhi. Pp. 330.

Karki, M. and Williams, J.T. 1999 (eds.). Priority Species ofMedicinal Plants in South Asia. Medicinal and Aromatic PlantsProgram in Asia, IDRC/SARO, New Delhi. Pp. 63.

Nautiyal, A.R., M.C. Nautiyal and A.N. Purohit (eds.) 2000.Harvesting herbs- 2000 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants- AnAction plan for Uttarakhand. Bishan Singh Mahendra Pal Singh,Dehra Dun. Pp.196.

Nayar, M.P. and Shastry, A.R.K. 1997,1988,1990. Red Data Bookof Indian Plants. Vol. I-III. Botanical Survey of India.

Valdiya, K.S. 2001. Himalaya: Emergence and Evolut ion.Universities Press (India) Limited, Hyderabad. pp.139.

Received: 11April 2003 - Accepted: 26 June 2003

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