the germanic languages
TRANSCRIPT
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T H E G E R M A N I C L A N G U A G E S
G er ma ni c – o ne o f t he l ar ge st s ub gr ou ps o f t he I nd o- Eu ro pe an l an gu ag e
f am il y – c om pr is es 3 7 l an gu ag es w it h a n e st im at ed 4 70 m il li on s pe ak er s
w or ld wi de . T hi s b oo k p re se nt s a c om pa ra ti ve l in gu is ti c s ur v ey o f t he f u ll
r an ge o f G er m an ic l an gu ag es , b ot h a nc ie nt a nd m od er n, i nc lu di n g m aj or
w o rl d l a ng u ag e s s u ch a s E n gl i sh a n d G e rm a n ( W es t G e rm a ni c ), t h e S c an d i-
n av ia n ( No rt h G er ma ni c) l an gu ag es , a nd t he e xt in ct E as t G er ma ni c l an -
g ua ges . U nl ik e p re vi ou s st ud ie s, i t d oe s n ot t ak e a c hr on ol og ica l o r a
l a ng u ag e -b y - la n gu a ge a p pr o ac h , o r ga n iz e d i n st e ad a r ou n d l i ng u is t ic c o n-
s t ru c ti o n s a n d s u b s ys t e m s. C o n s id e ri n g d i a l e c t s a l o n g si d e s t a n d ard v a ri e ti e s ,
i t p ro vi de s a d et ai le d a cc ou nt o f t op ic s s uc h a s c as e, w or d f or ma ti on , s ou nd
s ys te ms , v ow el l en gt h, s yl l ab l e s tr uc tu re , t he n ou n p hr as e, t he v er b p hr as e,
t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f t e n s e a n d m o o d , a n d t h e s y n t a x o f t h e c l a u s e . A u t h o r i t a t i v e
a n d c o mp r eh e ns i ve , t h is m u ch - ne e de d s u rv e y w i ll b e w e lc o me d b y s c ho l ar s
a n d s t u d e n t s o f t h e G e r m a n i c l a n g u a g e s , a s w e l l a s l i n g u i s t s a c r o s s t h e m a n y
b r an c he s o f t h e f i el d .
i P f d D i t f U d d t S t d i i t h
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C A M B R I D G E L A N G U A G E S U R V E Y S
Ge ne ral e di t ors
P . A u st i n ( SOAS, L ondon)
J . B r es n an ( St anf or d Uni v er s i t y)
B . C o mr i e ( Max P l anck I ns t it ut e f or E v ol ut i onary A nt hropol ogy , L e i pzi g)
S . C ra in ( Uni v e r si t y of M ar yl and)
W . D re s sl e r ( Uni v e r si t y of V i e nna)C . E we n ( Uni v e r si t y of L e i den)
R . L a ss ( U ni v er s it y o f C a pe T o wn )
D . L i g h t fo o t ( Univ e r s it y of M ar y land)
K . R i c e ( Uni v e r si t y of T or ont o)
I . R o be r ts ( Uni ve r s it y of C ambri dge )
S . R o ma i ne ( Uni v e r si t y of Ox f ord)N . V . S m i t h ( Uni ve r s i ty C ol l ege , L ondon)
T hi s s er i es o f fe rs g en er al a cc ou nt s o f t he m aj or l an gu ag e f am il ie s o f t he
w or ld , w it h v ol um es o rg an iz ed e it he r o n a p ur el y g en et ic b as is o r o n a
g e og r ap h ic a l b a si s , w h ic h ev e r y i el d s t h e m o st c o nv e ni e nt a n d i n t el l i gi b le
g r ou p in g i n e a ch c a se . E a ch v o lu m e c o mp a re s a n d c o nt r as t s t h e t y po l og i ca lf ea tu re s o f t he l an gu ag es i t d ea ls w it h . I t a ls o t re at s t h e r el ev an t g en et ic
re l a t io n s h ip s , h i s t ori c a l d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d s o c i o li n g u i st i c i s s u es a ri s i ng fro m
t he ir r ol e a nd u se i n t he w or ld t od ay . T he b oo ks a re i nt en de d f or l in gu is ts
f r o m u n d e r g r a d u a t e l e v e l u p w a r d s , b u t n o s p e c i a l k n o w l e d g e o f t h e l a n g u a g e s
u n de r c o ns i de r at i on i s a s su m ed . V o lu m es s u ch a s t h os e o n A u st r al i a a n d t h e
A m a z o n B a s i n a r e a l s o o f w i d e r r e l e v a n c e , a s t h e f u t u r e o f t h e l a n g u a g e s a n d
t h ei r s p ea k er s r a is e s i m p or t an t s o ci a l a n d p o li t ic a l i s su e s.
V ol ume s al r e ady publ i she d i nc l ude
C hi nes e J e r ry N or man
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T H E G E R M A N I C
L A N G U A G E S
W A Y N E H A R B E R T
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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo
Cambridge University PressThe Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
First published in print format
ISBN-13 978-0-521-80825-5
ISBN-13 978-0-521-01511-0
ISBN-13 978-0-511-26885-4
© Wayne Harbert 2007
2006
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521808255
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place
without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
ISBN-10 0-511-26885-8
ISBN-10 0-521-80825-1
ISBN-10 0-521-01511-1
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of urlsfor external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
h h b ll
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org
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t o M yr ly n, D ia ne , a nd J en ny
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C O N T E N T S
338806
List of tables x
List of language abbreviations xi
Acknowledgments xii
1 Introduction 1
1 .1 S om e r em ar ks o n t h e o rg an iz at io n o f t h i s v ol um e 1
1 .2 D iv er ge nc e a nd c on ve rg en ce i n t he G er ma ni c l an gu ag es 6
1 . 2. 1 G er m an i c l a ng u ag e s a n d S t an d ar d A v er a ge E u r o pe a n 9
1 . 2. 2 T y po l og i ca l c l as s if i ca t io n 12
1 .3 A s ur ve y o f t h e G er ma ni c l an gu ag es 13
1 .3 .1 E as t G er ma ni c 14
1 .3 .2 W es t G er ma ni c 15
1 .3 .3 T he N or th S ea C oa st l an gu ag es 17
1 .3 .4 N or th Ge rm an ic 19
2 The Germanic lexicon 21
2 .1 L oa nwo rd s 22
2 .2 D er iv at io n 26
2 2 1 C di 29
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4 The Germ anic nom inal system : paradigmat ic and syntagmat ic
variation 894 .1 N om in al i nf le ct io n 89
4 . 1. 1 H is t or i ca l p r e l ud e : I n d o- E ur o pe a n h e r it a ge a n d G e rm a ni c
innovation 89
4 .1 .2 I nf le ct io na l c a te go ri es o f t h e n o un 91
4 .2 T he i nt er na l s t ru ct ur e o f t h e n o mi na l p h ra se 122
4 .2 .1 N om in al p hr as es w it ho ut n om in al h ea ds 1224 .2 .2 N om in al p h r as es w i th p r o no un h e ad s 124
4 .2 .3 N om in al p hr as es h ea de d b y l e x ic al n o u ns 126
4 .3 D et er mi ne rs 137
4 .3 .1 W ea k q ua nt if ie rs 137
4 .3 .2 D ef in it e a rt ic le s 141
4 .4 G en it iv e p hr as es 148
4 .4 .1 G en it iv e p h ra se s a n d d e te rm in er s 150
4 . 4. 2 P ro p er n a m e p o ss e ss o rs a n d p r o no m in a l p o ss e ss o rs 155
4 . 4. 3 T h e E ng l is h ‘ d ou b le g e n it i ve ’ c o ns t ru c ti o n 158
4 .4 .4 T he p re no mi na l p e r ip hr as ti c p o s se ss iv e ( Jan se boek )
construction 158
4 .4 .5 S pe ci al d ev el op me nt s o f t h e g e ni ti ve i n
possessive constructions 161
4 . 4. 6 M e ro n ym i c c o ns t ru c ti o ns 164
4 .5 P re de te rm in er s 167
4 .6 D is co nt in uo us n o m in al p h ra se s 168
4 .7 A dj ec ti ve p hr as es 171
4 .7 .1 C om pa ri so n 174
4 .8 P ro no un s i n t h e Ge rm an ic l a ng ua ge s 1754 .8 .1 P er so na l p ro no un s 175
4 .8 .2 T he r ef er en ti al p ro pe rt ie s o f p ro no un s 196
4 .9 T he e xt er na l s y nt ax o f n o un p hr as es : s u bj ec ts 214
4 9 1 S ub je ct ag re em en t 214
viii Contents
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5 .3 .3 P er fe ct t e ns es a n d p as t t en se s 301
5 .3 .4 T he m e an in g o f t h e ( p re se nt ) p e rf ec t a n d t h e p as t 3075 .3 .5 P ro gr es si ve 315
5 .4 V oi ce i nf le ct io ns a nd v oi ce a ux il ia ri es 316
5 .4 .1 P as si ve 317
5 .4 .2 M id dl e v oi ce 322
5 .4 .3 T he S ca nd in av ia n s-passive 327
5 .5 N on fi ni te ve rb al fo rm s 3295 .5 .1 T he i nf in it iv e 329
5 .5 .2 T he p re se nt p ar ti ci pl e a n d t h e E n gl is h g e ru nd 341
5 .5 .3 T he p as t p a rt ic ip le a nd t he s up in e 345
5 .6 V er ba l v al en cy 347
5 .7 H ea d, c om pl em en t a n d a d j un ct p la ce me nt i n t h e v e r b p h ra se 350
5 .7 .1 T he r e la ti ve o rd er o f t he v e rb a nd i t s
c o mp l em e nt s w i th i n t h e V P 353
5 .7 .2 T he o rd er o f ob je ct s 362
5 .8 P hr as al v er bs 366
6 The synt ax of t he clause 369
6 .1 S en te nc e a dv er bs 370
6 .2 T he s yn ta x of n eg at io n 376
6 .2 .1 S om e d ef in it io ns : n eg at io n, s co pe a nd p ol ar it y 376
6 .2 .2 S co pe , p o l ar it y a n d s yn ta ct ic p os it io n 377
6 .2 .3 P ol ar it y i te ms , n e g at iv e c o n co rd a nd m ul ti pl e
negation 379
6 . 2. 4 N eg a ti v e c o m pl e me n ti z er s a n d p l e o na s ti c n e g at i on 382
6 . 2. 5 C o ns t it u en t n e ga t io n w i th s e n te n ti a l s co p e 3836 . 2. 6 O n f o rm a l d i ff er e nc e s b e tw ee n s e n te n ti a l n e ga t or s a n d
c ons ti t uent ne gat or s 392
6 .2 .7 O n t h e t y p ol og y o f s en te nt ia l n e ga ti on i n G e rm an ic 394
6 3 T he s yn ta x o f t he l ef t p e ri ph er y: t op ic s v er b se co nd a nd
Contents ix
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T A B L E S
4.1 A d je ct i ve e n di n gs i n s e le ct e d G e r ma n ic l a ng u ag es 99
4.2 D e fi ni t e a r t i cl e s /de m ons t r at i ve a dj e c t ive s i n s e l ec t e d G e r m ani c
languages 106
4.3 S e co n d p e r s on p r on o un s i n s e le c te d G er m an i c l a n g ua g es 193
5.1 I n fl e ct i on a l e n d i ng s o f a ct i ve s t ro n g v e rb s i n s e le ct e d G e r ma n ic
languages 285
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L A N G U A G E A B B R E V I A T I O N S
AF Afrikaans
BN Bokmal N or we gi an
DA Danish
DU Dutch
EF East Frisian
E ME E ar ly M id dl e E ng li sh
EN English
FA FaroeseFR Frisian
GE German
GMC Ger ma nic
GO Gothic
IC Icelandic
IE Indo-European
ME Middle English
M HG M id dl e H ig h G er ma n
NF North Frisian
NN Nynorsk Norwegian
NO Norwegian
OE Old English
OHG Old High German
ON Old NorseOS Old Saxon
PG Pennsylvania German
S AE S ta nd ar d A ve ra ge E ur op ea n
SW Swedish
WF West Frisian
YI Yiddish
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A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S
I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k A b b y C o h n , S a r a h F a g a n , R o g e r L a s s a n d P a u l R o b e r g e f o r t h e i r
w il li ng ne ss t o r ea d a nd c om me nt o n p or ti on s o f t hi s w or k. I t h as b en ef it te d s ub st an -t ia ll y f ro m t he ir a tt en ti on a nd a dv ic e. T ha nk s a re a ls o d ue t o J es si ca B au ma n f or h er
v al ua bl e a ss is ta nc e i n t he e ar ly s ta ge s, a nd t o S te ve B ar ga ns ki f or h is t ho ro ug h a nd
e xp ert c op y-ed it in g. I o we a s peci al d eb t o f g ra ti tu de to Di ane Ha rb er t, wh o, i n
a dd it io n t o h er c on st an t s up po rt t hr ou gh ou t t hi s l on g p ro je ct , d ev ot ed m an y h ou rs t o
p ro of re ad in g t he m an us cr ip t, c at ch in g a m ul ti tu de o f e rr or s i n t he p ro ce ss . I g la dl y
a c ce p t r e sp o ns i bi l it y f o r t h e p r ob a bl y n u me ro u s e rr o rs w h ic h r em a in .
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1Introduction
1.1 S om e r e ma r ks o n t h e o rg an iz at io n o f t hi s v o l um e
N o s in gl e v ol um e c an a de qu at el y a dd re ss a t op ic a re a a s b ro ad a s “ Th e G er ma ni cL a n g u a g e s ” i n a l l o f i t s a s p e c t s . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s i n g l e o u t a p a r t i c u l a r d i m e n s i o n o n
w h i c h t o f o c u s . L a n g u a g e s c a n b e l o o k e d a t i n t h e i r s o c i e t a l c o n t e x t , f o r e x a m p l e , w i t h
a t t e n t i o n t o s u c h q u e s t i o n s a s t h e i r u s e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e c o m m u n i t i e s o f s p e a k e r s
w ho e mp lo y t he m, t he ir r el at io ns hi p w it h t he a ss oc ia te d c ul tu re s ( in cl ud in g, f or
e xa mp le , l it er ar y u se s) , t he ir d em og ra ph ic s a nd t he ir v ar ia ti on a lo ng g eo gr ap hi ca la n d d e mo g ra p hi c al d i me n si o ns . O n e c an a l te rn a ti v el y r eg a rd l a ng u ag e f r om a h i st o r-
i c al p e rs p ec t iv e , a s c h ro n ol o gi c al s e qu e nc es o f d i ve rg e nc es a n d c o nv e rg e nc es , s t at e s
a nd t ra ns it io ns . E ac h o f t he se p oi nt s o f v ie w h as p ro vi de d t he o rg an iz at io na l f ra me -
w o r k f o r s u c c e s s f u l v o l u m e s o n t h e s u b j e c t . I t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e , a b s t r a c t i n g a w a y f r o m
t h e i r s o c i a l , g e o g r a p h i c a l , c u l t u r a l a n d t e m p o r a l c o n t e x t s , t o e x a m i n e t h e l a n g u a g e s o f t he f a m i l y a s a s s e m bl a ge s of gr a m m a t i c a l uni t s , r ul e s ys t e m s a nd c ons t r uc t i ons . T hi s i s
t h e p e r s p e c t i v e w h i c h I w i l l a d o p t h e r e . T h e p r e s e n t v o l u m e i s a i m e d p r i m a r i l y a t t h o s e
w h o a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n h o w t h e G e r m a n i c l a n g u a g e s a r e p u t t o g e t h e r – w h a t t h e y h a v e i n
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c o nd u ci v e t o s i de -b y -s i de c o mp a ri s on o f t h e w ay s i n w h ic h t h e l a ng u ag e s a cc o mp l is h
p ar ti cu la r t as ks , a nd s o d oe s n ot p re se nt a r ea dy p ic tu re o f s tr uc tu ra l c om mo na li ti esa n d d i ff er e nc es a c ro s s t h e f a mi l y. I h a ve t h er e fo r e d e ci d ed t o o r ga n iz e t h e d i sc u ss i on
a cc or di ng t o l in gu is ti c c on st ru ct io ns a nd s ub sy st em s, r at he r t ha n b y l an gu ag es . F or
e xa mp le , t he re i s a s ec ti on o n v ow el s ys te ms , a s ec ti on o n t he e xp re ss io n o f f ut ur e
t en se , a nd a s ec ti on o n r el at iv e c la us e f or ma ti on , i n e ac h o f w hi ch a n i nd iv id ua l
G er ma ni c l an gu ag e m ay b e m en ti on ed o r n ot , d ep en di ng o n w he th er i t o ff er s s om e-t hi ng o f p ar ti cu la r i nt er es t i n c on ne ct io n w it h t he g ra mm at ic al p he no me no n u nd er
i n ve s ti g at i on . T h es e d e ci s io n s w i ll n o d o ub t m a ke t h e v o lu m e l e ss u s ef u l f o r r ea d er s
w it h c er ta in p ur po se s. I n p ar ti cu la r, s in ce i t d oe s n ot i nc lu de c ha pt er s o n i nd iv id ua l
G er ma ni c l an gu ag es , i t d oe s n ot p ro vi de a s en se o f h ow t he g ra mm ar s o f i nd iv id ua l
l a ng u ag e s w o rk a s i n te g ra t ed s y st e ms . F o rt u na t el y , t h er e a r e o t he r v o lu m es s u it e d t ot he i nt er es ts o f r ea de rs w ho w an t t o i nf or m t he ms el ve s a bo ut t he s ha pe o f i nd iv id ua l
G e rm a ni c l a ng u ag e s. K on ig a nd v an d er A uw er a 1994 i s p ar ti cu la rl y t o b e r ec om -
m en de d. T he re a re a ls o v ol um es w hi ch a pp ro ac h t he se l an gu ag es f ro m a h is to ri ca l
p er sp ec ti ve – m os t n ot ab ly , t he r ec en t v ol um e b y H ow el l, R ob er ge a nd S al mo ns
( f o r t h c o m i n g ) . I t i s h o p e d t h a t w h a t i s l o s t i n t h e p r e s e n t t r e a t m e n t i n t e r m s o f c o h e r e n t
p i ct u re s o f i n di v id u al l a ng u ag e s i s c o mp e ns a te d f o r b y a c l ea r er f a mi l y p o rt r ai t .
A f u r t h e r p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n f a v o r o f t h e p r e s e n t f o r m a t i s t h a t i t a l l o w s u s t o
s id es te p t he t ho rn y q ue st io n o f h ow m an y G er ma ni c l an gu ag es t he re a re , a nd w hi ch
v a r i e t i e s t o d e v o t e c h a p t e r s t o . I n v o l u m e s o n l a n g u a g e f a m i l i e s i n w h i c h t h e m a i n a i m
i s t h e e x h a u s t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r l a n g u a g e s i t i s u s u a l t o s i n g l e o u t a p a r t i c u l a r
v ar ie ty o f e ac h l an gu ag e a s t he o bj ec t o f t ha t d es cr ip ti on . M os t o ft en , t he w ri tt en
s t an d ar d v a ri e ty i s c h os e n ( e ve n t h ou g h l i ng u is t s r ec o gn i ze t h e p r iv i le g ed p o si t io n o f
s ta nd ar d l an gu ag es t o b e l ar ge ly a m at te r o f h is to ri ca l a cc id en t) , a nd n on st an da rd
d i al e ct s a r e g i ve n r el a ti v el y s h or t s h ri f t S u ch a n a p r io r i l i mi t at i on w o ul d s i mp l y n o t
2 1 I n tr o du c ti o n
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c on ti nu a – t he W es t G er ma ni c d ia le ct c on ti nu um , e nc om pa ss in g B el gi um , t he
N et h er l an d s, G er m an y , S wi t ze r la n d a n d A u st r ia , a n d t h e S ca n di n av i an d i al e ct c o n-t i n u u m , e n c o m p a s s i n g D e n m a r k , S w e d e n , N o r w a y a n d p a r t s o f F i n l a n d – i n w h i c h i t i s
i m po s si b le t o d r aw n o n- a rb i tr ar y l a ng u ag e b o un d ar i es b e tw ee n n e ig h bo r in g v a ri e ti e s
a t a ny p oi nt ( se e C ry st al 1987: 2 5 ) .
T he re a re a ls o s om e m or e t he or et ic al r ea so ns f or a do pt in g t he c on st ru ct io n- by -
c o ns t ru c ti o n a p pr o ac h f o ll o we d h e re . W h il e I h a ve a t te m pt e d a s m u ch a s p o ss i bl e t ok e e p l i n g u i s t i c t h e o r y i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d , t h i s b o o k i s v e r y m u c h i n f o r m e d b y t h e s p i r i t
o f r e c e n t “ p r i n c i p l e s a n d p a r a m e t e r s ” a p p r o a c h e s t o l i n g u i s t i c v a r i a t i o n – t h e i d e a t h a t
l a n g u a g e s a r e n o t f r e e t o d i f f e r f r o m e a c h o t h e r a r b i t r a r i l y a n d w i t h o u t l i m i t , b u t r a t h e r
t ha t l in gu is ti c v ar ia ti on i s c on st ra in ed b y g en er al p ar am et er s o f v ar ia ti on , a nd t ha t
t h e r e f o r e s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e l a n g u a g e s o f t h e f a m i l y m a y b e e x p e c t e d t o
b e p at te rn ed , r at he r t ha n r an do m. T he c on st ru ct io n- by -c on st ru ct io n, s id e- by -s id e
f or ma t o f t he v ol um e s er ve s t o h ig hl ig ht s uc h p at te rn s o f v ar ia ti on a s a re f ou nd .
O nc e t he de c i s i on w a s m a de t o or ga ni z e t he pr e s e nt a t i on a r ound pa t t e r ns , pa r a di gm s
a nd c on st ru ct io ns , r at he r t ha n a ro un d l an gu ag es , n o p ri nc ip le d r ea so n r em ai ne d f or
i n c l u d i n g o n l y t h e m o d e r n m e m b e r s o f t h e f a m i l y . I f t h e b o o k w e r e a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f
l an gu ag es i n c on te xt , p ar ti ti on in g t he G er ma ni c l an gu ag es a cc or di ng t o t he s al ie nt
d e mo g ra p hi c p r op e rt y o f h a vi n g o r l a ck i ng n a ti v e s p ea k er s m i gh t m a ke s e ns e . O n ce
t he f oc us i s o n s tr uc tu re , t ho ug h, s ep ar at in g t he m o n t he b as is o f t hi s c ri te ri on s ee ms
p l ai n ly m o re a r bi t ra r y, s i nc e f ew s t ru c tu r al d i ff er e nc e s c o rr e la t e w i th t h is d i st i nc t io n .
W he th er a p ar ti cu la r v ar ie ty b el on gs t o e ar ly G er ma ni c o r m od er n G er ma ni c i s n ot
e nt i r e l y unr e l a t e d t o i t s s t r uc t ur a l c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s ; t he r e a r e s e ve r a l f e a t ur e s w hi c h uni t e
t h e p o s t m e d i e v a l m e m b e r s o f t h e f a m i l y , a n d d i s t i n g u i s h t h e m f r o m t h e e a r l y m e d i e v a l
v a r i e t i e s . S o m e s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s a r i s e b y v i r t u e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a t e r l a n g u a g e s , b u t
n ot t he e ar li er o ne s w er e a ro un d t o p ar ti ci pa te i n p an -E ur op ea n d if fu si on s o f s uc h
1 .1 S om e r em ar ks o n t he o rg an iz at io n o f t hi s v o lu me 3
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i nc l ina t i on a s a s ynt ac t i ci a n ( w orki ng w i t hi n t he G over nm ent - B indi ng/P r i nc i pl es a nd
P a r a m e t e r s t r a di t i on) ne c e s s a r i l y i nf or m s m y de s c r i pt i ons of pa r t i c ul a r phe nom e na , t hek in ds o f e xp la na ti on s I o ff er f or i ns ta nc es o f v ar ia ti on ( in w hi ch t he a ss um pt io n o f
p a r a m e t e r s w i l l p l a y a p r o m i n e n t r o l e , f o r e x a m p l e ) , a n d e v e n , t o a n e x t e n t , t h e k i n d s
o f s t ru c tu r es a n d p h en o me n a s i ng l ed o u t a s w o rt h y o f d e sc ri p ti o n a n d e x pl a na t io n , a s
w e l l a s t h o s e l e f t o u t o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n . A s c h o l a r w i t h a d i f f e r e n t t h e o r e t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n
w o ul d i m ag i na b ly h a ve p r od u ce d a s o me wh a t d i ff e re n t w o rk . N o ne t he l es s , a n e ff o rth a s b e e n m a d e t o k e e p t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d i n o r d e r t o m a k e t h e
d e sc r ip t io n s a c ce s si b le t o a l l r e ad e rs w it h a b a ck g ro u nd i n l i ng u is t ic s , a n d t o d e pl o y
t h eo r y- s pe ci f ic t e rm i no l og y o n ly w h en i t s u bs t an t ia l ly c o nt r ib u te s t o t h e e ff i ci e nc y o f
t he de s c ri pt i on.
T he g oa ls o f t he w or k a re f un da me nt al ly s yn ch ro ni c: t o i de nt if y a nd d es cr ib e
s t r uc t ur a l s i m i l a r i t i e s a nd di f f e r e nc e s a c r os s t he G e r m a ni c f a m i l y. N one t he l e s s , i t w i l l
b e s ee n t ha t d is cu ss io n o f l in gu is ti c h is to ry i nt ru de s w it h s om e f re qu en cy . T he re a re
v ar io us r ea so ns f or t hi s. F or o ne t hi ng , m an y o f t he a cc ou nt s o ff er ed f or t he d is tr ib u-
t i o n o f f e a t u r e s a c r o s s t h e s e l a n g u a g e s a r e t y p o l o g i c a l i n n a t u r e . M a n y c l a i m s a r e m a d e
o f t he f ol lo wi ng s or t: l an gu ag es i n a s ub gr ou p o f t he G er ma ni c l an gu ag es s ha re a
feature Y because they share a linked property Z from which the presence of
Y f o l l o w s . T h e v a l i d i t y o f s u c h t y p o l o g i c a l l i n k a g e s i s s u p p o r t e d b y s h o w i n g t h a t t h e y
v ar y t og et he r o ve r t im e – t ha t w he n Y a ri se s b y h is to ri ca l c ha ng e, Z a pp ea rs t oo .
S ec on d, t he re a re s om e s ha re d f ea tu re s o f t he f am il y o r s ub gr ou ps w it hi n i t w ho se
a p pe ar a nc e a n d d i st r ib u ti o n c an o n ly b e e x pl a in e d i n h i st o ri c al t e rm s : f ea t ur e s w h ic h
e xi st o nl y b ec au se o f h is to ri ca l f ac ts o f i nh er it an ce o r b or ro wi ng . S om e o f t he m or e
i n t e r e s t i n g c a s e s i n v o l v e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e u s e s t o w h i c h i n h e r i t e d “ j u n k ” ( L a s s 1988)
a re p ut . S ee , f or e xa mp le , t he d is cu ss io n o f t he w ea k/ st ro ng a dj ec ti ve c on tr as t i n
Section 4 2 3 3 a nd t h e d i sc u ss i on o f t h e d e ve l op m en t o f t h e r ef l ex i ve / no n re f le x iv e
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l an gu ag es . T hi s f ac t, t oo , i s r el at ed t o i ts c en tr al g oa l o f s ys te ma ti c, s id e- by -s id e
c om pa ri so n o f t he G er ma ni c l an gu ag es ; t he re a re n um er ou s c as es i n w hi ch s om el a ng u ag e s i n t h e f a mi l y u s e i n fl e ct i on a l m o rp h ol o gy t o e n co d e p a rt i cu l ar s t ru c tu r al
r el at io ns a mo ng e le me nt s, w hi le o th er s a va il t he ms el ve s o f s yn ta ct ic m ea ns f or t hi s
p ur po se . S o, f or e xa mp le , G ot hi c a nd s om e o f t he S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es h av e
p as si ve a ff ix es – a m at te r o f m or ph ol og y – b ut t he se a re f un ct io na ll y e qu iv al en t t o
t h e p e ri p hr a st i c p a ss i ve m a rk e rs o f o t he r l a ng u ag e s i n t h e f a mi l y, w h ic h a re s y nt a ct i ci n n at ur e s in ce t he y a re f re e m or ph em es . S im il ar ly , s om e o f t he l an gu ag es o f t he
f am il y e xh ib it c as e i nf le ct io ns – a m at te r o f m or ph ol og y – b ut t he s am e g ra mm at ic al
r el at io ns hi ps w hi ch a re e nc od ed b y m ea ns o f t he se a re e nc od ed b y m ea ns o f f re e
m or ph em es ( in t he f or m o f p re po si ti on s) i n o th er l an gu ag es . T re at in g t he t wo s ep ar -
a t el y b e ca u se o n e i s a m o rp h ol o gi c al p h en o me n on a n d t h e o t he r a s y nt a ct i c p h en o m-
e n on w ou l d, o f c o ur s e, o b sc u re t h e f u nd a me n ta l p o in t o f t h ei r f u nc t io n al e q ui v al e nc e .
I ns te ad , I h av e c ho se n a d if fe re nt o rg an iz at io na l s ch em e, b as ed o n l ex ic al c la ss es .
Chapter 4, fo r e xam pl e, t re at s t he m orp ho sy nt ax o f n ou ns an d th e o th er l ex ica l
c at eg or ie s ( ad je ct iv es , d et er mi ne rs a nd p ro no un s) w it h w hi ch t he y a re a ss oc ia te d,
a nd t he s yn ta x o f t he p hr as es i n w hi ch t he se c at eg or ie s p ar ti ci pa te . C ha pt er 5 is
de vo te d t o v er bs an d t hei r p hras es . Wi th in eac h o f t hes e d is cus si on s, t her e i s a
s ec on da ry d iv is io n i nt o a d is cu ss io n o f t he p ar ad ig ma ti c p ro pe rt ie s o f t he se l ex ic al
i t em s f o ll o we d b y a d i sc u ss i on o f t h ei r s y nt a gm a ti c p r op e rt i es . P a ra d ig m at i c r e la t io n -
s hi ps a re t he r el at io ns hi ps o bt ai ni ng b et we en a n e xp re ss io n a nd o th er e xp re ss io ns
w hi ch a re s ub st it ut ed f or i t i n d if fe re nt c on te xt s. C as e p ar ad ig ms , a nd t he ir p re po s-
i t io n al p h ra s e e q ui v al e nt s i n l a ng u ag e s w i th o ut c a se ( e .g . , t h e m a n , t o t h e m a n , o f t h e
man. . . ) a r e i n s t a n c e s o f p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e s y n t a g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f a
l i ng u is t ic e x pr e ss i on a r e t h e r e la t io n sh i ps w h ic h h o ld b e tw e en i t a n d n o n- e qu i va l en t
e xpr e s s i ons w i t h w hi c h i t i s c onc a t e na t e d i n f or m i ng l a r ge r l i ngui s t i c e xpr e s s i ons T he
1 .1 S om e r em ar ks o n t he o rg an iz at io n o f t hi s v o lu me 5
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Lockwood 1995; M i tc h el l 1985; T ie rs ma 1999; Z if on un et al. 1997. H ow ev er , t he
e x er c is e o f c r ea t in g a c o ns t ru c ti o n- b y- c on s tr u ct i on c o mp a ri s on o f a l l o f t h e G er m an i cl a n g u a g e s ( a n d a t t e m p t i n g t o f i l l i n t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e g a p s i n t h e a v a i l a b l e d e s c r i p t i o n s
o f t he o ld er l an gu ag es in p art icu lar, as re qu ir ed by t hat e xerc is e) h as t urn ed u p
o c ca s io n al p a tt e rn s a n d g e ne r al i za t io n s w h ic h h a d n o t b e en o b se r ve d b e fo r e.
1.2 D i ve r ge n ce a n d c o nv e r ge n ce i n t h e G e rm a ni c l a n g ua g e s
Ge rm an ic ( here aft er, GM C) is , i n t he fi rs t o rd er, a g en et ic c on cep t. T he GM C
l an gu ag es s ha re m an y p ro pe rt ie s a nd c on st ru ct io ns b y v ir tu e o f c om mo n a nc es tr y.
C o mm o n i n he ri t an c e i s t h e r ea s on , f o r e x am p le , t h at t h ey s i gn a l i n fl e ct i on a l c o nt r as t s
b y a m i x t u r e o f s u f f i x a t i o n a n d a l t e r n a t i o n s i n r o o t v o w e l . I t i s a l s o t h e r e a s o n t h a t t h e yh a v e o n l y a s i n g l e i n f l e c t i o n a l p a s t t e n s e , a n d d o n o t d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n p r e t e r i t e a n d
i mp er fe ct , f or e xa mp le . T he G MC l an gu ag es s ha re t he f ir st o f t he se c ha ra ct er is ti cs
w it h o th er l an gu ag es w it h w hi ch t he y a re m or e r em ot el y r el at ed , i nc lu di ng t he
n ei gh bo ri ng C el ti c a nd R om an ce l an gu ag es . T he s ec on d, h ow ev er , i s a G MC i nn ov -
a ti on , w hi ch s et s G MC a pa rt f ro m t he se o th er b ra nc he s o f I nd o- Eu ro pe an ( IE ), t hel ar ge r f am il y t o w hi ch i t b el on gs , i nc lu di ng C el ti c a nd R om an ce . A mo ng t he o th er
d i st i ng u is h in g c h ar ac t er i st i cs o f t h e G M C l a ng u ag e s w h ic h s e t t h em a p ar t f r om t h ei r
I E a n c e s t o r a r e :
t he f ix in g o f t he a cc en t o n t he r oo t o r f ir st s yl la bl e o f t he w or d ( Se ct io n
3.2.3) a n d t h e p o ss i bl y r e la t ed t e nd e nc y t o r e du c e f i na l s y ll a bl e s
t he i nc or po ra ti on o f v er ba l n ou ns a nd v er ba l a dj ec ti ve s i nt o t he v er ba l
pa r adi gm s a s i nf i ni t i ves a nd pa r ti c i ple s
t he r ed uc ti on o f t he s ys te m o f i nf le ct io na l t en se s t o a s im pl e c on tr as t
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t he re du ct io n o f t he IE ca se s yst em to f ou r co re c as es ( nom in at iv e,
a c cu s at i ve , d a ti v e, g e ni t iv e , w it h o c ca s io n al s u rv i va l s o f o t he r c as e s)(4.1.2.3.1)
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a p r o d u c t i v e c l a s s o f s o - c a l l e d w e a k n o u n s , b a s e d o n
IE n-stems
t h e i n tr o du c ti o n o f r e la t iv e p r on o un s ( 6 .5 . 1. 1 ) b a se d o n d e mo n st r at i ve
a nd ( s e conda ri l y) i nt e rr ogat i ve pr onoun pa r adi gm st h e i n tr o du c ti o n o f v e rb - se c on d w o rd o r de r ( S ec t io n 6.3).
I n s o m e c a s e s , t h e c o m m o n i n h e r i t a n c e o f t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s h a s t a k e n t h e f o r m o f
a n i n h e r i t e d d i l e m m a , t o w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a n g u a g e s h a v e r e s p o n d e d w i t h i n d i v i d -
u al a nd o ri gi na l s ol ut io ns . T hi s i s i ll us tr at ed i n t he i nt er es ti ng e xa mp le o f t he v ar ie d
t r ea t me n t o f w e ak a n d s t ro n g a d je c ti v e e n di n gs , f o r e x am p le , a s d i sc u ss e d i n 4 . 2. 3 .3 .S om e o f t he G MC l an gu ag es a re m or e c lo se ly r el at ed t ha n o th er s. T he p re ci se
n at ur e o f t he se g en et ic r el at io ns hi ps h as h is to ri ca ll y b ee n a m at te r o f d is pu te ( se e
Nielsen 1989 f o r a n o v e r v i e w o f e a r l y G M C ) , b u t a v e r y w i d e l y a c c e p t e d h y p o t h e s i s i s
t ha t G MC f ir st s pl it i nt o a N or th we st G MC b ra nc h a nd a n E as t G MC b ra nc h ( re pr e-
s e n t e d a l m o s t s o l e l y b y G o t h i c ) . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e E a s t G M C g r o u p a n d t h eN or th we st G MC g ro up a re p ar tl y m at te rs o f r eg io na l v ar ia ti on . S o, f or e xa mp le , I E
f in al * -o b e ca me -a in G ot hi c (giba ‘I g iv e’ ), b ut -u i n N or th we st G MC ( Ol d H ig h
German gibu ‘ I g i v e ’ ) . T o s o m e e x t e n t , t h o u g h , t h e y a r e m a t t e r s o f c h r o n o l o g y . M a n y
d if fe re nc es b et we en E as t G MC a nd N or th we st G MC r ef le ct t he f ac t t ha t E as t G MC
s ep ar at ed f ro m t he r es t o f G MC e ar ly a nd w as r ec or de d e ar ly , a nd s o r et ai ns a rc ha icf ea t ur e s l o st i n t h e r e ma i ni n g l a ng u ag e s ( s uc h a s p a ss i ve i n fl e ct i on s a n d r e du p li c at e d
v e rb s ), a n d f ai l s t o p a rt i ci p at e i n t h e l a te r i n no v at i on s i n w h ic h t h os e o t he r l a ng u ag e s
t o ok p a rt .
1 .2 D iv er ge nc e a nd c o nv e rg en ce i n t he G er ma ni c l an gu ag es 7
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p lu ra l v er b, l os s o f c as e c on tr as ts i n p ar t o f t he p ro no mi na l p ar ad ig ms , a nd l os s o f
G M C r e f l ex i ve p r on o un s . E a ch o f t h es e w i ll b e d i sc u ss e d i n C h ap t er 4.
T h e t r e e s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1.1 g i v es a w i de l y a cc e pt e d, t h ou g h n o t u n co n tr o ve rs i al ,
p i ct u re o f t h e g e ne t ic r e la t io n sh i ps a m on g t h e G MC l a ng u ag e s.
T h is t r ee s e ts f o rt h a h y po t he s is a b ou t g e ne t ic r e la t ed n es s , i t s b r an c he s g r ap h ic al l y
r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e o r d e r o f d i v e r g e n c e f r o m a c o m m o n a n c e s t o r ( “ t h e t r e e m o d e l ” ) . S u c h
t re e d ia gr am s d o n ot g iv e a c om pl et e p ic tu re o f t he i nt er re la ti on sh ip s a mo ng t he m,
F i g u r e 1 . 1 T h e G e rm a ni c F a mi l y T r ee
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“ Ge r ma n iz e d” b y s u cc e ss i ve w av e s o f l i ng u is t ic i n fl u en c e f r om t h e s o ut h . F o r e ar l y
GMC , R ose l (1962) and Nielsen (1989) h av e r ec on st ru ct ed a c om pl ex h is to ry o f p er io ds o f w ax in g a nd w an in g l in gu is ti c a nd c ul tu ra l a ff in it y b et we en G MC s ub -
g ro up s, i n o rd er t o a cc ou nt f or t he p at te rn o f s ha re d f ea tu re s. I n l at er G MC , b es id es
t he i nt er ac ti on s w hi ch g av e r is e t o m od er n G er ma n, w e c an m en ti on t he m ut ua l
i nf lu en ce a mo ng t he S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es ( pa rt ic ul ar ly d ur in g t he p er io d o f
D an is h h eg em on y b eg in ni ng i n t he f ou rt ee nt h c en tu ry a nd l as ti ng , i n t he c as e o f N or we gi an a nd F ar oe se , i nt o t he t we nt ie th c en tu ry ), w hi ch r es ul te d i n a h ig h d eg re e
o f h om og en ei ty a t a ll l ev el s, t he p os si bl y p ro fo un d N or se i nf lu en ce o n E ng li sh
b e g i n n i n g i n t h e O l d E n g l i s h p e r i o d , w h i c h h a s b e e n i m p l i c a t e d i n m a n y o f t h e f e a t u r e s
o f M o d e r n E n g l i s h b u t w h o s e e f f e c t o n t h e g r a m m a r o f E n g l i s h i s s t i l l a w a i t i n g a f u l l
e va lu at io n, a nd t he s tr on g i nf lu en ce o f L ow G er ma n i n l at e m ed ie va l t im es o n t he
S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es d ur in g t he p er io d o f t he H an se at ic l ea gu e. T he e ff ec t o f t he
l a t t e r a p p e a r s t o b e e n p a r t i c u l a r l y s t r o n g i n D a n i s h , w h i c h i n s o m e r e s p e c t s ( i n c l u d i n g
phonol ogy ( S e ct i on 3.2.2) a n d s y nt a x ( S ec t io n s 4.9.4.1.2.2 and 4.9.5.2) , f o r e x a m p l e )
r es em bl es G er ma n m or e t ha n t he o th er S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es . I n s om e c as es , t he
e f f e c t o f c o n t a c t h a s b e e n c l a i m e d n o t t o b e l i m i t e d t o d i r e c t b o r r o w i n g , b u t t o a p p e a r
i n g r am m ar s i mp l if i ca t io n /c o ns t ru c ti o na l l o ss , a s a r e su l t o f d i sr u pt e d t r an s mi s si o n o f
t h e l a ng u ag e b e tw ee n g e ne r at i on s ( e. g ., N o rd e 2001: 2 4 3; M c Wh o rt e r 2002).
1 .2 .1 G er ma ni c l a ng ua ge s a n d S t an da rd A ve ra ge E ur op ea n
S uc h c onve r ge nc e by di f f us i on of l i ngui s t i c f e a t ur e s a c r os s bounda r i e s i s pos s i bl e e ve n
w h e n t h e l a n g u a g e s i n q u e s t i o n a r e n o t r e l a t e d , o r o n l y r e m o t e l y r e l a t e d . V e n n e m a n n ,
i n a s er ie s o f p ap er s ( Ve nn em an n 2003a,b,c) , h as h yp ot he si ze d s uc h e xt er na l i nf lu -
1 .2 D iv er ge nc e a nd c o nv er ge nc e i n t he G e rm an ic l an gu ag es 9
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h av e i nd ef in it e a rt ic le s i n c om mo n w it h t he R om an ce l an gu ag es , t he se
a r e d e m o n s t r a b l y o f l a t e o r i g i n . T h e y a r e n o t f o u n d i n t h e e a r l i e s t a t t e s t e dv e rs i on s o f t h es e l a ng u ag e s, n o r y e t i n M o de r n I ce l an d ic .
b. Have- pe rf ec ts . A ll o f t he e xt en si ve ly a tt es te d G MC l an gu ag es e xc ep t
Gothic have a periphrastic perfect formed with have pl us a pa s t pa r t i c i pl e –
w h i c h t h e y s h a r e w i t h a l l o f t h e R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s , a s w e l l a s C z e c h a n d
some Balkan languages.c. Al l GM C l an gu ag es , in clu di ng Go th ic, h ave a p er ip hr as ti c pa ssi ve
formed with the past participle plus a verb of being or becoming
(Section 5.4.1) . T he y s ha re t hi s f ea tu re e xc lu si ve ly w it h t he R om an ce
a n d S l av i c l a ng u ag e s, a c co r di n g t o H as p el m at h .
d . A nt ic au sa ti ve p ro mi ne nc e. L an gu ag es m ak e u se o f v ar io us m ea ns f or
d e r i v i n g v e r b s f r o m o t h e r v e r b s w h i l e c h a n g i n g t h e i r v a l e n c y . I n G o t h i c ,
f o r e x am p le , t r an s it i ve / ca u sa t iv e v e rb s s o me t im e s i n vo l ve a d di t io n al
m or ph ol og y, r el at iv e t o t he ir i nt ra ns it iv e c ou nt er pa rt s (wakan ‘to be
a wa ke ’ / wak-j-an ‘ t o w ak en s om eo ne ’) , b ut s om et im es i nt ra ns it iv es
a re m o rp h ol o gi c al l y m o re c o mp l ex t h an t h ei r t r an s it i ve / ca u sa t iv e c o un -
t er pa rt s. I nc lu de d h er e a re i nc ho at iv es w it h t he i nh er it ed -nan suffix
(gaskaidnan ‘ t o d i vo r ce ( i nt r an s )’ skaidan ‘ to s e pa r at e ( t ra n s) ’ ) a n d
t h e a p pa re n tl y i n no v at e d r e fl e xi v e m i dd l e v e rb s (s i k l a is j an ‘ to l ea rn ’ –
l it er al ly , ‘ to t ea ch o ne se lf ’) . H as pe lm at h c la im s t ha t t he d er iv at io n o f
i n tr a ns i ti v es f ro m t r an s it i ve s ( t hr o ug h t h e a d di t io n o f “ a nt i ca u sa t iv e ”
m o rp h ol o gy ) i s m o st f re q ue n t i n G er m an , F r en c h, R o ma n ia n , R u ss i an ,
G re e k a nd L i thua ni a n, w hil e “ c aus at i vi z at i on” – t he de ri vat i on of t r ans i-
t i ve s f r om i nt r a ns i t i ve s – i s m or e us ua l i n ne i ghbor i ng non- S A E l a ngua ge s .
e N o mi n at i ve e x p er i en c er s I n so m e l an g ua g es t h e s e ma n ti c a r gu m en t r o le s
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f . D at i ve e x t er n al p o s se s so r s. I n R o m an c e, c o n t in e nt a l W es t G M C, G o t hi c ,
B a l t o- S l a vi c , H unga r i a n, G r e e k a nd A r m e ni a n, t he pos s e s s or i s e xpr e s s e da s a d a t i v e i n c e r t a i n k i n d s o f p o s s e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( G o t h i c afmaimait
i mm a a us o ‘ he -c ut -o ff h im -D at e ar ’) . T hi s c on st ru ct io n i s m is si ng i n
n on -S AE l an gu ag es , b ut a ls o i n M od er n E ng li sh ( se e S ec ti on 4.4.6 and
McWhorter 2002) . A m o n g t h e I E l a n g u a g e s , i t i s l a c k i n g o n l y i n E n g l i s h
a n d I n su l ar C e lt i c, a c co r di n g t o V en n em a nn (2003b: 3 5 6 ) .g . M an y o f t h e S AE l an gu ag es , i n cl ud in g R om an ce l an gu ag es , G M C a n d
A l ba n ia n , a l lo w n e ga t ed n o mi n al p h ra s es t o c a rr y t h e f o rc e o f s e nt e nt i al
ne ga ti on ( G othi c n i w ai ht s i m ‘ I a m n ot hi ng ’) . T he d is tr ib ut io n o f t hi s
p os si bi li ty i n G MC i s e xp lo re d i n S ec ti on 6.2.5. I t i s f o u n d i n a l l G M C
l an gu ag es e xc ep t O ld S ax on . N on -S AE l an gu ag es t en d t o r eq ui re a
s e nt e nt i al n e ga t or , t y pi c al l y a t ta c he d t o t h e v e rb .
h . P ar ti cl e c om pa ra ti ve s. T he S AE l an gu ag es – i nc lu di ng G MC ( Se ct io n
4.7.1) , R o ma n ce , B a lt o -S l av i c, B a lk a n l a ng u ag e s, H u ng a ri a n, F i nn i sh
a nd B as qu e, a cc or di ng t o H as pe lm at h – c ha ra ct er is ti ca ll y m ak e u se o f
a “ co mp ar at iv e p ar ti cl e” w hi ch i s n ot a p re po si ti on , a nd t hu s d oe s n ot
a f f e c t t h e c a s e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g n o m i n a l ( G o t h i c f r i j o n d a n s w i l j a s ei n a n a
m ai s þ au g uþ ‘ lo vi ng t he ir o wn w il l m or e t ha n G od -A cc ’) . N on -S AE
l a ng u ag e s u s e a v a ri e ty o f d i ff e re n t d e vi c es .
i . A -a nd-B c onjunc ti on. Mos t E ur opea n l anguages , a cc or di ng t o H as pe lm at h,
i nc lu di ng t he S AE l an gu ag es , m ak e u se o f a n A -a nd -B c on st ru ct io n f or
c o n j u n c t i o n , a s o p p o s e d t o a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r d e v i c e s ( e . g . , A - a n d B - a n d ,
A B - an d ) f o un d e l se wh e re .
j. Relative clauses. Among the many strategies available for forming rela-
t i ve c l au s es ( S ec t io n 6 5 1 5 1) t he u se o f a s tr at eg y i nv ol vi ng r el at iv e
1 .2 D iv er ge nc e a nd c o nv er ge nc e i n t he G er ma ni c l an gu ag es 11
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O th er s d at e f ro m d if fe re nt p re hi st or ic e ra s ( Go th ic , f or e xa mp le , h as a p er ip hr as ti c
p a s s i v e b u t n o p e r i p h r a s t i c p e r f e c t ) , w h i l e a t l e a s t s o m e o t h e r s d a t e f r o m p o s t m e d i e v a lt im es . T hi s i s t ru e, f or e xa mp le , o f i nd ef in it e a rt ic le s, a nd t he e ve nt s w hi ch l ed t o
I c e l a n d i c a n d S w e d i s h b e i n g o n o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f t h e f e n c e w i t h r e s p e c t t o n o m i n a t i v e
e x pe ri e nc e rs . T h e S A E c o ns t ru c ti o ns a l so s o me t im e s d i ff er i n d e ta i l i n t h e l a ng u ag e s
t h a t s h a r e t h e m , i n w a y s w h i c h u n d e r m i n e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f c o m m o n o r i g i n . G M C , f o r
e x am p le , u s es ‘ b ec o me ’ a s t h e c a rd i na l p a ss i ve a u xi l ia r y, w h il e R o ma n ce u s es ‘ b e’ ,a n d i t i s n o t u n im a gi n ab l e t h at t h e t w o c o ul d h a ve o r ig i na t ed i n de p en d en t ly , s t ar t in g
o ut f ro m c op ul ar s en te nc es i n w hi ch t he p re di ca te w as a p ar ti ci pl e f un ct io ni ng a s a
s t at i ve a d je c ti v e. S i mi l ar l y, t h e c o re G M C r el a ti v e p r on o un s a r e b a se d o n d e mo n st r a-
t iv e p ro no un s w hi le t he r el at iv e p ro no un s o f R om an ce a re b as ed o n i nt er ro ga ti ve
pr onouns , a nd t he s ynt a c t i c a l l y c om pa r a bl e r e l a t i ve pr onouns of a nc i e nt G r e e k a ppe a r
t o h av e b ee n r el at iv e p ro no un s f ro m t he b eg in ni ng ( Fo rt so n 2004: 1 30 ). T hu s, we
m ig ht b e d eal in g h ere wi th th ree i nd ep en de nt re spo ns es t o th e b re ak do wn o f
t he i nh er it ed c or re la ti ve s yn ta x o f I E ( se e S ec ti on 6.5.1) , e sp ec ia ll y i n v ie w o f t he
d i f f i c u l t y o f d e f e n d i n g o n o t h e r l i n g u i s t i c o r h i s t o r i c a l e v i d e n c e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f o n e o r
m o re e r as o f c o nt a ct s u ff i ci e nt f o r d i ff u si o n o f t h e c o ns t ru c ti o n t o h a ve t a ke n p l ac e .
O th er a tt em pt s h av e b ee n m ad e a s w el l t o a cc ou nt f or f ea tu re s o f s ub gr ou ps o f
G MC , b y d if fu si on o f c on st ru ct io ns a cr os s m aj or l an gu ag e b ou nd ar ie s. L in ds te dt
(2000: 3 71 ) c la im s t hat t he lo ss o f s imp le p ast t en se i n s om e v ari et ies o f s po ken
G e rm a n a n d t h e e x te n si o n o f p r es e nt p e rf e ct t o t h e e x pr e ss i on o f ( i mp e rf e ct i ve ) p a st
t en se i s a n a re al d ev el op me nt , e nc om pa ss in g s ou th er n G er ma n a s w el l a s n or th er n
I t al i an a n d s p ok e n F r en c h.
1 .2 .2 T yp ol og ic al c la ss if ic at io n
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h is to ri es a nd t he ir v ia bi li ty o ve r t he l on g t er m; a ll o f t he n on -s ta te l an gu ag es m en -
t i o n e d a b o v e a r e a t c o n s i d e r a b l e r i s k o f e x t i n c t i o n . W i t h f e w e x c e p t i o n s ( Y I a n d P G ) ,t he s it ua ti on o f n on -s ta te G MC l an gu ag es i s m ad e y et m or e p ro bl em at ic b y t he f ac t
t h a t t h e y a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y s i m i l a r t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g d o m i n a n t l a n g u a g e s t h a t t h e y t e n d
t o b e d is mi ss ed a s “ me re d ia le ct s” o f t ho se l an gu ag es , a nd d en ie d r ec og ni ti on a s
i n d e p e n d e n t l a n g u a g e s , a l o n g w i t h s u c h p r e s t i g e a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n a s c o m e s w i t h t h a t
status.
1 .3 .1 E as t Ger ma nic
E as t GMC h as no s urv iv in g m em ber s. It i s re pres en ted ma in ly b y Go th ic ( GO),
p r es e rv e d i n s i xt h -c e nt u ry m a nu s cr i pt s o f p o rt i on s o f a f o ur t h- ce n tu r y B i bl e t r an s la -
t i o n , e i g h t l e a v e s o f a p i e c e o f b i b l i c a l e x e g e s i s ( n a m e d t h e Skeireins b y i t s f i r s t e d i t o r )
a n d s c at t er ed m i no r d o cu m en t s.1 G O a pp ar en tl y s ur vi ve d a s a l it ur gi ca l l an gu ag e
a lo ng t he D an ub e i nt o t he n in th c en tu ry , a nd a q ui te r em ar ka bl e s ur vi va l o f G O i nt o
m o d e r n t i m e s w a s d o c u m e n t e d i n t h e 1 5 6 0 s b y F e r d i n a n d O g i e r d e B u s b e c q , a F l e m i s h
d i p l o m a t , w h o r e c o r d e d a w o r d l i s t o f a b o u t a h u n d r e d i t e m s f r o m i n f o r m a n t s f r o m t h e
C r i m e a ( s e e S t e a r ns 1978) . G O i s w r i t t e n i n i t s o w n a l p h a b e t , b a s e d l a r g e l y o n t h a t o f
G r ee k w it h p o ss i bl e i n fl u en c e f r om L a ti n a n d G MC r u ne s , a p pa re n tl y d e vi s ed b y t h e
b is ho p W ul fi la , t o w ho m t he B ib le t ra ns la ti on i s a ls o a tt ri bu te d. O th er E as t G MC
l a ng u ag e s a r e k n ow n o n ly t h ro u gh m e ag e r o n om a st i c e v id e nc e . T h e r ec e iv e d v i ew i s
t ha t s in ce t he G O c or pu s c on si st s m ai nl y o f h ig hl y f ai th fu l t ra ns la ti on s f ro m G re ek
o r i g i n a l s , i t i s o f n o v a l u e f o r t h e r e c o v e r y o f G M C s y n t a x – a v i e w w h i c h t h e p r e s e n t
d i sc u ss i on w i ll c al l i n to q u es t io n .
A nt on se n (1975: 2 4ff .) ta kes th e p osi ti on t hat No rt hw es t GM C i s rec ord ed a t
r ou gh ly th e s am e t ime ( sta rt in g i n th e t hir d ce ntu ry ) i n a b ro ad a rea o f n ort hern
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b ri ef e pi gr ap hi c d oc um en ts i n t he o ld er futhark – p ar ti cu la rl y w it h r es pe ct t o t he
p re se rv at io n o f v ow el s i n u ns tr es se d s yl la bl es . I w il l c it e h er e w he re p os si bl e o nl ye x a m p l e s i n t h e e a r l i e s t p e r i o d o f t h e o l d e r futhark , w h ic h A n to n se n l a be l s N o rt h we s t
G MC , t ho ug h I w il l r ef er t o t he m m or e n eu tr al ly a s R un ic G MC . T he r un ic futhark
w ri t in g t r ad i ti o n p e rs i st e d l o ng a ft e r t h e s e pa ra t io n o f t h e N o rt h we s t G MC l a ng u ag e s,
s ur vi vi ng i n m od if ie d f or ms i n t he A ng lo -S ax on futhorc i n w hi ch t he e ar li es t E N
l i t e r a t u r e i s r e c o r d e d , a n d t h e y o u n g e r futhark , w h i c h r e m a i n e d i n u s e i n S c a n d i n a v i a nc ountr i e s unt i l m ode rn t i m e s.
1 .3. 2 We st Germ an ic
T he i nd iv id ua l l an gu ag es o f t he W es t G MC g ro up a re t he n ex t a tt es te d, O ld E ng li sh
(OE ) an d Ol d Hi gh Germ an (OHG) b ei ng d ocu men ted f ro m r ou ghl y t he ei gh th
c en tu ry , a nd O ld S ax on ( OS ) i n t he n in th c en tu ry , F ri si an ( FR ) a nd D U f ro m s ti ll
l a t er pe r i ods .
1.3.2.1 G er ma n a nd i t s s ib li ng s
S ta nd ar d G E i s c on ve nt io na ll y r ef er re d t o a s ( Ne w) H ig h G E. T he q ua li fi er ‘ Hi gh ’ i s
a t op og ra ph ic al t er m, r ef er ri ng t o t ho se v ar ie ti es s po ke n i n t he r el at iv el y h ig he r
e le va ti on s o f t he s ou th , a s o pp os ed t o t he l ow -l yi ng p la in s o f n or th er n G er ma ny .
L in gu is ti ca ll y, t he t wo v ar ie ti es a re m os t s al ie nt ly d is ti ng ui sh ed b y t he f ac t t ha t
H ig h G E v ar ie ti es p ar ti ci pa te d i n a ll o r p ar t o f t he c on so na nt c ha ng es k no wn a s t he
H i gh G e r m a n c ons ona nt s hi f t ( S e c t i on 3.1.1.3) . I n f a c t , t h e v a r i o u s d i a l e c t s o f G E c a nb e a rr ay ed o n a c li ne a cc or di ng t o t he d eg re e t o w hi ch t he y p ar ti ci pa te d i n t he se
c h an g es . T h ey a r e m o st f u ll y i m pl e me n te d i n t h e A l pi n e d i al e ct s i n S wa b ia , B a va r ia ,
A us tr ia a nd S wi tz er la nd b ut c ar ri ed t hr ou gh l es s c on se qu en tl y i n t he F ra nc on ia n
1 .3 A s ur v ey o f t he G er ma ni c l an gu ag es 15
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M id dl e H ig h G er ma n ( MH G) , f ro m t he e le ve nt h c en tu ry t o t he e nd o f t he s ix te en th
c en tu ry , a nd M od er n G E ( NH G) , f ro m t he e nd o f t he s ix te en th c en tu ry . T he o ri gi na ll i te ra t ur e f o r t h e f i rs t o f t h es e i s r e la t iv e ly s m al l , b e co m in g q u it e v o lu m in o us i n l a te r
pe r i ods . T he va r i ous va r i e t i e s of G E ha ve a bout 100, 000, 000 s pe a ke r s , c ons t i t ut i ng t he
l ar ge st l in gu is ti c c om mu ni ty i n W es te rn a nd C en tr al E ur op e. S ta nd ar d G E i s t he
o f fi c ia l l a ng u ag e i n A u st r ia ( 7 .5 m i ll i on ) , G er m an y ( 7 8 m i ll i on ) , L i ec h te n st e in , o n e
o f f ou r o ff ic ia l l an gu ag es i n S wi tz er la nd ( 4 m il li on ), w he re a m aj or it y s pe ak s S wi ssG E ( S c hw yz er t ut sc h) , a nd o ne o f f ou r o ff ic ia l l an gu ag es i n L ux em bo ur g. I t i s a ls o
s p ok e n a m on g m i no r it y p o pu l at i on s i n c en t ra l a n d e a st e rn E u ro p e a n d n o rt h er n I t al y .
T h e l a r g e s t n u m b e r o f G E s p e a k e r s o u t s i d e E u r o p e i s i n t h e U S A , w h e r e t h e r e a r e a s
m a ny a s 1 . 5 m i ll i on s p ea k er s .
T w o o t h e r W e s t G M C l a n g u a g e s , Y I a n d P G a r e b a s i c a l l y o f M i d d l e G E o r i g i n , a s
d e m o n s t r a t e d b y t h e d e g r e e o f t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e H i g h G e r m a n C o n s o n a n t s h i f t ,
t h o u g h t h e f a c t s o f Y I a r e c o m p l e x . T h e p r e c i s e d a t e a n d d i a l e c t o f t h e G M C s o u r c e o f
Y I , a n d t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r i t i s m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a W e s t G M C
l an gu ag e o r a s a “ fu si on l an gu ag e” a re a dd re ss ed i n J ac ob s 2005: 9 f f . A m a i n d i a l e c t
d i vi s io n a r os e b e tw ee n t h os e v a ri e ti e s s p ok e n i n G M C- s pe a ki n g c o un t ri e s ( We s te r n
Y I) a nd t ho se s po ke n i n t he S la vi c c ou nt ri es t o t he e as t ( Ea st er n Y I) . W es te rn Y I
d ec li ne d d ue t o l in gu is ti c a ss im il at io n t o G E, a nd t he v as t m aj or it y o f Y I s pe ak er s
s p e a k E a s t e r n v a r i e t i e s . T h e r e a r e f o u r m a j o r m o d e r n d i a l e c t s o f Y I : W e s t e r n , C e n t r a l ,
N or th ea st er n a nd S ou th ea st er n, S ta nd ar d Y I r ef le ct in g f ea tu re s o f t he l at te r t wo
(Jacobs e t a l. 1994: 3 90 ). Y I i s w ri tt en i n t he H eb re w a lp ha be t, a nd i s t hu s t he o nl y
m od er n G MC l an gu ag e n ot w ri tt en i n R om an l et te rs . ( Ex am pl es i n t he p re se nt w or ka re g iv en i n t ra ns li te ra ti on , f ol lo wi ng t he c on ve nt io ns o f t he p ar ti cu la r s ou rc e f ro m
w h i c h t h e e x a m p l e s a r e c i t e d . ) Y I i s s p o k e n b y a b o u t 5 m i l l i o n p e o p l e , i n N e w Y o r k ,
I s r a e l Me l bour ne Mont r e a l Me xi c o C i t y a nd B ue nos A i r e s ( J a c obs 2005: 3 ) I t i s n o t
16 1 I n tr o du c ti o n
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l a r g e m a j o r i t y t h e r e ( 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 ) , w i t h s m a l l p o p u l a t i o n s i n B e l g i u m a n d F r a n c e . I t i s n o t
m uc h u se d f or w ri tt en c om mu ni ca ti on , i n w hi ch d om ai n F re nc h a nd G E a re u se dinstead.
L i m b u r g e r , o r L i m b u r g s P l a t , a M i d d l e F r a n c o n i a n l a n g u a g e , m o r e o r l e s s m u t u a l l y
i n te l li g ib l e w it h R i pu a ri a n d i al e ct s o f G E , a cc o rd i ng t o G o rd o n (2005) , i s s p o k e n b y
aro un d 1 .5 m il li on p eo pl e in th e p ro vi nces o f L im bur g i n t he Ne th erl an ds an d
B el g iu m , h a vi n g o f fi c ia l s t at u s a s a r e gi o na l l a ng u ag e i n t h e f o rm e r.
1.3.2.2 D ut ch a n d i ts s i bl in gs
D U ( Ne de rl an ds ) i s t he d es ce nd an t o f O ld L ow F ra nc on ia n – t ha t i s, t ha t p or ti on o f
F ra nc on ia n W es t G MC w hi ch d id n ot u nd er go t he H ig h G er ma n c on so na nt s hi ft –
t h ou g h i t a l so s h ow s t h e e f fe c ts o f c o nt a ct w i th I n gv a eo n ic l a ng u ag e s. R ef l ec t in g t h e
l i n g u i s t i c c o m p l e x i t y o f n o r t h w e s t e r n c o a s t a l E u r o p e , D U h a s a w i d e r a n g e o f d i a l e c t s ,
w it h s o me t im e s r at h er l o w m u tu a l i n te l li g ib i li t y. C h ro n ol o gi c al l y, D U i s d i vi d ed i n to
O l d D U ( t o 1 1 5 0 ) , o f w h i c h o n l y s c a n t r e c o r d s e x i s t , M i d d l e D U , f r o m 1 1 5 0 t o 1 5 0 0 ,
w hi ch i s r ep re se nt ed b y a v er y s ub st an ti al o ri gi na l l it er at ur e, a nd M od er n D U, s in ce
1 5 0 0 . D U i s c u r r e n t l y s p o k e n b y a b o u t 2 1 m i l l i o n p e o p l e i n E u r o p e – 1 5 m i l l i o n i n t h e
N et he rl an ds a nd 6 m il li on i n B el gi um . T he v ar ie ty s po ke n i n B el gi um i s o ft en c al le d
V l a a m s ( F l e m i s h ) , a n d l i s t e d b y G o r d o n ( 2005) a s a s e p a r a t e l a n g u a g e , t h o u g h i t i s n o t
g e n e r a l l y s o t r e a t e d . D U i s a l s o a n o f f i c i a l l a n g u a g e i n f o r m e r D U c o l o n i e s i n S u r i n a m
a n d t h e D U A n t i l l e s , a n d i s s p o k e n i n I n d o n e s i a a s w e l l .
A F o r ig i na t ed f ro m D U d i al e ct s , t r an s pl a nt e d t o s o ut h er n A f ri c a i n t h e s e ve n te e nt h
c e n t u r y , t h o u g h i t h a s b e e n t r a n s f o r m e d b y m a s s i v e e f f e c t s o f l a n g u a g e c o n t a c t , a n d i s ,b es id es E N, t he G MC l an gu ag e w hi ch d ev ia te s g ra mm at ic al ly t he f ar th es t f ro m t he
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I n p r i n c i p l e , m e m b e r s o f a l m o s t a n y l e x i c a l c a t e g o r y c a n s e r v e a s t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f
t h e c o m p o u n d , a n d a n y o f t h e m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s , n o u n , a d j e c t i v e o r v e r b , c a n a p p e a r a s
t h e s e c o n d e l e m e n t . I n f a c t , c o m p o u n d s h e a d e d b y v e r b s a r e n o t c o m m o n i n G M C , a n d
n o t e q u a l l y p o s s i b l e i n a l l o f t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s . B o o i j ( 2002b: 1 4 1 ) r e p o r t s t h e m t o
b e u np ro du ct iv e i n D U, w hi le J os ef ss on (1998: 6 8) r ep or ts t ha t t he y a re r ea so na bl y
p ro du ct iv e i n S W. T he re i s s om e d ir ec t e vi de nc e o f t he ir n on -p ro du ct iv it y i n e ar ly
G MC : a s E yt hor ss on (1995: 2 4) p oi nt s o ut , G O ‘ re so lv es ’ s uc h G re ek c om po un ds a s
hydropote $o ‘ w a t e r - d r i n k ’ i n t o a s e p a r a t e v e r b p l u s o b j e c t ( d r i g gka n w a t o) . N o u n - a n d
a dj ec ti ve -h ea de d c om po un ds , o n t he o th er h an d, h av e f ro m t he b eg in ni ng b ee n
m a r k e d l y p r o d u c t i v e , a n d f i g u r e p r o m i n e n t l y a s a p o e t i c d e v i c e i n o l d e r G M C p o e t r y ,
i n t h e f o r m o f t h e f r e q u e n t m e t a p h o r i c a l c o m p o u n d s k n o w n a s kennings ( L a te r R uni c
walha-kurna ‘ f ore i gn c or n’ ¼ ‘ gol d’ , T j ur k bracteate, Antonsen 1975: 7 9 ) .
T h e d e ve l op m en t f r om a s t em - ba s ed l e xi c on t o a w o rd - ba s ed l e xi c on d i sc u ss e d i n
t he p re ce di ng s ec ti on i s a ls o v is ib le i n t he h is to ry o f c om po un d f or ma ti on i n G MC .
Lass (1994: 1 94 ) n ot es t ha t a d is ti nc ti on i s t ra di ti on al ly m ad e b et we en “ ge nu in e
c om po un ds ,” i n w hi ch t he f ir st e le me nt i s a s te m ( a r oo t p lu s t he a ss oc ia te d n ou n-
c l a s s m a r k e r ) a n d “ n o n - g e n u i n e ” c o m p o u n d s , i n w h i c h i t i s n o t . T h e f o r m e r i s t h e o l d e r
o f t he tw o, a nd th e o ne i nh er it ed fro m IE . L ass c it es GO fot-u-baurd ‘foot-board( st oo l) ’ a s a n e xa mp le , a nd f or ma ti on s o f t hi s s or t a re a bu nd an t i n t he c om po un d
n am es o f t he o ld er r un ic i ns cr ip ti on s ( Hle-wa-gastiz ‘ F am e -G u es t ’) . I n e a ch c as e , t h e
f i r s t e l e m e n t c o n t a i n s a n o u n r o o t a n d a n o u n c l a s s m a r k e r ( - u, -wa) b u t i t i s n o t a f r e e -
s t a n d i n g f o r m , l a c k i n g a c a s e a f f i x . T h e r e c a n b e o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s a s w e l l b e t w e e n t h e
f i r s t e l e m e n t o f a c o m p o u n d a n d t h e s a m e l e x i c a l i t e m i n i t s f r e e - s t a n d i n g f o r m . K l u g e(1913: 2 2 9 ) c i t e s s u c h e x a m p l e s a s G O mana-se þs ‘ m a n-s e e d’ , but mann ‘man’.
T h es e s t em c o mp o un d s l a te r b e ca m e i n cr e as i ng l y l e ss f r eq u en t , a c co r di n g t o L a ss ,
i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e n o u n - c l a s s s y s t e m a n d w e r e r e p l a c e d i n c r e a s -
2.2 Derivation 31
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s m a l l n u m b e r o f c a s e s e v e n i n G O , f o r e x a m p l e , gud-hus ‘temple (‘God-house’), þiu-
magus ‘servant-boy’, hauh- þuhts ‘ hi gh- s e em i ng’ ( B r aune 1973: 69), and become
i nc re as in gl y f re qu en t i n l at er G MC . T he s ec on d t yp e o f i nn ov at iv e c om po un d, t he
ge ni ti ve t yp e, in wh ich th e f ir st el em en t i s a n ou n wi th a g eni ti ve ca se su ffi x, i s
a p p a r e n t l y o f l a t e r o c c u r r e n c e . A c c o r d i n g t o K l u g e ( 1913: 2 2 9 ) a n d L a s s (1994: 1 9 5 ) ,
i t i s u ni qu el y r ep re se nt ed i n G O b y baurg-s-waddjus ‘ ci ty ’s w al l’ . I t i s a ls o r ar e i n
o t h e r e a r l y G M C l a n g u a g e s , a c c o r d i n g t o K l u g e , a p p e a r i n g f i r s t i n n a m e s f o r t h e d a y s
of the week (Wodnes-d æ g) as a calque on the Latin names, but it becomes more
f r eque nt l a t er .
I t i s n ot c le ar t ha t s uc h g en it iv e c om po un ds a re s ti ll i n u se i n t he m od er n G MC
l an gu ag es . T he re a re i nd ee d s om e i n w hi ch t he t wo n ou ns a re s ep ar at ed b y a m or -
p he me w hi ch s te ms f ro m, a nd l oo ks l ik e, a g en it iv e s uf fi x. S uc h a n e le me nt , f or
e xa mp le , i s f ou nd i n G E f or ms l ik e Liebe-s-gedicht ‘ lo ve p oe m’ a nd liebe-s-krank
‘ l ov e si c k’ . L a ss (1994: 1 95) n ot es t hat t he -s- c a nn o t b e a n al y ze d s y nc h ro n ic a ll y a s
a g e n i t i v e m a r k e r e v e n t h o u g h i t i s o n e b y o r i g i n s i n c e , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , - (e)s as a
g en it iv e c as e m ar ke r a pp ea rs o nl y o n m as cu li ne a nd n eu te r n ou ns i n G E, a nd Liebe
‘l ove ’ i s a fem in in e n ou n. T he se co mpo un ds t hu s re pres en t y et a t hir d t yp e o f
in no vat iv e co mp ou nd , i n wh ich t he two co mp on en ts are j oi ned b y a fi xed a ndm e a n i n g l e s s “ l i n k i n g ” m o r p h e m e . L a s s c i t e s a s a n e a r l y i n s t a n c e , t h e O E sta n- e- ge ll a
‘ st on e- ye ll er ( ke st re l) ’, i n w hi ch t he -e- a pp ea rs a s a s em an ti ca ll y e mp ty l in ki ng
e l e m e n t . E a c h o f t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s , i n a d d i t i o n t o “ r o o t ” c o m p o u n d s , h a s a s m a l l
i n ve n to r y o f s u ch l i nk i ng e l em e nt s . D U, f o r e x am p le , h a s t h re e s u ch e l em e nt s ( Bo o ij
2002b: 178): -s- , o f g en it iv e o ri gi n (schaap-s-kop ‘ sh ee p’ s h ea d’ ), -er - , o f p lu ra lo ri gi n, a nd [ -@] ( s om et i m e s w r i tt e n <en> i n o f fi c ia l o r th o gr ap h y) (schaap-e(n)-vlees
‘sheep-flesh’ ¼ ‘ mu tt on ’) , w hi ch i n s om e i ns ta nc es i s a c as e m ar ke r i n o ri gi n a nd i n
o t h e r s a w o r d - f i n a l -e- w h i c h w a s a p o c o p a t e d i n n o n - c o m p o u n d f o r m s T h e i n v e n t o r y
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t hat t hey ar e th erefo re s uffi xes o n th e f ir st me mb er o f t he c omp ou nd (s ee al so
Josefsson 1998: 6 1 ) . V i e w e d i n t h i s w a y , t h e s e c o m p o u n d s b e a r a c e r t a i n r e s e m b l a n c e
t o t h e o r i g i n a l s t e m c o m p o u n d s o f G M C . I n l a n g u a g e s o f f e r i n g a c h o i c e o f s u c h s t e m
e x te n si o ns , t h er e a r e t y pi c al l y s o me p a rt i al g e ne ra l iz a ti o ns a b ou t w h ic h o n es c a n b e
u s e d i n a g i v e n i n s t a n c e – a l l o f t h e m m a k i n g r e f e r e n c e , a s n o t e d , t o p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e
f ir st n ou n. T he se a re d es cr ib ed f or D U b y B oo ij (2002b: 1 8 0 ) a n d f o r D A b y A l l a n
e t a l. (1995: 5 4 4 ) , f o r e x a m p l e . J o s e f s s o n (1998: 6 0 ) r e p o r t s a p a r t i a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i n
S W a b o u t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o m p o u n d s w i t h t h e l i n k i n g e l e m e n t -s a nd t hos e w i t hout :
t he l in ki ng e le me nt m us t b e u se d i f t he l ef th an d m em be r o f t he c om po un d i s i ts el f a
compound: barnþbok þklubb ‘ bo o k c l ub f o r c h il d re n ,’ b u t barnþbok þsþklubb ‘club
f or c hi l dr e n’s books’ .
T h e l i n k i n g e l e m e n t , o r s t e m e x t e n s i o n , c a n s o m e t i m e s h a v e t h e s a m e s h a p e a s p l u r a l
morphemes.3 I n m os t s uc h c as es , h ow ev er , t he m or ph em e h as n o p lu ra l f or ce . T he re a re ,
t h o u g h , o c c a s i o n a l c o m p o u n d s i n t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s i n w h i c h t h e f i r s t e l e m e n t o f t h e
c om pound i s s e m a nt i c a l l y a s w e l l a s f or m a l l y pl ur a l . A l l a n e t a l . (1995: 3 3 ) c i t e i n D A ,
f or e xa mp le , s uc h c as es a s brnebrn ‘ g r an d ch i ld r en ’ , p l ur a l o f e t b a rn e b ar n ‘the
gr a ndc hi l d’ , e i t her barnef dsler or brnef dsler ‘ ch il db ir th s’ a s t he p lu ra l o f en
barnef dsel, and mdrehjem ‘ ho me f or m ot he rs ’. F or D U, B oo ij (2002b: 1 47 ) c it eshuiz-en-rij ‘ ro w o f h ou se s’ a nd n ot es s uc h c on tr as ts a s t ha t b et we en bedrijf-s-terrein
‘ c om pa ny a r e a ’ a nd bedrijv-en-terrein ‘ c om pa ni e s ’ a r e a ’ ( 2002b: 179) .
2.3 D i s co urs e p a rt icl es
O ne h ig hl y d is ti nc ti ve w or d c at eg or y s ha re d b y ( pe rh ap s) a ll o f t he G MC l an gu ag es
a nd a pp ar en tl y r ar e o ut si de t ha t f am il y, i s a c la ss o f s ho rt , u ns tr es sa bl e, t yp ic al ly
m onos yl l a bi c w or ds w i t h a t m os t va gue pr opos i t i ona l m e a ni ng w hi c h s i gna l s om e t hi ng
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f o r I C b y T h r ai ns so n (1994: 1 8 8 ) , f o r N O b y A n d v i k ( 1992) , f or F R b y H oe ks tr a a nd
T ie rs ma (1994: 5 28) , f or Y I b y Jac ob s (2005: 20 7) a nd for AF b y Dona ld so n (1993: 2 13 ).
T he p ar ti cl es i n q ue st io n a re s om et im es r ef er re d t o g en er al ly a s “ mo da l p ar ti cl es ”
(e.g., Arndt 1960; A bra ham 2000; F oo le n 1995) , w hi l e ot he rs ( Ai j me r 1996) s e e m t o
r es tr ic t t hi s l ab el t o t he s ub se t o f t he m w hi ch c on ve y e pi st em ic m od al it y ( th at i s, i nf or -
m a ti on a bout t he s pea ker ’s be li e fs c onc er ning t he pr oposi t ion). O the r l a be l s a t ta c he d t o
them are “discourse particles” or “discourse markers,” “metacommunicative particles,”
“ fi ll er w or ds ” a nd “ sh ad i ng p ar ti cl es ” ( Abto nungspartikeln: Z if on u n et al. 1997). In
t he p re sen t t re at me nt , I w il l r ef er t o t he m a s “ di sc ou rs e p ar ti cl es ” ( gl os se d a s P AR T i n
the examples).
D i sc o ur s e p a r ti c le s c a n b e c at e go r iz e d i n a v a ri e ty o f d i ff e re n t w ay s , a n d t h e r e a de r i s
r e fe r r ed t o t he r e f er e nce s c i t e d f or va r ious c a t egor iz a t i on s c hem e s . D a vids e n-N i e ls e n
(1996: 2 8 5 ) d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n a g r o u p o f p a r t i c l e s i n D A w h i c h a r e o r i e n t e d t o w a r d
t h e h e a r er ( 2 .2 a ) a n d a s e co n d s e t, i l lu s tr a te d i n ( 2 .2 b ), w h ic h a r e o r i e nt e d t o wa r d t h e
s pe ak er , “ in t he s en se t ha t t he y r ef le ct t he s pe ak er ’s c on ce pt io n o f, o r a tt it ud e t o, h is o wn
know l e dge of t he s t a t e of a f f a i r s r e f e r r e d t o” ( D a vi ds e n- N i e l s e n 1996: 2 8 5 ) .
I n t he f ir st c as e ( 2. 2a ), t ha t o f h ea re r- or ie nt ed p ar ti cl es , jo s i gn a ls t h e s p ea k er ’ s
e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t t h e k n o w l e d g e e x p r e s s e d i n t h e p r o p o s i t i o n i s s h a r e d a n d a c c e p t e d b y
t he he a r e r , w hi l e da and nu s i gna l , t o va r yi ng de gr e e s , t he s pe a ke r ’ s e xpe c t a t i on t ha t t he
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w her e t he ja s ig na ls t he a ss um pt io n t ha t t he k no wl ed g e i s s ha re d a nd a gr ee d t o b y t he
he a r e r , a nd ( 2. 3b) , w he r e t he doch s i gna l s t ha t t he he a r e r i s be i ng r e m i nde d of s om e t hi ng
k no wn b ut f or go tt en . T o t hi s c la ss m ay p er ha ps b e a dd ed p art ic le s w hi ch s er ve a s
i ns tr uc ti on s t o t he h ea re r a bo ut h ow t o i nt er pr et r eq ue st s o r c om ma nd s, r en de ri ng
t he m s of te r a nd m or e p ol it e i n s om e i ns ta nc es , a s i n S W ( 2. 3c ), G E ( 2. 3d .) , D U ( 2. 3e .)
( “d ow n- gr ad ers ” o r “ do wn -t on er s”) , a nd m or e e mp hat ic i n o th ers , a s i n G E ( 2. 3f )
( A br ah a m’ s “ u p- g ra d er s ”) . I n c o mm a nd s , a s Z i fo n un et al . (1997: 1 21 9) n ot e, s uc h
p art ic les an ti ci pat e t he d eg ree o f re cep ti ven es s o n t he p art o f t he h eare r t o th e
c o mm a nd , r e fl e ct i ng t h e s p ea k er ’s a s su m pt i on a b ou t t h e e x te n t t o w h ic h t h e h e ar e r i s
p re pa re d t o c ar ry o ut t he r eq ue st ed a ct io n. A f ur th er i ns ta nc e o f a d is co ur se p ar ti cl e
a ff ec ti ng i ll oc ut io na ry f or ce i s t he Y I e xa mp le i n ( 2. 3g ), i n w hi ch t he p re se nc e o f
the den s ig na ls t ha t t he q ue st io n i s o ff er ed r he to ri ca ll y, a nd a n eg at iv e a ns we r i s
presupposed.
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i n te r pr et a ti o ns i n t h e e a rl y l a ng u ag e s ( E le n ba a s 2003) , t he y h av e i n m an y i ns ta nc es
l os t t he ir o ri gi na l l ex ic al s em an ti c c on te nt e nt ir el y, a nd a re o nl y i nt er pr et ab le i n
co mbi nat io n wi th t he v erb . W e m ay di st ing ui sh t wo s ub ty pes . In on e o f th em,
i di oma t i c ve r b- pa rt i c l e c om bina t i ons , t he c om bina t i on ha s a nonc om pos it i onal m e a n-
i ng . T ha t i s, t he m ea ni ng o f t he w ho le c an no t b e c om pu te d f ro m t he m ea ni ng s o f i ts
c o m p o n e n t p a r t s . I n c a s e s l i k e G E nach¼schlagen ( l i t e r a l l y, ‘ a f t e r - s t r i ke ’ ) or E N look
up, t he m ea ni ng ‘ co ns ul t a r ef er en ce s ou rc e f or ’ i s s im pl y a ss ig ne d t o t he w ho le
p h r a s a l v e r b , a n d n o c o m p o n e n t o f i t c a n b e s p e c i f i c a l l y a t t r i b u t e d t o up, f o r e x a m p l e .
I n t h i s f e a t u r e , i d i o m a t i c p h r a s a l v e r b s a r e l i k e c o m p o u n d s , w h o s e m e a n i n g s a l s o t e n d
t ow a r d nonc om pos i t i ona l i t y ( egghead , flatfoot ) , a n d i t i s c l e a r a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t w e a r e
d e a l i n g w i t h i t e m s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e a s i n g l e l e x i c a l i t e m i n s o m e s e n s e , i n s p i t e o f t h e i r
a p p a r e n t s y n t a c t i c c o m p l e x i t y . S i n c e i t i s n o t c o m p u t a b l e f r o m i t s p a r t s , a s J a c k e n d o f f
(2002: 7 3) n ot es , th e me an in g o f l oo k u p m us t b e l ist ed as an e nt ry i n o ur m en tal
l ex ic on s. T he s ec on d i nn ov at iv e t yp e o f p hr as al v er b i s o f a m or e r eg ul ar s or t; t he
v e r b a l p a r t i c l e h a s a g a i n l o s t i t s o r i g i n a l d i r e c t i o n a l m e a n i n g , b u t h a s d e v e l o p e d a n e w
m ea ni ng r el at in g t o t he s ha pe o f t he a ct io n d es cr ib ed b y t he v er b. D en is on (1981)
i d e n t i f i e s a s a c a r d i n a l i n s t a n c e o f t h i s t y p e t h e “ c o m p l e t i v e up, ” r e pr e s e nt e d i n e a t u p,
b re a k u p, f il l u p, f or e xa mp le . D en is on n ot es t ha t t hi s u se b el on gs t o t he s em an ti cd om ai n o f Aktionsart , o r v er ba l a sp ec t; t he p ar ti cl e a lt er s t he c on to ur o f t he a ct io n
d e n o t e d b y t h e s i m p l e x v e r b , i n d i c a t i n g i n t h i s c a s e t h a t t h a t a c t i o n t o o k p l a c e u p t o t h e
p o in t o f l o gi c al , i r re v er s ib l e c o nc l us i on . W ed e l (1997) r ef er s t o t hi s a s “ co mp le xi ve
a sp ec t. ” D en is on n ot es t ha t t he a sp ec tu al u se o f v er ba l p ar ti cl es i s a ls o e xe mp li fi ed ,
t hough l e s s pr oduc t i ve l y, by t he pa r t i c l e s i n ki l l o f f , chatter away. Jackendoff (2002: 7 7 )o b s e r v e s t h a t i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s t h e a d d i t i o n o f a n a s p e c t u a l p a r t i c l e a l s o h a s t h e e f f e c t
o f c ha ng in g t he v al en cy o f t he v er b; d ur at iv e p hr as al v er bs w it h t he p ar ti cl es on or
away c a nn o t t a ke d i re c t o b je c t a rg u me n ts e v en t h ou g h f o rm e d f r om t r an s it i ve v e rb s :
40 2 T he G e rm an ic l ex ic on
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i t er a ti v e/ i n te n si v e w e ak v e rb draibjan ‘ to p la gu e’ ( or p er ha ps , ‘ to d ri ve t o d is tr ac ti on ’) ,
t he n ew s em an ti c e le me nt o f r ep ea te d a ct io n b ei ng c on tr ib ut ed by t he s uf fi x. T he r ol e o f
p r e f i x e s i n e n c o d i n g a s p e c t i s e x e m p l i f i e d b y G O itan ‘eat’, fra-itan ‘ e a t u p , d e v o u r ’ .
A n u m b e r o f p r e f i x e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , h a d t h e e f f e c t o f m a r k i n g t h e v e r b f o r c o m p l e x i v e
a s pe c t ( s e e W e de l 1997 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s c h o l a r s h i p i n t h i s a r e a ) . B y t h e t i m e o f
m e di e va l G MC , h o we v er , t h e s u ff i xa l e n co d in g o f c o nt r as t s i n v e rb a l a s pe c t, a l re a dy
unpr oduc t i ve f or hundr e ds of ye a r s , ha d a l s o be c om e m or phol ogi c a l l y opa que . T hi s l e f t
o nl y t he p re fi xa l s tr at eg y. T he l ow er r ec ep ti vi ty o f G E t o t he d ev el op me nt o f t he
complexive up c on s tr u ct i on , D en i so n s u gg e st s , m a y b e c o nn e ct e d w it h t h e f a ct t h at ,
u n l i k e E N a n d t h e S c a n d i n a v i a n l a n g u a g e s , G E h a s r e t a i n e d m o r e o f t h e t r u e , i n s e p a r -
a b l e p r e f i x e s w h i c h c o n v e y t h e s a m e c o n c e p t o f c o m p l e x i v e a c t i o n ( e . g . , erdenken ‘to
t hi nk out / up’ , verhu llen ‘ t o w r a p u p ’ , zerfetzen ‘ t o t e a r u p ’ ) .
M or e g en er al ly , D en is on (1981: 5 2) s ug ge st s t ha t t he e ar ly d ev el op me nt o f t he
p ar ti cl e c on st ru ct io n i n t he S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es m ay b e l in ke d t o t he e ar ly a nd
g en er al l os s o f G MC p re fi xe s i n N or th G MC d es cr ib ed i n H eu sl er 1967: 40–41 –
i nf or ma ti on p re vi ou sl y e nc od ed i n t he p re fi x c om in g t o b e e nc od ed i ns te ad b y t he
v e rb a l p a rt i cl e . T h e n a tu r e o f t h e c o nn e ct i on h a s b e en v a ri o us l y i n te r pr e te d . F aa r lu n d
(1994: 7 0) p ro po se s t ha t t he p hr as al -v er b s tr at eg y a ro se i n S ca nd in av ia n a s a w ay o f r e m e dyi ng t he i nf or m a t i on l os s oc c a s i one d by t he di s a ppe a r a nc e s of pr e f i xe s : O N lu $ka
h ad c om e t o m ea n b ot h ‘ cl os e’ ( cf . O E b el uca n) a nd ‘ op en ’ ( OE o nl ucan ) i n c on se -
q ue nc e o f p re fi x- lo ss , a nd t he d ev el op me nt o f v er ba l p ar ti cl es , f or e xa mp le , i n lu $ka
upp ‘ op en u p’ , r es ol ve d s uc h a mb ig ui ty . H ow ev er , S am ue ls (1972: 8 4f. ) s ee ms t o
a dv an ce t he r is e o f p ar ti cl es a s t he c au se o f, n ot t he r es po ns e t o, t he l os s o f p re fi xe s;p re fi xe s w er e r ep la ce d b y t he v er ba l p ar ti cl es a s p ar t o f t he i mp le me nt at io n o f a
g e n e r a l p r e f e r e n c e w h i c h h e a l s o s e e s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e s h i f t f r o m p r e n o m i n a l t o e n c l i t i c
de f i ni t e a r t ic l e s f or e xa mpl e
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3
T he s ou nd sy ste ms o f Ge rma nic :
i n ve n to r ie s , a l te r na t io n s a n d
structures573580
3.1 S eg ment a l i nv en t o ries a n d al t ern at i o n s
3 .1 .1 T he o b st ru en ts : p l ac e a nd m a nn er o f a r ti cu la ti on
3.1.1.1 Stops
T he G MC l a ngua ge s ha ve r e l a t i ve l y r i c h, t hough not pa r t i c ul a r l y e xot i c , i nve nt or i e s of
o b st r ue n t c o ns o na n ts ( s to p s, a ff r ic at e s a n d f ri c at i ve s ). T h e i n ve n to r y w h ic h w e c a nr ec on st ru ct f or c om mo n G MC i s g iv en i n ( 3. 1) , t ho ug h n ot a ll o f t he se o pp os it io ns
w e re di s t inc t i ve .1 T hi s i nv en to ry i s d is ti ng ui sh ed f ro m t he s ys te m f ou nd i n I E b y t he
r e l a t i ve l y l a r ge num be r of f r i c a t i ve s i t c ont a i ns . I t i s di s t i ngui s he d f r om t he i nve nt or i e s
o f m a n y o f t h e l a t e r G M C l a n g u a g e s i n l a c k i n g a f f r i c a t e s . S o m e o f t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s
a ls o h av e l on g ( ge mi na te ) v ar ia nt s o f t he se o bs tr ue nt s. C on so na nt l en gt h, a s w el l a sv o we l l e ng t h, w i ll b e t r ea t ed l a te r, a s a s u pr as e gm e nt a l f e at u re .
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S o me o f t h e d e ve l op m en t s l e ad i ng t o t h is i n ve n to r y a r e s t ap l es o f a n y i n tr o du c ti o n
t o h i st o ri c al l i ng u is t ic s b e ca u se o f t h ei r e ar l y d i sc o ve r y a n d t h ei r i m po r ta n ce f o r t h e
de ve lopm e nt of t he m e t hodol ogy of hi s t or i c al / c ompa r at i ve l i nguis t i cs . T he s e i nc l ude
s uc h e ve nt s a s t he F ir st a nd S ec on d C on so na nt S hi ft s ( th e f or me r m or e c om mo nl y
k no wn a s “ Gr im m’ s L aw ,” t ho ug h G ri mm ’s f or mu la ti on s ub su me d b ot h o f t he se
s h if t s) a n d V er n er ’s L a w. I n te r es t in g ly , c er t ai n a s pe c ts o f t h es e s o un d c h an g es h a ve
r em ai ne d r ef ra ct or y i n s pi te o f h av in g b ee n e xa mi ne d a nd r ee xa mi ne d o ve r g en er -
a t i o n s . W i t h i n t h e l a s t f e w y e a r s t h e r e h a s b e e n a r e n e w a l o f i n t e r e s t i n t h e m , a s r e c e n t
d ev el op me nt s i n p ho ne ti cs a nd p ho no lo gi ca l t he or y g iv e u s n ew w ay s o f r eg ar di ng
t h e m , a n d a n e w p i c t u r e i s e m e r g i n g o f t h e s e G M C h a l l m a r k s .
C o m m o n G M C , a n d m o s t o f t h e l a n g u a g e s d e s c e n d i n g f r o m i t , e x h i b i t p a i r e d s e t s o f
s t o p c o n s o n a n t s , { / p , t , k / / b , d , g / } w h i c h c o n t r a s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o l a r y n g e a l f e a t u r e s –
t hat i s, t he a ct iv it y o f t he g lo tt is d uri ng t hei r a rt icu lat io n. T he t wo s ets are n otr ep re se nt ed e qu al ly i n a ll e nv ir on me nt s; t he / b, d , g / s et a pp ea rs i n s om e l an gu ag es
o nl y i n c er ta in e nv ir on me nt s, a lt er na ti ng w it h f ri ca ti ve s i n o th er e nv ir on me nt s, a s
d is cu ss ed b el ow . I n D U a nd A F t he / g/ i s l ac ki ng e xc ep t i n l oa nw or ds , a nd D U/ AF
w o r d s w h o s e c o g n a t e s i n o t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s h a v e a s t o p / g / e x h i b i t d o r s a l f r i c a t i v e s
i ns t ea d ( B ooij 1995: 7 ) .F o r G M C, t h e f e at u re s [ l ab i al ] , [ co r on a l] a n d [ d or s al ] a re s u ff i ci e nt t o c h ar a ct e ri z e
t h e p l a c e c o n t r a s t s i n t h i s i n v e n t o r y . [ C o r o n a l ] s o u n d s a r e , r o u g h l y , t h o s e p r o d u c e d b y
r ai si ng t he b la de o f t he t on gu e t o t he r oo f o f t he m ou th , a nd a re d is ti ng ui sh ed f ro m
[ l a b i a l ] s o u n d s , a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h t h e l i p s , a n d [ d o r s a l ] s o u n d s , a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h t h e b a c k
o f t he t on gu e. L at er G MC l an gu ag es e xh ib it a c on tr as t b et we en t wo t yp es o f c or on als o un d s: d e nt a l/ a lv e ol a r a n d p a la t al . W e c an a c co m mo d at e t h is b y f u rt h er s u bd i vi d in g
t h e [ c o r o n a l ] c o n s o n a n t s i n t o [a nt e r i or ] va r i e t i e s . I n t he G MC l a ngua ge s , t hi s f e a t ur e
i s o f i mp or ta nc e o nl y f or f ri ca ti ve s; n on e o f t he se l an gu ag es h as a c on tr as ti ve s et o f
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i h t i t i f t h h ti t t f t h ti ( M l t 1954 12
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p r ec i se c h ar a ct e ri z at i on o f t h e p h on e ti c c o nt e nt o f t h es e n o ti o ns . ( M ou l to n 1954: 12
de s c r i be s f or t i s c ons ona nt s a s “ a r t i c ul a t e d w i t h r e l a t i ve l y gr e a t m us c ul a r e ne r gy. ” ) T he
m or e r ec en t i nv es ti ga to rs m en ti on ed h av e c on ve rg ed o n t he v ie w t ha t w ha t s et s t he
t wo s er ie s a pa rt m os t s al ie nt ly i n t he l an gu ag es i n q ue st io n i s t he a co us ti c e ff ec t o f
“ a sp i ra t io n ,” a s so c ia t ed w i th w i de l y s e pa r at e d v o ca l b a nd s [ s pr e ad g l ot t is ] , o r , i n t h e
v i e w o f J e s s e n ( 1996) , t h e f e a t u r e [ t e n s e ] , o f w h i c h a s p i r a t i o n i s t h e b a s i c ( t h o u g h n o t
t he o nl y) a co us ti c m an if es ta ti on . M em be rs o f t he s er ie s / p, t , k / i n G MC l an gu ag es
t en d t o b e a rt ic ul at ed w it h a s pr ea d g lo tt is , a nd t he re fo re s tr on g a sp ir at io n ( Je ss en
1996, 1998; I ve rs on a nd S al mo ns 1995, 1 99 9, 2 00 3; J es se n a nd R in ge n 2002 and
o t h e r s ) . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e a c c o u n t s , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t / b , d , g / a r e v o i c e d a t a l l i n s u c h
l a n g u a g e s a s G E , i t i s a m a t t e r o f “ p a s s i v e v o i c i n g ” i n v o i c e d s u r r o u n d i n g s o f s e g m e n t s
w hic h ha ve no i nhe r ent voic i ng or ot he r l a rynge a l s pec i fi c at i on. ( I ve r son a nd S a lm ons
2003: 52n obs e r ve , but do not e xpl a i n, t he f a c t t ha t s om e l a ngua ge s but not ot he r s e xhi bi ts uch pa ss i ve voic i ng. Moult on 1954: 1 3 n o t e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t t h e / b , d , g / s e r i e s a r e
t ypic a ll y voic ed i n nort her n G E , but norm a ll y voic e le s s i n s outhe rn G E .)
T hu s, f or s om e G MC l an gu ag es , a t l ea st , t he b as ic c on tr as t i n s to ps a pp ea rs t o b e
b et we en a s er ie s s pe ci fi ed f or [ sp re ad g lo tt is ] a nd a s er ie s u ns pe ci fi ed f or l ar yn ge al
f ea tu re s, w hi ch m ay o r m ay n ot g et v oi ci ng f ro m n ei gh bo ri ng s ou nd s. I ve rs on a ndS al mo ns ( 20 03 ) p ro je ct t hi s o nt o t he p ar en t l an gu ag e, a rg ui ng t ha t t he a dd it io n o f
[ sp re ad g lo tt is ] t o t he l ar yn ge al ly u nm ar ke d c on so na nt s / p, t , k / o f I E w as a G MC
i n n o v a t i o n , w h i c h t h e y l a b e l t h e “ G e r m a n i c E n h a n c e m e n t , ” a n d t h e y i d e n t i f y i t a s t h e
m a i n d e p a r t u r e o f G M C f r o m I E c o n s o n a n t i s m , a n d a c e n t r a l a n d p e r s i s t e n t c h a r a c t e r -
i st ic o f G MC c on so na nt is m w hi ch p la ye d a n i mp or ta nt r ol e i n m an y s ub se qu en tde ve lopm e nt s , i nc l udi ng G r i mm ’ s L a w .
In s ti ll o th er GMC l an gu ag es , o n t he o th er h an d, su ch as DU, th e / p, t , k / se t i s
u n as p ir a te d o r o n ly w ea k ly a s pi r at e d s o a s pi r at i on c an n ot b e t h e s i gn i fi c an t f e at u re
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T he I ng va eo ni c a nd S ca nd in av ia n d ev el op me nt s l ed t o a t ot al n eu tr al iz at io n o f t he
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T he I ng va eo ni c a nd S ca nd in av ia n d ev el op me nt s l ed t o a t ot al n eu tr al iz at io n o f t he
v oi ce o pp os it io n i n f ri ca ti ve s, t ho ug h i n t wo d if fe re nt w ay s. I n t he I ng va eo ni c l an -
g ua ge s, t he c om bi na ti on o f i nt er vo ca li c v oi ci ng a nd f in al d ev oi ci ng o f f ri ca ti ve s
r e su l te d i n t h e v o ic e d o n es o c cu r ri n g o n ly m e di a ll y a n d t h e v o ic e le s s o n es o c cu r ri n g
i ni ti al ly a nd f in al ly , w it h c on ti nu in g c on se qu en ce s f or d is tr ib ut io n i n t he m od er n
l an gu ag es . S uc h v oi ci ng c on tr as ts a s e xi st i n M od er n E N f ri ca ti ve s a re m os tl y d ue t o
b or ro wi ng aft er t he OE p er io d (either , ether ) , o r e ff ac em en t o f t he i nt er vo ca li c
e nv ir on me nt i n w hi ch t he v oi ce d f ri ca ti ve s a ro se (breath, breathe).4 I n F R, v oi ce d
f r ic at i ve s s t il l d o n o t o c cu r i n it i al l y, e v en i n l o an w or d s, b u t t h e d i st r ib u ti o n o f v o ic e d
a nd v oi ce le ss f ri ca ti ve s i n f in al p os it io n h as b ec om e c om pl ex ( th ou gh p re di ct ab le )
(Visser 1997: 4 9f .) . I n O N, a nd i n l at er S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es , a s li gh tl y d if fe re nt
d i st r ib u ti o n i s f o un d , v o ic e le s s f r ic a ti v es o c cu r ri n g o n ly i n it i al l y, a n d t h e v o ic ed o n es
postvocalically (Faarlund 1994: 4 2 ; H a u g e n 1982: 6 0 ) .M o re d i ff i cu l t t o a s se s s i s t h e r o le o f i n te r vo c al i c/ p os t vo c al i c f ri c at i ve v o ic i ng i n
e a r l y G E . G M C / y / underlies both the <th> of thaz ‘ t h a t ’ i n t h e O H G o f t h e F r a n k i s h
T at ia n t ra ns la ti on a nd t he <d> of uuirdit ‘b ec om es ’. W e c an no t i ma gi ne t ha t / y /
d ev el op ed d ir ec tl y i nt o / d/ i n t he l at te r. F or o ne t hi ng , w e n ot e t ha t t he / y / remains
w or d- in it ia ll y, w hi le t he / d/ a pp ea rs m ed ia ll y, i n v oi ce d s ur ro un di ng s. S to ps t en dt o wa r d f r ic a ti v iz a ti o n i n m e di a l e n vi r on m en t s, r a th e r t h an t h e o t he r w a y a ro u nd . W e
m u s t t h e r e f o r e s u p p o s e t h a t t h i s i s a n i n s t a n c e o f i n t e r v o c a l i c f r i c a t i v e v o i c i n g , o f / y / to
/ð/, and that the latter later occlusivized to /d/ in all environments, as happens
e l se w he re i n W es t G M C. T h us , G E , t o o p a rt i ci p at e d i n i n te rv o ca l ic f ri c at i ve v o ic i ng ,
t h ou g h c u ri o us l y r es t ri c te d t o t h e c o ro n al f r ic a ti v e.I n o t h e r d i a l e c t s o f G E , i n c l u d i n g l a t e r v a r i e t i e s o f F r a n k i s h O H G , t h o u g h , h i s t o r i c a l
/ y / appears as /d/ not just in medial positions but in initial and final positions as well;
the thaz o f T a t i a n s h o w s u p a s das i n S t a n d a r d G E T h e c h a n g e i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n a g a i n
d ev el op me nt s o f * /f / ! /b/ or */x/ ! /g/. Once again, it is significant that the sole
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p / / / / / / /g/ g , g
f ri c at i ve a ff e ct e d w as a c o ro n al .
T he c ha ng e o f / y / ! /d/ seems to have extended in late medieval times to DU and
L o w G E , w h i c h d o n o t o t h e r w i s e p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o n s o n a n t c h a n g e s o f
H ig h G E . G i ve n t h e c ro s s- l in g ui s ti c m a rk e dn e ss o f t h e i n te r de n ta l f ri c at i ve , h o we v er ,
i t i s p e rh a ps p o ss i bl e t h at t h is r e fl e ct s a n i n de p en d en t d e ve l op m en t .
P os tv oc al ic l en it io n o f t he s to ps / p, t , k / h as a ls o t ak en p la ce i n s om e S ca nd in av ia n
l an gu ag es , y i el di ng l en is o r v oi ce d s to p s i n s om e v ar ie ti es o f F A ( Ba rn es (1994: 1 9 3 )
a n d i n D A ( t h e “ D a n i s h C o n s o n a n t S h i f t ” – B a n d l e e t a l. 2002: 904f . ) , w he r e t he y l a t e r
developed in part into voiced fricatives (Haugen 1976: 80; G obl i r s c h 1994; B a ndl e e t a l.
2005: 1858) . P ost voc a li c l e ni t ion of s t ops , i n t he f orm of the de as pir a ti on of as pir a te d
s to ps a nd s om et im es t he f ri ca ti vi za ti on o f u n as pi ra te d s to p s, a ls o t oo k p la ce i n s om e
di al e ct s of MH G ( P aul 1989: 1 31 ff .) . I n s om e d i al ec ts o f I C, t oo , t he c on tr as t b et we enaspirated and unaspirated stops is neutralized postvocalically (Bandle e t a l. 2005: 1562) .
3 .1. 2 T he s on or an ts
N as al c on so na nt s h av e b ee n h ig hl y s ta bl e t hr ou gh ou t t he h is to ry o f t he G MC l an -g ua ge s, a si de f ro m l oc al a ss im il at or y p he no me na . A ll o f t he G MC l an gu ag es h av e a
[ la bi al ] n as al s to p / m/ a nd a [ co ro na l] s to p / n/ . S om e o f t he m od er n l an gu ag es a ls o
i n c l u d e a c o n t r a s t i v e v e l a r n a s a l / N /, arising from simplification of the sequence */ Ng/.
[N] h a s n o t b e c o m e d i s t i n c t i v e i n m o s t d i a l e c t s o f Y I , w h e r e t h e / g / o f / Ng / i s p r e s e r v e d
(Jacobs 2005: 1 13 ). I n I C a nd i n F A, t he / g/ i s p re se rv ed f in al ly a nd p re vo ca li ca ll y,rendering the preceding / N / predictable, but it is lost in front of consonants (IC þing [yINg]
‘ a s se m bly ( N om) ’ þings [þINs ] ‘ as se mb ly -G en ’) . I n G E, / g/ i s g en er al ly l os t i n t hi s
s equenc e S t andar d E N e xhi bit s t he s e que nc e m orphe m e- i nt e rna ll y but not m orphem e -
I ngva eonic /O N l os s of / n/ be for e f ri c at i ve s ( G E Gans ‘ go o se ’ v s. E N goose, SW ga°s),
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g g g g
the assimilation of nasals to following voiceless stops in common Scandinavian (Haugen
1982: 6 1) , r ef le ct ed i n I C binda ‘bind’, e $g b at t ‘ I bound’, t he c omm on S c andina vi a n
a ss im il at io n o f / y / to a preceding nasal (IC finna ‘ to f i nd’ , fundum ‘ we f ou nd ’) , t he
de ve l opm e nt of / nn/ t o / ð/ be f or e / r / i n W e s t S c a ndi na vi a n ( H a uge n 1982: 6 3 ) ( I C maður
‘man (Nom.)’/ manns ‘ m a n- Ge n’, ) t he de ve l opm ent of e pent he t ic s t ops be tw ee n na sa l s
a nd f ri c at i ve s i n va ri ous l a nguage s ( YI gans!gandz) a nd o th er s im il ar c ha ng es . S om e
a s pe c ts of t his “ c ons pi r ac y” m a y r e fl e ct unive rs a l t e nde nc i es ( s ee P a dge tt 1995).
M os t o f t he s ta nd ar d G MC l an gu ag es h av e o nl y a s in gl e / l/ a nd a s in gl e / r/ a t t he
l ev el o f c on tr as ti ve p ho no lo gy . T ha t i s, t he re a re n o d is ti nc ti ve c on tr as ts b et we en
d if fe re nt k in ds o f / l/ , o r d if fe re nt k in ds o f / r/ . M ar gi na l e xc ep ti on s a re E as te rn Y I,
w hi c h c ont r a s t s pa l a t a l i z e d a nd unpa l a t a l i z e d / l / ’ s ( J a c obs e t a l. 1994: 3 9 4 ) , a n d N O , i n
w h i c h a r e t r o f l e x f l a p / 8 /, arising from postvocalic /l/ and /rð/, contrasts with the apicalf la p / r/ i n a f ew f or ms ( Kr is to ff er se n 2000: 2 4) . T he p ho ne ti c r ea li za ti on o f t he se
l i qu i ds , h o we v er , v a ri e s q u it e w id e ly c ro s sl i ng u is t ic a ll y a n d i n i n di v id u al l a ng u ag e s.
/r/ sounds are particularly variable in GMC, as they are elsewhere, both in terms of
p la ce a nd m an ne r. / r/ i s v ar io us ly r ea li ze d i n G MC l an gu ag es a s a d en ta l, a lv eo la r,
v e l a r , u v u l a r o r r e t r o f l e x s o u n d , w i t h v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f f r i c t i o n . I t i s o f t e n a t a p , f l a po r tr il l, an d i n s ome v ar ie tie s an d s ome co nt ex ts a f ri cat iv e – fo r ex am pl e, so me
d i a l e c t s o f Y I , w h e r e i t i s r e a l i z e d a s / / (Jacobs e t a l . 1994: 3 9 4 ) , i n G E ( d e B o o r e t a l .
1969: 8 6) an d i n DA (Ha be rl an d 1994: 3 20 ). In E N, it is t yp ica lly r eal ize d a s an
( a pi c a l , m ol a r or r e t r of l e xe d) a ppr oxi m a nt w i t h no f r i c t i on. I n pr e c ons ona nt a l a nd f i na l
p o si t io n s, i t i s n o t i n fr e qu e nt l y r e al i ze d w i th v o we l -l i ke v a ri a nt s ( s ee E i se n be r g 1994:3 55 ) a nd t en ds s tr on gl y t ow ar d v oc al iz at io n o r l os s i n t hi s c on te xt i n v ar io us G MC
l a ngua ge s ( s e e H ow el l 1991: 4 2 ff .) .
M a n y G M C l a n g u a g e s i n c l u d e m o r e t h a n o n e v a r i a n t o f / r / I n s o m e c a s e s t h e y a r e
C l e a r e v i d e n c e f o r a n a p i c a l v a r i a n t o f / r / i n e a r l y G M C i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t i t
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me rg ed wi th GM C * /z/ i n s om e in st an ces . T hi s was t he i nv ar ia ble o ut co me i n
N or th we st G MC , w he re * /z / ‘ rh ot ac iz ed ’ t o / r/ , f al li ng t og et he r c om pl et el y w it h
i n he r it e d / r /. ( C ru c ia l ly , t h is i n cl u de d t h e p o st v oc a li c , p r ec o ns o na n ta l e n vi r on m en t ,
a s i n G O huzd ‘ t r e a s ur e ’ O E hord . ) G O d i d n o t t a k e p a r t i n t h i s c h a n g e , b u t , a s H o w e l l
n ot es , t he re w er e c as es i n w hi ch a * /z / i n G O a ss im il at ed t o a n ei gh bo ri ng / r/ , a s i n
*uz-rinnan ! urrinnan ‘ go o ut ’. I nt er es ti ng ly , t he re w as n o s uc h a ss im il at io n t o a
f o l l o w i n g / l / : *uz-laisjan ! uslaisjan ‘ e duc a t e ’ . T he s e a nd ot he r c ons i de r a t i ons w hi c h
h e d i s c u s s e s e s t a b l i s h t h e l i k e l y e x i s t e n c e o f a n a p i c a l / r / i n e a r l y G M C . W h e t h e r t h e r e
w a s i n a d d i t i o n a n o n - a p i c a l ‘ b a c k ’ / r / h a s b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f c o n t r o v e r s y . N u m e r o u s
s t udi e s , s um m a r i z e d i n H ow e l l ( 1991) , a l s o p r o p o s e a b a c k / r / o f o n e s o r t o r a n o t h e r , a t
l ea st p os tv oc al ic al ly , b as ed o n t he o bs er va ti on t ha t / r/ i s a mo ng t he t ri gg er s o f a
n um be r o f c ha ng es i nv ol vi ng t he l ow er in g o r b ac ki ng o f a p re ce di ng p al at al v ow eli n e ar ly G MC , a nd t ha t i t g en er al ly s ha re s t hi s r ol e w it h t he u nc on tr ov er si al ly b ac k
s o un d s / hx / a n d / w / . A m o n g t h e b e s t - k n o w n c h a n g e s a r e :
I t i s p re se nt i n Y I, a nd t he l at te r m us t h av e i nh er it ed i t b ef or e i t s ep ar at ed f ro m G E,
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s in ce n on e o f t he n ei gh bo ri ng l an gu ag es p ro vi de a s ou rc e f ro m w hi ch i t c ou ld b e
b o rr o we d . K i ng a n d B e ac h l o ca t e t h is s e pa r at i on i n t h e p e ri o d 1 5 00 – 16 5 0.
/l/ sounds similarly vary across the family, primarily with respect to whether they
a r e ‘ c l e a r ’ or ‘ da r k’ ( t ha t i s , a r t i c ul a t e d w i t h c onc ur r e nt pha r ynge a l i z a t i on or ve l a r i z a -
t io n) . I n ( th e s ta nd ar d d ia le ct s o f) S W, G E a nd I C, f or e xa mp le , “ cl ea r, ” a pi ca l / l/
p re va il s i n a ll c on te xt s, w hi le i n t he E N s ta nd ar ds , a nd i n s ta nd ar d N et he rl an ds D U
( Co ll in s a nd M ee s 1996: 1 97 ), t he y a re c om pl em en ta ri ly d is tr ib ut ed , “ cl ea r” / l/
a p pe ar i ng p r ev o ca l ic a ll y a n d “ d ar k ” / l / a p pe a ri n g i n s y ll a bl e c o da s . S o me d i al e ct s o f
E N h av e o nl y d ar k / l/ i n a ll p os it io ns , w hi le o th er s h av e o nl y c le ar / l/ i n a ll p os it io ns
( C o l l i n s a n d M e e s 1996: 1 6 9 ) , a n d , s i m i l a r l y , s o m e D U d i a l e c t s h a v e o n l y o n e o r o n l y
t h e o t he r ( C ol l in s a n d M e es 1996: 1 9 7 ) .
3.1.3 The vowels
T h e h i s t o r y o f t h e v o w e l s y s t e m s i n t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s h a s b e e n o n e o f e x t r a v a g a n t
p ro li fe ra ti on f ro m a n i ni ti al ly m od es t i nv en to ry . A c om pa ri so n o f t he G O i nv en to ry
w i t h t h a t o f a S w i s s G E d i a l e c t d e s c r i b e d b y M o u l t o n (1973) , t h e s h o r t v o w e l s o f t h e
D A d i al e ct o f C o p en h ag e n ( Ba n dl e et al. 2005: 1 86 2) a nd t he v ow el s of t he S un nmre
d i al e ct o f w e st e rn NO ( B an d le et al. 2005: 1 86 5) (w he re v ow el l en gt h i s n ot d is ti nc t-
i ve ) g iv es a s en se o f t he m ag ni tu de o f t hi s e xp lo si on i n c on tr as ts .
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A t t he p ho no lo gi ca l l ev el , t he G O s ho rt v ow el s f or m a t hr ee -v ow el s ys te m. T hev o w e l s / I / and / U / have mid-vowel allophones [e] a n d [O] r e s p e c t i v e l y , o c c u r r i n g i n t h e
br e a ki ng e nvi r onm e nt i l l us t r a t e d i n ( 3. 8a ) . ( L e hm a nn 1994: 2 3 c l a i m s t h a t t h e c o n t r a s t
h a s b e e n p h o n e m i c i z e d , b u t t h e f o r m s h e c i t e s a r e o f q u e s t i o n a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . ) T h e
l on g v ow el s ys te m i s s om ew ha t r ic he r, w it h h ig h, m id a nd l ow v ow el s, a nd a f ur th er
h ei gh t ( or t en se ne ss ) d is ti nc ti on a mo ng m id -v ow el s w hi ch i s p ro ba bl y p ho ne mi c,d e p e n d i n g o n h o w o n e i n t e r p r e t s v a r i o u s o c c u r r e n c e s o f t h e d i g r a p h s <ai> and <au>.
T he l ow v ow el / a: / i s o f m ar gi na l o cc ur re nc e, h av in g a ri se n o nl y b y w ay o f c om pe ns at or y
l e n g t h e n i n g o f / a / i n c a s e s o f c o m m o n G M C n a s a l l o s s / _ _ x ( / b r iNga n/ ‘ br i ng’bra:xta/
‘ I b ro ug ht ’) . G O v ow el s t he re fo re c on st it ut e a r at he r m od es t b ut t yp ic al i nv en to ry .
I n t h e 3 1 7 l a n g u a g e s o f t h e o r i g i n a l U C L A P h o n o l o g i c a l S e g m e n t I n v e n t o r y D a t a b a s e
( UP SI D) , a s r ep or te d i n M ad di es on 1 98 4: 1 26 , t he v as t m aj or it y o f l an gu ag es h av e
b e tw ee n f i ve a n d s e ve n v o we l s, a n d t h e f i ve p o si t io n s r e pr es e nt e d ( a t t h e a l lo p ho n ic
l e v e l ) i n t h e G O s h o r t v o w e l s a r e b y f a r t h e m o s t c o m m o n t y p e ( M a d d i e s o n 1984: 1 3 6 ) .
vow e l he i ght .6 C o nt r ib u ti n g t o t h e u n us u al l y l a rg e n u mb e r o f d i st i nc t v o we l q u al i ti e s
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i n t h e m o d e r n G M C l a n g u a g e s i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e t e n d t o b e q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s a s
w el l a s q ua nt it at iv e d if fe re nc es b et we en l on g a nd s ho rt v ow el s i n t he s ys te m. I n
g en er al , l on g v ow el s t en d t o b e h ig he r a nd t en se r t ha n t he s ho rt v ow el s, a nd t en d
t o wa r d d i ph t ho n ga l r ea l iz a ti o ns . B ec a us e o f t h is c l us t er i ng o f p r op e rt i es , i t i s o f te n a
m at te r o f c on tr ov er sy w he th er i t i s t he t en se /l ax o pp os it io n o r t he l en gt h c on tr as t
w hi ch i s m or e b as ic ( se e Z on ne ve ld e t a l. 1 99 9: 5 17 f. o n G E, f or e xa mp le ). I n t he
S c an d in a vi a n l a ng u ag e s w h er e v o we l l e ng t h h a s c ea s ed t o b e c o nt r as t iv e ( s ee S ec t io n
3.2.2) , t he h is to ri ca l d is ti nc ti on b et we en l on g a nd s ho rt v ow el s h as b ee n e nt ir el y
s u pe r se d ed b y q u al i ta t iv e d i ff er e nc es . I n I C , f o r e x am p le , f o rm e r s h or t / I / and former
l o n g / i : / n o w c o n t r a s t a s t e n s e a n d l a x ( o r h i g h a n d h i g h - m i d ( R o g e r L a s s p . c . ) ) . T h e y
c an b ot h b e l on g o r s ho rt , d ep en di ng o n p ho ne ti c c on te xt :
T h e m o de r n G MC l a ng u ag e s a r e, i n a n y c a se , e x ce p ti o na l ly v o we l -r i ch l a ng u ag e s,
w i t h m a n y m o r e c o n t r a s t s t h a n e a r l y G M C . I t w i l l n o t b e p o s s i b l e t o d o m o r e h e r e t h a np r ov i de t h e b r oa d es t s k et c h o f h o w t h is t r an s fo r ma t io n t o ok p l ac e.
3.1.3.1 U ml au t a n d f r on t r o un de d v o w el s
O n e m a j o r s o u r c e o f e n r i c h m e n t o f t h e G M C v o w e l i n v e n t o r y w a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t i n
t he N or th we st G MC l an gu ag es o f f ro nt r ou nd ed v ow el s, p ri ma ri ly t he p ro du ct s o f “ u ml a ut . ” U ml a ut – r eg r es s iv e a s si m il a ti o n o f t h e v o we l o f p r ec e di n g s y ll a bl e s t o t h e
q ua li ty o f t he u ns tr es se d v ow el o f a n i mm ed ia te ly f ol lo wi ng s yl la bl e – i s a mo ng t he
p e rs i st e nt h a ll m ar k s o f t h e G M C l a ng u ag e s h a vi n g o c cu r re d w it h d i ff e re n t e f fe c ts a t
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P a u l ( 1 9 8 9 : 4 8 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , l i s t s n i n e v o w e l o r d i p h t h o n g p h o n e m e s i n M H G w h i c h
a ro se t hr ou gh u ml au t t ri gg er ed b y a p al at al v ow el o r g li de i n t he f ol lo wi ng s yl la bl e
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a ro se t hr ou gh u ml au t t ri gg er ed b y a p al at al v ow el o r g li de i n t he f ol lo wi ng s yl la bl e
(<e, a, o, u, æ, , i u, ou, ue>).
A s m an y a s t hr ee d if fe re nt p ha se s o f u ml au t m ay b e d is ti ng ui sh ed , a ll o f w hi ch
r em a in o f s y nc h ro n ic i m po r ta n ce b e ca u se t h ey g a ve r i se t o v a ri o us k i nd s o f m o rp h o-
p ho ne mi c a lt er na ti on s i n t he G MC l an gu ag es . T he e ar li es t, a tt ri bu ta bl e t o c om mo n
G M C , i n v o l v e d a n i n t e r c h a n g e o f h i g h a n d m i d s h o r t v o w e l s i n t h e r o o t , d e p e n d i n g o n
t he h ei gh t o f t he v ow el o f t he f ol lo wi ng u ns tr es se d s yl la bl e. H ig h ( fr on t) v ow el s a ndg l i d e s i n a n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e r a i s e d a n / e / i n a p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e t o / i / ( “ i - u m l a u t ” ) ,
while low vowels lowered an /i/ in a preceding syllable to /e/ and an /u/ to /o/
(‘a-umlaut’).7
T h i s d e v e l o p m e n t r e s u l t e d i n o n e n e w s e g m e n t / o / , f i l l i n g t h e g a p l e f t b y t h e p r e - G M C
c ha nge / o/ ! /a/. It also introduced some morphophonemic alternations, such as that in
GE i c h h e lf e ‘ I h e lp ’ , d u h i lf s t ‘ y o u h e l p ’ . W e m u s t p l a c e t h i s p h a s e o f u m l a u t i n t h e
c om mo n G MC p er io d b ec au se i t m us t h av e p re ce de d t he e ar ly l os s o f t he u ns tr es se dv o w e l s w h i c h c o n d i t i o n e d i t i n f o r m s s u c h a s ( 3 . 1 1 b ) . I t s e f f e c t s a r e n o t i n e v i d e n c e i n
G O , t h o u g h , w h e r e t h e y h a v e b e e n o b s c u r e d b y a r a d i c a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g i n t h e d i s t r i b u -
t i o n o f [ i ] a n d [ e ] , [ u ] a n d [ o ] . A s e c o n d p h a s e o f u m l a u t , i n v o l v i n g t h e r a i s i n g o f / a / t o
/e/ when the following syllable contained a high front vowel or glide, on the other
h an d, t oo k p la ce o nl y i n N or th we st G MC , n ot i n G O: O HG gast / gesti ‘ gue s t s’ ; G O
gasts / gasteis [gastıs ]. A s t he O HG e xa mp le s s ho w, t hi s d ev el op me nt a ls o r es ul te d i n
m or phophone m i c a l t e r na t i ons . I t a l s o a f f e c t e d t he s e gm e nt a l i nve nt or y m a r gi na l l y: t he
n ew / e/ w hi le i t f el l t og et he r w it h i nh er it ed / e/ i n s om e l an gu ag es ( OE O S) r em ai ns
p ro pe rt y o f c ha ng in g t he h ei gh t o f a r oo t v ow el , b y w ay o f a pp ro xi ma ti ng ( fu ll y o r
p ar ti al ly ) t o t he h ei gh t o f t he c on di ti on er i n t he f ol lo wi ng u ns tr es se d s yl la bl e I n t hi s
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p ar ti al ly ) t o t he h ei gh t o f t he c on di ti on er i n t he f ol lo wi ng u ns tr es se d s yl la bl e. I n t hi s
r e s p e c t , t h e s e c h a n g e s a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m a t h i r d p h a s e o f G M C u m l a u t , i n w h i c h
o ri gi na ll y b ac k v ow el s w er e f ro nt ed , u nd er r et en ti on o f t he ir h ei gh t a nd r ou nd ne ss
f e at u re s , b y w a y o f a p pr o xi m at i ng t h e f ro n tn e ss o f a f o ll o wi n g p a la t al g l id e o r v o we l
( /i , j /) i n t he n ex t s yl la bl e. T he c ha ng es i nv ol ve d h er e y ie ld t he s et o f f ro nt r ou nd ed
v o w e l s w h i c h s o g r e a t l y e n l a r g e t h e i n v e n t o r i e s i n ( 3 . 9 c , d ) ; f o r e x a m p l e , a n d c h a n g e d
t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f c o m b i n a t i o n f o r p h o n e t i c f e a t u r e s . P r i o r t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f f r o n tr o u n d e d v o w e l s b y u m l a u t , r o u n d n e s s w a s p r e d i c t a b l e f r o m t h e v a l u e s o f t h e o t h e r t w o
d im en si on s o f v ow el v ar ia ti on – f ro nt ne ss a nd h ei gh t: a ll f ro nt v ow el s w er e u n-
r ou nd ed , a nd a ll n on lo w b ac k v ow el s w er e r ou nd ed . T hi s t hi rd p ha se o f u ml au t a ls o
r e su l te d i n e x te n si v e m o rp h op h on e mi c a l te r na t io n s, a s i n t h e e x am p le s i n ( 3 .1 2 ) f r om
O E. ( In t he se e xa mp le s, t he f ro nt a lt er na nt i s n ot a lw ay s r ou nd ed , b ec au se o f s ub se -q u en t u n ro u nd i ng , a s d i sc u ss e d b e lo w .)
T h i s s e t o f c h a n g e s s h o w s u p i n a l l o f t h e N o r t h w e s t G M C l a n g u a g e s , w i t h t h e n o t a b l e
e x c e p t i o n o f S t a n d a r d D U , s o m e o t h e r D U d i a l e c t s a n d c e r t a i n d i a l e c t s o f s o u t h e r n G E .
M o r e o v e r , i t t a k e s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e s a m e s h a p e i n a l l o f t h e l a n g u a g e s i n w h i c h i t o c c u r s .
H o w e v e r , w h e t h e r i t i s a c o m m o n i n h e r i t a n c e i n t h e s e l a n g u a g e s f r o m t h e i r N o r t h w e s t
m o r e r o b u s t l y i n M H G , t h o u g h n o t w i t h f u l l r e g u l a r i t y u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e E a r l y N e w
H ig h G MC p e ri o d ( Fe r ti g 1 9 96 )
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H ig h G MC p e ri o d ( Fe r ti g 1 9 96 ) .
T wo b as ic p os it io ns h av e b een t ak en o n t he fai lu re o f OHG an d OS t o r ep re se nt
f ro nt in g u ml au t. O ne o f t he se , f in di ng a n e ar ly e xp re ss io n i n T wa dd el l 1938 and
a d vo c at e d b y l a te r i n ve s ti g at o rs i n cl u di n g P e nz l (1949) a nd A nt on se n (1964) , i s t ha t
fro nt in g u mla ut d id t ak e pl ace i n th e co mm on an ce st or o f t he No rt hwes t GM C
l an gu ag es , c on te mp or an eo us w it h t he / a/ ! /e/ umlaut, and that the front roundedv ar ia nt s w er e n ot w ri tt en i n O HG s im pl y b ec au se t he y w er e s ub ph on em ic ; t he ir
o cc ur re nc e w as p re di ct ab le f ro m t he p ho ne ti c e nv ir on me nt . I n a dd it io n, t he ir n on -
r ep re se nt at io n m ay h av e b ee n i nf lu en ce d b y t he u na va il ab il it y o f c on ve ni en t a nd
o bv io us g ra ph ic al s ym bo ls f or r ep re se nt in g t he m. T he / e/ o f p ri ma ry u ml au t w as
w ri tt en , o n t he o th er h an d, b ec au se i t w as s pl it o ff f ro m i ts s ou rc e v ow el o wi ng t oi t s s i mi l ar i ty t o a p r e- e xi s ti n g p h on e me .
V o y l e s ( 1 9 9 2 a s w e l l a s l a t e r w o r k ) f i n d s t h i s a n a l y s i s p r o b l e m a t i c o n t h r e e g r o u n d s .
F ir st , t he e xp la na ti on o ff er ed f or t he s ys te ma ti c f ai lu re t o r ep re se nt f ro nt r ou nd ed
v ow el s i n e ar li er O HG i s q ue st io na bl e, s in ce i n n um er ou s o th er c as es , s cr ib es i n t he
e ar l y m e di e va l l a ng u ag e s, i n cl u di n g O HG , d o r ep r es e nt s u bp h on e mi c v a ri a ti o n, a n d
s i n c e , i n a n y c a s e , t h e v a r i a t i o n b e t w e e n f r o n t r o u n d e d v o w e l s a n d t h e i r b a c k r o u n d e d
s o u r c e s w o u l d h a v e b e e n r e n d e r e d c o n t r a s t i v e b y e a r l y l o s s o f t h e c o n d i t i o n e r i n s u c h
f or ms a s fullen in OHG ( 3 1 3b ) S eco nd i f i t were a co mm on No rt hwes t GM C
w h i c h w o u l d h a v e s e r v e d a s t h e p h o n e t i c c o n d i t i o n e r o f u m l a u t i n t h e s e f o r m s w o u l d
h av e d is ap pe ar ed c en tu ri es b ef or e t hi s h yp ot he si ze d L at e O HG u ml au t e ve nt . T he
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h av e d is ap pe ar ed c en tu ri es b ef or e t hi s h yp ot he si ze d L at e O HG u ml au t e ve nt . T he
m o de r n G E e x am p le s h ow s t h at i t h a s n o ne t he l es s u n de r go n e u m la u t. V oy l es a c co m -
m o d a t e s t h i s b y c l a i m i n g t h a t f r o n t i n g u m l a u t i n G E w a s n o t a p h o n e t i c p r o c e s s , b u t a
m or phol ogi ca l one . Fu llen i s a m em be r o f a p ar ti cu la r c la ss o f v er bs – c la ss 1 w ea k
v e r b s – u n i t e d b y a n u m b e r o f i n f l e c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; a l l o f t h e m h a d a s u f f i x - jan,
w h i c h e a r l y o n w a s r e d u c e d t o - en. T h e -en e ndi ng, di s t i nc t f r om t he i nf i ni t i va l e ndi ngs
o f o th er v er b c la ss es , a s w el l a s c er ta in o th er f ea tu re s, s er ve d t o d is ti ng ui sh c la ss 1w ea k v er bs f ro m o th er v er b c la ss es . I n s om e c la ss 1 w ea k v er bs – t ho se w it h a r oo t
v o w e l / a / – t h e r e w a s a l s o a n a l t e r n a t i o n b e t w e e n / a / i n s o m e f o r m s a n d / e / i n o t h e r s , a s
i n ( 3 . 1 4 a ) , c r e a t e d b y ‘ p r i m a r y u m l a u t ’ o f / a / ! /e/. The /e/ shows up in forms in which
t h e s u f f i x - j - w as p re se nt , w hi le / a/ a pp ea rs i n f or ms i n w hi ch i t h ad b ee n e li mi na te d
b e fo r e / a / ! /e/ umlaut took place.
T h es e a l te r na t io n s, a c co r di n g t o V o yl e s, s e rv e d a s t h e b a si s f o r t h e l a te O HG r es t ru c -
t u ri n g o f o t he r v e rb s o f t h e s a me c l as s b y r u le e x te n si o n/ a na l og y :
G E f ro n t r o un d ed v o we l s, a c co r di n g t o V o yl e s, a ri s e t h ro u gh t h es e a n al o gi e s. O t he r
l e xi c al c l as s es , s o me o f w h os e m e mb e rs i n cl u de d l e xi c al a l te rn a ti o n o f / ae / i n t h e i r
pa r a di gm , w e r e s i m i l a r l y r e s t r uc t ur e d, a s t hi s pa t t e r n w a s ge ne r a l i z e d t o a n a l t e r na t i on
/V[þback]V [– ba ck ]/ , a ga in y ie ld in g f ro nt r ou nd ed v ow el s a nd t he a pp ea ra nc e o f
f r on t in g u m la u t. A s a m o rp h ol o gi c al c h an g e, i n t h e p r oc e ss o f “ l ex i ca l ly e x pa n di n g, ”
t h is d e ve l op m en t a d mi t s o f l e xi c al e x ce p ti o ns – a n a s su m pt i on w h ic h a c co m mo d at e s
A s o lu t io n f o un d ed o n l a ng u ag e c o nt a ct a n d i n te r fe re n ce i s o f fe re d i n B u cc i ni 1988.
F in al ly , H ow el l a nd S al mo ns (1997) c on ne ct t he f ai lu re o f s ec on da ry u ml au t i n D U
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y , ( ) y
a n d f a i l u r e o f u m l a u t t o a p p l y t o / u / i n U p p e r G E d i a l e c t s , c l a i m i n g t h a t b o t h p r i m a r y
a n d s e co n da r y u m la u t c o ns t it u te d a s i ng l e h i st o ri c al p r oc e ss , c o mm o n t o N or t hw e st
G MC , b ut t ha t i t w as a s ca la r p ro ce ss , t he l ik el ih oo d o f w ho se a pp li ca ti on i n a g iv en
i ns ta nc e w as a f un ct io n o f t he p ho ne ti c d is ta nc e b et we en t he t ri gg er a nd t he a ff ec te d
v o w e l . T h e d i s t a n c e w a s g r e a t e s t w h e r e t h e t r i g g e r w a s a h i g h f r o n t v o w e l o r g l i d e a n d
t he a ff ec te d v ow el w as a l ow b ac k v ow el / a/ , a nd l es s w he re t he a ff ec te d v ow el w asi ts el f a h ig h v ow el , / u/ . I nd iv id ua l l an gu ag es w er e t hu s l es s l ik el y t o i mp le me nt t he
c h a n g e i n t h i s c a s e , a n d v a r i a t i o n i s t o b e e x p e c t e d . T h e f a i l u r e o f u m l a u t t o t a k e p l a c e
in glauben and suchen h a s a p h o n e t i c b a s i s , o n t h i s a c c o u n t .
P al at al u ml au t i s n ot t he o nl y s ou rc e f or f ro nt r ou nd ed v ow el s i n G MC . O th er s
i n c l u d e u - u m l a u t i n O N , i n w h i c h [ r o u n d ] s p r e a d f r o m a / u / o f a n u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e t ot he v ow el o f t he p re ce di ng s yl la bl e, u nd er r et en ti on o f o th er f ea tu re s ( *triggwz!
tryggur ‘ f ai th fu l’ ), r ou nd in g o f v ow el s i n N ew H ig h G E i n t he c on te xt o f c on so na nt s
w i t h l a bi a l a r t i c ul a t i on ( G E leffel! Lo ffel ‘ s poon’ ) , a nd s pont a ne ous f r ont i ng of / u( : ) / ,
f o r e x a m p l e , i n D U , S W a n d I C (suður [sY:ðYr ] ‘ s ou t h’ , H au g en 1982: 4 2 ) .
I n s o m e G M C l a n g u a g e s , f r o n t r o u n d e d v o w e l s h a v e b e c o m e u n r o u n d e d . I n O E , t h i st o o k p l a c e i n t w o s t a g e s , / , : / t u r n i n g i n t o / e , e : / v e r y e a r l y o n i n t h e s o u t h e r n d i a l e c t s
(though <oe> w ri ti ng s f or t he se p er si st i n t he n or th ) ( Ho gg 1992: 1 25 ), w hi le / y/
persisted until late OE. In many of the central Frankish dialects of GE (e.g.,
L ux em bo ur gi sh a nd P G) , a s w el l a s Y I, f ro nt r ou nd ed v ow el s h av e a ls o b ec om e
u nr ou nd ed . I n I C, t oo , h is to ri ca l / y/ h as l os t i ts r ou nd in g, a s i n yrki [IrkI] ‘ wo rk ’
(Haugen 1982: 4 2 ; B a n d l e e t a l. 2005: 1 12 0) . O n t he o th er h an d, s ev er al v ar ie ti es o f
Bri ti sh E N, as we ll a s s om e v ari et ies o f co lo nia l E N, h ave d ev el op ed n ew f ro nt
r ou nd ed v ow el s t yp ic al ly b y f ro nt in g [ u: ] ( La ss 1992: 5 3) S im il ar ly t he p la ce o f
i n di v id u al l a ng u ag e s b y m o no p ht h on g iz a ti o n ( o f a i!a i n O E , a i , a u!e, o in OS, for
e xa mp le ). C on ve rs el y, n ew i ns ta nc es o f c lo si ng d ip ht ho ng s h av e a ri se n f ro m l on g
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p ) y, g p g g
v ow el s t hr ou gh d ip ht ho ng iz at io n. I n M E, f or e xa mp le , t hi s o cc ur re d a s a p ar t o f t he
c om pl ex o f v ow el c ha ng es k no wn a s t he G re at V ow el S hi ft . A s im il ar d ev el op me nt
t oo k p la ce b eg in ni ng i n M HG ( OH G zit , M o d e r n G E Zeit ‘ t i me ’ , O H G h us, M o de r n
GE Haus ‘ h ou se ’) , a nd , i n a s om ew ha t d if fe re nt d ev el op me nt , t he l on g l ow a nd m id
v o w e l s o f O N h a v e b e c o m e d i p h t h o n g s i n M o d e r n I C : / e : , æ : , :/ ! /ai/, /a:, O:/ ! /au/,
/o:/ ! /ou/, for example. Other diphthongs have arisen from the vocalization of post-v o c a l i c c o n s o n a n t s . T h i s h a s b e e n o f i m p o r t a n c e i n D A , f o r e x a m p l e , w h e r e t h e r e a r e
a s m a n y a s e l e v e n d i s t i n c t d i p h t h o n g s ( / u i , Oi , a i , a u , Ou , æ u , u , y u , e u , eu , i u / , B a n d l e
e t a l. 2005: 1 8 62 ) . I n s o me c as e s, t h es e c h an g es o c cu r re d a f te r o r th o gr a ph i c p r ac t ic e
w a s f i x e d , s o t h e y a r e v a r i o u s l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e o r t h o g r a p h y . O f s t i l l m o r e s y s t e m i c
c on se qu en ce h av e b ee n t he c ha ng es w hi ch h av e i nt ro du ce d c en te ri ng d ip ht ho ng s( t h o s e i n w h i c h t h e t r a n s i t i o n i s f r o m l e s s o p e n t o m o r e o p e n ) i n s o m e G M C l a n g u a g e s :
i n F A ( B a r n e s 1994: 1 9 2 ; H a u g e n 1982: 4 5 ; B a n d l e e t a l. 2005: 1 0 9 0 ) , A F ( D o n a l d s o n
1993: 8 f. ), C en tr al Y I ( Ja co bs 2005: 9 6) , a nd m os t r em ar ka bl y i n F R, w hi ch h as t he
i n ve n to r y o f c e nt e ri n g d i ph t ho n gs i n ( 3 .1 5 a) , a c co r di n g t o V is s er (1997) , i n p a r t t h e
r e su l t o f a d e ve l op m en t o f s c hw a- o ff g li d es a f te r m o st G MC l o ng v o we l s.
8
T h es e n e w d i ph t ho n gs o c cu r i n m o no s yl l ab l es , a n d a l te rn a te w it h r i si n g d i ph t ho n gs
( wh ic h b eg in w it h a g li de a nd t er mi na te w it h a v ow el ) w he n a ff ix es a re a dd ed , a s i n
( 3 1 5 c) ( “ Mo d er n F R B re a ki n g” c f T i er s ma 1999: 1 7 f )
R i s i ng ( gl i de - i ni t i a l ) di pht hongs ha ve a l s o de ve l ope d i n t he S c a ndi na vi a n l a ngua ge s
t hr ou gh a v ar ie ty o f i nd iv id ua l c ha ng es , i nc lu di ng t he S ca nd in av ia n s tr es s s hi ft
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(Haugen 1982: 36), in which GMC *eu b ec o me s / j u / (* freusan!frjus a ‘ f re e ze ’ ),
v ar io us i ns ta nc es o f ‘ br ea ki ng ’ o f v ow el s i n s pe ci fi c p ho ne ti c e nv ir on me nt s ( e. g. ,
N or th we st G MC *hert-a!hjarta ‘ he ar t’ , u nd er t he i nf lu en ce o f t he b ac k v ow el i n
t h e f o ll o wi n g s y ll a bl e ), a n d t h e c h an g e o f / e :/ ! /je / in Modern IC.
3.2 T h e s u p ra s eg m en t al p h on o lo g y o f t h e G e r m an i c l a n gu a ge s
R ec en t a nd c om pr eh en si ve d is cu ss io ns o f s om e a sp ec ts o f t he s up ra se gm en ta l o r
p r o s o d i c p h o n o l o g y o f t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s – l e n g t h , s t r e s s a n d t o n e – a r e t o b e f o u n d
i n v a n d e r H u l s t 1999, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e c h a p t e r s b y L a h i r i e t a l . , Z onne ve l d e t a l. a n d
B ru ce a nd H er ma ns . T he f ol lo wi ng s ec ti on s r el y h ea vi ly o n t he se w or ks , a nd t he
i nt e r e s t e d r e a de r i s r e f e r r e d t o t he m f or gr e a t e r de t a i l . F or di s c us s i on of phonot a c t i c s i n
E N a nd o th er G MC l an gu ag es , L ut z 1991 i s a n e x ce l le n t s o ur ce .
3 .2 .1 S yl la bl e s tr uc tu re an d s on or it y
T he b as ic u ni t o f h ie ra rc hi ca l o rg an iz at io n o f s ou nd s i n t he G MC l an gu ag es , a se l se w he re , i s t h e s y ll a bl e . T h e c o ns t ru c ti o n o f s y ll a bl e s m a ke s c ru c ia l r e fe r en c e t o a
r an k in g o f s o un d s w i th r es p ec t t o t h ei r r el a ti v e s o no r it y ( ro u gh l y, “ v ow e l- l ik e ne s s” ;
s e e C l e m e nt s 1990) . O p e n v o w e l s a r e t h e m o s t s o n o r o u s s o u n d s , w h i l e v o i c e l e s s s t o p s
a r e t he l e a s t s onor ous . T he r e a r e va r i ous f or m ul a t i ons of t hi s “ S onor i t y H i e r a r c hy, ” but
f o r o u r p u rp o se s t h e f o ll o wi n g w i ll s u ff i ce :
S y l l a b l e s a r e b u i l t a r o u n d a n u c l e u s – a r e l a t i v e p e a k o f s o n o r i t y , m o r e s o n o r o u s t h a n
t h e i m m e d i a t e l y s u r r o u n d i n g s o u n d s . I n G M C s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s , t h e n u c l e u s m u s t b e a
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v ow el . W hi le I E a ll ow ed s on or an ts ( li qu id s a nd n as al s) t o f un ct io n a s t he n uc le i o f
s yll a bl e s, e a rl y G MC ‘ r es olve d’ t hes e i nhe r it e d s yll a bi c na s al s a nd l i qui ds i nt o s equenc es
of t he vow e l / u/ f ol l ow e d by a nons yl l a bi c s onor a nt ( / n˙
/ ! /un/).9
Ne ig hb ori ng s ou nd s o f le ss er s ono rit y at tach to a n a dja cen t n uc le us. Wh en
t h e y a t t a c h t o a f o l l o w i n g n u c l e u s , t h e y b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e s y l l a b l e o n s e t . W h e n t h e y
a t t a c h t o a p r e c e d i n g n u c l e u s , t h e y b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e s y l l a b l e c o d a . N u c l e u s a n d c o d at o g e t h e r c o n s t i t u t e t h e ‘ r h y m e ’ o f t h e s y l l a b l e : [SYLLABLE O N S E T [RHYME NUCLEUS
C O DA ]] ( s ee B l ev i ns 1995 f o r a g en er al d is cu ss io n o f t hi s a rc hi te ct ur e) . T he r hy me
de te r mi ne s s yll a bl e w ei ght , w hic h i s i m por t ant f or a numbe r of phonol ogi c al purpose s ,
i nc l udi ng, f or e xa m pl e , de f i ni ng t he m i ni m a l w or d s i z e a l l ow a bl e i n a gi ve n l a ngua ge . I n
G O , w e f i n d a f e w f u n c t i o n w o r d s l i k e sa ‘ he , t ha t one ’ , ni ‘ not’ , w hos e r hym e c ons i st so nl y o f a s ho rt v owe l n uc le us w it h n o c od a. I n o th er l an gu ag es, h owe ve r, t hi s p os si bi li ty i s
e xcl ude d. I n D U, f or e xa m pl e ( B ooi j 1995: 31), w ords a nd, f or t hat m a tt e r, f i na l s yl l abl es
m us t h av e a r hy me c on si st in g o f t wo “ mo ra e, ” o r u ni ts o f l en gt h. T hat i s, t he n uc le us m us t
b e a l o n g v o w e l o r a d i p h t h o n g , o r t h e r e m u s t b e a c o n s o n a n t i n t h e c o d a . B o o i j r e f e r s t o
t hi s a s t he m i ni m a l r hym e c ons t r a i nt .
N ot a ll c on so na nt s a re e qu al ly a dm is si bl e i n b ot h o ns et a nd c od a p os it io ns . T he
v el ar n as al / N /, for example, never appears in the onset position in monosyllabic
f or ms , w hi le , i n t he m od er n G MC l an gu ag es , / h/ d oe s n ot a pp ea r i n c od a p os it io n.
T he re a re n um er ou s o th er s uc h a sy mm et ri es i n i nd iv id ua l l an gu ag es . U nl ik e s om e
l a ng u ag e s, t h e G M C l a ng u ag e s a l lo w s e qu e nc es o f c o ns o na n ts , r a th e r t h an j u st s i ng l e
c o n s o n a n t s , t o o c c u r i n t h e o n s e t a n d i n t h e c o d a o f t h e s y l l a b l e . O n s e t s m a y c o n s i s t o f
t wo o r, i n h ig hl y r es tr ic te d c ir cu ms ta nc es , t hr ee c on so na nt s. N ot a ll p os sib le p air s
a nd p er mu ta ti on s a re a ll ow ed h ow ev er S om e s eq ue nc es a re r ul ed o ut b y t he w ay i n
a . G O h a s n o o n se t c l us te rs c on si st in g o f t wo o bs tr ue nt s, e xc ep t w he re t he
f ir st o bs tr ue nt i s / s/ : / sp -, s t- , s k- /. / s/ a ls o c om bi ne s f re el y w it h n as al s,
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w i t h / l / b u t n o t w i t h / r / , a n d w i t h / w / b u t n o t w i t h / j / .
b . G O h a s n o o n se t c lu st er s c o ns is ti ng o f t w o s on or an ts ( e. g. , * / ml /) , e x ce pt
t ha t t he g li de / w/ c an c om bi ne w it h t he l iq ui ds / l, r / ( if t he se a re i n f ac t
c l us t er s – s e e b e l o w) : / w l, w r /.
c. GO f ree ly al lo ws cl ust ers o f o bs tru en ts an d l iq uid s, o r t he g li de / w/ ,
e x c e p t t h a t / l / d o e s n o t c o m b i n e w i t h c o r o n a l s t o p s , / s / d o e s n o t c o m b i n ew i t h / r / , a n d / w / d o e s n o t c o m b i n e w i t h l a b i a l o b s t r u e n t s . T h e r e w e r e n o
o ns et c lu st er s w it h / j/ i n G O, t ho ug h t he y a ri se i n l at er l an gu ag es f ro m
va r ious s our ce s .10
(/ pn / i s al so un at te st ed , b ut / p/ wa s a rare s ou nd i n earl y GM C i n a ny
c as e) . / n/ , m or eo ve r, d oe s n ot c om bi ne w it h o th er c or on al s ou nd s i n
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o ns et s. I n t hi s c as e, t he r es tr ic ti on i s n ar ro we r t ha n i t w as w it h l iq ui ds .
/*þn/, as well as /*tn, dn/, is non-occurring. There are also no cases of
i n i t i a l / g n / i n G O , b u t i t s w i d e s p r e a d o c c u r r e n c e i n o t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s
m a k e s i t c l e a r t h a t t h i s i s a n a c c i d e n t a l g a p . T h i s i s p o s s i b l y a l s o t h e c a s e
w i t h / f n / , w h i c h i s a l s o f o u n d e l s e w h e r e i n G M C , t h o u g h i n a v e r y s m a l l
n u m b e r o f w o r d s .
e. T ri co ns on an ta l o ns et s i n G O c on si st s o le ly o f s þ obs t r ue nt þ r : / s pr - ,
s t r- , s k r- , * s pl - , * s kl - * s tl - /.
T h e p a tt e rn s o f c o -o c cu r re n ce a n d n o n- c o- o cc u rr e nc e o f c o ns o na n ts i n i n it i al c l us -
t e r s h e r e a r e i n a w a y c r o s s l i n g u i s t i c a l l y t y p i c a l . O t h e r l a n g u a g e s t e n d t o s h o w g a p s i n
t h e s a m e p l a c e s a s G O , a n d l i n g u i s t s a t l e a s t s i n c e T r n k a (1936) h a v e n o t i c e d g e n e r a l
t re nd s i n t he se p at te rn s, w hi ch h av e b ee n e xp lo re d a nd a na ly ze d i n e no rm ou s d et ai l
o v e r t h e d e c a d e s . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o d o m o r e t h a n s k i m t h e s u r f a c e o f t h a t d i s c u s s i o n
h er e. T he i nt er es te d r ea de r i s r ef er re d e sp ec ia ll y t o V en ne ma nn 1988, Lutz 1991
( ch . 4 , a nd t he r ef er en ce s c it ed t he re ), a s w el l a s B oo ij 1995 a n d V is s er 1997. We
c a n d i vi d e t h e m a in r e st r ic t io n s i n to t w o t y pe s
q u it e s y st e ma t ic al l y b y / s / þ s to p c lu st er s, w hi ch w ou ld a ls o s ee m t o
i n vo l ve a d r op i n s o no r it y , a n d w h ic h a re n o ne t he l es s c r os s li n gu i st i ca l ly
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quit e us ua l a nd di ac hronic a ll y s t abl e. T he e xce pti ona l it y of s - cl us t er s t o
sonority hierarchy generalizations is not fully understood, but a widespread
v i e w i s t h a t t h i s r e s u l t s f r o m t h e a b i l i t y o f / s / t o b e e x t r a s y l l a b i c – t h a t i s ,
e ss en ti al ly , o ut si de t he s tr uc tu re o f t he s yl la bl e, h en ce n ot s ub je ct t o
s o n o r i t y c o n s t r a i n t s , i n s u c h c a s e s . S u z u k i ( 1991) a p p l i e s s u c h a n a n a l y -
s is t o s -c lu st er s i n e ar ly G MC , a nd u se s i t t o e xp la in s om e o th er wi sep u zz l in g d i ff e re n ce s b e tw e en c l us t er s l i ke / s t/ a n d c l us t er s l i ke / s l/ w it h
r es pe ct t o s uc h t hi ng s a s r ed up li ca ti on i n G O a nd a ll it er at io n i n e ar ly
G M C v e r s e f o r m s . N o t e i n t h i s c o n t e x t t h a t / s / ( o r / Ð
/ in some languages)
i s t he o nl y c on so na nt a ll ow ed t o b eg in t ri co ns on an ta l o ns et c lu st er s
( s ee L u tz 1991: 2 05 ff ., V is se r 1997: 9 0, 1 08 f or a dd it io na l d is cu ss io n,r e f er e nce s a nd s ugges t e d a na l ys e s ).
b . S yl la bl es p re fe re nt ia ll y i nc re as e i n s on or it y t ow ar d t he n uc le us ( an d
t h er e fo r e, s y ll a bl e s w it h o n se t s a r e p r ef e rr e d o v er t h os e w i th o ut ) .
c . S yl la bl es p re fe re nt ia ll y n ot o nl y i n c re as e i n s on or it y t ow ar d t h e n uc le us ,
b ut m us t d o s o w it h a s uf fi ci en tl y s te ep g ra di en t. A s w e w il l s ee , w ha t
‘ su ff ic ie nt ly s te ep ’ m ea ns v ar ie s f ro m l an gu ag e t o l an gu ag e. G O d is -
a l l o w s o n s e t s c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o o b s t r u e n t s , a s i d e f r o m t h e s - c l u s t e r c a s e s ,
a nd i t d is al lo ws o ns et s c on si st in g o f t wo s on or an ts . I n t ri co ns on an ta l
c l us t er s , t h is r e qu i re m en t a p pl i es e v en m o re s t ri c tl y ; t h e t h ir d c o ns o na n t
i n s u c h c l u s t e r s i n G O c a n o n l y b e t h e m o s t s o n o r o u s l i q u i d , / r / .
3.2.1.2 P l a ce- ba s ed r es t r ict i o n s
( a ) a p p e a r i n G O ( o r o t h e r e a r l y G M C l a n g u a g e s ) a n d ( b ) f a i l t o a p p e a r i n s o m e m o d e r n
G MC l an gu ag es . S om e o ns et c lu st er s – t ho se c on si st in g o f s to ps o r f ri ca ti ve s ( as id e
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f ro m t he w ea k f ri ca ti ve / h/ ) p lu s l iq ui ds – a re q ui te s ta bl e, a nd r em ai n u ni ve rs al lyr e p r e s e n t e d i n G M C . O t h e r s – i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h o s e c o n s i s t i n g o f o b s t r u e n t s p l u s n a s a l s ,
a nd t ho se co ns is ti ng o f wea k fri ca ti ves p lu s l iq uid s o r n as als – h av e t en ded t o
d is ap pe ar i n s om e l an gu ag es . W e c an c ha ra ct er iz e t hi s a s a c ha ng e i n t he r eq ui re d
s te ep ne ss o f t he s on or it y g ra di en t. F or ms i n a ng le d b ra ck et s a re u na tt es te d b ut
a ss um ed o n t he b as is o f c om pa ra ti ve e vi de nc e. F or ms i n p ar en th es es a re m ar gi na l,o c c u r r i n g o n l y i n a h a n d f u l o f w o r d s i n t h e l a n g u a g e ( G O / b n / , f o r e x a m p l e , o c c u r s i n
bnauan ‘ r u b ’ , G E / d v / o n l y i n t h e b o r r o w e d f o r m dwars ‘ a b e a m ’ , a n d E N / yw / j u s t i n
t he bor r ow e d w or d thwart a nd t he i m i t a t i ve thwack – j u s t e n o u g h t o s h o w t h a t t h e y a r e
not phonot a c t i c i m pos s i bi l i t i e s ) . S qua r e br a c ke t s a r e us e d w he r e t he c l us t e r i s r e t a i ne d,
but w i t h phonet i c m odi fi c a t ion.
th e ch ang es s erv e th at res ul t, th ou gh . T he c han ge o f /w/ ! /v/ in syllable onsets,
w id es pr ea d i n N or th a nd W es t G MC l an gu ag es , s er ve s t he s on or it y h ie ra rc hy b y
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i n c r e a s i n g t h e s t e e p n e s s o f t h e s o n o r i t y r i s e i n w o r d s w h i c h b e g i n w i t h / w / , b u t c r e a t e sl e ss o p ti m al o n se t c l us t er s w h en i t o c cu r s a f te r o b st r ue n ts ( / dw / ! /dv/, for example).
T h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f c l u s t e r s w h i c h a r e , f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f s o n o r i t y r e s t r i c t i o n s , l e s s
i de al h as p ro gr es se d f ar th er i n E N t ha n i n o th er G MC l an gu ag es . L ut z (1991:256)
a r g u e s t h a t t h e e x t e n t o f l o s s o f s u c h c l u s t e r s i s a f u n c t i o n o f i n c r e a s i n g p r o m i n e n c e o n
t h e a c c e n t e d s y l l a b l e – a d e v e l o p m e n t m o r e a d v a n c e d i n E N t h a n e l s e w h e r e . S h e n o t e s( p . 2 4 9 ) t h a t t h e l o s s o f t h e s e c l u s t e r s i n E N t o o k p l a c e o v e r s e v e r a l c e n t u r i e s , t h a t t h e
o rd er o f l os s i s g en er al ly a s p re di ct ed b y t he s on or it y d if fe re nc e b et we en t he t wo
c o ns o na n ts ( / g/ d i sa p pe ar i ng / _ _/ n / b e fo r e / k / d i d, f o r e x am p le ) , a n d t h at t h e c l us t er s
m os t w id el y r et ai ne d i n o th er l an gu ag es w er e a ls o t he m os t r ec en tl y l os t i n E N.13
G O e x h i b i t s a w i d e l y d i s c u s s e d l o c a l d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h r u n s c o u n t e r t o t h e g e n e r a le x pe ct a ti o n o f d i sp r ef er e nc e f o r h o mo r ga n ic c o ns o na n t o n se t s. I n G O, G M C / f l/ h a s
d e ve l op e d i n to / þ l/ i n a f ew i n st a nc e s, u n de r u n ce rt a in p h on e ti c a n d d i al e ct a l c i rc u m-
stances: þliuhan ‘ f l ee ’ , O H G fliuhan ( s e e L e hm ann 1986: 3 6 3 a n d D a v i s a n d I v e r s o n
1994, 1996 f or di s c us s i on) . S i m i la r l y t ypologi c al l y s ur pri s i ng de vel opm ent s oc c ur i n
N or th we st er n B ri ti sh E N ( Ro ge r L as s p .c .) , w he re E N / kl , g l/ h av e t ur ne d i nt o / tl , d l/
respectively.
T he m od er n G MC l an gu ag es h av e a ls o a dd ed a f ew o ns et c lu st er s t ha t w er e n ot
p r e s e n t i n e a r l y G M C ; s o m e o f t h e s e , s u c h a s / p n / a n d / s f / , a r e m a r g i n a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d
i n l oa nw or ds ( th e l at te r a lm os t e xc lu si ve ly i n sphere a nd i ts r el at iv es ). U nc le ar i s
w he th er a ff ri ca te s l ik e / ts /, w hi ch a ri se i n G E t hr ou gh t he H ig h G er ma n c on so na nt
s hi ft , a nd i n F R t hr ou gh p al at al iz at io n, f or e xa mp le , a re t o b e i nc lu de d i n t he l is t o f
n ew o ns et c lu st er s. I nt er pr et ed a s c lu st er s, t he se a re p ro bl em at ic f ro m b ot h t he
s ta nd po in t o f t he s on or it y r es tr ic ti on s a nd t he s ta nd po in t o f t he p re fe re nc e f or n on -
T hi s n ot io n o f p os si bl e o ns et , p ar tl y l an gu ag e- sp ec if ic a nd p ar tl y a r ef le ct io n o f
c r o s s l i n g u i s t i c t e n d e n c i e s , a l s o p l a y s a r o l e i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s y l l a b l e b o u n d a r i e s
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i n m ul ti sy ll ab ic f or ms . V ow el s s er ve a s s yl la bl e n uc le i, a nd c on so na nt s a dj ac en t t ot h o s e v o w e l s m u s t n o r m a l l y b e a s s i g n e d t o e i t h e r t h e c o d a o r t h e o n s e t o f t h e s y l l a b l e .
W h er e s e qu e nc es o f o n e o r m o re c o ns o na n ts o c cu r b e tw ee n t w o v o we l s, t r af f ic r u le s
a r e n e e d e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h i c h s y l l a b l e t h e y a r e a s s i g n e d t o . G e n e r a l l y a s s u m e d t o b e
o ne o f t he se i s a p ri nc ip le “ Ma xi mi ze O ns et ,” w hi ch r eq ui re s t ha t c on so na nt s b e
a ss ig ne d t o o ns et s, s o l on g a s t he r es ul t i s a p os si bl e o ns et i n t he l an gu ag e.14
Thisi n s u r e s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t s y l l a b i f i c a t i o n o f a f o r m l i k e : re#frain w i l l p l a c e t h e s y l l a b l e
b o un d ar y b e tw ee n t h e e a n d t h e fr , a n d n o t a t a n y o f t h e o t h e r a p r i o r i p o s s i b l e s i t e s .
E a rl y G MC m a y h a ve s y ll a bi f ie d d i ff e re n tl y . M u rr ay a n d V en n em a nn (1983: 5 9 ) a n d
Lahiri e t al. ( 19 99 : 3 57 ), f ol lo wi ng o th er s, c la im t ha t i n e ar ly G MC s yl la bl es w er e
r eq ui re d t o b e b im or ai c w he re p os si bl e – t ha t i s, t o e nd w it h a l on g v ow el , o r w it h as ho rt v ow el a nd a c on so na nt , s o l on g a s m ee ti ng t hi s r eq ui re me nt w ou ld n ot l ea ve a
f ol l ow i ng s yl l a bl e w hol l y w i t hout a n ons e t ( L a hi r i e t a l . 1999: 408n) . T hi s r e qui r e m e nt
w ou ld o ve rr id e M ax im iz e O ns et i n c as es l ik e *gas.tiz. T he m os t d ir ec t e vi de nc e w e
h a v e f o r s y l l a b i f i c a t i o n i n e a r l y G M C – w o r d d i v i s i o n i n c e r t a i n G O m a n u s c r i p t s ( c i t e d
i n M ur ra y a nd V en ne ma nn 1983) – i s i n f ac t i nt er na ll y i nc on si st en t o n t hi s p oi nt .
F o rm s l i ke fa/dreinais, hwa/þro, þa/þro, wi/þra a re d iv id ed i n a w ay c on si st en t w it h
M a xi m iz e O n se t . Fas/ta , on the other hand, is split in a way consistent with a
p re fe re nc e f or b im or ai c s yl la bl es ( th ou gh s ee B oo ij 1995: 3 1 an d Vi ss er 1997: 97
f or p os si bl y c om pa ra bl e u ne xp ec te d t re at me nt s o f s -c lu st er s i n D U a nd F R) . O th er
e x am p le s l i st e d b y M u rr a y a n d V e nn e ma n n a r e c o ns i st e nt w i th e i th e r.
O n t he o th er h an d, t he re i s i nd ir ec t e vi de nc e i n f av or o f a s yl la bi fi ca ti on l ik e
*gas.tiz, i n C om mo n S ca nd in av ia n, f or e xa mp le , w he re , a s L ah ir i et al. (1999:57)
n o t e t h e v o w e l o f t h e u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e u n d e r g o e s s y n c o p e ( gestz) j u s t a s i t d o e s i n
a p pe ar t o c o un t er ex e mp l if y t h e p r oh i bi t io n a g ai n st o b st r ue n t s e qu e nc es w h os e e l em -
e nt s d if fe r i n v oi ce . I nt er es ti ng ly , a s J ac ob s (2005: 1 25 ) p oi nt s o ut , s uc h c lu st er s a re
d d ll bi f i i b l f ( V C
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n o t p r es e rv e d u n de r s y ll a bi f ic a ti o n; b e tw ee n v o we l s, a s e qu e nc e o f c o ns o na n ts ( V C$ CV ) i s s pl it b y a s yl la bl e b ou nd ar y u nl es s t he s ec on d i s a s on or an t o r t he f ir st i s a
s ib il an t – t ha t i s, o nl y o ns et c lu st er s o f t he t yp es f ou nd i n o th er G MC l an gu ag es a re
l e f t i nt a ct by s yl l abi f ic a t ion.
C o d a c o n s o n a n t s e q u e n c e s i n t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s a r e s i m i l a r l y , t h o u g h l e s s s t r i c t l y ,
c o ns t ra i ne d b y t h e s o no r it y h i er ar c hy ; c o da c l us t er s m u st d e cl i ne i n s o no r it y t o wa rdt he r ig ht e dg e o f t he s yl la bl e, t hu s o ft en b ei ng t he m ir ro r i ma ge o f o ns et c lu st er s.
S te ep ne ss i s n ot a s i mp or ta nt , t ho ug h, a nd t he y a re n ot s ub je ct t o s im il ar c on st ra in ts
a g ai n st h o mo r ga n ic s e qu e nc e s. I n f a ct , s o me G M C l a ng u ag e s e x hi b it a d i sp r ef e re n ce
f or c od a c lu st er s c on si st in g o f s on or an ts f ol lo we d b y o th er c on so na nt s w he n t he se
have different p la ce s o f a rt ic ul at io n. W he re t he s on or an t i s a n as al , t he se a re o ft enr en de re d h om or ga ni c b y w ay o f a ss im il at io n o f t he p la ce o f t he n as al t o t ha t o f t he
f o l l o w i n g o b s t r u e n t a s i n G O fimf ‘ f i v e ’ . W h e r e t h e s o n o r a n t i s a l i q u i d , s o m e d i a l e c t s
i ns er t a n e pe nt he ti c v ow el b et we en t he t wo m em be rs o f t he c lu st er . W hi le s uc h
e pe nt he si s i s n ot a f ea tu re o f a ll o f t he G MC l an gu ag es , i ts o pe ra ti on i s r el at iv el y
u n i f o r m i n t h o s e w h e r e i t d o e s o c c u r . I n m o d e r n W F ( V i s s e r 1997: 2 6 3 ) a n d O l d U p p e r
G E , f o r e x am p le , i t s p li t s s e qu e nc es o f a l l l i qu i ds p l us n o n- h om o rg a ni c o b st r ue n ts , a s
i n O l d U p p e r G E we rah f or F r a nki s h O H G werk ‘ w o r k ’ , F R / s kelkskel@k / ‘ a p r o n ’ . I t
a l s o s p l i t s s o n o r a n t / s o n o r a n t c l u s t e r s , a s i n F R / termter @m / ‘ i n t e s t i n e ’ , O l d U p p e r G E
charal f or F r a nki s h O H G karl ‘man’, horen f or F r a nki s h O H G horn ‘ hor n’ . F ur t he r , i n
b ot h O HG a nd F R ( Vi ss er 1997: 2 5 9n . ), e p en t he s is i s n o t r e st r ic t ed t o c o da p o si t io n ,
b ut o cc ur s ( wi th r es tr ic ti on s) i n c as es w he re t he t wo c on so na nt s b el on g t o s ep ar at e
s yl la bl es , a s i n O ld U pp er G E arapeit f or F ra n ki s h O HG arbeit ‘ w or k ’. C o ll i ns a n d
M e e s (1996: 1 9 8 ) r e p o r t s i m i l a r f a c t s a b o u t n o n s t a n d a r d d i a l e c t s o f D U w h e r e helpen
a n a n a l y s i s i n w h i c h f i n a l c o r o n a l o b s t r u e n t s i n i n s t a n c e s l i k e t h e s e a r e n o t p a r t o f t h e
c o da , b u t a s e pa ra t e a p pe n di x , f o ll o wi n g t h e c o da p r op e r. A p pe n di c es m a y c o ns i st o f
t h l b t t i D U di t ‘ i t’ b d d t ‘ l t’
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a s m a n y a s t h r e e c o r o n a l o b s t r u e n t s , a s i n D U aardig-st ‘nicest’, bedaar-dst ‘calmest’.
3.2.2 Length
V o w e l l e n g t h , a s r e f l e c t e d i n ( 3 . 9 ) i s a n i n h e r i t e d f e a t u r e o f G M C . C o n s o n a n t l e n g t h i s
n o t . I E d i d n o t h a v e l o n g o r g e m i n a t e c o n s o n a n t s . G e m i n a t e c o n s o n a n t s a r o s e i n G M Cf r om a v a ri e ty o f s o ur ce s . E a rl y s o ur ce s o f r el a ti v el y m i no r i m po r ta n ce i n cl u de G M C
a s si m il a ti o ns i n r e so n an t c l us t er s ( IE * pl˙
nos / GO fulls, S a ns k ri t tasmai / GO þamma
‘ th at ( Da t) ’ a nd s o o n ( Pr ok os ch 1938: 8 6) ), t he g em in at io n o f i nt er vo ca li c g li de s i n
c e r t a i n e nvi r onm e nt s ( H ol t z m a nn’ s L a w ) a nd t he i r s ubs e que nt de ve l opm e nt t o s t ops i n
O N a nd G O ( Ve rs ch ar fu n g) ( OH G zweiio ‘ of t wo ’/ G O twaddje, ON tveggja), a nd“ ex pr es si ve g em in at io n, ” f or e xa mp le , i n i nt en si ve v er bs l ik e O E treddian ‘tread’
(Fagan 1989).
T h r e e p r o c e s s e s i n t h e l a t e r m e d i e v a l l a n g u a g e s p r o d u c e d a m u c h l a r g e r s e t o f l o n g
c o ns o na n ts , a n d w e re o f c o ns i de ra b ly m o re s y st e ma t ic i m po r ta n ce . A m a in s o ur c e o f
g e m i n a t e s i n N o r t h G M C w a s a s e t o f a s s i m i l a t i o n s , s i m i l a r i n k i n d t o t h e e a r l y G M C
o ne s j us t i ll us tr at ed , w hi ch o cc ur re d w it h p ar ti cu la r r ob us tn es s i n N or th G MC l an -
g u a g e s a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s : O N rann ‘ hous e ’ ( G O razn) , O N gull ‘ gol d’ ( G O gulþs) , O N
finna ‘ fi nd ’ ( GO finþan), ON drakk ‘ dr a nk ’ ( G O drank ) a re e ar ly i ns ta nc es , b ut
s uc ce ed in g r ou nd s o f s uc h a ss im il at io ns o cc ur re d l at er o n i n i nd iv id ua l d ia le ct s
(Haugen 1982: 6 4 , 7 7 , 7 9 ; B a n d l e e t a l. 2002: 8 7 8 ) .
I n t h e W e st G M C l a ng u ag e s, c o da c o ns o na n ts g e mi n at e d b e fo r e a f o ll o wi n g g l id e
( or o th er s on or an t) . T hi s i s i ll us tr at ed b y O E settan ‘ se t ’, O S settian , OHG sezzen ,
c om pa re d t o G O satjan T hi s “ We st G MC g em in at io n” l ed t o n ew m or ph op ho ne mi c
/__/j/. Thus, we find in OE bittor ‘ bi t te r ’ a l t er na t ing w i t h bitor , c o rr es p on d in g t o G O
baitrs, æppel ‘ a ppl e ’ a l t er na ti ng w i t h apul(dre) ‘ a ppl et r e e’ , a nd æhher ‘ ea r o f c or n’
l t ti i t h ear ( h t h i t d / h / h b d l t d i t l i ll )
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a l t er na ti ng w i t h ear ( w h er e t h e n o n- g em i na t ed / h / h a s b e en d e le t ed i n te rv o ca l ic a ll y ).G em in at io n d oe s n ot t ak e p la ce i n O E i n fugel (GO fugls) , w it h a v oi ce d c on so na nt .
S i m i l a r l y , i n O H G , w e f i n d g e m i n a t i o n i n luzzil ‘little’, bitter , ackar (GO akrs) , b u t n o t
in fogal (Sievers 1898: 1 16 ; B ra un e 1963: 9 2) . A s ec on d r ou nd o f g em in at io n t oo k
p la ce i n l at er O E ( Si ev er s 1898: 1 16 ), i n w hi ch v oi ce d s to ps w er e g em in at ed / __ r,
yielding blæddre ‘ b l a d d e r ’ , f o r e x a m p l e . I n t h e O N v e r s i o n o f t h i s c h a n g e , o n l y v e l a r s t o p s g e m i n a t e , a n d o n l y b e f o r e g l i d e s ( / j , w / ) : liggja, slkkva ‘ t o e xt i ngui s h’ . Mur r a y
a n d V e n n e m a n n (1983) a c c o u n t f o r t h i s a r r a y o f f a c t s i n t e r m s o f a u n i v e r s a l S y l l a b l e
C on ta ct L aw w hi ch d is pr ef er s s yl la bl e c on ta ct s i n w hi ch t he o ns et o f a f ol lo wi ng
s yl la bl e i s m or e s on or ou s t ha n t he c od a o f t he p re ce di ng s yl la bl e. T he l ik el ih oo d o f
c h a n g e o c c u r r i n g d e p e n d s o n t h e e g r e g i o u s n e s s o f t h e v i o l a t i o n ( t h e d e g r e e o f s o n o r i t ydi f fe r e nc e be t we e n t he t w o c ons ona nt s) .
F i n a l l y , g e m i n a t e c o n s o n a n t s r e s u l t e d i n G E f r o m t h e H i g h G e r m a n c o n s o n a n t s h i f t ,
t h ro u gh w h ic h , a s w e n o te d e ar l ie r , v o ic e le s s s t op s b e ca m e g e mi n at e v o ic el e ss f r ic a-
t i ve s i n te rv o ca l ic al l y, f a ll i ng t o ge t he r, e x ce p t i n t h e c a se o f s i bi l an t s, w i th t h e g e mi n -
at e fr ic at iv es res ul ti ng fr om t he W es t GM C g em in ati on . T hu s, f or ex am pl e,
c o rr e sp o nd i ng t o E N open w e h av e O HG offan, a nd c or re sp on di ng t o E N make we
h a v e O H G mahhon.
T h es e c h an g es r e su l te d i n a n e w p h on o lo g ic a l s t ru c tu r e i n t h e m e di e va l l a ng u ag e s,
u ne xa mp le d i n e ar li er o r l at er l an gu ag es , i n w hi ch l en gt h i s a f ea tu re s ys te ma ti ca ll y
s ha re d b y b ot h v ow el s a nd c on so na nt s. I t a ls o s ee ms t o h av e o cc as io ne d a s er ie s o f
c h an g es a i me d a t ‘ b al a nc i ng ’ t h e r el a ti v e l e ng t h o f c o -o c cu r ri n g v o we l s a n d c o ns o n-
a nt s ( cf . L as s 1992: 7 0ff. ). So , fo r ex amp le, i n OHG, g em in at es fro m b ot h th e
C on so na nt S hi ft a nd t he W es t G MC g em in at io n a re s ho rt en ed w he n t he p re ce di ng
W e c an v ie w s uc h g em in at e s im pl if ic at io n a s a p ar t o f a “ co ns pi ra cy ” ( La ss 1992:
7 0 ) , t a r g e t t i n g s y l l a b l e r h y m e s , a n d o p e r a t i n g t o p r e f e r t h o s e w h i c h a r e b i m o r a i c – t h a t
i s w hi ch h av e e xa ct ly t wo u ni ts o f l en gt h I n n on fi na l s yl la bl es i f t he v ow el o f t he
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i s, w hi ch h av e e xa ct ly t wo u ni ts o f l en gt h. I n n on fi na l s yl la bl es , i f t he v ow el o f t hen uc le us i s a l on g v ow el o r d ip ht ho ng , t he n t he p re fe re nc e f or b im or ai c s yl la bl es
d is fav or s a co da co ns on an t. Gem in ate s a re s imp li fi ed i n s uc h cas es so t hat th e
r e m a i n i n g c o n s o n a n t c a n s y l l a b i f y w i t h t h e n e x t s y l l a b l e . I n c a s e s i n v o l v i n g c o n s o n a n t
c l u s t e r s , w h i c h c a n n o t b e s h o r t e n e d , i t i s t h e l o n g v o w e l w h i c h i s s h o r t e n e d i n o r d e r t o
c o n f o r m t o t h e b i m o r a i c t e m p l a t e . I f t h e v o w e l o f t h e n u c l e u s i s a s i m p l e s h o r t v o w e l ,t h e n t h e c o d a o f i t s s y l l a b l e c a n c o n t a i n a c o n s o n a n t , a n d g e m i n a t e s a r e r e t a i n e d i n j u s t
t h o s e c a s e s . B y c a s t i n g t h e p h o n o l o g i c a l “ t a r g e t ” i n t h i s w a y , o n e c a n a l s o a c c o m m o -
d at e t he o th er c on te xt s i n w hi ch d eg em in at io n w as u su al i n m ed ie va l G MC – f in al ly
a nd i n pr e c ons ona nt a l pos i t i on ( O H G mizzu ‘ I m e a s ur e ’maz ‘I measured’, kunnan ‘to
b e a bl e’konda ‘ co u ld ’ ). H er e a g ai n , i f g e mi n at e s i mp l if i ca t io n h a d n o t t a ke n p l ac ein *mazz a n d *konnda, t he n t he r es ul ta nt r hy me ( VC C) w ou ld v io la te t he p re fe re nc e
f o r a b i mo r ai c s y ll a bl e .
L a s s (1992: 7 0 f f . ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e t w o s y s t e m a t i c e f f e c t s o f t h i s s h o r t e n i n g – t h e
r e d u c t i o n o f t h e n u m b e r o f c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h l e n g t h c o n t r a s t s o c c u r , a n d t h e r e g u l a t i o n
o f p os si bl e s yl la bl e t yp es ( in t hi s i ns ta nc e, b y p re ve nt in g ‘ ov er lo ng ’ s yl la bl es ) – a re
s ha re d b y a n um be r o f o th er c ha ng es b eg in ni ng i n a bo ut t he s am e e ra , w hi ch c ol le ct -
i ve ly h av e t he e ff ec t o f m or e r eg ul ar s yl la bl e s ha pe a nd a t l ea st p ar tl y p re di ct ab le
v o we l /c o ns o na n t l e ng t h. A l re a dy i n e ar l y G M C, l o ng v o we l s i n m o no s yl l ab i c f o rm s
t e nd e d t o b e f o ll o we d b y a t m o st a s i ng l e c o ns o na n t ( e xc l ud i ng c o ro n al c a se a f fi x es ) ,
wh il e co ns on an t cl us te rs t end ed t o b e p re ced ed b y on ly a s ho rt v owe l. We h av e
n um er ou s f or ms l ik e G O skalk-s ‘ s er va nt ’ a nd land ‘l an d’ , f or e xa mp le , a s w el l a s
skoh-s ‘ s hoe ’ a nd mel ‘ hone y’ . F or m s l i ke leiht-s [lı x t - s ] ‘ l i g h t ’ , w i t h b o t h a l o n g v o w e l
a nd a c on so na nt c lu st er w er e f ou nd t oo t ho ug h t he y w er e r el at iv el y i nf re qu en t T he
C o n v e r s e l y , a l l o f t h e s e l a n g u a g e s h a v e s h o w n s o m e t e n d e n c y t o a d d w e i g h t t o t h e
r hy me s o f s om e s ho rt er s yl la bl es . T he e ar li es t s uc h e ve nt , w hi ch L as s (1992: 71)
s ug ge st s c ou ld h av e o cc ur re d i n C om mo n N or th we st G MC l en gt he ne d v ow el s i n
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s ug ge st s c ou ld h av e o cc ur re d i n C om mo n N or th we st G MC , l en gt he ne d v ow el s i na bs ol ut e f in al p os it io n ( ‘F oo t- fi na l L en gt he ni ng ’) . W hi le G O h as s uc h f or ms a s sa
‘ th at o ne ’, t he se d o n ot o cc ur i n N or th we st G MC . T he e li mi na ti on o f s ho rt s yl la bl es
w as m os t s ys te ma ti ca ll y c ar ri ed t hr ou gh i n N or th G MC , w he re , a s a r es ul t o f t he
“ G r e a t Q u a n t i t y S h i f t ” s t a r t i n g i n D A i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( H a u g e n 1982: 2 5 ) , a l l
n o n f i n a l s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s c a m e t o h a v e b i m o r a i c r h y m e s o f t h e s h a p e - X X , e i t h e r b yle ng th eni ng t he v owe l (-V!VV) , o r b y g em in at in g t he fo ll owin g co ns on an t
(-VC!VCC). Thus, fara ‘ g o’ t ur ns u p v ar io us ly a s f ara and farra (Haugen 1982: 2 5 ) .
F ur th er , i n m on om or ph em ic f or ms w it h s ho rt v ow el s i n c lo se d s yl la bl es , t he f in al
c on so na nt w as g em in at ed ( Ol d S W skip![ s ke p :] L a hi r i et al. 1999: 364). In SW
(Andersson 1994: 2 74 ), as a r es ult o f t hes e c han ges , l ong v owel s a re ( vir tu all y)e x cl u de d i n f r on t o f l o ng c o ns o na n ts , l o ng c o ns o na n ts ( a lm o st ) o n ly o c cu r a f te r s h or t
v o w e l s , a n d , e x c e p t i n F i n l a n d S W d i a l e c t s , e v e r y s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e m u s t c o n t a i n a l o n g
v o w e l o r d i p h t h o n g o r a l o n g c o n s o n a n t o r c o n s o n a n t c l u s t e r ( s e e A n d e r s s o n 1994: 2 7 4
f o r t h e d i sc u ss i on o f t h e f e w e x ce p ti o ns ) .
I n I C t o o a l l v o w e l s m a y b e e i t h e r l o n g o r s h o r t ( E i n a r s s o n 1945: 4 ) . T h e y a r e l o n g i f f o l l o w e d a t m o s t b y a s i n g l e c o n s o n a n t , o r i f f o l l o w e d b y c l u s t e r s o f t h e f o r m / p , t , k , s /
þ /j, r, v/ – that is, clusters which are possible onsets of a subsequent syllable.
T h i s i m p u l s e t o w a r d s y l l a b l e r e g u l a t i o n d i d n o t t a k e h o l d w i t h s u c h s y s t e m a t i c i t y i n
o t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s . I n t h e l a t e m e d i e v a l W e s t G M C l a n g u a g e s , s h o r t v o w e l s o f C V
s yl la bl es c am e t o b e l en gt he ne d ( op en s yl la bl e l en gt he ni ng ) t ho ug h t he se c ha ng es
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s yl la bl es c am e t o b e l en gt he ne d ( op en s yl la bl e l en gt he ni ng ), t ho ug h t he se c ha ng esw e re c a rr i ed t h ro u gh w it h v a ry i ng d e gr e es o f r eg u la r it y . O p en s y ll a bl e l e ng t he n in g i n
DU an d GE a ppe ars t o h av e b een a s in gle e ve nt , b eg in nin g i n DU t erri to ry a nd
s pr e adi ng s out hw a r d ( L a hi r i e t a l. 1999: 3 50 ). T he c ha ng e r es ul te d i n l en gt h a lt er na -
t io ns w it hi n p ar ad ig ms i n b ot h l an gu ag es ( DU dag ‘day’dagen ‘ da y s’ ) , b u t t h es e
w er e l ar ge ly l ev el ed i n G E, b y g en er al iz in g t he l on g v ow el t hr ou gh ou t t he p ar ad ig m(Lahiri e t a l . 1999: 3 5 2 ) .
I n E N , t h i s o p e n s y l l a b l e l e n g t h e n i n g b e l o n g s a g a i n t o t h e E M E p e r i o d . O E [ n a m a ]
‘ na me ’ b ec am e M E [ na :m (@) ], f or e xa mp le . N um er ou s a pp ar en t e xc ep ti on s a nd
c h r o n o l o g i c a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s h a v e m a d e a p r e c i s e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h i s e v e n t a v e r y
d if fi cu lt m at te r. P ri ma ry a mo ng t he p ro bl em s i s t he f ac t t ha t i ts e ff ec ts s ho w u p w it hf ul l r eg ul ar it y i n E N o nl y i n f or ms e nd in g i n u ns tr es se d v ow el s i n E ME , w hi ch w er e
l a t e r l o s t . S u c h f o r m s i n c l u d e , f o r e x a m p l e , ale, ape, bake, hate, mate, name a n d s o o n .
I t a pp ea rs m uc h l es s r eg ul ar ly i n f or ms w hi ch r em ai n b is yl la bi c i nt o M od er n E N.
Some of these (acorn, bacon, beaver , gable, mason , raven, fo r e xam ple ) s ho w
l e ng t he n in g , b u t m o st (better , bottom , brother , cellar , desert , feather , hovel, moment ,
mellow, record , saddle) d o n o t ( s e e t h e a p p e n d i x i n R i t t 1994 f o r a n e x ha u st i ve l i st ) .
Lahiri et al. (1999: 3 53 ) at tri bu te t hi s v ari ab il it y t o th e fa ct t hat th e l on g v owe l
r es ul ti ng f ro m o pe n s yl la bl e l en gt he ni ng i n t he se b is yl la bi c f or ms w ou ld b e s ub je ct
t o s ho rt en in g a ga in w he n a dd it io na l i nf le ct io ns w er e a dd ed , d ue t o a no th er o f t he
qua nt i t y- a dj us t m e nt r ul e s of ME , t r i s yl l a bi c s hor t e ni ng, w hi c h s hor t e ns l ong vow e l s i n
i n i t i a l s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s w h e n t h e y a r e f o l l o w e d b y t w o o r m o r e s y l l a b l e s ( t h e r u l e t h a t
u n de r li e s t h e divinedivinity a l te rn at io n i n E N) . T ri sy ll ab ic s ho rt en in g p ro du ce d
a lt er na ti on s b et we en l on g v ow el s a nd s ho rt v ow el s i n t he p ar ad ig ms o f w or ds l ik e
f ro m o pe n s yl la bl e l en gt he ni ng , b y i nt ro du ci ng a n ew s et o f s ho rt v ow el s i n f ro nt o f
s in gl et on c on so na nt s. T he se l an gu ag es h av e g en er al ly r et ai ne d d ou bl e w ri ti ng o f
c o ns o na n ts a s a w a y o f s i gn a li n g g r ap h ic a ll y t h at t h e p r ec e di n g v o we l i s s h or t
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c o ns o na n ts a s a w a y o f s i gn a li n g g r ap h ic a ll y t h at t h e p r ec e di n g v o we l i s s h or t .T he r es ul ts o f t he se e ve nt s, a s L ah ir i e t a l. (1999: 3 40 ) p oi nt o ut , i s t ha t, w it h t he
e xc ep ti on o f a f ew d ia le ct s o f S W a nd N O, t he m od er n G MC l an gu ag es d o n ot s ti ll
p re se rv e l en gt h i n b ot h t he v ow el s a nd t he c on so na nt s a t t he l ev el o f p ho no lo gi ca l
c on tr as ts . C on so na nt l en gt h i s g iv en u p i n t he W es t G MC l an gu ag es , b ut r et ai ne d i n
m os t N or th G MC l an gu ag es w it h t he e xc ep ti on o f D A. V ow el s s ti ll v ar y i n l en gt h i nt he N or th G MC l an gu ag es , a si de f ro m D A ( on w hi ch s ee H au ge n 1976: 3 66 ), b ut
pr e di c t abl y s o.
3 .2 .3 L ex ic al s tr es s a n d t h e f o ot i n G er ma ni c p h on ol og y
T h e G M C l a n g u a g e s , l i k e o t h e r W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s , h a v e p r o s o d i c a l l y f i x e d
w or d s tr es s – t ha t i s, s tr es s w ho se p os it io n i s ( mo st ly ) p re di ct ab le o n t he b as is o f t he
p h on o lo g ic al s h ap e o f t h e w o rd , a n d d o es n o t d e pe n d o n g r am m at i ca l i n fo r ma t io n . I n
t h is r es p ec t , t h e G M C l a ng u ag e s, l i ke t h ei r C e lt i c a n d I t al i c n e ig h bo r s, h a ve d e pa rt e d
fro m t he p att er n o f acc en tu at io n i n IE , i n wh ich acc en t wa s “ fre e” – t ha t i s, n ot
p ho no lo gi ca ll y f ix ed a nd p re di ct ab le , b ut a bl e t o a pp ea r o n d if fe re nt s yl la bl es i n
d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f a w o r d , a n d t h e r e f o r e t o s i g n a l m e a n i n g c o n t r a s t s . T h i s “ f r e e a c c e n t ”
i s r e fl e ct e d, v e st i gi a ll y , a t l e as t , i n t h e G re e k e x am p le s i n ( 3 .2 0 ).
l a n g u a g e s , s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s a r e h i g h e r i n p i t c h t h a n u n s t r e s s e d o n e s , w h i l e i n o t h e r s ,
t he y a re l ow er i n p it ch .
T h e u n i t o n t h e b a s i s o f w h i c h s t r e s s i s a s s i g n e d i s h e l d t o b e t h e m e t r i c a l f o o t . F e e t
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T h e u n i t o n t h e b a s i s o f w h i c h s t r e s s i s a s s i g n e d i s h e l d t o b e t h e m e t r i c a l f o o t . F e e tc on st it ut e a l ev el o f p ro so di c o rg an iz at io n a bo ve t he s yl la bl e. F ee t a re b ui lt u p f ro m
s y ll a bl e s a c co r di n g t o p r in c ip l es w h ic h d i ff er a cr o ss l a ng u ag e s. T h e d e sc r ip t iv e n e ed
f or t he se l ar ge r u ni ts o f p ro so di c o rg an iz at io n i s m ad e e vi de nt i n t he p ho no lo gy o f
m an y p he no me na i n t he h is to ry o f G MC w ho se d es cr ip ti on r eq ui re s r ef er en ce t o a
d o m a i n l a r g e r t h a n a s i n g l e s y l l a b l e – e . g . , w h e r e u n s t r e s s e d s y l l a b l e s t e n d t o u n d e r g or e d u c t i o n o r n o t d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e i s “ h e a v y , ” t h e p r o c e s s e s
i n que s t i on s e r vi ng t o m a i nt a i n ove r a l l “ ba l a nc e ” i n w e i ght be t w e e n t he t w o s uc c e s s i ve
s y ll a bl e s ( s ee D re s he r a n d L a hi r i 1991 f or s o me d i sc u ss i on o f s u ch p r oc e ss e s) . T h ey
i n c l u d e h i g h v o w e l d e l e t i o n i n O E wordu!word ‘ w o r d s ’ b u t n o t limu!limu ‘limbs’,
t h e “ v ow e l b a la n ce ” p h en o me n on i n S c an d in a vi a n ( H au g en 1982: 2 5; B an dl e e t al .
2005: 1 1 0 9 , 1 8 5 8 ) a n d o t h e r s . F e e t a r e a l s o t h e b a s i s o f s t r e s s a s s i g n m e n t . O n e o f t h e
s yl la bl es w it hi n t he f oo t i s d es ig na te d a s i ts h ea d, a nd s er ve s a s t he l oc us o f s tr es s.
E a r l y G M C s y l l a b l e s a r e h e l d t o b e a s s e m b l e d i n t o f e e t f r o m t h e l e f t e d g e o f t h e w o r d
r i g h t w a r d , t h e l e f t m o s t s y l l a b l e i n e a c h f o o t s e r v i n g a s t h e h e a d . T h e p r e c i s e m o d e o f
f oo t fo rma ti on i n ear ly GM C h as b ee n a ma tt er o f co nt ro vers y. L as s (1992:85)
p ro po se s t ha t O E f ee t w er e f or me d b y g ro up in g t he s yl la bl es o f a w or d i nt o f ee t o f
t wo t o t hr ee s yl la bl es , s ta rt in g a t t he l ef tm os t e dg e o f t he w or d, a nd m ar ki ng t he
l ef tm os t s yl la bl e i n e ac h f oo t a s t he s tr on g s yl la bl e ( th e h ea d) , w it ho ut r eg ar d t o
s yl la bl e c ou nt o r s yl la bl e w ei gh t, y ie ld in g a f ac to ri ng o f t he w or d i nt o l ef t- he ad ed
( t ro c ha i c) f e et . F e et w er e t h en g r ou p ed t o ge t he r p a ir w is e , t h e l e ft m os t b r an c h i n e ac h
s uc h p ai ri ng a ga in b ei ng t he s tr on g b ra nc h. T he n ot io n o f “ he ad ” i s t ra ns it iv e; t he
l e f t m o s t s y l l a b l e i n t h e w o r d , a s t h e h e a d o f t h e l e f t m o s t f o o t , w i l l b e t h e h e a d s y l l a b l e
o f t h e w o r d a n d t h u s a s s i g n e d t h e m a i n w o r d s t r e s s H e a d s o f f e e t f u r t h e r t o t h e r i g h t
d i f f e r e n t p r e d i c t i o n s a b o u t s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s – f o r e x a m p l e , i n f o r m s l i k e oþe rne . I n t h e
a c c o u n t o f D r e s h e r a n d L a h i r i , t h e s y l l a b l e þer s houl d r e c e i ve s e c onda r y s t r e s s , s i nc e i t
i s t h e h e a d o f i t s o w n f o o t , w h i l e i n t h e a c c o u n t o f L a s s , i t s h o u l d n o t , s i n c e i t f o r m s t h e
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, , ,s ec on d s yl la bl e o f t he f oo t h ea de d b y / o/ . T he t wo a pp ro ac he s a ls o m ak e d if fe re nt
p re di ct io ns w it h r es pe ct t o t he p at te rn in g o f s yn co pe p ro ce ss es , s uc h a s H ig h V ow el
D e l e t i o n , w h i c h w e r e a p p a r e n t l y s e n s i t i v e t o s e c o n d a r y s t r e s s . T h e i n t e r e s t e d r e a d e r i s
r ef e rr e d t o D re s he r a n d L a hi r i 1991 a n d L a s s 1994: 9 0 f f .
I n p re fi xe d f or ms i n t he e ar ly G MC l an gu ag es , s tr es s b ec om es m or e c om pl ex . I nv e r b s , p r e f i x e s a r e n e v e r s t r e s s e d ; t h e s t r e s s f a l l s o n t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e o f t h e r o o t , a s i n
us-le $iþan ‘ de pa rt ’ ( P r okos c h 1938: 1 1 9) . T w o d i ff er e nt p o si t io n s h a ve b e en a s su m ed
w it h r es pe ct t o t he h is to ry o f t hi s s it ua ti on . S om e c la im t ha t i t a ri se s b ec au se G MC
s t r e s s w a s f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g n o t w o r d - i n i t i a l b u t r o o t - i n i t i a l . O t h e r s c l a i m t h a t s t r e s s
w as w or d- in it ia l, b ut t ha t p re fi xe s w er e s ti ll s ep ar at e l ex ic al i te ms a t t he t im e w he n
s tr es s w as f ix ed , h en ce o ut si de t he r ea ch o f w or d s tr es s. T he re i s s om e e vi de nc e t ha t
t h e f u s i o n o f p r e f i x a n d v e r b s t e m w a s n o t c o m p l e t e i n e a r l y G M C , i n c l u d i n g t h e f a c t
t ha t t he y c ou ld b e s ep ar at ed f ro m t he v er b b y i nt er ve ni ng c li ti cs , a s i n G O ga-u-
laubjats. . . ? ‘ D o y o u b e l i e v e ? ’ ( M a t t . 9 : 2 8 ) ( s e e L a h i r i e t a l. 1999: 3 3 6 f o r a s u m m a r y
o f t hi s d eb at e, w it h r ef er en ce s) . I n n ou ns a nd a dj ec ti ve s, o n t he o th er h an d, s tr es s
g en er al ly f al ls o n t he p re fi x, a s p oe ti c a ll it er at io n s ho ws u s, f or e xa mp le , w it h t he
e xc ep ti on o f t he p re fi x ge-/ ga- , w hi ch i s n ev er s tr es se d: G O u $s-liþa ‘ pa ra l yt ic ’ , O E
u $nrot ‘ s a d ’ . T h e s i t u a t i o n i s c o m p l i c a t e d f u r t h e r b y t h e f a c t t h a t n o u n s a n d a d j e c t i v e s
c an b e d er iv ed f ro m v er bs a nd t he c on ve rs e, c ar ry in g o ve r t he a cc en tu at io n o f t he
s ou rc e, a s i n forgi $ fenis ‘ f o rg i ve n es s ’, f o r e x am p le ( Ho g g 1992: 1 00 ; L as s 1994: 9 2 .
S ee a l so P r ok o sc h 1938: 1 9 9 ) .
W or d s tr es s i n t he m od er n G MC l an gu ag es i s t re at ed i n d et ai l i n Z on ne ve ld e t a l .
1999 A mo ng t he se l an gu ag es o nl y I ns ul ar S ca nd in av ia n ( IC a nd F A) h as r em ai ne d
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E N i n h o w l i g h t s y l l a b l e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d . I n E N , w h e n t h e p e n u l t i s a n o p e n s y l l a b l e
w i t h a s h o r t v o w e l , t h e a c c e n t s h i f t s t o t h e a n t e p e n u l t ( Pa $nama) , b u t w h e n i t i s a n o p e n
s y l l a b l e w i t h a l o n g v o w e l ( unru $ly) o r a c l o s e d s y l l a b l e w i t h a s h o r t v o w e l a n d a c o d a
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c ons ona nt (infe $rno) , t h e p e n u l t r e c e i v e s t h e a c c e n t . I n t h e c o n t i n e n t a l l a n g u a g e s , o n l y
c l o s e d s y l l a b l e s c o u n t a s h e a v y . O p e n s y l l a b l e s w i t h l o n g v o w e l s i n t h e p e n u l t d o n o t
p r e v e n t l e f t w a r d s h i f t o f t h e a c c e n t . T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s o b s c u r e d b y t h e o r t h o g r a p h y i n
m a ny c a se s . E N Pa $nama i s a c c e n t e d o n t h e a n t e p e n u l t b e c a u s e t h e p e n u l t h a s a s h o r t
v ow el . T he v ow el o f t he p en ul t i n D U Pa $nama, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s l o n g ( a s a r e a l lv o w e l s i n o p e n s y l l a b l e s i n t h e s e l a n g u a g e s ) , y e t i t d o e s n o t p r e v e n t s h i f t o f t h e a c c e n t
t o t he a nt ep en ul t. T hi s d if fe re nc e b et we en t he c on ti ne nt al l an gu ag es a nd E N i s n o
d o u b t c o n n e c t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e s e l a n g u a g e s , u n l i k e E N , l e n g t h i s n o t c o n t r a s t i v e
i n o pe n s yl la bl es , s in ce t he se l an gu ag es d o n ot a ll ow s ho rt v ow el s i n o pe n s yl la bl es ,
a n d r o ut i ne l y l e ng t he n t h em t h er e ( L ah i ri e t a l . 1999: 3 6 5 ) . T h e s e l a n g u a g e s d o h a v e
n u m e r o u s f o r m s i n w h i c h t h e s t r e s s e d p e n u l t h a s a s h o r t v o w e l w h i c h i s n o t f o l l o w e d b y
a c o ns o na n t c l us t er ( DU Apollo, Walhalla , libretto, GE Bazillus , Madonna) . I n t h e s e ,
it is argued that the syllable is closed by the following consonant, which is
a m bis yl l abi c ( Z onne ve l d et al. 1999: 4 98 , 5 20 ). O pe n s yl la bl es w it h d ip ht ho ng s
d o c ou nt a s h ea vy i n t he se l an gu ag es : G E Balala $ika, Thesa $urus (Lahiri e t a l. 1999:
365; Z onne ve l d et al. 1999: 5 20 ). I n a ll o f t he se l an gu ag es , t ho ug h, t he s tr es s d oe s
f a l l o n a p e n u l t i m a t e o p e n s y l l a b l e w i t h a l o n g v o w e l i f t h e v o w e l o f t h e f i n a l s y l l a b l e i s
/ @ /, as in GE Methode ‘ m e t hod’ ( t he “ f i na l - s c hw a r ul e , ” c f . Z onne ve l d e t a l . 1999: 5 2 1 ) .
A ga in , s ta te me nt s a bo ut a cc en t i n t he se l an gu ag es f al l s ho rt o f f ul l g en er al it y.
Zonneveld e t a l . (1999: 5 2 7 f f . ) l i s t e x c e p t i o n s f o r G E , n o t i n g t h a t t h e v a r i o u s g e n e r a l -
i za ti on s d if fe r i n r el ia bi li ty , t he p re fe re nc e f or s tr es s o n s up er he av y f in al s yl la bl es
b ei ng p ar ti cu la rl y v io la bl e. S om e o f t he se l an gu ag es c on ta in w or ds w it h d if fe re nt
m ea ni ng s w hi ch s ee m t o d if fe r o nl y i n t he p os it io n o f s tr es s b ei ng o th er wi se o f t he
M a n y o f t h e s e p a i r s , o f c o u r s e , i n v o l v e o n e m e m b e r w h i c h i s n o t a l e x i c a l f o r m b u t a
s y n t a c t i c c o m p o u n d , c o n s i s t i n g o f a n o u n a n d a n e n c l i t i c d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e , a n d t h e y a r e
t hu s n ot s tr ai gh tf or wa rd m in im al p ai rs . E N h as a s et o f n ou n/ ve rb p ai rs i n w hi ch t heh b i l l i d i L i d di l i l
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a c ce n t c o nt r as t h a s b e en p a rt i al l y s y st e ma t iz e d i n L a ti n at e w o rd s a c co r di n g t o l e xi c al
c at eg or y, i n s uc h c as es a s contrast and transfer .
3.2.3.1 S tr es s i n d er iv e d f or ms
A f ur th er l eg ac y o f t he p er io d o f i nt en se b or ro wi ng f ro m R om an ce l an gu ag es i n t he
m o de r n l a ng u ag e s, e x cl u di n g I n su l ar S c an d in a vi a n, i s s o me r e la t iv e ly c o mp l ex i n te r-
a c ti o ns b e tw ee n s t re s s a n d a f fi x at i on . A l l o f t h es e l a ng u ag e s d i st i ng u is h b e tw ee n t w o
s e t s o f d e r i v a t i o n a l s u f f i x e s , g e n e r a l l y k n o w n a s C l a s s I s u f f i x e s a n d C l a s s I I s u f f i x e s .
C l a s s I s u f f i x e s a r e “ s t r e s s - s e n s i t i v e ” – t h a t i s , t h e y a r e c o u n t e d a s a p a r t o f t h e w o r d i n
c o m p u t i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f s t r e s s . R e s u l t a n t l y , s t r e s s w i l l a p p e a r o n a d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n
i n t h e b a s e w o r d w h e n a C l a s s I s u f f i x i s a t t a c h e d t h a n w h e n i t i s n o t ( o r e v e n o n t h e
s uf fi x, i f t he s tr es s r ul es r eq ui re ). E xa mp le s o f C la ss I s uf fi xe s a re g iv en i n ( 3. 22 ):
C l a s s I I s u f f i x e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r e “ s t r e s s - n e u t r a l ” ; t h e y d o n o t a l t e r t h e s t r e s s
p at te rn s o f t he f or ms t o w hi ch t he y a re a tt ac he d. E xa mp le s a re g iv en i n ( 3. 23 ):
s tr es se d s yl la bl es s ho w p it ch a cc en t c on tr as ts . T he b es t- kn ow n c as e i s t he c on tr as t
b e t w e e n t w o w o r d a c c e n t s i n m o s t o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l S c a n d i n a v i a n l a n g u a g e s , e x c l u d -
i ng f ri ng e a re as , s uc h a s F in la nd S W, e xt re me N or th er n S W, N or th a nd W es t N O( B d H 1999 6 07 ) K t i l A t I ( t ) d
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( Br uc e a nd H er ma ns 1999: 6 07 ). Kn own res pect iv el y a s Acc en t I (o r a cu te) a nd
A c c e n t I I ( o r g r a v e ) , t h e s e c o n t r a s t f o r t h e m o s t p a r t o n l y i n w o r d s o f m o r e t h a n o n e
s yl la bl e, a nd o nl y w he n t he se a re n ot s tr es se d f in al ly . A ll m on os yl la bl es a nd f in al ly
s t r e s s e d pol ys yl l a bl e s ha ve onl y A c c e nt I . Mi ni m a l pa i r s i nc l ude S W vi $ner ‘ i t w hi z z e s ’
and vi ner ‘wines’.T h e p h on e ti c r ea l iz a ti o n o f t h e d i st i nc t io n v a ri e s a cr o ss l a ng u ag e s o f t h is g r ou p i n
c om pl ex w ay s ( Br uc e a nd H er ma ns 1999: 6 25 ), b ut in g ene ral , i t ap pe ars t hat th e
di ff ere nce i s i n h ow t he p it ch m el od y al ig ns wit h th e st re ss of t he wo rd . Giv en a
u ni fo rm r is e- fa ll ( Lo w- Hi gh -L ow ) m el od y f or w or ds , t he p ea k ( H) o f t he m el od y
o c c u r s e a r l i e r i n A c c e n t I w o r d s t h a n i n A c c e n t I I w o r d s ; i n S o u t h e r n S W , f o r e x a m p l e ,
t he a li gn me nt f or A cc en t I i s H *L ( wh er e * d es ig na te s t he w or d s tr es s) , y ie ld in g a
p i t c h f a l l a f t e r t h e s t r e s s , b u t f o r A c c e n t I I , i t i s L * H , y i e l d i n g a p i t c h r i s e a f t e r t h e m a i n
s t re s s ( B ru c e a n d H e rm a ns 1999: 6 2 4f . ).
T he p ol ys yl la bi c w or ds w it h A cc en t I I w er e o ri gi na ll y p ol ys yl la bi c, w hi le t ho se
w it h A c ce n t I w er e o r ig i na l ly m o no s yl l ab i c i n m o st c a se s , c o mi n g t o b e p o ly s yl l ab i c
t h ro u gh s u ch p r oc e ss e s a s a t ta c hm e nt o f a n e n cl i ti c d e fi n it e a r ti c le , o r e p en t he s is o f a
v o we l b e tw ee n a n o b st r ue n t a n d a ( q ua s i- s yl l ab i c) f i na l r es o na n t, a s i n ( 3 .2 4 ):
T hu s, t o s ta te o ne o f t he h yp ot h es es o f o ri gi n ( th at o f O ft ed al 1952 ) i n a s o m e w h a t
a nd t he p re se nt t en se m ar ke r (ba $ck- en ‘ t he ( f oot ba l l) ba c k’, vi $n-er ‘ i t w h iz z es ’ ). T h e
l at te r i nc lu de t he p lu ra l m ar ke r -ar /-er (back-ar ‘ b ac ks ’) a nd t he i nf in it iv e s uf fi x -a.
T h e a c ce n t o f p o ly s yl l ab i c f o rm s i s u n af fe c te d b y a f fi x at i on .I n s om e d ia le ct s o f N O a po co pe h as r es ul te d i n t he e xt en si on o f t hi s c on tr as t
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I n s om e d ia le ct s o f N O, a po co pe h as r es ul te d i n t he e xt en si on o f t hi s c on tr as t
t o c er t ai n p a ir s o f m o no s yl l ab i c f o rm s ( e .g . , ko $m ‘ c o me -I m pe r ’ v s . ‘ko m ‘come-Inf’,
t he l at te r m an if es ti ng “ ci rc um fl ex ” a cc en t – a n a po co pa te d A cc en t I I ( Br uc e a nd
Hermans 1999: 6 1 7 ) .
O f a c o m m o n o r i g i n w i t h t h e w o r d t o n e c o n t r a s t i n o t h e r S c a n d i n a v i a n l a n g u a g e s i sthe st d ( l i t e r a l l y , “ t h r u s t ” ) p h e n o m e n o n i n D A , t h o u g h i t d i f f e r s f r o m t h a t c o n t r a s t i n
t er ms o f i ts p ho ne ti c n at ur e a nd d is tr ib ut io n. W or ds w it h st d a r e a rt ic ul at ed w it h a
di s t i nc t i ve gl ot t a l ge s t ur e ( c r e a ky voi c e , B a s bll 2003) a c c o m p a n y i n g t h e r h y m e o f t h e
s tr es se d s yl la bl e. A cc or di ng t o R ia d (2000: 2 63 ), i t i s n ot t he g lo tt al g est ure i ts el f
wh ich is p er cep tu al ly si gn ifi can t, b ut t he fa ct th at i t is acc omp an ie d b y a s har p
l o we r in g o f f re q ue n cy ; st d i s a n a rt if ac t o f c om pr es si ng a c ir cu mf le x ( HL ) a cc en t
i nt o a s in gl e s yl la bl e, a nd t hu s b as ic al ly a t on al p he no me no n ( bu t s ee B ru ce a nd
Hermans 1999: 6 2 7 ) . F o r st d t o o c c u r , t h e s y l l a b l e m u s t b e s t r e s s e d a n d h a v e a h e a v y
r hy me w it h e it he r a l on g v ow el o r a s ho rt v ow el f ol lo we d b y a s on or an t. T he st d is
r e a l i z e d d u r i n g t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f t h e v o w e l i f l o n g , o r o n t h e s o n o r a n t i f t h e v o w e l i s
short.
R i a d a t t r i b u t e s t h i s c o n d i t i o n t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e s o n o r a n t p h a s e o f t h e s y l l a b l er h y m e b e l o n g e n o u g h t o r e a c h t h e l o w f r e q u e n c y r e q u i r e d f o r c r e a k y v o i c e . H e n o t e s
a s w e l l ( p . 2 6 7 ) t h a t t h e c i r c u m f l e x a c c e n t o f N O d i a l e c t s i s i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s s u b j e c t
o f j us t s ch wa ( Ri ad 2000: 2 65 ; B ru ce a nd H er ma ns 1999: 622). This sets up DA
m or phophone m i c a l t er na t ions i n c a s es l i ke gul [ gu: ’ l] ‘ ye ll ow ’, gule [gu:l@] ‘ y el l ow -
P l ’ ( R ia d 2000: 2 6 4 ) .A s ec on d i ns ta nc e o f w or d t on e i n G MC a ls o s pa nn in g l in gu is ti c b ou nd ar ie s i s
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A s ec on d i ns ta nc e o f w or d t on e i n G MC , a ls o s pa nn in g l in gu is ti c b ou nd ar ie s, i s
th e c on tr as t fo un d i n a c on ti gu ou s are a o f DU an d GE d ial ect s in n ort hwes tern
G e r m a ny, L uxe m bour g, e a s t e r n H ol l a nd a nd e a s t e r n B e l gi um . T hi s c ont r a s t ( di s c us s e d
i n d e t a i l i n L a h i r i e t a l . 1999, G us s e nhove n a nd B r uc e 1999, B r u c e a n d H e r m a n s 1999,
Gussenhoven 2000) i s d is ti nc t i n o ri gi n f ro m t he S ca nd in av ia n t on e c on tr as t, a ndp ho ne ti ca ll y d if fe re nt f ro m i t, t ho ug h t he re a re p oi nt s o f s im il ar it y. F or e xa mp le , a s
i s t ru e o f S ca nd in av ia n, t he c on tr as t i n s om e D U d ia le ct s r eq ui re s s tr es se d s yl la bl es
w it h l on g v ow el s, o r w it h s ho rt v ow el s f ol lo we d b y s on or an ts , f or i ts r ea li za ti on
(Gussenhoven 2000: 2 33 ). T he t wo a cc en ts a re k no wn v ar io us ly a s T on e I /A cc en t I /
pus h- t one ( D U valtoon, GE Stobton) / f a l l i ng t one a nd T one I I / A c c e nt I I / dr a g- t one ( D U
sleepton, GE Schleifton ) ( G us s e nhove n a nd B r uc e 1999: 2 4 2 ) . A c c e n t I i s r e a l i z e d a s a
H L m el od y, A cc en t I I a s a l ev el h ig h t on e ( or , i n f in al p os it io n, a s a f al li ng -r is in g
m e l ody w i t h vow e l l e ngt he ni ng) . I nt e r e s t i ngl y, A c c e nt I i s s om e t i m e s t e r m i na t e d w i t h
glottalization (Gussenhoven 2000: 2 19 ). T he f ol lo wi ng e xa mp le s o f t he p he no me no n
a s i t m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f i n t h e D U d i a l e c t o f M a a s b r a c h t a r e s e l e c t e d f r o m a m u c h l o n g e r
l i s t o f m i n i m a l p a i r s i n B r u c e a n d H e r m a n s (1999: 6 3 7f . ).
c o n t a c t . H e n o t e s , t o b e g i n w i t h , t h a t a n u m b e r o f n o u n s d i s t i n g u i s h t h e i r s i n g u l a r s a n d
p l ur a ls s o le l y b y m e an s o f t h e a cc e nt d i ff e re n ce , t h e f o rm e r p l ur al s u ff i x h a vi n g b e en
a po co pa te d, a s i n p ai rs l ik e b ri if ‘ le tt er s’ b ri if ‘ le tt er ’, nt(@) ‘ n u t s ’ nt ‘ nu t’ f ro mn o r t h e a s t e r n B e l g i u m I n h i s a c c o u n t a f t e r a p o c o p e o f t h e p l u r a l s u f f i x h a d t a k e n p l a c e
88 3 Th e s ou nd s ys te ms o f G e rm an ic
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n o r t h e a s t e r n B e l g i u m . I n h i s a c c o u n t , a f t e r a p o c o p e o f t h e p l u r a l s u f f i x h a d t a k e n p l a c e
i n s uc h f or ms , t he s in gu la r a nd p lu ra l f or ms w ou ld s ti ll h av e b ee n d is ti ng ui sh ed b y
v ow el l en gt h, t he v ow el i n t he l at te r h av in g u nd er go ne o pe n s yl la bl e l en gt he ni ng .
H ow ev er , t he se b or de r d ia le ct s o f D U w er e u nd er p re ss ur e f ro m n ei gh bo ri ng G E t o
l e v e l s u c h p a r a d i g m s i n f a v o r o f a u n i f o r m l o n g v o w e l . C a u g h t b e t w e e n t h e i m p u l s e t oi mi ta te t he n ei gh bo ri ng p re st ig e d ia le ct s a nd t he i mp ul se t o r es is t m or ph ol og ic al
n eu tr al iz at io n o f an i nh ere nt m orp ho lo gi ca l co nt ras t, t hey co mp ro mi se d b y
l en gt he ni ng t he s ho rt v ow el o f t he s in gu la r u nd er r et en ti on o f h ig h p it ch , t o k ee p i t
d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e v o w e l o f t h e p l u r a l . T h i s h i g h p i t c h w a s t h e n r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e h i g h
t o ne c h ar a ct e ri s ti c o f A cc e nt I I.
4
T he G er ma ni c n om in al s ys te m:
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T he G er ma ni c n om in al s ys te m:
p a ra d ig m at i c a n d s y nt a gm a ti c
variation
4.1 N o mi na l i n f l ect i o n
4 . 1. 1 H i st o ri c al p r e l ud e : I nd o -E u ro p ea n h e ri t ag e a n d G e rm a ni c i n n ov a ti o n
A ff ix es i n G MC , a s e ls ew he re , s er ve o ne o f t wo f un ct io ns . D er iv at io na l a ff ix es a re
a p p l i e d t o d e r i v e n e w w o r d s . T h u s , locate, relocate, relocation a r e d i s t i n c t w o r d s , a n d
e ac h m ig ht b e e xp ec te d t o b e l is te d s ep ar at el y i n a d ic ti on ar y. O n t he o th er h an d,
locate, locates and located , d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r b y i n f l e c t i o n a l a f f i x e s , a r e i n
a n i nt ui ti ve ly c le ar s en se s im pl y v ar ia nt f or ms o f t he s am e w or d, a nd w ou ld a cc or d-
i ng ly n ot b e l is te d s ep ar at el y i n t he d ic ti on ar y. D er iv at io na l a ff ix es w er e d is cu ss ed
b r ie fl y i n C h ap t er 2. T h e p a ra d ig m at i c a n d s y nt a gm a ti c r e la t io n sh i ps a m on g i n fl e c-
t io na l m or ph em es i n t he G MC l an gu ag es ( or t he ir a na ly ti c e qu iv al en ts – s ee b el ow )
w i l l b e t r e a t e d i n t h e n e x t t w o c h a p t e r s .
S yn ch ro ni ca ll y, f ew t yp ol og ic al g en er al iz at io ns c an b e m ad e a bo ut t he s ha pe o f
i n f l e c t i o n a l m o r p h o l o g y a c r o s s t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s , e x c e p t t h a t s u f f i x e s a r e b y f a r t h e
m o s t f r e q u e n t a n d p r o d u c t i v e t y p e o f i n f l e c t i o n . T h i s i s i n p a r t a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e i r I E
h e ri t ag e S u ff i xe s w er e t h e p r ev a il i ng ( t ho u gh n o t t h e e x cl u si v e) d e vi c e f o r s i gn a li n g
T he h is to ry o f i nf le ct io na l m or ph ol og y i n t he G MC l an gu ag es h as b ee n l ar ge ly
o n e o f l o ss o f i n fl e ct i on a l d i st i nc t io n s a n d e v en o f e n ti r e i n fl e ct i on a l c a te g or i es . T h is
p ro ce ss o f “ de fl ec ti on ,” t o b or ro w a t er m f ro m W ee rm an (1989) , t h ou g h e v id e nc edi n a l l G M C l a n g u a g e s , h a s p r o g r e s s e d u n e v e n l y a c r o s s t h e f a m i l y . S o , f o r e x a m p l e , I C
90 4 T he G e rm an ic n om in al s ys te m
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g g , p g y y , p ,
a n d G E h a v e p r e s e r v e d m o r e o f t h e i n v e n t o r y o f i n f l e c t i o n a l a f f i x e s t h a n E N a n d A F ,
w h ic h h a ve e l im i na t ed t h e i n fl e ct i on a l c a te g or i es o f g e nd e r a n d ( ex c ep t i n p r on o un s )
c a s e , a m ong ot he r t hi ngs . I t ha s a l s o pr oc e e de d une ve nl y a c r os s i nf l e c t i ona l c a t e gor i e s .
S o , f o r e x a m p l e , w h i l e m a n y o f t h e m o d e r n G M C l a n g u a g e s h a v e c e a s e d t o s i g n a l c a s eo n n o u n s , a l l o f t h e m s t i l l r e t a i n w a y s o f m a r k i n g n o u n s p l u r a l . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , i t i s
i mp or ta nt t o d is ti ng ui sh b et we en t wo f un ct io na ll y d if fe re nt t yp es o f i nf le ct io n.
R et ur ni ng t o o ur e xa mp le s, w e n ot e t ha t t he -ed of located c on t ri b ut e s i n a s p ec i fi c
w ay t o t he i nt er pr et at io n o f t he f or m, a dd in g t he m ea ni ng “ pa st .” O n t he o th er h an d,
the -s of locates d oe s n ot a pp ea r t o m ak e a n i nd ep en de nt s em an ti c c on tr ib ut io n.
R a t h e r , i t s i m p l y e n c o d e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e w o r d a n d o t h e r s i n c o n s t r u c t i o n
w it h i t, s ig na li ng ( re du nd an tl y) t ha t t he s ub je ct o f t he v er b i s t hi rd p er so n s in gu la r.
B o o i j (2002b: 1 9 f . , c i t i n g K u r yłowicz 1964) r ef er s t o t he se t wo t yp es o f i nf le ct io n a s
“ i nhe r e nt ” a nd “ c ont e xt ua l , ” r e s pe c t i ve l y. P l ur a l m a r ki ng on nouns i s a not he r e xa m pl e
o f i n h e r e n t m o r p h o l o g y . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p l u r a l m a r k i n g o n a d j e c t i v e s i s c o n t e x t u a l ,
s e r v i n g o n l y t o e n c o d e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e i n c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a p l u r a l n o u n . B o o i j
p r o p o s e s t h a t t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f m or ph em es i n a t l ea st a c ou pl e o f ( po ss ib ly i nt er de pe nd en t) w ay s. F ir st o f a ll ,
i n h e r e n t m o r p h e m e s t e n d t o c o m e c l o s e r t o t h e r o o t t o w h i c h t h e y a r e a t t a c h e d . T h u s ,
for example, in such GE forms as kauf-t-en ‘ bo ug ht ( 1s t/ 3r d p er so n p lu ra l) ’ t he
( in he re nt ) p as t t en se s uf fi x p re ce de s t he ( co nt ex tu al ) p lu ra l a gr ee me nt m or ph em e.
S ec on d, c on te xt ua l i nf le ct io n t en ds t o b e l os t m or e r ea di ly o ve r t im e. A cc or di ng t o
B o o i j “ t h i s i s t o b e e x p e c t e d s i n c e c o n t e x t u a l i n f l e c t i o n d o e s n o t e x p r e s s i n d e p e n d e n t
D ef le ct io n h as w or ke d i n t an de m w it h t wo o th er p ar ti al ly r el at ed t en de nc ie s t o
r ed u ce t h e r a ng e o f v a ri a ti o n w i th i n a n d a cr o ss p a ra d ig m s: s y nc r et i sm o f i n fl e ct i on a l
c on tr as ts t hr ou gh e xt en si on o f o ne m em be r o f a p ar ad ig m a t t he e xp en se o f o th er s( fo r e xa mp le , t he e xt en si on o f t he s ec on d p er so n s in gu la r v er b e nd in g i n O N t o t hi rd
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( p p g g
pe r s on, w hi c h, t hr ough bor r ow i ng, a l s o ga ve us t he E N - s in locates), and regularization
of a f f i xe s by e xt e ndi ng a n a f f i x f r om one pa r a di gm t o ot he r s ( e . g. , t he ge ne r a l i z a t i on of
EN -s a s a p l u r a l m a r k e r b e y o n d t h e n o u n c l a s s e s i n w h i c h i t w a s o r i g i n a l ) . D e f l e c t i o n
i s t ra di ti on al ly h el d t o b e t he r es ul t o f s ou nd c ha ng e; a s t he e nd in gs a re r ed uc ed o r e l im i na t ed b y p h on o lo g ic a l p r oc e ss e s, t h e i n fl e ct i on a l c a te g or i es t h ey e n co d ed d i s-
a p pe ar . W h il e s u ch s e qu e nc es o f e v en t s w er e p r om i ne n t i n t h e d e ve l op m en t o f G M C,
t h i n g s d o n o t a l w a y s p r o g r e s s i n t h i s w a y . A f t e r a c e r t a i n t h r e s h h o l d h a s b e e n r e a c h e d ,
t h e r e ma i ni n g a ff i xe s i n a p a ra d ig m c a n l o se t h ei r f u nc t io n al s i gn i fi c an c e b e fo r e t h ey
d is ap pe ar . T hi s p os si bi li ty i s i ll us tr at ed , f or e xa mp le , b y t he r et en ti on o f t he f or me r
d at iv e c as e -e m ar ker o n n ou ns i n M E aft er i t h ad cea se d to si gn al d at iv e, o r th e
s i m i la r l y de f unc t i ona l i ze d a t t ri but i ve a dj ec t i ve e ndi ngs of A F .
I n g e n e r a l , t h e m o r e p h o n o l o g i c a l l y s u b s t a n t i a l t h e e n d i n g , t h e b e t t e r i t r e s i s t e d t h e
pr oc e s s e s of phonol ogi c a l r e duc t i on unde r l yi ng de f l e c t i on. S o, f or e xa m pl e , w hi l e G O
h a d n o m i n a t i v e c a s e e n d i n g s i n b o t h t h e s i n g u l a r a n d t h e p l u r a l o f a- s t e m n o u n s , o n l y
t he p lu ra l e nd in g, w he re t he v ow el w as l on g, s ur vi ve s i n O HG .
T hi s r es ul ts i n a p ar ad ig m i n w hi ch s om e f or ms a re e nd in gl es s. K as to vs ky (1994)
s ee s i n t hi s d ev el op me nt a s hi ft i n m or ph ol og ic al t yp ol og y, f ro m a “ st em -b as ed ”
mo rp ho lo gi cal s ys te m, i n wh ich a ll o f th e fo rm s i n t he p ar ad ig m a re d eri ved b y
a dd in g a ff ix es t o a n a bs tr ac t s te m ( wh ic h t hu s n ev er a pp ea rs a s a n a ct ua l w or d) t o a
r ea so ns t ha t a re l in ke d t o t he ir m ea ni ng s. A mo ng t he se a re n on -c ou nt n ou ns w hi ch
l a c k p l u r a l f o r m s b e c a u s e t h e y d o n o t r e f e r t o e n u m e r a b l e e n t i t i e s . T h e s e i n c l u d e n o u n s
d en ot in g a bs tr ac t p ro pe rt ie s (goodness), su bs tan ce s (wool) a nd co ll ect iv e t erm s(cattle) . U nd er s om e c ir cu ms ta nc es , t he se c an b e u se d w it h p lu ra l m or ph ol og y, b ut
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n o t w i t h o u t i n t r o d u c i n g a n a d d e d s e n s e o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o
s ay “ hi s m an y k in dn es se s, ” b ut kindnesses i s u nd er st oo d h er e t o r ef er e ll ip ti ca ll y t o
‘ a c t s o f k i n d n e s s ’ . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e r e a r e n o u n s w h i c h h a v e o n l y p l u r a l f o r m s ( pluralia
tanta) . I n E N , t h e s e i n c l u d e s u c h n o u n s a s scissors, tweezers and odds w h ic h r e fe r t oo bj ec ts c on si st in g o f t wo i de nt ic al c om po ne nt s. T he s in gu la rs o f t he se n ou ns a re
s i mp l y n o ne x is t en t . F o r o t he rs , h o we v er , i n cl u di n g, contents , damages a nd t he l ik e,
t he c or re sp on di ng s in gu la r f or m h as a d if fe re nt m ea ni ng . T o a c er ta in e xt en t, w e a re
d e a l i n g w i t h p o i n t o f v i e w i n a l l o f t h e s e c a s e s , a n d t h e r e a r e c r o s s l i n g u i s t i c d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t h e u s e o f s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l f o r m s h e r e . S o , f o r e x a m p l e , E N u s e s ashes, contents ,
wages and looks as p lu ra ls , w hi le t he c or re sp on di ng n ou ns (aske, indhold , ln,
udseende) i n D A a re s in gu la r ( Al la n e t a l. 1995: 4 4 ). S i mi l ar l y, t h e D A c o un t er p ar t s
to scissors, tweezer s, scales and pliers a re s in gu la r (e n s ak s, e n p in ce t , e n v æg t , en
knibtang) . C on ve rs el y, i n E N furniture, information, knowledge a r e non- pl ur al i z abl e
n ou ns , w hi le t he ir c ou nt er pa rt s i n D A (mbler , oplysninger , kundskaber ) a re p lu ra l,
w h os e s i ng u la r f o rm s a g ai n d e no t e ‘ a p a rt i cu l ar i n st a nc e o f X ’ .
I n e ar ly G MC , a nd s ti ll i n s om e r el at iv el y r ic hl y i nf le ct ed m od er n l an gu ag es
( IC , F A) , n um be r h as n o m or ph ol og ic al e xp re ss io n i n t he n ou n i nd ep en de nt o f c as e.
S o, f or e xa mp le , e ve ry d if fe re nt c as e e nd in g f or t he p lu ra ls o f t he a- s t em de c le ns i on
h a s a d i f f e r e n t s h a p e i n G O a n d I C :
a d is ti nc ti on b et we en s in gu la r n eu te r a rt ic le het a nd a n i nv ar ia nt de f or a ll o th er
g e n d e r s a n d n u m b e r s , a n d E N a n d A F , w h i c h h a v e a n i n v a r i a n t a r t i c l e f o r b o t h s i n g u l a r
a n d p l u r a l ( the, die).
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4.1.2.1.1 Dual IE h ad d ual a s we ll as s in gu la r a nd p lu ral f orm s. T he d ual h as
d is ap pe ar ed i n G MC i n t he i nf le ct io n o f n ou ns , t ho ug h i t p er si st s a s a n i nf le ct io na l
c at e go r y i n G O v e rb s ( s ee S e ct i on 4.9.1.1) , a nd i n p ro no un s i n a v ar ie ty o f m ed ie va l
G M C l a n g u a g e s . A m o n g t h e m o d e r n G M C l a n g u a g e s , d u a l h a s s u r v i v e d a s a n i n f l e c -
t i on a l c a te g or y ( i n p r on o un p a ra d ig m s) o n ly i n N o rt h F R ( s ee 4 . 8. 1 .1 ) .
4.1.2.2 G e nd e r: i n fl e ct i on a l c a t e g or y o r l e xi c al c l as s if i ca t io n ?
G en de r, w hi le i mp or ta nt a s a m ea ns o f c la ss if yi ng n om in al s, h ad a t m os t a m ar gi na l
s t a t u s a s a c a t e g o r y o f i n f l e c t i o n i n e a r l y G M C , a n d i t i s n o t u n t i l s o m e m o d e r n G M C
l a ng u ag e s t h at w e f i nd i n fl e ct i on a l m o rp h em e s e m er g in g w h ic h s i gn a l g e nd e r e x cl u -
s i v e l y . G e n d e r h a s n e v e r b e e n a n i n f l e c t i o n a l c a t e g o r y , a s s u c h , o f t h e G M C n o u n . O n
t he o ne h an d, t he re a re n o i nf le ct io na l e nd in gs w hi ch e xc lu si ve ly m ar k g en de r. T he
g e nd e r- p ar t ic u la r e n di n gs i n G M C p a ra d ig m s a l so i n va ri a bl y e n co d e o t he r g r am m a-
t ic al i nf or ma ti on , s uc h a s n um be r a nd c as e, a nd a re t he re fo re s o- ca ll ed portmanteau
m o r p h e m e s . S o , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e G O m a s c u l i n e a n d n e u t e r a r e a t m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n
s om e p ar ad ig ms ( e. g. , t he G MC a - s te m s) b y h a vi n g d i ff e re n t f o rm s f o r n o mi n at i ve
s i n g u l a r , a n d n o m i n a t i v e a n d a c c u s a t i v e p l u r a l ( 4 . 3 a ) . I n a l l o t h e r c a s e s , t h e y a r e n o n -
di s t inc t ( 4. 3b) :
A l l o f t h e s e f o r m s a r e d i s t i n c t l y f e m i n i n e , a n d i t m a y s e e m a r g u a b l e t h a t t h e / ao:/
i s a m a r k e r o f f e m i n i n e g e n d e r h e r e , s i n c e t h e c a s e / n u m b e r i s s i g n a l e d b y t h e c o n s o n -
a nt w hi ch f ol lo ws i t. E ve n h er e, h ow ev er , i t w ou ld b e w ro ng t o i de nt if y / ao : / a s ag e nd e r m a rk e r, f o r r e as o ns r e la t in g t o p r od u ct i vi t y a n d p r ed i ct a bi l it y . W i th r e sp e ct t o
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t he f or me r, w e n ot e t ha t t he / ao :/ a lt er na ti on i s r es tr ic te d t o a p ar ti cu la r s ub se t o f
f e m i n i n e n o u n s : t h o s e t h a t d e r i v e f r o m t h e I E a - s t e m s . I n t h e I E n o u n i n f l e c t i o n s w h i c h
u n de r li e t h e G M C o n es , i n fl e ct i on a l e n di n gs w e re t y pi c al l y n o t a d de d d i re c tl y t o t h e
n o u n r o o t , b u t r a t h e r w e r e l i n k e d t o t h e r o o t b y a t h e m a t i c s u f f i x , w h i c h i d e n t i f i e d t h e
i n f l e c t i o n a l c l a s s o f t h e n o u n . S o , f o r e x a m p l e , E N father , mother , sister a l l c o m e f r o m
IE r - st em s, s o c al le d b ec au se t he t he ma ti c s uf fi x w as - (e)r - . I t h ap pe ne d t ha t o ne o f
t he se c la ss es , w ho se t he ma ti c s uf fi x i n I E w as -a ( f ro m a n e ar l ie r s e qu e nc e o f v o we l
p l us l a ry n ge al c o ns o na n t ( *eH 2) ) , i n c l u d e d o n l y f e m i n i n e n o u n s . N o u n s l i k e G O giba
a re r ef le xe s o f t hi s c la ss o f “ a- s te ms ,” w hi ch i s w hy a ll o f t he n ou ns w it h t he / ao:/
t e r mi na t ion a r e f e m ini ne .2 I n o th er i nh er it ed d ec le ns io n c la ss es , t ho ug h, t he re i s n o
s u c h c o n s i s t e n t s i g n a l o f f e m i n i n e g e n d e r , a n d f o r s o m e ( e . g . , t h e u- de cl e ns ion) , t he r e
i s n o d i ff e re n ce a t a l l b e tw ee n m a sc u li n e a n d f em i ni n e f o rm s .
A s i m i l a r s i t ua t i on a r i s e s i n t he G MC “ w e a k” nouns , w hos e i nf l e c t i ons de r i ve f r om I E
n- s t e m s I n G O f or e xa m pl e m a s c ul i ne n-stems are consistently distinct from feminine
a n oun can no t b e g iv en a d if fer en t g en der s imp ly b y ch an gi ng t he su ffi x. T hes e
c o ns i de r at i on s s u gg e st a n a l te r na t iv e a c co u nt : / ao:/, o and ei i n t he se e xa mp le s a re
n o t i n fl e ct i on a l m o rp h em e s e n co d in g g e nd e r, b u t d e ri v at i on a l a ff i xe s s i gn a li n g n o unc l a s s . T h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e s e w i t h g e n d e r i s a m a t t e r o f c l a s s m e m b e r s h i p . T h e c l a s s
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of an- s te m s c o nt a in s m a sc u li n e n o un s , w h il e t h e / ao:/, on- a n d -ein c l a s se s c ont ai n
o n l y f e m i n i n e n o u n s , t h e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h g e n d e r t h u s r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t a l l o f
t h e m e m b e r s o f t h i s c l a s s h a p p e n t o b e f e m i n i n e . T h e y a r e t h u s n o t u n l i k e t h e G E n o u n
e nd in g -ung in Zeitung ‘ ne ws pa pe r’ , f or e xa mp le , w hi ch a pp ea rs e xc lu si ve ly o n
f e m i n i n e n o u n s , b u t w h i c h w e w o u l d n o t w i s h t o c h a r a c t e r i z e a s a g e n d e r m o r p h e m e .
N o un s a re c ru c ia l ly d i ff e re n t i n t h is r e sp e ct f ro m a d je c ti v es . F o rm a ll y , t h e e n di n gs
o f w ea k a dj ec ti ve s a re i de nt ic al t o t ho se o f n- st em n ou ns , f ro m w hi ch t he y d er iv e
hi s t or i c a l l y. Ma s c ul i ne w e a k a dj e c t i ve s i nf l e c t j us t l i ke an- s t e m nouns , w hi l e f e m i ni ne
w e a k a dj e c t i ve s i nf l e c t j us t l i ke on- s t e m n o u n s ( a n d p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e s i n t h e f e m i n i n e
like ein- s t em nouns) .
H o w e v e r , t h e e n d i n g s h e r e d i f f e r i n t w o f u n d a m e n t a l r e s p e c t s f r o m t h e c o r r e s p o n d -
i n g n o u n e n d i n g s . F i r s t o f a l l , “ w e a k a d j e c t i v e , ” o r “ f e m i n i n e a d j e c t i v e , ” u n l i k e “ w e a k
n o u n ” o r “ f e m i n i n e n o u n , ” i s n o t a l e x i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w i t h f i x e d m e m b e r s h i p , b u t a
m at te r o f s yn ta ct ic al ly d et er mi ne d i nf le ct io n. A ny a dj ec ti ve m ay b e a ss ig ne d w ea k
f em i ni n e e n di n gs u n de r t h e a p pr o pr i at e s y nt a ct i c c i rc u ms t an c es . A d je ct i ve s a c qu i re
t he ir g en de r b y a gr ee me nt w it h n ou ns w it h w hi ch t he y a re i n c on st ru ct io n a nd t hu s
T he r e f or e , t he o of b li nd om , f o r e x a m p l e , u n l i k e t h e o of t uggom , m u s t b e r e g a r d e d
a s pr oduc t i ve i nf l ec t i ona l m or phol ogy.
F or n ou ns , t he re fo re , g en de r i s n ot a n i nf le ct io na l c at eg or y, b ut r at he r a n a bs tr ac ts y st e m o f c l as s if i ca t io n w i th o ut m o rp h ol o gi c al e x po n en c e. I t i s a s e le c ti o na l f e at u re ,
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i m po r ta n t f o r c o nd i ti o ni n g t h e m o rp h ol o gi c al r e al i za t io n s o f o t he r f o rm s w i th w h ic h
t h e n o u n a p p e a r s i n a s y n t a g m a t i c o r p a r a d i g m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p . W e m a y i d e n t i f y f o u r
w ay s i n w hi ch t he g en de r f ea tu re o f n ou ns a ff ec ts t he s ha pe o f c o- oc cu rr in g f or ms .
F ir st , i n t he m or ph ol og y- ri ch G MC l an gu ag es , g en de r p la ys a ( ma rg in al ) r ol e i n
d et er mi ni ng t he s ha pe o f c as e/ nu mb er a ff ix es a pp li ed t o t he n ou n i ts el f. S o, f or
e xa mp le, i n G O, n eu ter n ou ns d iff er f ro m f em in in e a nd m as cu li ne n ou ns , e ve n w he n t he y
b el on g t o t he s am e i nf le ct io na l c la ss , i n n ev er h av in g -s i n t he n om in at iv e s in gu la r o r
p l ur al . C om pa re , f or e xa mp l e, t he n o mi na ti ve s in gu la r u-stems sunus ‘ s on’ ( Mas c ),
handus ‘ ha nd’ ( Fe m ) w i th ne ute r faihu ‘ c at tl e’ . T hi s h ol ds a cr os s a ll c la ss es o f n ou ns
c on ta in in g n eu te rs , a nd i s a r ef le ct io n o f t he f ac t t ha t n eu te r n ou ns i n I E h ad s ys te ma ti ca ll y
di ff e re nt nom ina ti ve c a se e ndi ngs f r om t he ot he r ge nde rs . A mong t he m ode r n l a nguage s,
n eu te rs s ti ll r et ai n t he ir i nf le ct io na l d is ti nc ti v en es s i n I C, a s t he f ol lo wi ng e xa mp le s s ho w:
S ec on d, i n a ll o f t he G MC l an gu ag es w it h g ra mm at ic al g en de r, t he g en de r o f t hen ou n a ff ec ts t he c ho ic e o f a gr ee me nt m or ph ol og y o n ( so me s ub se t o f ) a dj ec ti ve s.
I n s o me o f t h em , b o th a t tr i bu t iv e a d je c ti v es a n d p r ed i ca t e a d je c ti v es a g re e i n g e nd e r
ge nde r de te rm i ne d pure l y by t he gr am m at i ca l ge nde r of a n a s soc ia t ed nom ina l ( C or bet t
1991: 2 25 ). T wo d if fe ren t t yp es o f a gr ee me nt a re f ou nd a cr os s l an gu ag es b et wee n a
p ro no un a nd i ts l in g ui st ic a nt ec ed en t. S om et im es t h e g en de r o f t he p ro no un i s d et er mi ne db y t he g ram ma ti ca l g en der o f t he a nt ec ed ent , b ut s om et im es i t i s d et er min ed b y t he
l d f h f f h d C b ll h “ i ”
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na tur al ge nde r of t he r e f er e nt of t hat a nte c ede nt . C orbe tt c a ll s t he se t wo t ype s “ s ynt ac t ic ”
a gr e em e nt a nd “ s em a nt i c” a gre em e nt r e spe ct i ve l y (1991: 2 25) . I n a l an gu ag e w it ho ut
g en de r a s a n i nf le ct io n al c at eg or y, o f c ou rs e, o nl y t he l at te r i s p os si bl e: a m as cu li ne
p ro no un i s u se d i f t he r ef er en t i s a m al e a ni ma te b ein g, f em in in e i f a f em al e a ni ma te
b e i n g , a n d a n e u t e r p r o n o u n i f t h e r e f e r e n t o f t h e a n t e c e d e n t i s n o t a n i m a t e .
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n l a n g u a g e s w i t h f u l l g r a m m a t i c a l g e n d e r s y s t e m s , a p r o n o u n m a y
a gr ee w it h t he g ra mm at ic al g en de r o f i ts a nt ec ed en t, r at he r t ha n w it h t he n at ur al
g e n d e r o f t h e r e f e r e n t , a n d i n s o m e o f t h e s e l a n g u a g e s , i n c l u d i n g p r e s e n t - d a y G E , t h i s
i s p r ef er r ed , t h ou g h “ s em a nt i c” a g re em e nt i s n o t p r ec l ud e d ( cf . C o rb e tt 1991: 2 2 8 ) :
T hu s, t he re a re s o f ar t wo p at te rn s i n G MC w it h r es pe ct t o g en de r a ss ig nm en t t o
p r on o un s . I n l a ng u ag e s w it h ou t i n fl e ct i on a l g e nd e r, p r on o un g e nd e r i s s e ma n ti c al l y
d e t e r m i n e d . I n l a n g u a g e s w i t h g r a m m a t i c a l g e n d e r , s u c h a s G E a n d I C , i t c a n b e ( a n d i s
s o me t im e s p r ef e rr e d t o b e ) d e te r mi n ed b y t h e g r am m at i ca l g e nd e r o f t h e a n te c ed e nt
n ou n. T he se t wo t yp es o f p ro no un /a nt ec ed en t a gr ee me nt h av e b ee n i n c om pe ti ti on s in cet he e a r l i e s t t i m e s , na t ur a l ge nde r t e ndi ng t o ove r r i de gr a m m a t i c a l ge nde r w i t h a ni m a t e
a nt e c e de nt s I n O E f or e xa m pl e t he pr onoun he ‘ he ’ r a t he r t ha n hit ‘ i t ’ i s o f t e n u s e d t o
g e nd e r, i r re s pe c ti v e o f n a tu r al g e nd e r o r a n im a cy , w h il e t h e l a tt e r o b se r ve s a s y st e m
l i ke t h at d e sc r ib e d f o r D A .
O ne o f t he t wo m ai n t re nd s i n g en de r m or ph ol og y i n G MC h as b ee n i nc re as in gs y n c r e t i s m i n i n f l e c t i o n a l p a r a d i g m s – t h a t i s , a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e n u m b e r s o f p o s i t i o n s
i d j t i d d t i d i i h i h d t t i l d E i
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i n a d j e c t i v e a n d d e t e r m i n e r p a r a d i g m s i n w h i c h g e n d e r c o n t r a s t s a r e s i g n a l e d . E v e n i n
G O , g e n d e r d i s t i n c t i o n s a r e n o t m a d e f o r a l l g e n d e r s i n a l l c a s e s a n d n u m b e r s f o r b o t h
w e ak a n d s t ro n g a d je c ti v es . S y nc r et i sm s t e nd t o o c cu r a l on g c er t ai n a x es . I n g e ne r al ,
g en de r d is ti nc ti on s a re r ic he r i n d ir ec t c as es ( no mi na ti ve a nd a cc us at iv e) t ha n i n
o bl iq ue c as es ( da ti ve a nd g en it iv e) . T he y a ls o t en d t o b e r ic he r i n s in gu la r t ha n i n
p lu ra l. T he se a xe s i nt er ac t w it h e ac h o th er , a nd w it h t he w ea k/ st ro ng a dj ec ti ve
d is ti nc ti on , t o b e d is cu ss ed b el ow , i n r at he r c om pl ex w ay s. S o, f or e xa mp le , i n G O,
n e u t e r a n d m a s c u l i n e a d j e c t i v e f o r m s a r e d i s t i n c t f r o m e a c h o t h e r o n l y i n d i r e c t c a s e s ,
i n b ot h s in gu la r a nd p lu ra l. I n o bl iq ue c as es , t he y a re t he s am e. ( Th is s ta te o f a ff ai rs
h as i ts a nt ec ed en ts i n I E, a nd h ol ds t ru e o f a ll G MC l an gu ag es e xc ep t I C, w he re a
s ec on da ry d is ti nc ti on h as a ri se n i n t he d at iv e s in gu la r o f s tr on g a dj ec ti ve s b et we en
masculine go ml-um ‘ ol d ’ a n d n e ut e r go ml-u. ) F e mi n in e a d je c ti v es i n G O a re d i st i nc t
f ro m m as cu li ne a nd n eu te r e xc ep t i n t he d at iv e p lu ra l o f t he s tr on g p ar ad ig m.
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m a n i c l a n g u a g e s
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F or a d et ai le d c on si de ra ti on o f p os si bl e c au se s f or r ad ic al l os s o f g en de r a s a g ra m-
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m a ti c al c a te g or y , s e e K as t ov s ky 2000 a n d J o ne s 1988 o n g en der l oss i n la te OE , a s
w el l a s M c Wh o rt e r 2002. M cW ho rt er p oi nt s o ut (2002: 230) that it is not a conse-
q ue nc e o f p ho ne ti c e ro si on o f t he f or ms i n q ue st io n.
D U a nd F R, a s w el l a s t he s ta nd ar d d ial ec ts o f t he c on ti ne nt al S ca nd in av ia n l an -guage s, ha ve only pa rt i al l y c oll a ps e d t he ge nde r s yst e m, f rom t hre e ge nde rs t o t w o.
I n t he se l an gu ag es t he f or me r m as cu li ne a nd f em in in e h av e f al le n t og et he r i nt o a
o f th e ci rc ums tan ces o f o rig in o f co mm on g en de r, n ou ns wi th co mmo n g en der
s ub st an ti al ly o ut nu mb er n eu te r n ou ns i n t he se l an gu ag es ; 7 5 p er ce nt o f D A n ou ns
(Allan et al. 1995: 4 ) a nd 8 0 p er ce nt o f s im pl ex D U n ou ns ( Bo oi j 2002b: 3 8) h av ec om m on ge nder .
I n a ll o f t he G MC l an gu ag es w it h g ra mm at ic al g en de r, t he g en de r o f i nd iv id ua l
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I n a ll o f t he G MC l an gu ag es w it h g ra mm at ic al g en de r, t he g en de r o f i nd iv id ua l
n ou ns i s s om et im es p re di ct ab le o n t he b as is o f f or ma l a nd s em an ti c s ub re gu la ri ti es .
T he m os t r ob us t o f t he se i nv ol ve t he g en de rs o f n ou ns d er iv ed b y s uf fi xe s. T hu s, f or
e x a m p l e , D A n o u n s i n - dom a r e a l w a y s c o m m o n g e n d e r , G E n o u n s i n -ung a r e a l w a ys
f e m i n i n e , a n d G O n o u n s i n - areis a r e a l w ays m a s c ul i ne .
T he re a re s om e a pp ar en t c ro ss li ng ui st ic d if fe re nc es i n t he f re qu en cy w it h w hi ch
n o un s a r e a s s i gn e d t o t h e d i ff e re n t g e nd e rs . S t ei n me t z (2001: 2 0 6f f .) c o mp a re s G E w i t h
t w o o t he r l a ng u ag e s w i th t h re e -g e nd e r s y st e ms . H e o b se r ve s t h at i n p a ir s o f c o gn a te s
l i k e t h o s e i n ( 4 . 1 3 ) , r e p r e s e n t i n g “ h u n d r e d s , p e r h a p s t h o u s a n d s o f c o g n a t e n o u n s , b o t h
i n h e r i t e d a n d b o r r o w e d , ” t h e G E n o u n i s m a s c u l i n e , w h i l e t h e I C n o u n i s n e u t e r .
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c t i v e s i n
s e l e c t e d G e r m a n i c l a n g u a g e s
T he co rrel at io n d oes n ot h old acr oss al l GM C l ang ua ges , h owev er; i n L ow GE
(Lindow et al. 1998: 1 51 ), t he a rt ic le co nt in ue s to i nfl ec t fo r ca se e ve n i n t ho se
v a ri e ti e s i n w h ic h d a ti v e a n d a c cu s at i ve h a ve m e rg e d.
T he rad ic al lo ss o f ca se i nfl ect io n i n th e n ou n p hras e i s s ee n i n a co mp ari so n
b e tw ee n t h es e p a ra d ig m s f ro m M i dd l e a n d M o de rn D U ( We e rm a n 1997: 4 2 7 ) .
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4.1.2.3.2 O t he r w a y s o f e n co d in g g r a m m at i ca l r o l e s W h en i n fl e ct i on a l a f fi x es
a re l os t, t he g ra mm at ic al i nf or ma ti on t he y e nc od ed s om et im es s im pl y c ea se s t o b e
e xp re ss ed , a s i n t he c as e o f g en de r d is ti nc ti on s i n E N a nd A F, f or e xa mp le . M or e
c o m m o n l y , h o w e v e r , t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c o m e s t o b e e n c o d e d i n a n a l t e r n a t i v e w a y – f o r
e x am p le , b y “ an a ly t ic , ” o r p e ri p hr a st i c c o ns t ru c ti o ns , i n w h ic h a f r ee - st a nd i ng m o r-
p h e m e , s u c h a s a p r e p o s i t i o n o r a n a u x i l i a r y , t a k e s o v e r t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e b o u n d a f f i x
i n t he e a r li e r “ s ynthe t i c” c ons tr uc ti on.6 I n st a nc es o f t h is t y pe i n cl u de :
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4.1.2.4 L e xi c al c a s e a n d s tr u ct u ra l c a s e
I n t he G MC l an gu ag es , a s e ls ew he re , n ou n p hr as es h ol di ng p ar ti cu la r g ra mm at ic al
r o l e s t e n d t o a p p e a r i n c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c “ d e f a u l t ” c a s e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h o s e r o l e s . S o ,
f or e xa m pl e , s ubj e c t s of f i ni t e c l a us e s a r e c ha r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y nom i na t i ve , a nd obj e c t s of
t r a nsi t i ve ve r bs a r e c ha ra c t er i s t ic a l ly a c c us a t i ve :
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I n t h o s e l a n g u a g e s w h e r e d a t i v e i s d i s t i n c t f r o m a c c u s a t i v e , i n d i r e c t o b j e c t s c h a r a c t e r -
i s ti c al l y a p pe ar i n t h e d a ti v e c a se .
G e ni t iv e , i n a d di t io n t o p o ss e ss o rs , m a rk s s u bj e ct s a n d o b je ct s o f “ ac t io n n o un s ”:
p a rt i ti v e g e ni t iv e . S u bs t it u ti o n o f g e ni t iv e f o r a c cu s at i ve o n t h e o b je c ts o f t r an s it i ve
v er bs s om et im es s ig na ls t ha t t he e ff ec t o f t he a ct io n o n t he o bj ec t i s l es s t ha n t ot al .
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N o d o u b t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s i s t h e f a c t t h a t m a n y v e r b s o f m e n t a l a c t i o n / e x p e r i e n c e ,
i n w h i c h t h e p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d b y t h e v e r b d o e s n o t a f f e c t t h e o b j e c t , a l s o t a k e g e n i t i v e
o bj ec ts ( th ou gh t he re i s m uc h m or e t ha t c ou ld b e s ai d o n t hi s p oi nt ; s ee V is se r 1963:
3 66 ff . f or a n e xh au st iv e c at al og ue o f O E v er bs t ak in g g en it iv e o bj ec ts , c at al og ue d
a cc o rd i ng t o m e an i ng t y pe s ). I n G O, t h es e v e rb s i n cl u de gamaudjan ‘remind’, gamu-
nan ‘remember’, hausjan ‘hear’, beidan ‘ t o a w a it ’ , gairnjan ‘desire’.
( No te t ha t s in ce i n t he se i ns ta nc es t he s en se o f “ un af fe ct ed o bj ec t” i s i nh er en t i n t he
m ea ni ng s o f t he se v er bs , t he g en it iv e o bj ec ts d o n ot a lt er na te w it h o bj ec ts i n t he
d e fa u lt a c cu s at i ve c a se . ) F o r a n e x te n si v e d i sc u ss i on o f t h e s e ma n ti c s o f v e rb s t a ki n g
o bl iq ue c as e o bj ec ts i n O N, s ee B an dl e e t a l . 2002: 9 42 ff . A s im il ar i ns ta nc e o f c as e
l i i h i i i i h l i hi h G MC h
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t he i nt er es ti ng p oi nt t ha t t he s im pl es t i ma gi na bl e a ns we r ( “w he n t he c as e m ar ki ng
w hi ch c ou ld e nc od e l ex ic al c as e c on tr as ts i s l os t” ) i s n ot c or re ct . I n M E, l ex ic al
g en it iv e c as e m ar ki ng o f o bj ec ts d is ap pe ar ed a t a p oi nt a t w hi ch g en it iv e w as s ti ll
r ob us tl y s ig na le d i n t he m or ph ol og y, i ts d is ap pe ar an ce c oi nc id in g w it h t he l os s o f
t he a c c us a t i ve / da t i ve di s t i nc t i on. O n t he ot he r ha nd, s he a dds t ha t e ve n i n O E , w he r e t he
a c c us a t i ve / dat i ve di s t inc t i on w a s “ vi gor ous ” ge ni ti ve obj e ct s w e r e i nc re a s i ngl y f a l l-
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a c c us a t i ve / dat i ve di s t inc t i on w a s vi gor ous , ge ni ti ve obj e ct s w e r e i nc re a s i ngl y f a l l
i n g o u t o f f a v o r a n d b e i n g r e p l a c e d b y a c c u s a t i v e o b j e c t s ( A l l e n 1995: 2 1 8 ) . T h a t f a c t ,
r em in is ce nt o f t he s it ua ti on i n M od er n G E, s ug ge st s t ha t p er ha ps t he e li mi na ti on o f
l e x i c a l c a s e r e p r e s e n t s a t y p o l o g i c a l s h i f t t h a t i s n o t s t r i c t l y l i n k e d t o t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f
c as e c o nt r as t s. L e xi c al l y c a se -m a rk e d s u bj e ct s , t r ea t ed i n the next section, seem to
ha ve pe r si s t e d l onger t ha n l e xi ca l l y c a s e- m a rke d obj e ct s .
A s e c o n d q u e s t i o n i s w h a t r e p l a c e s f o r m e r l e x i c a l c a s e m a r k i n g , o n c e t h i s h a s b e e n
l os t. I t s ee ms t ha t t he m aj or it y o f v er bs o f M od er n E N w ho se p re cu rs or s t oo k d at iv e
obj e ct s , i nc l udi ng help, forsake, forgive, hear , thank and withstand ( bu t n ot listen),
c o n t i n u e d t o t a k e b a r e o b j e c t s i n t h e o b j e c t i v e c a s e , w h i c h w a s t h e d e f a u l t c a s e f o r s o l e
o b je c ts o f v e rb s . A s A l le n p o in t s o u t, t h ou g h, v e rb s s u rv i vi n g i n to M o de rn E N w h ic h
f o rm e rl y t o ok g e ni t iv e o b je c ts n o w g e ne r al l y t a ke p r ep o si t io n al o b je ct s ( yearn after ).
I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h o u g h , t h i s r e f l e c t s a n a p p a r e n t c h a n g e f r o m M E , w h e n m a n y o f t h e s e ,
t oo , t oo k a b ar e o bj ec t i n o bj ec ti ve c as e.
Mont gom e r y (2004: 2 72 ) r ep or ts t ha t i n o ld er A pp al ac hi an E N, o bj ec ts a ft er v er bs
o f s me ll , t as te , f ee l, m en ta l a ct iv it y o r s en sa ti on – t ha t i s, v er bs w ho se o bj ec ts w ou ld
A l l e n (1995: 2 1 8 ) a p p e a r s t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e n o r m a l o u t c o m e i n t h e s e c a s e s ( a s i n t h e
c a s e o f f o r m e r d a t i v e o b j e c t s ) i s i n f a c t f o r t h e f o r m e r l y l e x i c a l l y c a s e - m a r k e d o b j e c t t o
r ev er t t o t he d ef au lt o bj ec ti ve c as e, a nd t ha t t he c on st ru ct io ns w it h p re po si ti on al
p h ra s es a r e n o t d i re c t s u cc es s or s t o t h e c o ns t ru c ti o ns w i th g e ni t iv e o b je c ts , b u t r ef l ec t
a s e pa r at e s e le ct i on a l f r am e f o r t h e v e rb .
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4.1.2.4.2 L e xi c al c a se a n d t h e s y nt a x o f e x pe r i en c er c o ns t r uc t io n s L e xi ca l c a s e
a s s i g n m e n t h a s r e c e i v e d t h e m o s t a t t e n t i o n b y f a r i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n G M C l a n g u a g e s
w i th r e sp e ct t o t h e p h en o me n on o f n o n- n om i na t iv e s u bj e ct c o ns t ru c ti o ns . A g ai n , t h e
l i t e r a t u r e o n t h i s s u b j e c t i s f a r t o o e x t e n s i v e t o b e t r e a t e d a d e q u a t e l y h e r e . T h e r e a d e r i s
r e f e r r e d t o A ndr e w s 1990, C o l e e t a l . 1980, Z a e n e n a n d M a l i n g 1990, Z a e n e n , M a l i n g
a n d T h r ainsson 1990, F r e i d i n a n d S p r o u s e 1991 a nd A l l e n 1995 f o r d i s c u s s i o n . O n l y a
r e l a t i v e l y c o a r s e - g r a i n e d o u t l i n e o f t h e b a s i c f a c t s o f t h e o b l i q u e s u b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s
a nd t he ir d is tr ib ut io n i n G MC i s p os si bl e h er e. C as e c ho ic e i n t he se c on st ru ct io ns i s
o nc e a ga in a ss oc ia te d w it h t he s em an ti c r ol es a ss ig ne d t o t he n ou n p hr as es i n t he
s en te nc e. I n I C, f or e xa mp le ( th e l an gu ag e i n w hi ch t he p he no me no n o f o bl iq ue
s u b j e c t s h a s r e c e i v e d t h e m o s t a t t e n t i o n ) , s u b j e c t s o f f i n i t e c l a u s e s , w h e t h e r w i t h o t h e r
a rg um en ts a s i n ( 4. 36 a) o r a s s ol e a rg um en ts a s i n ( 4. 36 b) , a re n or ma ll y n om in at iv e
a n d t h ey c o nt r ol v e rb a g re em e nt .
n on -n om in at iv e s ol e a rg um en ts i n a t l ea st s om e G MC l an gu ag es p at te rn i n t he s am e
w ay a s n o mi n at i ve s u bj e ct s w i th r es p ec t t o a n u mb e r o f d i st r ib u ti o na l a n d r ef e re n ti a l
p ro pe rt ie s t ha t s ee m o th er wi se t o h ol d o nl y f or s ub je ct s. F or e xa mp le , i n g en er al t he
m is si ng a rg um en t i n i nf in it iv e c la us es – a s i n t he ‘ co nt ro l” c as e i n ( 4. 38 a) o r t he
“ un sp ec if ie d s ub je ct ” c as e i n ( 4. 38 b) – i s u nd er st oo d t o b e t he s ub je ct a rg um en t o f
t he i nf i ni t i ve.
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B u t b y t h is c r it e ri o n, a n a rg u me n t l i ke t h e s o le a cc u sa t iv e a rg u me n t o f reka ‘ d r if t ’ i n
I C b eh av es l ik e a s ub je ct , s in ce i t c an b e m is si ng i n s uc h i nf in it iv e c on st ru ct io ns :
T h a t t h e m i s s i n g a r g u m e n t i s a c c u s a t i v e i s r e f l e c t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t i n e x a m p l e ( 4 . 3 9 )
t he a dver bi a l eina w hi c h “ r ef e rs b a ck ” t o i t a p pe a rs i n a cc u sa t iv e c a se .
S i mi l ar l y, w h en v e rb s o f p e rs o na l e x pe r ie n ce ( l ik e ‘ l ik e ’ o r ‘ w an t ’) t a ke t w o n o un
p hr as e a rg um en ts i n I C, t he e xp er ie nc er a rg um en t a pp ea rs i n o bl iq ue c as e w hi le t he
t h e m e a r g u m e n t ( u n l e s s a s s i g n e d a l e x i c a l c a s e o f i t s o w n ) a p p e a r s i n n o m i n a t i v e c a s e
a n d ( o pt i on a ll y ) c o nt r ol s v e rb a g re e me n t, b u t i t i s a g ai n t h e n o n- n om i na t iv e e x pe r i-
e n ce r a rg u me n t t h at b e ha v es l i ke a s u bj e ct i n , f o r e x am p le , d i sa p pe a ri n g i n i n fi n it i ve
c ont r ol c ons t r uc t i ons ( 4. 40b) , or i n “ uns pe c i f i e d s ubj e c t c ons t r uc t i ons ” l i ke ( 4. 40c ) , a s
w el l a s w i th r es p ec t t o n u me r ou s o t he r d i ag n os t ic s d i sc u ss e d i n Z a en e n e t a l . 1990.
C on ve rs el y, i n s pi te o f h av in g t he “ co di ng p ro pe rt ie s” n or ma ll y a ss oc ia te d w it h
s u b j e c t s – n o m i n a t i v e c a s e a n d t h e a b i l i t y t o d e t e r m i n e v e r b a g r e e m e n t – t h e n o m i n a -
t i v e n o m i n a l s h e r e d o n o t p a t t e r n w i t h s u b j e c t s , b u t r a t h e r w i t h o b j e c t s , w i t h r e s p e c t t o
t h is c ri t er i on ( cf . , e . g. , C o le e t a l. 1980) . O th e r d i ag n os t ic s , i n vo l vi n g w o rd o r de r a n d
p r o n o u n a n t e c e d e n c e , p o i n t t o t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n . F r o m t h i s , i t i s c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e
e xp er ie nc er a rg um en ts h er e a re s ub je ct s, t ho ug h n ot n om in at iv e b ec au se t he y a re
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p g j g y
a ss ig ne d a l ex ic al c as e. T he r ea de r i s r ef er re d t o t he s ou rc es c it ed f or d et ai ls .
T hi s o bl iq ue s ub je ct p he no me no n i s i n e vi de nc e i n M E a s w el l ( cf . B ut le r 1977;
Cole e t a l. 1980) . I n E M E t e x t s l i k e D a m e S i ri t h and G e ne s is a n d E x od u s, pr e dic a t es
l i ke ‘ d re a m’ a n d ‘ l ik e ’ a r e u s ed e x cl u si v el y w i th o b je c ti v e c a se e x pe r ie n ce r s:
N o ne t he l es s , t h es e o b je c ti v e c a se e x pe r ie n ce r s a g ai n s h ar e w i th n o mi n at i ve s u bj e ct s
t h e a b il i ty t o b e t h e m i ss i ng a r gu m en t s i n i n fi n it i va l c o ns t ru c ti o ns :
I n G E , h o we v er , i t i s t h e n o mi n at i ve a r gu m en t , n o t t h e d a ti v e e x pe ri e nc er a rg u me n t,
w hi ch b eh av es l ik e a s ub je ct w it h r es pe ct t o i ts a bi li ty t o b e m is si ng i n i nf in it iv e
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w hi ch b eh av es l ik e a s ub je ct w it h r es pe ct t o i ts a bi li ty t o b e m is si ng i n i nf in it iv e
c o nt r ol c o ns t ru c ti o ns . T h e e x pe r ie n ce r d o es n o t b e ha v e l i ke a s u bj e ct h e re :
S i m i l a r l y, i n G E , unl i ke I C a nd ME , non- nom i na t i ve e xpe r i e nc e r s c a nnot be t he m i s s i ng
arguments in the “unspecified subject” construction:
T h is d e ve l op m en t o c cu r re d p a rt i cu l ar l y o f te n w i th p r ed i ca t es w h ic h , i n a d di t io n t o a n
e x pe ri e nc e r o b je ct , a l so t o ok a c l au s al a r gu m en t (seem, behoove, befit , grieve).
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , m a n y o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e r c o n s t r u c t i o n s u n d e r w e n t c h a n g e f r o m a n
“ i mp e rs o na l ” c o ns t ru c ti o n t o a “ p er s on a l” o n e, i n w h ic h t h e f o rm e r n o n- n om i na t iv e
e xpe r i e nc e r s ubj e c t ha s be c om e a f ul l - f l e dge d nom i na t i ve s ubj e c t . T hi s ha ppe ne d w i t h
hunger , thirst , dream , rue, like, long, smart , a m on g o t he r p r ed i ca t es . S c he m at i ca l ly ,
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t hi s c ha ng e c an b e r ep re se nt ed a s i n ( 4. 46 b) :
T h i s c h a n g e i s s o m e t i m e s r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e “ p s y c h - s h i f t . ” I n t e r e s t i n g l y , i t s e e m s n o t t o
h a v e b e e n u n i q u e t o E N . E v a n s (1975) , c i t e d i n C o l e e t a l. 1980, o b s e r v e s t h a t S W h a s
u nd er go ne a s hi ft i n p sy ch ol og ic al p re di ca te s s im il ar t o t he o ne o bs er ve d i n E N ( se e
a l so H au g en 1976: 3 1 0, 3 7 1) . P r ed i ca t es w h ic h t o ok n o n- n om i na t iv e e x pe ri e nc e rs i n
O N b u t w h ic h h a ve n o mi n at i ve s u bj e ct s i n M o de r n S W i n cl u de :
A t l e a s t s o m e o f t h e s e p r e d i c a t e s h a v e b e c o m e “ p e r s o n a l ” i n N O a n d D A t o o :
i n t he n om in at iv e s tr uc tu ra l c as e a pp ro pr ia te t o t ha t r ol e. I n s uc h c ir cu ms ta nc es , a
f or me r o bl iq ue s ub je ct c an no t r em ai n s uc h, b ut m us t b e r ea na ly ze d i n o ne o f t wo
w a y s – e i t h e r b e c o m i n g a n o m i n a t i v e s u b j e c t , o r a s s u m i n g a n o b j e c t r o l e a p p r o p r i a t e t o
i ts n on -n om in at iv e c as e. ( Th er e i s, i n f ac t, a t hi rd p os si bl e r es ol ut io n; t he p re di ca te
w h o s e s y n t a x h a d b e c o m e p r o b l e m a t i c c o u l d s i m p l y b e e l i m i n a t e d f r o m t h e l a n g u a g e .
I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , i t i s s u r p r i s i n g t o n o t e h o w m a n y o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r e d i c a t e s o f
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O ld a nd M E h av e d is ap pe ar ed f ro m t he l an gu ag e. ) T hi s l ea ds t o t he q ue st io n o f w hy
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f l e x i c a l c a s e o n s u b j e c t s s h o u l d h a v e b e e n l o s t i n M o d e r n E N a n d S W ,
f o r e x a m p l e , b u t n o t i n I C , l e a d i n g t o t h e p s y c h - s h i f t i n j u s t t h o s e l a n g u a g e s . A g a i n , i t
i s n a t u r a l t o l o o k f o r o t h e r t y p o l o g i c a l c o m m o n a l i t i e s s h a r e d b y t h e s e l a n g u a g e s ( t o t h e
e x c l u s i o n o f I C ) t o w h i c h s u c h d e v e l o p m e n t s m i g h t b e l i n k e d . O n e s u c h c o m m o n a l i t y
i s t h a t t h e y h a v e l o s t t h e d a t i v e / a c c u s a t i v e c o n t r a s t , a n d i t i s t e m p t i n g t o s e e i n t h i s t h e
c ru c ia l d i ff e re n ce . A l le n (1995: 2 1 9f f .) a r gu e s c o nv i nc i ng l y, t h ou g h, a g ai n st a d i re c t
t y po l og i ca l c o nn e ct i on b e tw ee n t h e a b il i ty o f a l a ng u ag e t o m a in t ai n o b li q ue s u bj e ct sa nd t he p re se nc e o f a d at iv e/ ac cu sa ti ve c as e d is ti nc ti on . S he p oi nt s o ut t ha t i n t he
h is to ry o f E N, t he n on -n om in at iv e e xp er ie nc er c on st ru ct io ns ( “P re po se d D at iv e
E xpe r i e nc e r C ons t r uc t i ons ” ) c ont i nue d a r obus t a nd pr oduc t i ve e xi s t e nc e f or c e nt ur i e s
a ft er t he l os s o f t he d at iv e/ ac cu sa ti ve d is ti nc ti on , b ef or e e ve nt ua ll y u nd er go in g
p er so na li za ti on . T hi s b ei ng t he c as e, t he f or me r c an no t h av e b ee n t he d ir ec t c au se o f th e l at ter. Ra the r, s he p ro po ses , l ex ica l ca se wa s l os t i n st ag es. T he l os s o f th e
d a ti v e/ a cc u sa t iv e c o nt r as t e l im i na t ed l e xi c al c as e c o nt r as t s f o r o b je ct s , b u t i t w as s t il l
p o ss i bl e t o h a ve l e xi c al l y c a se -m a rk e d s u bj e ct s , s i nc e n o mi n at i ve a n d o b je c ti v e c a se s
w er e s t il l d i st i nc t , a t l e as t f o r p r on o un s . T h us , n o n- n om i na t iv e s u bj e ct c o ns t ru c ti o ns
l ik e ( 4. 41 ) p er si st ed i n E N, u nt il t he g ra du al e ff ec ts o f d ec li ni ng f re qu en cy a ndt r a ns pa re nc y e ve ntua l ly l e d t o obs ole s c enc e a nd r e ana l ysi s .
D U h as a ls o l os t t he d at iv e/ ac cu sa ti ve d is ti nc ti on a nd l ex ic al c as e b ut i ts e xp er i-
c on st ru ct io ns , w he re , a s i n G E, i t i s t he t he me n om in al , n ot t he e xp er ie nc er n om in al ,
w h ic h c a n s e r v e a s t h e m i ss i ng a r gu m en t :
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B u r r i d g e (1993 : 1 5 0 f f . ) a r g u e s , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e s e w e r e i n f a c t o b l i q u e e x p e r i e n c e r
s u b j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n M i d d l e D U . I f s o , t h e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s i n M o d e r n D U w o u l d
r ef le ct a n a lt er na ti ve r es po ns e t o t he l os s o f l ex ic al c as e t o t ha t e xe mp li fi ed i n
E n gl i sh a nd c o nt i ne n ta l S c an d in a vi a n. B u rr i dg e a l so p o in t s o u t a s t ri k in g e x te n si o n
i n p ro du ct iv it y o f o bl iq ue s ub je ct s i n M id dl e D U; s ub j ec ts w hi ch w ou ld n or ma ll y
b e e x p e c t e d t o b e n o m i n a t i v e , i n c l u d i n g e v e n s u b j e c t s o f a c t i o n v e r b s , c o u l d a p p a r -
e n t l y t a k e o b l i q u e c a s e i n s t e a d , i n o r d e r t o s i g n a l a n i n s t a n c e o f i n v o l u n t a r y a c t i o n b y
a n o n - a g e n t i v e s u b j e c t , a s i n ( 4 . 5 0 b ) . T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y n o l o n g e r e x i s t s i n M o d e r n D U .
F o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f o b l i q u e s u b j e c t s i n G e r m a n i e , s e e E y t h o r s s ona n d B a r ð d a l 2005.
4.2 T he i nt er na l s t r uc t ur e o f t h e n om in al p hr as e
4 .2 .1 N om in al p h ra se s wi th ou t no mi na l he ad s
N om i na l phr a s e s ( N P s ) i n t he G MC l a ngua ge s t ypi c a l l y c ont a i n a pr onoun a s i n ( 4. 51a )
l i l ( 4 5 1 b ) h i h h h d f h N P
C on st ru ct io ns of th is ty pe c ou ld b e r eg ar de d a s i nv ol vi ng no mi na li za ti on o f t he
ad ject iv e, so t ha t th ey d o, i n f act , h av e n ou n h ead s ( an a nal ysi s i mp li ci t i n t he
c ap i ta l iz at i on o f th e a d je ct i ve i n t he G E ex a mp l e, a n d ex p li c it l y su g ge s te d , e. g ., b y
Behaghel 1923: I , 2 1 4f . ). A lt e rn a ti v el y , t h ey c ou l d b e h e ld t o b e e l li p ti c al c o ns t ru c -
t i on s , i n w h ic h t h e a d je ct i ve m o di f ie s a n “ u nd e rs t oo d ” ( o r p h on o lo g ic a ll y n u ll ) ( p ro - )
n om in al h ea d. I n f ac t, i t a pp ea rs p ro ba bl e t ha t t he d if fe re nt s ub ca se s i n ( 4. 52 a– c)
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r eq u ir e d i ff er e nt a n al y se s . M o st c l ea r ly i n vo l vi n g n o mi n al i za t io n a r e i n st a nc es l i k e t h e
G O e xa mp le i n ( 4. 52 a) – ex am pl es o f t he t yp e w hi ch B eh ag he l (1923: I , 215) re f e rs t o
a s “ s te h en d e S u bs t an t iv i er u ng . ” H er e , blindans, t hough de r ive d fr om a n adj e ct i ve ,
i nf le ct s l ik e a n ou n, t ak in g a n i nv ar ia nt e nd in g w ho se s ha pe d oe s n ot d ep en d o n t he
pr e se nc e or abs e nce of an a r ti c l e, a s a dj e ct i ve e ndi ngs do. I t di f fe r s in t his r e spe c t f r om
w ha t B eh ag he l r ef er s to a s “g el eg en tl ic he S ub st an ti vi er un g, ” i ll us tr at ed b y t he G E
e x am p le s i n ( 4 .5 2 b) , i n w h ic h t h e “ s ub s ta n ti v iz ed ” a d je c ti v es a r e s t il l i n fl e ct i on a ll y
a d j e c t i v e - l i k e , t a k i n g a w e a k o r a s t r o n g e n d i n g d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p r e s e n c e a n d n a t u r eof t he pr e ce di ng de t er m i ner ( s ee S e c ti on 4.2. 2. 3) ; f or the s e , t he e l l i ps i s ana l ysi s w oul d
a pp ea r m or e d ef en si bl e. S uc h a n a na ly si s i s e ve n m or e p la us ib le f or t he E N c as es
r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e E N e x a m p l e i n ( 4 . 5 2 c ) . T h e s e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s a r e f o u n d e l s e w h e r e i n
G MC – i n D A, f or e xa mp le , a s i n ( 4. 53 ), t ho ug h i t i s o ft en d if fi cu lt t o d is ti ng ui sh
b e tw ee n t y pe ( 4 .5 2 a) a n d ( 4 .5 2 b) o n g r ou n ds o f i n fl e ct i on .
a r e ( a ) u n in f le c te d , ( b ) i n he r en t ly p l ur a l f o r t h e p u rp o se s o f s u bj e ct - ve rb a g re em e nt
a n d ( c ) g e ne r ic i n i n te rp r et a ti o n, a s i n :
T he re a re a f ew e xc ep ti on s, i n w hi ch p as t/ pa ss iv e p ar ti ci pl es c an b e u se d w it ho ut
s up po rt t o r ef er t o a s pe ci fi c i nd iv id ua l, a s i n t he a c cu s ed , t h e d e c ea s ed . T h i s i s a
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l e xi c al l y l i mi t ed p o ss i bi l it y , h o we v er – n o t p o ss i bl e w i th t h e i n ju r ed , f o r e x am p le .
4 .2 .2 N om in al p h ra se s w it h p ro no un h e ad s
A s n o m i n a l e l e m e n t s , p r o n o u n s c a n s e r v e a s t h e h e a d s o f n o m i n a l p h r a s e s . I n t h i s r o l e ,
h ow ev er , t he y a re m uc h m or e r es tr ic te d t ha n a re l ex ic al n ou ns w it h r es pe ct t o t he
p o ss i bi l it i es f o r c o -o c cu r re n ce w i th s u ch o t he r N P- c om p on e nt s a s d e te rm i ne rs , m o di -
f ie rs a nd c om pl em en ts . F or e xa mp le , u nl ik e n ou ns , p ro no un s c an no t o cc ur w it hd ef in it e a rt ic le s ( *the he) . D em on st ra ti ve a nd p er so na l p ro no un s d o c o- oc cu r i n
G MC w it h w ha t w il l b e r ef er re d t o a s p re de te rm in er s, s uc h a s all, both. U nl ik e n ou n
h e ad s , h o we v er , t h e p r on o un c o me s i n f ro n t o f t h e p r e- d et e rm i ne r.
P e r s ona l pr onouns a l s o r e s i s t m odi f i c a t i on, ge ne r a l l y di s a l l ow i ng pr e pos e d a dj e c t i ve s ,
a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g E N a n d G E e x a m p l e s :
M an y o f t he G MC l an gu ag es d o a ll ow a pp ar en t m od if ic at io n o f p ro no un s b y p os t
H o w e v e r , g i v e n t h e o r d e r h e r e , i t i s a t l e a s t l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e a r e p r o n o u n s f o l l o w e d b y
s ubs t a nt i vi z e d a dj e c t i ve s f unc t i oni ng a s a ppos i t i ve s . S uppor t i ng s uc h a n i nt e r pr e t a t i on
i s t he f ac t t ha t E N, w he re s ub st an ti vi ze d a dj ec ti ve s w it h s pe ci fi c r ef er en ce a re d is -
a l lo w ed , a l so d o es n o t a d mi t t h is c o ns t ru c ti o n.
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N o m i n a l p h r a s e s h e a d e d b y p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s a r e a l s o h i g h l y r e s t r i c t e d i n t h e i r a b i l i t y
t o c ont ai n ( c ompl e m ent or m odi fyi ng) pr e pos i t iona l phr a se s :
(4.59) a. *I put i t o f poetry o n the s helf. (Cf. I p ut t he book of poetry. . .)
b . * I r e a d i t b y C h o m s k y
T h es e r e st r ic t io n s a p pl y o n ly t o p e rs o na l p r on o un s i n E N . T h er e a r e o t he r p r on o m-
i n a l s , s u c h a s t h e - thing- c om pounds (something, anything, everything ) w h i c h d o a l l o wm od if ic at io n b y a dj ec ti ve s a nd p re po si ti on al p hr as es (a n y th i ng w h it e, a n yt hi ng b y
Chomsky) . N ot e a ga in t ha t i n t he se c as es , u nl ik e t ho se h ea de d b y l ex ic al n ou ns , t he
a dj ec t i ves obl i ga t ori l y f ol l ow t he he a d.
R e la t iv e m o di f ic a ti o n o f p e rs o na l p r on o un s , o n t h e o t he r h a nd , b o th r es t ri c ti v e a n d
non- re s t ri c t i ve , i s ge ne ra l l y pos s ibl e :
H es tv ik (1990) p rop os es t ha t t he ad mis si bil it y o f m od ifi ers i n NPs h ead ed b y
l i t h G M C l T h f l P P d i f i
4 .2 .3 N om in al p hr as es h ea de d b y l e xi ca l n ou ns
B y c o n t r a s t w i t h p r o n o u n s , n o m i n a l p h r a s e s h e a d e d b y l e x i c a l n o u n s a d m i t a f u l l r a n g e
o f c o mp l em e nt s , m o di f ie r s a n d d e te rm i ne rs . I n t h e f o ll o wi n g s e ct i on s , t h e s y nt a x o f t h es e c o mp o ne n ts w i th i n t h e n o un p h ra s e w il l b e c o ns i de r ed i n di v id u al l y, s t ar t in g “ at
t h e b o t t o m ” – t h a t i s , w i t h t h e o n e s w h i c h a r e m o s t c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e h e a d .
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4.2.3.1 C o mp l em e n ts a n d m o d i fi e rs o f n o u n s
N ou n p hr as es m ay c on ta in , b es id es t he h ea d n ou n, o th er p hr as es . S om e o f t he se a re
a rg um en ts , t he ma ti ca ll y r el at ed t o t he h ea d n ou n, a nd o th er s a re “ mo di fi er s, ” o r
“ a d j u n c t s . ” T h e d i s t i n c t i o n i s h a r d e r t o p i n d o w n f o r n o u n s t h a n f o r v e r b s , f o r e x a m p l e ,
a nd t he re i s d is ag re em en t a bo ut t he e xt en t t o w hi ch n ou ns h av e a rg um en t s tr uc tu re s
l i k e t h o s e o f v e r b s . G r i m s h a w ( 1990) , f o r e x a m p l e , c l a i m s t h a t a r g u m e n t s t r u c t u r e s a r e
l i m i t e d t o a r e s t r i c t e d c l a s s o f c o m p l e x e v e n t n o m i n a l s . F o r o n e t h i n g , c o m p l e m e n t s o f
n ou ns a re i n g en er al o pt io na l, e ve n w he n t he y a re r eq ui re d b y t he l ex ic al ly r el at ed
v e rb , a s t h e f o ll o wi n g e x am p le s i l lu s tr a te .
W h en t h ey d o o c cu r , a rg u me n ts a n d a d ju n ct s c h ar a ct e ri s ti c al l y f o ll o w t h e h e ad n o un ,
i n a l l o f t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s . W h e r e a v e r b t a k e s a n a c c u s a t i v e o b j e c t c o m p l e m e n t , t h e
c or re sp on di ng n om in al e it he r t ak es a g en it iv e c as e o bj ec t i n C -l an gu ag es , o r i ts
4.2.3.2 T he p os it io n o f a dj e ct iv e s i n t he n om in al p hr as e
D e s c r i p t i v e a d j e c t i v e s i n G M C a p p e a r p r e d o m i n a n t l y t o t h e l e f t o f t h e h e a d n o u n , a n d
a pp ea r t o h av e d on e s o t hr ou gh ou t t he h is to ry o f t he l an gu ag e ( cf . S mi th 1971 for
s ta ti st ic s o n a dj ec ti ve p la ce me nt i n t he o ld er d ia le ct s) . W he n t he y a pp ea r i n f ro nt o f
t h e n o un , d i ff e re n t s e ma n ti c c l as s es o f d e sc r ip t iv e a d je c ti v es t e nd t o o c cu r i n m o re o r
l e s s c o n s t a n t , t h o u g h n o t r i g i d l y f i x e d , r e l a t i v e o r d e r , w h i c h a p p e a r s t o b e m o r e o r l e s s
u ni fo rm a cr os s ( at l ea st ) t he G MC l an gu ag es T hu s c ol or a dj ec ti ve s t en d t o a pp ea r
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u ni fo rm a cr os s ( at l ea st ) t he G MC l an gu ag es . T hu s, c ol or a dj ec ti ve s t en d t o a pp ea r
c lo se r t o t he n ou n t ha n q ua nt it y a dj ec ti ve s, a nd a dj ec ti ve s d es cr ib in g p er ma ne nt
a t t r i b u t e s t e n d t o o c c u r c l o s e r t o t h e n o u n t h a n t h o s e d e s c r i b i n g t e m p o r a r y / m o d i f i a b l e
attributes.
4.2.3.2.1 T h e p r o bl e m o f p o st n om i na l a d je c t iv e s I n t he o ld er l an gu ag es e sp e-
c i a l l y , h o w e v e r , N – A d j e x i s t e d a s a n o t i n f r e q u e n t a l t e r n a t i v e o r d e r . ( T h i s m a y i n f a c t
h av e b ee n t he o nl y o rd er i n t he a rc ha ic l an gu ag e o f t he o ld er r un ic i ns cr ip ti on s;A n to n se n (1981) o bs er ve s t ha t t he c or pu s c on ta in s n ot a s in gl e i ns ta nc e o f a d es cr ip -
t i ve a d je c ti v e p r ec e di n g t h e n o un . )
C o n v e r g i n g w i t h t h i s i s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t i n c e r t a i n r e s p e c t s p o s t n o m i n a l a d j e c t i v e s
a re c lo se r t o p re di ca te a dj ec ti ve s i n t he ir i nt er pr et at io n. W e o bs er ve d a bo ve t ha t
a d je c ti v es m o di f yi n g -thing- pr on ou ns i n E N m us t f ol lo w t he n ou n, b ut , a s n ot ed b y
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Quirk e t a l . (1985: 4 1 8) a d je ct i ve s w h ic h c a nn o t a p pe a r a s p r ed i ca t e a d je c ti v es ( e. g .,
main, mere and poor o n i t s “ ev a lu a ti v e” r e ad i ng ) a l so c an n ot a p pe ar p o st n om i na l lyhere:10
F in al ly , c on si de r h ow G re ek c on st ru ct io ns l ik e ( 4. 68 a) w er e t re at ed i n G O. I n t he
G r e e k c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n o u n w i t h a n a r t i c l e i s f o l l o w e d b y a n a p p o s i t i v e a d j e c t i v e w h i c h
h a s a d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e o f i t s o w n .
A c o n s t r u c t i o n v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e G r e e k o n e i s f o u n d i n M o d e r n Y I , p o s s i b l y r e f l e c t -
i n g S e mi t ic i n fl u en c e ( s ee J a co b s e t a l . 1994: 4 0 8 ; P l a n k 2003: 3 4 5 ) :
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I m p o r t a n t l y , t h e l e a s t f r e q u e n t t r a n s l a t i o n i n v o l v e d t h e o m i s s i o n o f t h e a r t i c l e i n f r o n t
o f t h e a d je c ti v e, w it h o r w it h ou t t h e f i rs t a rt i cl e , y i el d in g a n o r de r ( De t )- N -A d j, a s i n
( 4 .6 8 g) , f o r e x am p le – t h e t r an s la t io n o f t h e G re e k ( 4 .6 8 a) :
T h e d e ci d ed p r ef er e nc e f o r r e ta i ni n g t h e a r ti c le i n f ro n t o f t h es e p o st p os e d a d je c ti v es
s ug ge st s s tr on gl y t ha t t he y w er e m os t n at ur al ly i nt er pr et ed a s a pp os it iv e p hr as es ,
r at h er t h an a s p o st p os e d m o di f yi n g a d je c ti v es .
P o s t n o m i n a l p o s i t i o n o f a n a d j e c t i v e p h r a s e i s f o r c e d i n E N w h e n t h e a d j e c t i v e i t s e l f
h a s a c o mp l em e nt :
a n d t h e n o un . T h er e s e em s t o b e a c r os s li n gu i st i c d i sp r ef e re n ce f o r a l lo w in g c o mp l e-
m e n t s o f m o d i f y i n g p h r a s e s t o i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e h e a d s o f t h o s e m o d i f y i n g p h r a s e s
a n d t h e h e a d o f t h e p h r a s e w h i c h t h e y m o d i f y ( c f . M a l i n g 1983: 2 8 4 , f o r e x a m p l e ) . I n
E N , a d j e c t i v e s a r e g e n e r a l l y p r e n o m i n a l e x c e p t i n c a s e s i n w h i c h t h e y m u s t o c c u r a f t e r
t h e n o u n i n o r d e r t o s a t i s f y t h i s p r i n c i p l e . N o t e t h a t i n t h e D U e x a m p l e i n ( 4 . 7 1 b ) , t h e
pr i nc i pl e i s a ppa r e nt l y a c c om m oda t e d by r i ght w a r d s hi f t i ng of j us t t ha t m a t e r i a l w hi c h
w o ul d o t he r wi s e f o ll o w t h e a d je ct i ve w i th i n t h e A P.
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j
A p r in c ip l e o f t h is s o rt a l so c o rr e ct l y p r ed i ct s t h e p o si t io n in g o f p r ep o si t io n al p h ra s e
m od if ie rs o f n ou ns (t he s tu de nt w it h t he b ac k pa ck ) a nd ( un de r t he a ss um pt io n t ha t
c l au s es a re h e ad e d b y c o mp l em e nt i ze rs ) o f r e la t iv e c l au s es . T h es e m o di f yi n g p h ra s es
a ls o a pp ea r a ft er t he n ou n, s in ce i n p re no mi na l p os it io n t he ir c om pl em en ts w ou ld
i n t e r v e n e b e t w e e n t h e i r o w n h e a d s a n d t h e h e a d o f t h e m o d i f y i n g p h r a s e ( * [ [ P N P ] N ] ) .
4.2.3.3 S y nt a ct i c c o nd i ti o ns o n a t tr i bu t iv e a d je c ti v e i n fl e ct i on
I n t h e g r ea t m a jo r it y o f t h e G M C l a ng u ag e s, a t tr i bu t iv e a d je c ti v es a l te r na t e b e tw ee n
t w o c o mp l em e nt a ri l y d i st r ib u te d s e ts o f e n di n gs , t r ad i ti o na l ly k n ow n a s “ w ea k ” a n d
“ s t r ong” ( or , a l t e r na t i ve l y, a s “ de f i ni t e ” a nd “ i nde f i ni t e ” ) . T hi s di s t i nc t i on i s one of t he
c ha ra ct er is ti c i nn ov at io ns o f e ar ly G MC ( th ou gh , a s O rr (1982) points out, it has a
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T h e f u n c t i o n o f t h i s c o n t r a s t – i t s r o l e i n t h e s i g n a l i n g o f s e m a n t i c a n d m o r p h o s y n -
t a c t i c o p p o s i t i o n s – i s m o r e t r a n s p a r e n t i n ( s o m e o f ) t h e y o u n g e r G M C l a n g u a g e s t h a n
i n t h e o l d e r o n e s . T h e d i a c h r o n i c d e v e l o p m e n t s i n d i c a t e a t e n d e n c y t o w a r d r e g u l a r i z a -
t i on a n d f u nc t io n al i za t io n o f a n o r ig i na l ly s e mi - re g ul a r d i st r ib u ti o n – a d e ve l op m en tw h ic h h a s t a ke n a r e ma r ka b le d i ve rs i ty o f p a th s i n t h e i n di v id u al l a ng u ag e s.
B eh ag he l (1923: I , 1 97 ) o bs er ve s t ha t a dj ec ti ve s f ol lo wi ng t he i nd ef in it e a rt ic le
a pp ea r t o h av e b ee n i nf le ct ed s tr on g i n e ar ly G MC .
H ow ev er , s om e f ac ts a re h ar d t o r ec on ci le w it h t he i de a t ha t t he s tr on g e nd in gs
o ri gi na ll y “ me an t” i nd ef in it e. F ir st , t he u se o f N Ps w it h s tr on g a dj ec ti ve s a nd n o
d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e t o e x p r e s s d e f i n i t e m e a n i n g a p p e a r s t o b e r o b u s t i n t h e o l d e r l a n g u a g e s .
I t i s s ti ll t he n or m, f or e xa mp le , i n O N p oe tr y, a s i n k on un g o $lifþan [ A c c St r ] ‘ [ t he ]
l i fe l es s k i ng ’ ( He u sl e r 1967: 117). It is also instantiated in OHG and in OE (see
Behaghel 1923: I , 1 8 1 ) . S e c o n d , t h e o r i g i n a l a d j e c t i v e e n d i n g s e m p l o y e d a f t e r p o s s e s -
s i ve p r on o un s /g e ni t iv e p r on o un s i n e a rl y G M C s e em t o h a ve b e en e x cl u si v el y s t ro n g
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one s ( B e ha ghel 1923: I , 1 90 ), e ve n w he n t he N Ps c on ta in in g t he m w er e d ef in it e.11
T hi s i s s ti ll t he c as e i n M od er n I C, w it h b ot h l ex ic al g en it iv e p hr as es a nd p os se ss iv e
p r on o un s , w h en n o t a c co m pa n ie d b y a n a rt i cl e ( K re s s 1982: 1 8 2 ) :
S uc h a no ma li es a re c om pa ti bl e w it h a n a lt er na ti ve v ie w o f t he o ri gi na l f or m o f
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T hi s d ev el op me nt c an a ga in b e s ee n a s a s te p t ow ar d s tr en gt he ni ng t he c or re la ti on
b e t w e e n t h e w e a k e n d i n g a n d s e m a n t i c d e f i n i t e n e s s . H e r e , h o w e v e r , i t w a s s u p e r s e d e d
b y a c o mp e ti n g r e fu n ct i on a li z at i on a l on g o t he r l i ne s . F r om M H G o n wa r d, t h e c h oi c e
o f a dj ec ti ve e nd in g i s d is so ci at ed f ro m m ea ni ng ; t he e nd in gs o n a dj ec ti ve s a ft er
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o f a dj ec ti ve e nd in g i s d is so ci at ed f ro m m ea ni ng ; t he e nd in gs o n a dj ec ti ve s a ft er
p os se ss iv es a nd t he i nf le ct io na ll y s im il ar i nd ef in it e a rt ic le m ay b e e it he r s tr on g o r w e ak , d e pe n di n g o n t h e n a tu r e o f t h e e n di n g o f t h e p r ec e di n g p o ss e ss i ve s :
In M od ern GE , if an ad ject iv e i s p rec ed ed b y ei th er a d efi nit e a rt ic le o r b y an
i n d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e o r p o s s e s s i v e w h o s e e n d i n g i s h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h t h a t o f t h e c o r r e s -
p on di ng d ef in it e a rt ic le ( th at i s, a ny d et er mi ne r w it h a “ st ro ng ” e nd in g) t he n t he
a dj ec ti ve t ak es t he w ea k e nd in g. O th er wi se ( in cl ud in g t he c as e i n w hi ch t he n ou n
p h ra s e c o nt a in s n o d e te r mi n er ) , t h e a d je c ti v e t a ke s t h e s t ro n g e n di n g.
O n t h e m o rp h ol o gi c al s i de , t h is h a s i n vo l ve d a r e st r uc t ur i ng / re i nt e rp r et a ti o n o f t h e
e n di n gs t h em s el v es . T h e s t ro n g e n di n gs o f t h e a d je c ti v es h a d a l wa y s p a rt i al l y o v er -
l ap pe d f or ma ll y w it h t ho se o f t he d ef in it e a rt ic le , a s a b y- pr od uc t o f t he ir h is to ri es .
( Th e d ef in it e a rt ic le i n G MC a ri se s f ro m t he d em on st ra ti ve p ro no un , a nd t he s tr on g
As pointed out by Esau (1972), t he s tro ng e nd in gs f orm a ri ch er i nv en to ry t han
t he w ea k o ne s, a nd p ro vi de m or e i nf or ma ti on a bo ut t he c as e, g en de r a nd n um be r o f
t he N P. F or t he m os t p ar t, n ou ns a re n ot t he ms el ve s i nf le ct ed f or c as e o r g en de r. I t
i s t he d et er mi ne rs a nd a dj ec ti ve s i n t he n ou n p hr as e w hi ch c ar ry t hi s i nf le ct io na l
i nf or ma ti on . T he G E s ys te m i ns ur es t ha t i n a ny N P c on ta in in g o ne o r m or e s uc h
e l em e nt s , t h er e w i ll b e a t l e as t o n e o c cu r re n ce o f a n i n fo r ma t io n -r i ch s t ro n g e n di n g.
( Se r vi n g t h is s a me g o al i s t h e e x te n si o n o f a d je ct i ve e n di n gs t o o r ig i na l ly u n in f le ct e d
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g en it iv e p ro no un s, a s d is cu ss ed i n S ec ti on (4.4) .) I n f ac t, E sa u p ro po se s f ur th er t ha t
t hi s m us t b e s up pl em en te d b y a n e co no my p ri nc ip le w hi ch l im it s t he s tr on g e nd in gt o e xa ct ly o ne o cc ur re nc e p er n ou n p hr as e. I f i t o cc ur s o n t he d et er mi ne r, i t c an no t
a l s o o c c u r o n t h e a t t r i b u t i v e a d j e c t i v e , w h i c h m u s t i n c o n s e q u e n c e b e w e a k . H e p o i n t s
o u t t h a t t h i s a s s u m p t i o n a l s o a c c o u n t s f o r a n o t h e r w i s e a n o m a l o u s c a s e . I n G E , w h e n
a n a dj ec ti ve u np re ce de d b y a d et er mi ne r m od if ie s a g en it iv e m as cu li ne o r n eu te r
no un, it d oe s n ot a pp ea r wi th t he s tro ng e nd in g, b ut w it h t he we ak en di ng : g u t enWeines ‘ of g oo d w in e ’/ *g u te s W e in e s. E sa u p oi nt s o ut t ha t t hi s e xc ep ti on f ol lo ws
f ro m t he e co no my p ri nc ip le , s in ce i t i s p re ci se ly h er e t ha t t he n ou n i ts el f b ea rs a n
i n f l e c t i o n a l e n d i n g , i d e n t i c a l t o t h e s t r o n g g e n i t i v e s i n g u l a r e n d i n g o f d e t e r m i n e r s a n d
adjectives.
L ow G E h as a pp ar en tl y c re at ed a t ri pa rt it e d is ti nc ti on , b y a rt ic ul at in g t he m as -c ul in e a nd n eu te r s tr on g e nd in g i nt o t wo s ep ar at e f or ms – o ne u se d a ft er i nd e fi ni te
a r t i c l e s , a n d o n e ( a 0 - e n d i n g ) u s e d w h e n t h e r e i s n o a r t i c l e . T h u s , w e h a v e c o n t r a s t s
l i ke :
T h e o p p o s i t i o n h a s b e e n s u b j e c t t o a r e f u n c t i o n a l i z a t i o n i n A F w h i c h i s m u c h h a r d e r
t o c h ar a ct e ri z e ( L as s 1988; P on el is 1993: 3 6 5f .; D o na l ds o n 1994: 4 86 f. ). T he s ol e
r e m a i n i n g a d j e c t i v e m a r k e r i n A F , -e, h i s t o r i c a l l y a w e a k a d j e c t i v e s u f f i x , h a s b e c o m e
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a n “ at tr ib ut iv e m ar ke r, ” w hi ch a pp ea rs o n a tt ri bu ti ve a dj ec ti ve s o r n ot , r eg ar dl es s
o f t he p re se nc e o f p re ce di ng d et er mi ne rs , d ep en di ng r at he r i n a c om pl ex w ay o n t he
p ho no lo gi ca l s ha pe o f t he a dj ec ti ve ( po ly sy ll ab ic a dj ec ti ve s b ut n ot m on os yl la bi c
o n e s ) , t h e i r m o r p h o l o g i c a l c o m p l e x i t y , a n d t h e r e g i s t e r o f t h e t e x t ( s e r v i n g a s a m a r k e r
o f m o re f o rm a l s t yl e ). T h e r el a ti v el y m a rg i na l i n st a nc e s i n w h ic h i t s t il l p a rt i ci p at e s
i n m e an i ng f ul c o nt r as t s b e ar c o mp a ri s on t o t h e I C c a se s d i sc u ss e d a b ov e .
S i m i l a r t o a n e x t e n t i s t h e s i t u a t i o n i n D U ( d e S c h u t t e r 1994: 4 6 3 ) ; w h i l e t h e e n d i n g
-e h a s b e c o m e g e n e r a l o n a t t r i b u t i v e a d j e c t i v e s , a s i n A F , i t m a y i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s b e
o mi tt ed t o s ig na l a c on tr as t i n t he “ sc op e” o f t he a dj ec ti ve . I n t he e xa mp le s h e g iv es ,
t h e d i ff e re n ce i s t h at b e tw e en a n “ i nt e rs e ct i ve ” r ea d in g ( L ar s on 1995) ( m o d i f y i n g t h ei ndi vidua l) a nd a “ non-i nt e rs e c t ive ” r e a di ng ( m odif yi ng t he e ve nt) :
S ee F u de m an 1999: 2 74 ff . f or d is cu ss io n o f a n i nt er es ti ng ly s im il ar d ev el op me nt i n
B a l a , a W e s t A f r i c a n l a n g u a g e , i n w h i c h n o u n - c l a s s s u f f i x e s h a v e b e e n r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n
s uc h a w ay a s t o s ig na l a s im il ar c on tr as t.
4.3 Determiners
4 .3 .1 W ea k q ua nt if ie rs
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I n t hi s c at eg or y I i nc lu de q ua nt if ic at io na l e le me nt s s uc h a s O E fela ‘many’, sum
‘ a c er t ai n ’, G E etlich ‘ s om e , s e ver a l ’, wenig ‘few’, mancher ‘ m a n y a ’ , a s w e l l a s t h e
n um er al s. A lt er na ti ve l ab el s f or s uc h e le me nt s i nc lu de “ re la ti ve q ua nt if ie rs ” ( de
Schutter 1994: 4 6 9) a n d “ p os t de t er m in e rs ” ( Qu i rk e t a l. 1985: 2 5 3 ) . C l a s s i f y i n g t h e m
t o g e t h e r i s a m a t t e r o f e x p o s i t o r y c o n v e n i e n c e , a n d i s n o t i n t e n d e d t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e y
a re a u n it a ry c a te g or y ; d i ff e re n ce s i n d i st r ib u ti o n a n d i n fl e ct i on s u gg e st t h at t h ey a re
n ot , t ho ug h s em an ti ca ll y t he y a re u ni te d b y t he f ac t t ha t t he y a ll i nv ol ve e xi st en ti alq ua nt if ic at io n. R at he r, i t i s i nt en de d t o h ig hl ig ht t he f ac t t ha t t ha t t he y a re a s a g ro up
n o t o f a k i nd w i th e i th e r d e sc ri p ti v e a d je c ti v es n o r d e te rm i ne rs / “ s tr o ng ” q u an t if i er s .
T ho ug h o ft en c la ss if ie d a s a dj ec ti ve s, t he y c an no t s wi tc h p la ce s w it h d es cr ip ti ve
a d je ct i ve s , i n t h e w a y t h at t h e l a tt e r c a n b e r e or d er e d a m on g t h em s el v es .
T h es e e l em e nt s c o me i n b e tw e en d e te rm i ne rs a n d a t tr i bu t iv e a d je c ti v es :
B y w a y of a c c ounti ng f or t hi s , t hey a re , i n s ome G over nm e nt - Bi ndi ng a c c ounts , a s si gne d
b eh av es a s i f t he p re ce di ng w ea k q ua nt if ie r w er e a d et er mi ne r, a nd a ss um es a w ea k
e n d i n g s i n c e t h e s t r o n g e n d i n g o c c u r s o n t h e w e a k q u a n t i f i e r . A p a i r o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
e x a m p l e s i s g i v e n i n ( 4 . 8 6 e ) a n d ( 4 . 8 6 f ) . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e t w o b e h a v i o r s i s q u i t e
c o m p l e x , a s a p e r u s a l o f t h e r e l e v a n t e n t r i e s i n B e r g e r e t a l . 1972 reveals, conditioned
n ot o nl y b y t he p ar ti cu la r q ua nt if ie r i nv ol ve d, b ut a ls o t he g en de r, n um be r a nd c as e
o f t he n ou n, a nd s ee ms d ia ch ro ni ca ll y t o b e s ti ll v er y m uc h i n f lu x ( se e a ls o E sa u
1972: 1 4 1 ) .
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H o we v er , t h er e a re i n fl e ct i on a l d i ff er e nc es b e tw ee n p r en o mi n al a n d p o st n om i na l
n um er al s w hi ch m ay s ug ge st t ha t t he y h ad d if fe re nt c at eg or ia l s ta tu s i n t he t wo
p os it io ns . T he l ow er c ar di na l n um be rs ( on e t o t hr ee o r o ne t o f ou r, d ep en di ng o n t he
l an gu ag e) t en de d t o b e i nf le ct ed f or c as e a nd g en de r l ik e a dj ec ti ve s i n t he m ed ie va l
l a n g u a g e s . H i g h e r c a r d i n a l n u m b e r s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ( f r o m f o u r t o n i n e t e e n i n G O ,f o r e x am p le ) c o ul d e i th e r i n fl e ct l i ke a d je c ti v es o r r e ma i n u n in f le c te d , b u t t h e c h oi c e
b e tw ee n t h es e o p ti o ns s e em s t o h a ve d e pe n de d o n p o si t io n : t h ey i n fl e ct e d l i ke a d je c -
t i ve s w h en p o st n om i na l , a n d w er e u n in f le ct e d w h en p r en o mi n al :
i n de p en d en t ly . I n de fi n it e a r ti c le s h a ve a ri s en i n t h e n e ig h bo r in g R o ma n ce l a ng u ag e s,
a s w el l a s i n B re to n a mo ng t he C el ti c l an gu ag es , w hi le I C, W el sh a nd G ae li c – t he
m o r e p e r i p h e r a l l a n g u a g e s i n t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e f a m i l i e s – d i d n o t d e v e l o p t h e m , a n d i t i s
m o s t p r o b a b l e t h a t w e a r e d e a l i n g h e r e w i t h a n i n s t a n c e o f a r e a l d i f f u s i o n . I n a l l c a s e s ,
t he i nd ef in it e a rt ic le s h av e a ri se n f ro m t he n um er al ‘ on e’ , f ro m w hi ch t he y h av e, i n
s o me l a ng u ag e s, b e co m e d i st i nc t t h ro u gh t h e e ff e ct s o f p h on o lo g ic a l r e du c ti o n, s i nc e
t he y t ypi c a l l y l a c k s ynt a c t i c s t r e s s ( c om pa r e E N one and a(n) , F R in [@n ] a n d ien ‘one’,
f or e xa mp le ) T he o ri gi na l h om op ho ny b et we en ‘ on e’ a nd ‘ an ’ m ak es i t i n g en er al
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f or e xa mp le ). T he o ri gi na l h om op ho ny b et we en on e a nd an m ak es i t i n g en er al
d if fi cu lt t o p in po in t t he t im e o f e me rg en ce o f t he i nd ef in it e a rt ic le f un ct io n. F or i n s t a n c e , w e f i n d i n O H G e x a m p l e s o f a r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y d a t e l i k e t h e f o l l o w i n g , w h e r e
t h e f o r m p r e c e d i n g t h e n o u n c o u l d , b u t d o e s n o t h a v e t o , b e t r a n s l a t e d a s a n i n d e f i n i t e
article.
Ho we ver, we c an b e cer ta in t hat i f it was an ar ti cle at t his t ime , i t at l eas t was n ot
o bl ig at or y o n i nd ef in it e c ou nt n ou ns , a s i t i s i n t he m od er n l an gu ag e:
S i m i l a r l y , i n M o d e r n I C , g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o l a c k a n i n d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e , t h e r e a r e
o c c a s i o n a l u s e s o f t h e n u m e r a l ‘ o n e ’ w h i c h a p p r o x i m a t e t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e i n d e f i n i t e
a r t i cl e ( K r es s 1982: 1 0 9 ) .
I n t he m od er n G MC l an gu ag es t he i nd ef in it e a rt ic le m ay b e e it he r n on sp ec if ic o r
4.3.1.1.1 V a ri a ti o n i n t h e o c c u r re n ce o f i n de f i ni t e a r t i c le s There is also a
l im it ed a mo un t o f v ar ia ti on a cr os s t he G MC l an gu ag es i n t he s pe ci fi c c on di ti on s
u nd er w hi ch t he i nd ef in it e a rt ic le a pp ea rs . ( Th e s pe ci al c as e o f n on -o cc ur re nc e o f
i nd ef in it e a rt ic le s i n p re di ca te n ou n p hr as es w il l b e c on si de re d a lo ng w it h d ef in it e
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i nd ef in it e a rt ic le s i n p re di ca te n ou n p hr as es w il l b e c on si de re d, a lo ng w it h d ef in it e
a rt i cl e s, i n S ec t io n 4.3.2.2. ) M HG , f or e xa mp le , u nl ik e M od er n G E o r M od er n E N,a l l o w e d t h e i n d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e w i t h n o n - c o u n t n o u n s , i n a m e a n i n g l i k e ‘ a q u a n t i t y o f ’ .
T hi s u s e o f t he i nd ef in it e a rt ic le i s s ti ll f ou n d i n Y I ( Lo ck wo od 1995: 1 12 ). D U ( de S ch ut te r
1994: 469) a l l ow s t he i nde f i ni t e a r t i c l e i n t he pl ur a l , i n t he m e a ni ng ‘ a gr e a t num be r of ’ .
I n S W , i t c onve ys t he s e ns e of ‘ a ppr oxi m a t e l y’ ( H ol m e s a nd H i nc hc l i f f e 1994: 6 5 ) .
I n t h e c o n t i n e n t a l S c a n d i n a v i a n l a n g u a g e s , i n d e f i n i t e o b j e c t n o u n p h r a s e s m a y l a c k
a n i n d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e i n c o n t e x t s w h e r e t h e y w o u l d h a v e o n e i n E N , w h e n n o n - s p e c i f i c
a n d n o t m o d i f i e d b y a d j e c t i v e s – c o n d i t i o n s f a m i l i a r i n c a s e s o f o b j e c t i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n
l an gu ag es w hi ch h av e t ha t p ro ce ss ( se e P er el ts va ig i n p re ss f or a d es cr ip ti on o f t he
s y nt a x o f t h es e i n N o rw e gi a n) .
f o u n d i n a l l o f t h e o t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s f r o m t h e e a r l i e s t t i m e s . E t y m o l o g i c a l l y , t h e y
a r e c o nn e ct e d w i th t h e d e mo n st r at i ve p r on o un s , a n d t h ey a re s t an d ar d ly h e ld t o h a ve
a r is e n f ro m t h e u s e o f t h e l a tt e r a s d e mo n st r at i ve a d je ct i ve s .
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T h e p o i n t a t w h i c h t h i s t r a n s i t i o n i s c o m p l e t e d i s h a r d t o p i n d o w n . B e h a g h e l ( 1923:
I , 3 3 ) a s s e r t s t h a t t h e y h a d a l r e a d y l o s t t h e d e i c t i c f o r c e o f d e m o n s t r a t i v e s b y t h e t i m e
o f OHG. On th e o th er h an d, Ab rah am (1997: 3 9) cl ai ms t hat i n M HG n ei th er th e
d e f i n i t e n o r t h e i n d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e h a d y e t d e v e l o p e d i t s m o d e r n m e a n i n g , a n d s p e a k s o f
O H G a n d M H G a s b e l o n g i n g t o a “ p r e - a r t i c l e ” p h a s e . P h i l i p p i ( 1997: 6 2 ) c l a i m s t h e yw er e s ti ll d em on st ra ti ve s i n G O, O HG , O S a nd O E, a nd t ha t t he y o nl y b ec am e t ru e
d ef in it e a rt ic le s i n l at e m ed ie va l t im es . T he c la im i s b as ed p ri ma ri ly o n t he ir n on -
o b li g at o ri n es s i n t h es e l a ng u ag e s, s u pp l em e nt e d b y o t he r a r gu m en t s o f l e ss e r f o rc e.
H a l e (1994) h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d , i n a n y e v e n t , t h a t i n t h e l a t e O H G o f N o t k e r , w h o w a s
s c r upul ous a bout i ndi c a t i ng s t r e s s , t he s e de f i ni t e - a r t i c l e s - t o- be a t l e a s t di d not ha ve t hes a m e p r o s o d i c s t a t u s a s d e m o n s t r a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s . N o t k e r d i d n o t w r i t e a c c e n t m a r k s o n
t h e f o rm e r, w h il e o t he r wi s e h o mo p ho n ou s d e mo n st r at i ve a d je c ti v es , p r on o un s a n d
c om ple m e nt i z e rs w e r e a l w ays a c c ent e d.
T h e s e p o s t n o m i n a l d e m o n s t r a t i v e s a l s o l o s t d e i c t i c f o r c e a n d s t r e s s a t s o m e p o i n t , a n d
n ow o cc ur a s c li ti cs f ol lo wi ng t he h ea d n ou n. S im il ar d ev el op me nt s a re a tt es te d
e l se w he re , i n R o ma n ia n a n d o t he r B a lk a n l a ng u ag e s, f o r e x am p le .
T h e i r s t a t u s a s b o u n d m o r p h e m e s l e a d s t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t h e y a r e p r o p e r l y
r eg ar de d a s ( cl it ic ) d ef in it e a rt ic le s o r s im pl y a s d ef in it en es s m ar ke rs o n t he n ou n –
t h a t i s , a s i n f l e c t i o n a l m o r p h o l o g y . I n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e N o r t h G M C l a n g u a g e s , t h e y
a r e v a r i o u s l y t r e a t e d a s c l i t i c d e t e r m i n e r s a n d a s d e f i n i t e n e s s s u f f i x e s . T h e p r o b l e m o f
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n c l i t i c s a n d i n f l e c t i o n a l m o r p h e m e s i s i n g e n e r a l a c o m p l i c a t e d
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d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n c l i t i c s a n d i n f l e c t i o n a l m o r p h e m e s i s i n g e n e r a l a c o m p l i c a t e d
o ne ( se e Z wi ck y a nd P ul lu m 1983 f or a p re se nt at io n o f s om e s ug ge st ed c ri te ri a) .P os si bl e e vi de nc e i n f av or o f t re at in g t he se c li ti c f or ms a s d ef in it e a rt ic le s r at he r
t ha n a d ef in it en es s i nf le ct io n o n t he n ou n, a t l ea st o ri gi na ll y, i s p ro vi de d b y t he f ac t
t ha t i n o ld er I C a nd O ld S W ( Br au nm uller 1991: 4 3) , t he y o cc ur re d o ut si de o f c as e
m ar ke rs o n t he n ou n a nd c ar ri ed t he ir o wn c as e i nf le ct io n, i nd ep en de nt o f t ha t o n
t h e n o un .
d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e , b u t t h e g e n i t i v e m a r k e r -s, w h i c h i t s e l f h a s c o m e t o b e h a v e a s a c l i t i c ,
r a th e r t h an a n i n fl e ct i on a l s u ff i x ( s ee 4 . 4. 5 .3 ) .
C li ti ci zat io n of t he d efi ni te art ic le i s al so fou nd el se whe re i n GM C. In GE ,
i n p art icu lar , t he art icl e h as m er ge d w it h a nu mb er o f p re po si ti on s end in g i n
v ow el s o r n as al c on so na nt s, t o y ie ld d ef in it e f or m s o f t he p re po si ti on s (zum , zur ,
b ei m , vom , im ¬ zu ‘to’ þ dem , zu þ der , bei þ dem , von þ dem , in þ dem
r e s pe c t i ve l y) .13
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4.3.2.1 D o u b le d et er mi n a t i on
A s n o t e d i n 4 . 2 . 2 . 3 , i t w a s u s u a l i n t h e a r c h a i c l a n g u a g e o f O N p o e t r y f o r d e f i n i t e n o u n
p h ra s es t o a p pe ar w i th o ut d e fi n it e a rt i cl e s ( H eu s le r 1967: 1 25 ). E ve n h er e, h ow ev er ,
a rt ic le s d id a pp ea r w he n t he n ou n w as p re ce de d b y a n a dj ec ti ve .
T h e i n te r se c ti o n o f t h is p r ef er e nc e f o r a rt i cl e s p r ec ed i ng a d je c ti v es a n d t h e d e ve l op -
m en t o f t he e nc li ti c d ef in it e a rt ic le h as l ed t o t he p he no me no n o f “ do ub le d et er mi n-
a ti on ” i n s om e S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es – t ha t i s, t he c o- oc cu rr en ce u nd er c er ta inc i rc u ms t an c es o f b o th a p h ra s e- i ni t ia l a n d a p o st n om i na l d e te r mi n er , p a rt i cu l ar l y i n
n o un p h ra s es w h ic h h a ve p r en o mi n al a d je ct i ve s . ( Pl a nk 2003, w ho d is cu ss es t he se
c on st ru ct io ns a t l en gt h, r ef er s t o t he p hr as e- in it ia l d et er mi ne r w hi ch p re ce de s t he
a d je c ti v e a s t h e “ a dj e ct i ve - ar t ic l e, ” a n d t h e c l it i c d e te r mi n er a t ta ch e d t o t h e n o un a s
t h e “ n o u n - a r t i c l e . ” ) O N e x h i b i t s d o u b l e d e t e r m i n a t i o n , a s d o S W , B N , N N a n d l i t e r a r yM od er n I C ( to w hi ch r eg is te r t he p re po se d a rt ic le s hinn, e t c. , b e lo n g e x cl u si v el y ),
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T he p res en ce o f t he cl iti c d et er mi ner in o th er ty pe s o f n ou n p hras es wh ic h
a r e i nde pe ndent l y cha r ac t e ri z e d a s def i ni te i s al s o va r i abl e . S o, for exa m ple , i n
s t an d ar d S W , i t d o es no t a p pe ar wh e n t h e n o un i s p r ec e de d b y a d e mo n st r at i ve , b u ti n s outhe r n a nd w es t e rn di a l ec t s i t doe s (H ol m es a nd H inc hc li f f e 1994: 96). There is
l i t i i d b l d t i ti i N P it h l ti l ( Pl k 2003
s y n t a c t i c c o n t e x t . T h e r e i s l i t t l e w h i c h c a n b e s a i d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y a b o u t t h e f o r m e r k i n d
o f v a r i a t i o n . P r o p e r n a m e s t e n d n o t t o o c c u r w i t h a r t i c l e s , t h o u g h t h e r e i s v a r i a t i o n o n
t h is p o in t ; t h e S c an d in a vi a n l a ng u ag e s e x hi b it a “ p ro p ri a l” d e fi n it e a r ti c le , i d en t ic a l
t o t he t hi rd p er so n p ro no un , i n f ro nt o f p ro pe r n am es ( ob li ga to ri ly i n s om e c as es )( s e e D e l si ng 1998: 9 9 ff . ).
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I n B a v a r i a n , c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y W e i ß ( 1998: 6 9 ) a s a “ r a d i c a l a r t i c l e l a n g u a g e , ” a r t i c l e s
a p pe ar r o ut i ne l y o n p r op e r n a me s .
T he ab il it y t o ap pea r wi th ou t an art icl e i s e xt en de d v ar ia bly t o o th er u niq ue
r ef er en ce n ou ns . T hu s, f or e xa mp le , B eh ag he l (1923: I, 59) points out that ‘God’
o ccu rs wi th ou t an art icl e i n a ll GMC l an gu ag es , t ho ug h i n E N an d GO ‘n ig ht ’,‘ h ea v en ’ , ‘ ea r th ’ a n d ‘ h el l ’, ‘ l if e’ a n d ‘ d ea t h’ a re u s ed w it h ou t d e te r mi n er s , w h er e as
i n G E t h e y a r e u s e d w i t h t h e a r t i c l e . G O sauil ‘ s u n ’ a n d mena ‘ m o o n ’ a r e u s e d w i t h o u t
t he a rt ic le ( in s pi te o f t he s ys te ma ti c a pp ea ra nc e o f o ne i n t he G re ek m od el ), a s t he y
a r e i n I C ( K r e s s 1982: 1 7 7 ) , w h i l e E N r e q u i r e s a n a r t i c l e h e r e . I n F A , t h e a r t i c l e i s n o t
u s e d w i t h n o u n p h r a s e s d e s c r i b i n g e n t i t i e s o f w h i c h o n l y o n e e x a m p l e i s o f i m m e d i a t e
r e l eva nc e ( B a rne s 1994: 2 0 7 ) , s u c h a s kongur ‘ t h e k i ng ’ , prestur ‘ th e p r ie s t’ , b u t t h e
a rt ic le i s r eq ui re d w it h ‘ li fe ’, ‘ de at h’ a nd ‘ si n’ ( Lo ck wo od 1964: 1 07 ). B eh ag he l
(1923: I , 6 3) a ls o n ot es t ha t i n G O, t he a rt ic le i s n or ma ll y m is si ng i n t he p lu ra l, a s
i n ( 4 . 9 8 ) , w h e r e b o t h E N a n d G r e e k w o u l d r e q u i r e t h e a r t i c l e .
I n G E, t he a rt ic le i s o mi tt ed w it h a ss er ti on s o f p ro fe ss io n, a s i n ( 4. 99 b) , b ut n ot i n
a s se r ti o ns o f m e mb e rs h ip i n o t he r c a te g or i es , a s i n ( 4 .9 9 c) :
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I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s , t h e a r t i c l e i s e m p l o y e d w h e n a p r e d i c a t e n o u n n o r m a l l yd e si g na t in g p r of es s io n i s u s ed f i gu r at i ve l y, a s a d e sc ri p ti o n o f a n a t tr i bu t e.
S i m i l a r l y , t h e a r t i c l e r e e m e r g e s i n G E a n d D A w h e n a p r e d i c a t e n o u n o f p r o f e s s i o n i s
m o di f ie d b y a d e sc ri p ti v e a d je ct i ve , b r in g in g t h e d e sc ri p ti v e f o rc e i n to s a li e nc e.
I t i s n ot , h ow ev er , f ou nd i n a ll o f t he G MC l an gu ag es . B eh ag he l l is ts n um er ou s
e xa m pl e s f r om MH G i n w hi c h t he i nde f i ni t e a r t i c l e oc c ur s i n pr e di c a t e N P s , i n c ont e xt s
w h e r e t h e y c o u l d n o t o c c u r i n M o d e r n S t a n d a r d G E . T h i s i s s t i l l t r u e o f Y I ( 4 . 9 9 j ) :
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I n A F, t he i nd ef in it e a rt ic le m ay e it he r b e o mi tt ed o r i nc lu de d.
T he i nd ef in it e a rt ic le i s r eq ui re d i n E N i n c op ul ar s en te nc es w it h p re di ca te N Ps .
H ow ev er , E N t oo o mi ts t he a rt ic le j us t w it h n ou ns o f p ro fe ss io n a nd n at io na li ty i n
non- copul ar pr e di c a te N P s :
4 4 G en i ti v e p h ra ses
e nd in gs w hi ch e nc od e t he g en de r, n um be r a nd c as e f ea tu re s o f t he h ea d n ou n. T he se
a re o f te n r e fe r re d t o a s p o ss e ss i ve p r on o un s , l e ss c o mm o nl y a s p o ss e ss i ve a d je ct i ve s .
I n o t h e r c a s e s , l i k e t h e t h i r d p e r s o n n o n r e f l e x i v e i n ( 4 . 1 0 1 b ) , a d j e c t i v e e n d i n g s a r e n o t
a d d e d t o t h e g e n i t i v e p r o n o u n , w h i c h r e m a i n s u n i n f l e c t e d f o r a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e n o u n .
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T he t w o w e r e or i gi na l l y c om pl e m e nt a r i l y di s t r i but e d. N on- a gr e e i ng ge ni t i ve pr onouns
o c c u r r e d i n a l l i n s t a n c e s w h e r e t h e p o s s e s s o r w a s t h i r d p e r s o n a n d n o n r e f l e x i v e , w h i l e
t h e a g r e e i n g p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o u n s o c c u r r e d i n a l l o t h e r c a s e s ( f i r s t a n d s e c o n d p e r s o n s ,
a nd t hi r d pe r s on r e f l e xi ve ) . T he di f f e r e nc e ha s di s a ppe a r e d i n s om e l a ngua ge s , t hr ough
e it he r l os s o f c on co rd ia l i nf le ct io ns ( as i n E N) o r t he e xt en si on o f s uc h i nf le ct io ns
t o o ri gi na ll y u ni nf le ct ed f or ms ( e. g. , i n t he c as e o f G E ihr ‘ he r, t he ir ’, w hi ch w as
o ri gi na ll y u ni nf le ct ed , b ut w hi ch n ow i nf le ct s f or a gr ee me nt w it h t he n ou n) . A si de
f r o m t h e i r i n f l e c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s , t h e t w o b e h a v e i d e n t i c a l l y i n a l l r e s p e c t s a n d I w i l ln o t d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n t h e m h e r e a f t e r , b u t w i l l a p p l y t h e l a b e l “ p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o u n s ”
w i t hout f ur the r di f fe r e nt i a ti on a c c or di ng t o t ype .
A s eco nd s ou rce o f co mp lex ity i s t he fa ct t hat a v ari et y o f d iffer en t s em an ti c
r el at io ns c an o bt ai n b et we en t he h ea d n ou n a nd t he g en it iv e p hr as e. B es id es p os se s-
s io n, t he g en it iv e c an e nc od e t he r el at io ns hi ps o f s ub je ct a nd o bj ec t i n t he c as e o f “ ac t io n ” n o un s (t he R om an s’ d es tr uc ti on o f t he c it y) , w h ol e /p a rt r e la t io n s (h a l f o f m y
A s a f u rt h er i l lu s tr a ti o n o f a s ym m et r ic a l p o ss i bi l it i es f o r i n te rp r et a ti o n, n o te t h at des
Ku nstlers ‘ t h e a r t i s t ’ s ’ i n t h e G E e x a m p l e i n ( 4 . 1 0 2 d ) c a n b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s p o s s e s s o r ,
a ge nt o r t he me , b ut w he n b ot h a p re ve rb al a nd a p os tv er ba l g en it iv e a re p re se nt , t he
f or me r c an b e i nt er pr et ed a s a ge nt o r p os se ss or , a nd t he l at te r a s t he me , b ut n ot t hec o nv e rs e , a s i n ( 4 .1 0 2e ) .
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4 .4 .1 G en it iv e ph ra se s a nd d et er mi ne rs
I n e a r l i e r G M C l a n g u a g e s , a t l e a s t , g e n i t i v e p h r a s e s c o u l d e i t h e r a p p e a r b e f o r e o r a f t e r
t h e n o u n t h e y m o d i f i e d , w i t h a t l e a s t a s l i g h t p r e f e r e n c e f o r p r e - h e a d p o s i t i o n .15 I n t h e
l a n g u a g e o f t h e o l d e r r u n i c i n s c r i p t i o n s , A n t o n s e n ( 1981: 5 5 ) p r o p o s e s t h a t t h e c h o i c e
d e p e n d e d o n w h e t h e r t h e h e a d n o u n w a s a n i m a t e o r n o t – p r e n o m i n a l g e n i t i v e s b e i n gf ou nd i n t he f or me r c as e, p os tn om in al g en it iv es i n t he l at te r. I n n ei th er c as e d o t he se
g e n i t i v e s c o - o c c u r w i t h d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e s i n t h e r u n i c c o r p u s , o f c o u r s e , s i n c e a r t i c l e s a r e
n ot f ou nd i n R un ic G MC . I n l at er G MC l an gu ag es , h ow ev er , s uc h c o- oc cu rr en ce i s
c o nd i ti o na l ly p o ss i bl e : p r en o mi n al , b u t n o t p o st n om i na l g e ni t iv a ls a re t y pi c al l y i n -
c om pa ti bl e w it h t he d ef in it e a rt ic le , t ho ug h t hi s i s a g en er al iz at io n w hi ch a dm it s o f e x c e p t i o n s i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s . I n S W , f o r e x a m p l e , w h e r e g e n i t i v e p h r a s e s s y s t e m a t i c -
H o w e v e r , t h i s i s n o t t h e c a s e i n s o m e n o r t h e r n d i a l e c t s o f S W , w h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n s l i k e
( 4. 10 3b ) a re a ll ow ed , w hi ch a re “ sh ar pl y u ng ra mm at ic al i n S ta nd ar d S W, D A a nd
N O” ( H ol m be r g a n d S an d st r om 1996: 1 1 4 ) :
I n F A a s w el l, w he re g en it iv es i n t he c ol l oq ui al l an gu ag e a re l ar ge ly r es tr ic te d
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t o p ro pe r n am es , t he p re no m in al g en it iv e a ga in c an no t c o- oc cu r w it h t he d ef in it earticle.
I n G E , w h e r e b o t h p o s t p o s e d a n d p r e p o s e d g e n i t i v e p h r a s e s a r e p o s s i b l e ( w i t h r e s t r i c -
t i on s d i sc u ss e d b e lo w ), t h e a r ti c le m u st o c cu r w i th p o st p os e d g e ni t iv e s, b u t d o es n o t
o c cu r w it h p r en o mi n al g e ni t iv e s. A c o mp a ra b le a s ym m et r y i s f o un d i n E N .
I n t h e e a r l i e s t G M C , p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o u n s s e e m t o h a v e b e e n b a s i c a l l y p o s t n o m i n a l ,
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A mo ng t he m od er n l an gu ag es , p os tp os ed p os se ss iv e p ro no un s a re p re se rv ed i n Y I
a nd W es te rn S ca nd in av ia n ( IC , F A, N N a nd n or th er n d ia le ct s o f S W – s ee H ol mb er g
a n d S an d st r om 1996: 9 9) . T hi s i s t he u nm ar ke d o rd er i n t he I ns ul ar S ca nd in av ia n
l a n g u a g e s . I n I C a n d N o r t h S W ( o p t i o n a l l y ) a n d N N , t h o u g h n o t i n F A , t h e p o s s e s s i v e
c o -o c cu r s w i th a ( c li t ic ) d e fi n it e a r ti c le .
o nc e a ga in d is ap pe ar s a s i n ( 4. 10 8b , c ) – a f ur th er d em on st ra ti on o f t he c on ne ct io n
b et we en t he p os it io n o f t he p os se ss or a nd t he a dm is si bi li ty o f t he d ef in it e a rt ic le .
A s im il ar a lt er na ti on i s f ou nd i n Y I ( 4. 10 8d , e ).
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W he n t he pos s e s s or w a s not a pr onoun but a f ul l ge ni t i ve phr a s e , how e ve r , a di f f e r e nt
be ha vi or e m e r ge s . E ve n w he n t he y f ol l ow e d t he he a d, t he y ( unl i ke pos s e s s i ve pr onouns )
d id n ot c o- oc cu r w it h d ef in it e a rt ic le s. T hi s i s s ti ll t ru e i n M od er n I C ( 4. 10 9 c) .
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a nd p os se ss iv e p ro no un s. A s t he f ol lo wi ng s ec ti on w il l d em on st ra te , t hi s i s n ot t he
o n ly c o nt e xt i n w h ic h t h es e t w o e l em e nt s p a tt e rn t o ge t he r i n t h e G MC l a ng u ag e s.
4 .4 .2 P ro pe r n am e p o ss es so rs a n d p r on om in al p o s se ss or s
T he l as t e xa mp le s c om pl et e t he p ic tu re o f t he d is tr ib ut io n o f p os se ss iv e p ro no un s i n
G M C . W e h a v e s e e n t h a t i n s o m e l a n g u a g e s ( G O a n d t h e m o d e r n I n s u l a r S c a n d i n a v i a n
l an gu ag es ), p os se ss iv e p ro no un s a re p os tn om in al a nd c o- oc cu r w it h t he d ef in it e
a rt i cl e . I n E N a n d c o nt i ne n ta l S ca n di n av i an , o n t h e o t he r h a nd , p o ss e ss i ve p r on o un s
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p re ce de t he n ou n, a nd d o n ot c o- oc cu r w it h t he d ef in it e a rt ic le . F in al ly , a s w e s ee i n
( 4 .1 1 1) , p o ss e ss i ve p r on o un s i n m e di e va l c o nt i ne n ta l W es t G M C c o ul d p r ec e de t h e
head and c o - oc c ur w i th t h e d e fi n it e a r ti c le . T h is t h re e- p ar t c l as s if i ca t io n f i nd s a s t ri k -
i n gl y c l os e c o un t er p ar t i n t h e R o ma n ce l a ng u ag e s, w h er e p o ss e ss i ve p r on o un s s o me -
t i me s f o ll o w t h e n o un a n d c o -o c cu r w it h t h e a rt i cl e , s o me t im e s o c cu r s a nd w ic h ed i n
b e t w e e n t h e a r t i c l e a n d t h e n o u n , a n d s o m e t i m e s p r e c e d e t h e n o u n w i t h o u t a n a r t i c l e .
( S e e C a r di na l et t i 1998 f or d is cu ss io n, t ho ug h h er a cc ou nt o f t he se d oe s n ot t ra ns fe r
u np ro bl em at ic al ly t o t he G MC c as es , s in ce i n t he S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es t he p re -
n o mi n al p o ss e ss i ve p r on o un s a r e s t re s se d , w h il e i n R o ma n ce t h ey a r e c l it i cs . )
H ow ev er , n ot e t ha t i n t he c as es f ro m m ed ie va l c on ti ne nt al G MC d is cu ss ed a t t he
en d o f t he l as t s ec ti on i t i s n ot j us t p os ses si ve p ro no un s t ha t c an b e s an dwi ch edb et we en t he d ef in it e a rt ic le a nd t he n ou n; p os se ss or s w hi ch a re u nm od if ie d p ro pe r
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f or G E, h o we ve r, w he re a ll p os se ss iv e a dj ec ti ve s i nf le ct a s a dj ec ti ve s, t ha n i n o th er
l a ngua ge s ( I C , f or e xa m pl e ) , w he r e t hi r d pe r s on pos s e s s i ve pr onouns s how no a dj e c t i va l
properties. A more probable reason for the parallelism between possessive pronouns and
p ro pe r n am es i n t he se c as es m ig ht b e t ha t t he p os it io ns i n q ue st io n a re r es tr ic te d t op ro no un s, a nd t ha t p ro pe r n am es a re a s or t o f p ro n ou n. L ik e p ro no un s, t he y t yp i ca ll y
c on si st o f o nl y a s in g le e le me nt , a nd d o n ot f re el y a ll ow m od if ie rs , d et er mi ne rs a nd s o
on. A nd l i ke pr onouns , t he y a r e “ i nde xi c a l , ” ha vi ng t he s e m a nt i c pr ope r t y of poi nt i ng t o
specific individuals.
B ij (2002b 35 ) l i h h i h i DU
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B oo ij (2002b: 35 ) cl ai ms th at t he p ro per n ame p os ses so rs wi th -s in DU arede t er m i ner s , not i ng t he non- co- occ ur re nc e of pr e nom i nal pos s es s or s a nd de t e rm i ne rs .
Ho wev er, t here i s a s ome wh at si mi la r co ns tru ct io n i n IC wi th res pec t t o wh ich
p os se ss iv e p ro no un s a nd p ro pe r n am e p os se ss or s o nc e a ga in p at te rn t og et he r, t o t he
e xc lu si on o f o th er p os se ss or s, b ut i n w hi ch t he d is ti ng ui sh in g c ha ra ct er is ti c w hi ch
u ni te s t he m i s p re ci se ly t ha t t he y d o c o- oc cu r w it h t he d et er mi ne r. I n I C, a s w e h av e
s e en , l e xi c al p o ss e ss i ve p h ra s es o c cu r p o st n om i na l ly w i th o ut a n a r ti c le , w h il e p o ss e s-
s i ve p r on o un s o c cu r p o st n om i na l ly , b u t w i th a n a r ti c le .
P ro p er n a me s c an , l i ke o t he r l e xi c al p o ss e ss i ve p h ra s es , o c cu r p o st n om i na l ly w it h ou ta n a r t i c l e , a s i n ( 4 . 1 1 5 c ) . H o w e v e r , a n a l t e r n a t i v e i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e , j u s t f o r p o s s e s s o r s
4 .4 .3 T he E n gl is h ‘ do ub le g e ni ti ve ’ c on st ru ct io n
I n E N , p r e n o m i n a l g e n i t i v e p h r a s e s a r e m a r k e d w i t h ’s ( o n w h i c h s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 4 . 6 . 2 ) ,
w hi l e pos t nom i na l ge ni t i ve s a r e m a r ke d w i t h t he pr e pos i t i on of . T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e t w o . T h e p r e n o m i n a l o n e s , f o r e x a m p l e , a d m i t o f a p o s s e s s i v e
i nt e r pr e t a t i on, w hi l e t he pos t nom i na l one s do not . T he pos t nom i na l one s c o- oc c ur w i t h
t he d ef in it e a rt ic le , w hi le t he p re no mi na l o ne s d o n ot . H ow ev er , E N a ls o e xh ib it s a
t hi rd c on st ru ct io n, i n w hi ch t he g en it iv e N P i s d ou bl y m ar ke d, w it h b ot h a n of and
an ’s , w h i c h h a s p r o p e r t i e s i n c o m m o n w i t h b o t h o f t h e o t h e r t y p e s .
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O n t he one ha nd, t he s e a dm i t a pos s e s s or / a ge nt i nt e r pr e t a t i on, l i ke pr e nom i na l ge ni t i ve
phrases. (In fact, unlike both of the other types, they do not admit a thematic
i n te rp r et a ti o n. T h is e x am p le , t h er e fo r e, i s u n am b ig u ou s i n a w a y t h at ‘ J oh n ’s p i ct u re ’
i s n o t. ) S i mi l ar l y, t h ey m a y c o -o c cu r w i th o t he r p o st n om i na l g e ni t iv a ls , b u t n o t w i th
ot he r pr e nom i nal ge ni ti ve s .
T hus , t he i r i nt e r pr e t a t i on a nd c o- oc c ur r e nc e pos s i bi l i t i e s s ugge s t t ha t t he y a r e of a ki nd
w i th p r en o mi n al g e ni t iv e p h ra s es , y e t, u n li k e t h es e , t h ey d o c o -o c cu r w i th a r ti c le s .
4 .4 .4 T he p r en om in al p e ri ph ra st ic p o ss es si ve ( Jan se boek ) c ons tr uc ti on
W i de s pr e ad a m on g t h e c o nt i ne n ta l W e st G MC l a ng u ag e s i s a c o ns t ru c ti o n i n w h ic h ap r e n o m i n a l p o s s e s s i v e p h r a s e h e a d e d b y a l e x i c a l n o u n i s f o l l o w e d b y a “ r e s u m p t i v e ”
D e l s i ng (1998) r e f e r s t o t hi s a s t he “ pos t nom i na l pe r i phr a s t i c pos s e s s i ve c ons t r uc t i on, ”
a nd s ug ge st s a n a na ly si s f or i t w hi ch u ni te s i t w it h t he p re no mi na l p er ip hr as ti c
p o ss e ss i ve c o ns t ru c ti o n, n o ti n g, t h ou g h, t h at t h er e a re s o me d i ff e re n ce s b e tw ee n t h e
t wo ( 19 98 : 1 03 ). T he se i nc lu de ( a) t he f ac t t ha t t he p os tn om in al c on st ru ct io n i sa p pa re n tl y r es t ri c te d t o p r op e r n a me s , ( b ) t h at i n t h e p r en o mi n al c o ns t ru c ti o n b u t n o t
i n t he p os tn om in al c on st ru ct io n t he l in ki ng p ro no un i s a r ef le xi ve p ro no un ( in t ho se
l an gu ag es w hi ch h av e s uc h a d is ti nc ti on ), a nd ( c) ( mo st p ro bl em at ic f or a c la im o f
i de nt it y b et we en t he m) , t ha t t he p re no mi na l c on st ru ct io n d oe s n ot a dm it a d ef in it e
t i l t h h d b t t h t i l t t i i i t T hi i
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a rt ic le o n t he h ea d n ou n, b ut t he p os tn om in al c on st ru ct io n r eq ui re s i t. T hi s i s e sp e-c ia ll y s tr ik in g i n l ig ht o f t he f ac t t ha t o th er p os tn om in al p os se ss iv e p hr as es i n W es t
S ca n di n av i an l a ng u ag e s d o n o t a l lo w d e fi n it e a r ti c le s :
4 .4 .5 S pe ci al d ev el op me nt s o f t he g en it iv e i n p os se ss iv e c on st ru ct io ns :
4.4.5.1 P r op e r n am e p o ss e ss i ve m a r k er s
T h e p o ss e ss i ve m a rk e r -s i s , h i st o ri c al l y, a g e ni t iv e c a se s u ff i x. T h er e a r e r e as o ns f o r
t hi nk in g, h ow ev er , t ha t t hi s i s n o l on ge r i ts s ta tu s i n a ll c as es i n t he m od er n G MCl an gu ag es . O n t he o ne h an d, i n G E a nd D U c on st ru ct io ns w it h p re no mi na l p ro pe r
n a m e p o s s e s s o r s a n d e q u i v a l e n t k i n s h i p t e r m s , s u c h a s ( 4 . 1 2 1 a ) , t h e - s be ha ve s unl i ke
t h e s t il l p r od u ct i ve g e ni t iv e a f fi x -(e)s w h i c h o c c u r s o n c o m m o n n o u n s i n t w o w a y s .
a p p l i e s o n l y t o p r o p e r n a m e s a n d k i n s h i p t e r m s ( L o c k w o o d 1964: 104; K opt j e vs ka ya -
Tamm 2003: 627). To this inventory can be added the FR -e wh ic h a pp ea rs a s a
p os se ss iv e m ar ke r o nl y o n k in sh ip t er ms ( Ti er sm a 1999: 4 9 ; K o pt j ev s ka y a- T am m
2003: 6 2 7 ; H o l m b e r g a n d R i j k h o f f 1998: 1 0 0 ) .
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T he r ea so n t ha t t he se l an gu ag es s ho ul d h av e d ev el op ed s pe ci al m ar ke rs f or p ro pe r
n am e p os se ss or s i s n o d ou bt t ha t p ro pe r n am es a re o ft en u na cc om pa ni ed b y a rt ic le s
o r a dj ec ti ve s o n w hi ch c as e c ou ld b e s ep ar at el y e nc od ed . S im il ar ly , K op tj ev sk ay a-
Tamm (2003: 6 29 ) p oi nt s o ut t ha t t he p re vi ou sl y d is cu ss ed c on st ru ct io ns i n s om e
S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es i n w hi ch p ro pe r n am es ( an d o nl y t ho se ) a re s up pl ie d w it h
s p e c i a l p r o p r i a l a r t i c l e s i n g e n i t i v e c o n t e x t s c a n a t l e a s t i n s o m e i n s t a n c e s b e r e g a r d e d
a s m ot iv at ed b y t he n ee d t o e nc od e t he g en it iv e r el at io n.
T he se “ pr op ri al a rt ic le s” c an b e v ie we d a s t he a na ly ti c c ou nt er pa rt t o a ff ix al p ro pe r n a m e p o s s e s s i v e m a r k e r s l i k e t h e G E -s.
A s im il ar c on st ru ct io n i s r ep or te d f or A F b y D on al ds on (1993: 1 3 6 ) , t h o u g h w i t h t h e
n ou n i n t he f ir st p os it io n. D en B es te n (1996) l a be l s t h es e c o ns t ru c ti o ns “ a ss o ci a ti v e
c o ns t ru c ti o ns , ” a n d p r ov i de s a s e ma n ti c a n al y si s f o r t h em .
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4.4.5.3 G r o u p g en i t ives
E N pos s e s s i ve ’s, l i k e G E -s, h a s u n d e r g o n e a d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m a g e n i t i v e m a r k e r i n
c er t ai n n o un c l as s es t o a g e ne r al i ze d p o ss e ss i ve m a rk e r. H o we v er , i t s b e ha v io r i n t h e
s o- c a l l e d “ gr oup ge ni t i ve ” c ons t r uc t i on i ndi c a t e s t ha t E N ’s i s n o l o n g e r a n i n f l e c t i o n a l
a f f i x a t a l l , b u t r a t h e r a c l i t i c e l e m e n t , w h i c h d o e s n o t a t t a c h t o i n d i v i d u a l n o u n s , b u t t o
t h e r i g h t p e r i p h e r y o f e n t i r e N P s , w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e c a t e g o r y o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r w o r d
t o w h ic h i t a t ta c he s .
T hi s c on st ru ct io n i s f ou nd i n s om e o f t he c on ti ne nt al S ca nd ina vi an l an gu ag esa s w e l l :
4 .4 .6 M er on ym ic c on st ru ct io ns
A ll o f t he G MC l an gu ag es w it h t he e xc ep ti on o f E N ( cf . M cW ho rt er 2002) e x hi b it
s pe ci al c on st ru ct io ns f or t he e xp re ss io n o f “ po ss es si on ” i n t he c as es i n w hi ch t he
“ p o s s e s s e d ” n o u n i s a p a r t o f t h e p o s s e s s o r – e . g . , a b o d y p a r t . F o l l o w i n g M i r t o 1995,
I w il l u s e t he l ab el “ me ro ny mi c c on st ru ct io n ” f or t he se ( th o ug h t he c on s tr uc ti on s h e
d i sc us se s a re q ui te d i ff er en t f ro m t ho se o f G MC ). “ Me ro n ym ” r ef er s t o t he n am ed p ar t
o f t he l ar ge r e nt it y, t he “ ho lo n ym .” W ha t w e c an a bs tr ac t a s t he c or e f ea tu re o f m er on y mi c
c on st ru ct io ns i n t he G MC l an gu ag es a pp ea rs t o b e t ha t t he y d o n ot m ak e u se o f g en it iv es o r
pos s e s s i ve pr onouns t o e nc ode t he hol onym ( a s i n I broke my arm) R a t he r t he m e r onym
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pos s e s s i ve pr onouns t o e nc ode t he hol onym ( a s i n I broke my arm) . R a t he r , t he m e r onym
o ccu rs w it h a d efi ni te a rt ic le , o r ( in G O, O S a nd I C) i s b ar e. T he h ol on ym m ay b e
une xpr e s s e d, pa r t i c ul a r l y w he r e i t i s i de nt i f i e d w i t h t he s ubj e c t of t he c l a us e .
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o f E N . V e n n e m a n n (2003b: 3 5 6 ) s e e s i n i t s a b s e n c e f r o m E N a C e l t i c , a n d u l t i m a t e l y
S e m it i c , s ubs tr a t al i nf lue nc e.
M cW ho rt er p oi nt s o ut , t ho ug h, t ha t t he S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es d ep ar t f ro m t he
o t h e r s i n e x p r e s s i n g t h e h o l o n y m n o t a s a b a r e d a t i v e N P , b u t a s t h e o b j e c t o f a l o c a t i v epreposition:
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I n I C , t h e m e r o n y m c a n b e e x p r e s s e d a s a d a t i v e ( 4 . 1 2 5 b ) o r a s t h e o b j e c t o f a l o c a t i v e
p r ep o si t io n , t h ou g h T h rai ns so n (1994: 1 68 ) c ha ra ct er iz es t he f ir st o f t he se a s q ui te
f o r m a l . T h e r e i s a l s o s o m e v a r i a t i o n a c r o s s G M C w i t h r e s p e c t t o h o w o b l i g a t o r y t h e s e
d a ti v e a d ju n ct s a r e, a n d h o w a c ce p ta b le t h e a l te r na t iv e g e ni t iv e c o ns t ru c ti o n i s .
4.5 Predeterminers
F ol low i ng Q ui rk et al. (1985: 2 57 ), I w il l c al l e le me nt s w hi ch p re ce de t he d ef in it e
a r t i c l e i n nom i na l phr a s e s “ pr e de t e r m i ne r s . ” Me m be r s hi p i n t hi s c a t e gor y va r i e s a c r os st h e G M C l a n g u a g e s , a n d w i t h i n l a n g u a g e s i n d i v i d u a l f o r m s c a n b e l o n g t o m o r e t h a n a
s i ng l e s y nt a gm a ti c c at e go r y. I n E N , b o th all and both f it t h e d e fi n it i on o f p r ed e te r-
m i n e r , p r e c e d i n g t h e d e f i n i t e a r t i c l e o r p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o u n s . H e r e , t h o u g h , a s i n o t h e r
G MC l an gu ag es , t he y c an a ls o a pp ea r i n p la ce o f t he d ef in it e a rt ic le , w it h g en er ic
m e an i ng . I t a p pe ar s , t h er ef o re , t h at t h ey m a y f u nc t io n e i th e r a s d e te r mi n er s o r p r ed e -
te rm in ers . ( EN, b ut n ot o th er l an gu ag es, a ll ows a t hi rd u se, as p ron ou ns t ak in g
i i l l ll f h hi ld )
I n G E , ‘ al l ’ a p pe a rs i n t h e s a me t w o p o si t io n s ( w it h i n fl e ct i on a l d i ff er e nc e s) :
On th e o th er h an d, ‘b ot h’ i n GE n ev er ap pear s a s a p red et er mi ner i n fro nt o f th e
de f i ni t e a r t i c l e , a nd m a y i n f a c t ( unl i ke ‘ a l l ’ ) be ha ve l i ke a “ pos t de t e r m i ne r , ” f ol l ow i ng
t he de f i ni t e a r t ic l e :
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I t n o n e t h e l e s s d o e s e x h i b i t a t l e a s t o n e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e h a v i o r o f p r e d e t e r m i n e r s i n t h e
o th er G MC l an gu ag es i n t ha t i t m ay t ak e a p er so na l o r d em on st ra ti ve p ro no un a s a
c omp lem en t, in wh ich ca se as i n a ll o f t he o th er GM C l an gu age s i t o bl ig at ori ly
pr e ce de s t he pr onoun.
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S om e r ec en t a na ly se s, h ow ev er , r ej ec t t hi s “ Q- st ra nd in g” a pp ro ac h, a rg ui ng t ha t
“ f lo a te d q u an t if i er s ” a r e n o t t o b e i d en t if i ed w i th t h e c o rr es p on d in g p r ed e te rm i ne rs ,
b u t a re , r a th e r, i n de p en d en t a d ve rb s .
S ome of t he G MC l a nguage s a l low a ppa r ent di s cont inui ti e s i nvol vi ng de te rm i ne r s of
ot he r s or t s t ha n pr e de t e r m i ne r s . G E a nd D U , f or e xa m pl e , a l l ow w e a k de t e r m i ne r s s uc h
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p , p ,
as keine ‘ n o ’ t o b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e n o u n p h r a s e :
T he se c as es a re d is cu ss ed b y d en B es te n a nd W eb el hu th (1990) u n d e r t h e l a b e l “ D P -
Split.”18 A n o p p o s i t e c a s e , i n w h i c h t h e d e t e r m i n e r i s f r o n t e d , l e a v i n g t h e n o u n b e h i n d ,
i s r ep r es e nt e d i n O N ( B an d le e t a l. 2002: 9 4 8 ) .
A f i na l t y pe o f d i sc o nt i nu o us N P , a p pa re n tl y r e st r ic t ed t o t h e o l de r l a ng u ag e s ( a nd
s ha re d b y t he m w it h t he o th er o ld er I E l an gu ag es ( Fo rt so n 2004: 1 39 )) i nv ol ve s
s e p a r a t i o n o f g e n i t i v e p h r a s e s o r p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o u n s f r o m t h e N P t h e y a r e u n d e r s t o o d
t o m od if y, t yp ic al ly b y n o m or e t ha n a s in gl e v er b. W it h p os se ss iv e p ro no un s, t he
r e s u l t i n g o r d e r i s t y p i c a l l y P r o n – V – N P , w h i l e w i t h g e n i t i v e N P s t h e o r d e r i s t y p i c a l l y
N P– V– NP -G en . T ha t i s t o s ay , t he t wo n om in al s e xh ib it t he s am e r el at iv e o rd er t he y
w ou ld b e e xp ec te d t o h av e i f n ot s ep ar at ed :
S e p a r a t i o n o f t h e g e n i t i v e p h r a s e f r o m t h e a s s o c i a t e d n o u n ( “ e x b r a c i a t i o n , ” t o b o r r o w
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p g p (
a t er m f ro m S to ck we ll 1977) is also found in OE prose, but the separation of
p os se ss iv e p ro no un s a nd n ou ns a pp ea rs t o b e r es tr ic te d t o p oe ti c l an gu ag e ( cf .
Reskiewicz 1966: 3 2 5) , w h er e i t s e rv e s t o m a in t ai n p r ef e rr e d r h yt h mi c s t ru c tu r es .
4.7 A d j ect iv e p h ra ses
A d j e c t i v e p h r a s e s i n t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s v a r y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c a t e g o r y t y p e a n d t h e
p os it io n o f t he c om pl em en ts o f t he h ea d a dj ec ti ve . A dj ec ti ve s i n a ll o f t he G MC
l an gu ag es a dm it c la us al a nd p re po si ti on al p hr as e c om pl em en ts , a s s ho wn b y t he
f o ll o wi n g G O e x am p le s a n d t h ei r E N g l os s es .
l a ng u ag e s w h ic h d o n o t h a ve l e xi c al l y c a se -m a rk e d o b je c ts i n g e ne r al ( fo r e x am p le ,
w hi ch d o n ot e xh ib it g en it iv e o r d at iv e o bj ec ts o f s pe ci fi c v er bs ), a dj ec ti ve s d o n ot
g en er al ly a ll ow N P c om pl em en ts a t a ll ( va n R ie ms di jk 1983b: 2 23 ; W ee rm an 1997: 4 38 ).
W he n a l a ngua ge l os e s l e xi c a l c a s e , t he r e f or e , f or m e r N P c om pl e m e nt s of a dj e c t i ve s a r er e pl a ce d by pr eposi t i ona l phra s e c ompl em e nt s w i th gr am m at i ca l pr eposi t ions. S o, f or
e xa m pl e , i n t he f ol l ow i ng, w he r e t he a dj e c t i ve s i n G O or O E t a ke ba r e N P c om pl e m e nt s
i n obl i que c a s e s , i n Mode r n E N t he y t a ke pr e pos i t i ona l phr a s e c om pl e m e nt s .
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t hey c l as s if y t hes e a cc us at i ve m e as ure phra s es . W e note t hat phra s es l i ke o ne f oo t t al l also
o cc ur i n E N , f or e x am pl e, i n w h ic h a dj ec ti ve s d o n ot o th er wi se t ak e N P c om pl em en ts .
In the remaining, much smaller, set of cases of GE adjectives with accusative objects,
t he a cc usa t ive oc cur s only s por a di c al l y and i s r ega rde d by s om e a s re s ul t ing f romc onf us i on of ge nit ive a nd a cc usa t ive c as e f or m s ( G re be et al. 1966: 49 2).
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Exceptions to the second rule of thumb – that adjectives will not take bare noun
p hr as e c om pl em en ts i f t he l an gu ag e d oe s n ot h av e l ex ic al c as e – a re a ls o t o b e f ou nd .
N O, e v en t h ou g h i t n o l o ng e r h a s l e xi c al c as e o b je c ts of ve r bs , a l lo w s p r ep o si t io n le s s
N P c om pl e m e nt s of a dj e c ti ve s , a s i n ( 4. 135) , a ppa re nt l y s ubj ec t t o the r e quir e m ent t ha t
t he y b e a dj ac en t t o th e h ea d ( Ma li ng 1983: 264) . A ga in, t hough, t he s e e xc ept i ons s e e m
t o b e m ar gi na l; Afar li (1992: 6 1 ) o b se r ve s t h at t h e v e ry fe w a d je c ti v es al l ow i ng su c h
N P c om pl em en ts ca n u su al ly ta ke a P P c om pl em en t i ns te ad .
M ore sp eci fi cal ly , it ap pea rs t hat in l an gu ag es l ik e GE , t he co mp lem en t o f t he
a d j e c t i v e n o t o n l y p r e c e d e s t h e a d j e c t i v e b u t a p p e a r s t o t h e l e f t o f a d v e r b i a l m o d i f i e r s
o f t h e a d je c ti v e ( v an R i em s di j k 1983b; A b ra h am 1995: 2 5 1 ) .
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4 .7 .1 Co mp ari so n
A d je c ti v es n o rm a ll y i n fl e ct f o r d e gr e es o f c o mp a ri s on i n G M C b y w a y o f a t ta c hm e nt
of c om pa r a t i ve / s upe r l a t i ve s uf f i xe s . G MC ha d t w o va r i a nt s of t he s e s uf f i xe s , r e f l e c t i ng
d i s t i n c t I E a b l a u t g r a d e s , a n d t h e y a r e d i s t r i b u t e d v a r i o u s l y i n t h e d a u g h t e r l a n g u a g e s .
G O h a d b o t h , a n d d i s t r i b u t e d t h e m i n a w a y p a r t l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e i n f l e c t i o n a l c l a s s
o f t he a dj ec ti ve . T hu s, i t h as b ot h manag-iza ‘ m or e ’ a n d sw in þ- oza ‘ s t ronge r’ . T he
f o r m s w i t h -iz- g a v e r i s e t o u m l a u t a l t e r n a t i o n s i n o t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s , s u c h a s M H G
lanc / lenger . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s h a v e a h i g h l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p e r s i s t e n t s e t
o f s up pl et iv e c om pa ra ti ve s, s uc h a s G O goþs, batiza , batists /SW god , ba ttre, best .
C om pe ti ng w it h t he se a ff ix al c om pa ra ti ve f or ms i n s om e o f t he G MC l an gu ag es
( e. g. , E N, S W, D A, D U) a re a na ly ti c c on st ru ct io ns i n w hi ch t he p os it iv e d eg re e o f
t h e a d j e c t i v e i s u s e d w i t h t h e a d v e r b ‘ m o r e ’ . T h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n t h e s e i s c o n d i t i o n e d
b y t h e l e ng t h o f a d je c ti v e a m on g o t he r t h in g s
B ot h c on st ru ct io ns s ti ll e xi st i n ( di ff er en t r eg is te rs o f ) I C, t ho ug h t he y a re n o l on ge r
c om pl e m e nt a r il y di s t ri but ed i n t hi s w a y.
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4.8 P r on o un s i n t h e G e r ma n ic l a n gu a ge s
4 .8 .1 P er so na l p ro no un s
4.8.1.1 T h e b a si c co n tr a st s
I n t h e c a te g or y o f p e rs o na l p r on o un s I i n cl u de n o n- d em o ns t ra t iv e ( u ne m ph a ti c , n o n-
d e ic t ic ) t h ir d p e rs o n p r on o un s , b o th r ef l ex i ve s a n d n o nr e fl e xi v es , a s w el l a s f i rs t a n d
s e co n d p e rs o n p r on o un s , w h il e n o ti n g t h at t h is c at e go r iz a ti o n i s c o nt r ar y t o t h e u s ag eo f s om e t ra di ti on al g ra mm ar s i n w hi ch “ pe rs on al p ro no un ” i s l im it ed t o f ir st a nd
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v e r b , w h i l e t h e o b j e c t i v e f o r m s (me, mig) a r e u s e d i n a l l o t h e r c o n t e x t s . M i l l e r (2002:
1 4 ) c l a i m s t h a t o b j e c t i v e i n E N h a s b e c o m e a d e f a u l t c a s e . T h a t a p p r o x i m a t i o n f a i l s t o
c o ve r i n st a nc e s l i ke t h e f o ll o wi n g, t h ou g h:
F i r s t a n d s e c o n d p e r s o n d u a l p r o n o u n f o r m s a r e f o u n d i n t h e o l d e r G M C l a n g u a g e s
(GO, ON, OE , OS an d (rar el y) OHG (Ho we 1996: 2 42 ) u sed wi th p lu ral v erb s
e ve ry wh er e e xc ep t i n G O) , b ut t he d ua l/ pl ur al d is ti nc ti on i s g iv en u p i n a ll m od er n
l t N t h F R ( H 1996 1 9 3 f f ) h i t t i l l i t h i h l f l
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l a ngua ge s e xc e pt N or t h F R ( H ow e 1996: 1 9 3 f f . ) , w h e r e i t s t i l l e x i s t s a s a h i g h l y f o r m a l
o pt io n ( an d i s e ve n e xt en de d t o t hi rd p er so n i n o ne d ia le ct ). F or ma ll y, t he l ev el in g
o cc ur re d i n b ot h d ir ec ti on s, t he f or me r d ua l f or ms s ho wi ng u p i n p lu ra l f un ct io ns i n
( va ri et ie s o f) Y I, B av ar ia n a nd L ow G E ( Ho we 1996: 2 79 , 2 81 ) an d NO ( se co nd
pe rs on o nl y) an d, m os t ro bu stl y, i n FA a nd IC , whe re o ri gin al d ual fo rm s h av e
s u p p l a n t e d p l u r a l s i n b o t h f i r s t a n d s e c o n d p e r s o n s ( C o m p a r e D A vi ‘ w e ’ , F A vit ‘we’.)
T he t en den cy t owar d l os s o f re fl ex iv e f orm s i s cl ear ly e xem pli fi ed i n t he F R
p a ra d ig m s a b ov e , w h er e i n c o nt r as t t o D A a n d G O t h e s p ec i fi c al l y r ef l ex i ve s- f or ms
of GM C are n ot rep re sen ted . T hi s re fl ect s a d eve lo pm en t co mm on to al l o f t he
I ng va eo ni c, o r N or th S ea C oa st , g ro up o f W es t G MC ( Ol d F R, O E a nd O S) , w he re
th e GM C s- re fl ex iv es w er e g iv en u p, a nd r ef le xi vi ty w as e xp re ss ed b y o rd in ar y
pe r sona l pr onouns :19
F R a p p e a r s t o h a v e u n d e r g o n e ( o r i s u n d e r g o i n g ) a d e v e l o p m e n t s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f E N .R ef le xi ve s a re o ft en s ti ll n ot d is ti ng ui sh ed ( in a ny p er so n) f ro m t he c or re sp on di ng
n o nr e fl e xi v e p e rs o na l p r on o un . S o , f o r e x am p le , t h e f o ll o wi n g i n st a nc e i s a m bi g uo u s
be t we e n r e f le xi ve a nd nonr ef l e xi ve r e adi ngs .
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Ho we ver, FR al so h as a mo rp he me sels, which as a free morpheme is used to
e m ph a si z e a n a s so c ia t ed N P ( c or re s po n di n g t o E N e m ph a ti c himself ) , a s i n ( 4 . 1 4 1 d ) :
I t c an a l s o b e a dd ed t o p ro no un s i n r ef le xi ve u s e , t o m ak e t he m e mp h at ic a n d c on tr as ti ve :
Harsels i n ( 4 . 1 4 1 e ) i s n o t m e r e l y e m p h a t i c a n d c o n t r a s t i v e , t h o u g h , b u t s p e c i f i c a l l y
r e f l e x i v e . I t c a n o n l y r e f e r b a c k t o t h e s u b j e c t . M o r e o v e r , har and harsels i n r e f l e xi ve
u s e s t an d i n a p a rt i al l y c o mp l em e nt a ry d i st r ib u ti o n, s o me c o nt e xt s a l lo w in g o n ly o n ea nd o th er s a ll ow in g o nl y t he o th er ( Ti er sm a 1999: 6 0f ; E ve ra er t 1991) l ea di ng
T h e l o s s o f t h e o r i g i n a l r e f l e x i v e s ( a s w e l l a s t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t r e s t o r a t i o n ) i s r e f l e c t e d
i n m o r e l i m i t e d w a y s o u t s i d e t h e I n g v a e o n i c g r o u p . O H G , f o r e x a m p l e , l o s t t h e d a t i v e
r e fl e xi ve ( *sir ) . L ik e I ng va eo ni c, i t u se d d at iv e f or ms o f t he n on re fl ex iv e p ro no un s
(e.g., imo ‘h im ’) i n i ts s te ad . T hi s p ar ad ig ma ti c g ap w as s ub se qu en tl y f il le d b y
e x te n di n g t h e a cc u sa t iv e r e fl e xi v e sich
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I n B av ar ia n, a cc or di ng t o W ei ß, th e p ri ma ry d et er mi na nt o f t he r el at iv e o rd er of
o b je c t p r on o un s i s w h et h er t h ey a re c l it i c ( we a k) o r f u ll ( s tr o ng ) p r on o un s ; t h e f o rm e r
a lw ay s p re ce de t he l at te r. Th us , m as cu li ne a cc us at iv e w ea k p ro no un ’n ‘it’ must
p re ce de m as cu li ne d at iv e s tr on g eam ( bu t s ee A br ah am a nd Wi eg el 1993).
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On ly wh ere bo th t he IO a nd t he DO are we ak d o t he ir g ram ma ti cal ro les co me i nt o
c ons ide r at i on, i n w hi ch c as e t he y a ppea r in t he f i xed or de r I O –DO . (S e e S e c ti on 5.7.2
f o r f u r th e r d i sc u ss i on o f t h e o r de r o f p r on o mi n al o b je c ts i n G E .)
T hus , w e a ppa r e nt l y ne e d t o r e c ogni z e a t l e a s t t w o m or phos ynt a c t i c a l l y di s t i nc t c l a s s e s
o f p r o n o u n s , w e a k a n d s t r o n g , i n s o m e o f t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s – a r g u a b l y a l l e x c e p t E N
an d AF.23 ( Cf . a ls o T ie rs ma 1999: 5 7; H ae ge ma n 1993: 1 42 ; C ar di na le tt i 1999;
A br aha m a nd W i e ge l 1993; G r oh m an n 1997: 1 7 1 . )
4.8.1.2.2 W e ak p r o n ou n s a n d c l it i cs I t i s n ot c le ar t ha t t h e f or eg oi ng d iv is io n o f G MC p ro no un s i nt o s tr on g a nd w ea k i s s uf fi ci en t W hi le t he l ab el “ cl it ic ” i s s om e
d ef ic ie nt p ro no un s, a nd t ha t b ot h a re r ep re se nt ed i n t he G MC l an gu ag es . I n t he
f o l l o w i n g , I w i l l r e v i e w s o m e o f t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o n w h i c h s u c h p r o p o s a l s a r e b a s e d .
F ir st , a c om pa ri so n o f t he f ol lo wi ng e xa mp le f ro m N O w it h ( 4. 14 5e ) s ho ws t ha t i t i s
p o ss i bl e t o r e pl a ce t h e w ea k p r on o un s o f t h at e x am p le w it h s t il l m o re p h on o lo g ic a ll y
m i n i m a l f o r m s . T h a t i s , t h e r e a r e d e g r e e s o f p h o n o l o g i c a l r e d u c t i o n . B e s i d e s t h e a t o n i c
pronouns henne ‘her’, den ‘ i t ’ , N O a l s o h a s t h e f o r m s i n ( 4 . 1 4 6 a ) :
S e co n d, c l it i cs a r e, b y d e fi n it i on , s y nt a ct i ca l ly d e pe n de n t o n o t he r e l em e nt s i n t h e
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, , y , y y p
s en te nc e. I n G MC , n on -s tr on g p ro no un s t en d t o a pp ea r a ft er c om pl em en ti ze rs o r
v er bs . T he re fo re , i f a ny o f t he m a re c li ti cs , t he y m us t b e r ig ht wa rd c li ti cs , a tt ac hi ng
t o t he r ig ht o f t he se e le me nt s. I t f ol lo ws t ha t w hi le i t m ig ht b e p os si bl e f or a w ea k
p ro no un i n a G MC l an gu ag e t o b e c la us e- in it ia l, a c li ti c c ou ld n ot , s in ce i t w ou ld
r eq ui re a n e le me nt t o i ts l ef t t o w hi ch i t c ou ld b e a tt ac he d. S om e i nv es ti ga to rs h av e
p ro po se d j us t s uc h c on tr as ts i n i nd iv id ua l G MC l an gu ag es . I n F R, f or e xa mp le , t he
r e du c ed f o rm ’t ‘ i t ’ m a y b e g i n a s e n t e n c e ( ’ t w i e i n l a n g d e i ‘ i t w a s a l o n g d a y ’ ) , b u t
t h e r e d u c e d f o r m er ‘ h e ’ c a n n o t . I t c a n o n l y o c c u r i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r a v e r b , a r e l a t i v e
pr onoun or a c om pl e m e nt i z e r ( T i e r s m a 1999: 57f . ) . T i e r s m a c a t e gor i z e s t he l a t t e r f or ma s a c li ti c, b ut t he f or me r a s a r ed uc ed p ro no un . S im il ar ly , i n t he S wi ss G E d ia le ct
O l a ng T i r ole s e ( C a rdi na le t t i 1999) , b ot h t he f or ms es ‘ it ’ a nd se ‘ t he y ’ a r e u n st r es -
s a bl e , but es c a n b e g i n a s e n t e n c e , w h e r e a s se m u s t a p p e a r i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r a v e r b o r
c o m p l e m e n t i z e r ; C a r d i n a l e t t i a n a l y z e s t h e f o r m e r a s a w e a k p r o n o u n a n d t h e l a t t e r a s a
c li ti c. S ub je ct c li ti cs a re a ls o r ep or te d f or a l oc al d ia le ct o f B ri ti sh E N i n S ho rr oc ks1996 t ho ug h o nl y i n q ue st io ns w it h v er b p re po si ng
w ea k p ro no un s a nd c li ti cs , n ot in g t ha t D U ’k ‘ I’ c an a p pe a r s e nt e nc e -i n it i al l y, a s i n
( 4. 146e ) , w hi l e ie ‘ he ’ c an no t, e ve n t ho ug h b ot h o f t he se f or ms b eh av e l ik e c li ti cs
w it h r es pe ct t o a no th er d ia gn os ti c – t he r eq ui re me nt t ha t c li ti cs b e a dj ac en t t o t he
c om pl e m e nt i z er i n s ubordi na te c l a us e s .
A b r a h a m a n d W i e g e l (1993: 3 0 ) p o i n t o u t t h a t w h i l e i n D U ’k ‘I’ ie ‘he’ je ‘you’
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A b r a h a m a n d W i e g e l (1993: 3 0 ) p o i n t o u t t h a t w h i l e i n D U , k I , ie he , je you ,
and we ‘ w e ’ a l l a p p e a r t o b e r e d u c e d f o r m s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f u l l p r o n o u n s ( o f ik,
hij , jij , wij r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , o n l y t h e f i r s t t w o a r e c l i t i c s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e h e a d - a d j a c e n c y
d i a g n o s t i c , s i n c e t h e o t h e r s c a n b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e p r e c e d i n g c o m p l e m e n t i z e r b y a n
i nt er ve ning a dve rb phr as e .
For further discussion of a need for a weak pronoun/clitic distinction see
Cardinaletti 1999 a n d C ar d in a le t ti a n d S t ar k e 1999. I f G MC d oe s h av e c li ti cs , t he y
b e h a v e d i f f e r e n t l y f r o m t h o s e o f t h e R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s i n t h a t t h e y d o n o t h a v e t o b e
h o s t e d b y t h e v e r b , a n d , w h e n a d j a c e n t t o t h e v e r b , t h e y d o n o t s y s t e m a t i c a l l y p r e c e d e
i t ( C a r di na l e t t i 1999: 5 7 ) . H a e g e m a n (1993: 1 4 5 ) a l s o p o i n t s o u t t h a t , u n l i k e R o m a n c e
c li ti cs , t he y n ee d n ot o cc ur i n a s in gl e c li ti c c lu st er , b ut c an b e s pl it u p.
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4.8.1.3 L o ng ob j ec t sh i ft
I n ( 4 .1 4 5a ) , a n o n- s tr o ng p r on o mi n al o b je ct i s s e en s h if t ed t o a p o si t io n i m me d ia t el y
b eh in d t he s ub je ct . H el la n a nd P la tz ac k (1999) p oi nt o ut, t ho ug h, t ha t am on g t he
S c a n d i n a v i a n l a n g u a g e s S W a n d I C a l s o a l l o w “ l o n g o b j e c t s h i f t , ” i n w h i c h ( a s u b s e to f) w ea k p ro no un s a pp ea r i mm ed ia te ly a ft er t he v er b, a nd i n f ro nt o f a p os tv er ba l
s u bj e ct , r a th e r t h an f o ll o wi n g i t .
T hi s p os si bi li ty w as a pp ar en tl y o nc e g en er al i n S ca nd in av ia n ( He ll an a nd P la tz ac k
1999: 1 3 3 ) , b u t i s n o l o n g e r p o s s i b l e e x c e p t i n S W . G r o h m a n n ( 1997) r e po r ts s i mi l ar
v ar ia ti on i n c on ti ne nt al W es t G MC . G E b ut n ot D U a ll ow s a n on -s tr on g p ro no un t o
o c c u r t o t h e l e f t o f t h e s u b j e c t .
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I n t h e l a ng u ag e s t ha t a l lo w l o ng o b j ec t s h if t , t he p r on o un a p p ea r s im m ed i at e ly a f t er
t h e v e rb i n v e rb - se c on d cl a us e s, o r a f te r t h e c o mp l em e nt i ze r i n ve rb - fi n al c l au s es .
S in ce I w il l p ro po se ( Se ct io n 6.3) t ha t t he v er b in a v er b- se co nd c la us e i s ac tu al ly i n
t he s lo t u su al ly r es er ve d f or t he c om pl em en ti ze r, w e c an g en er al iz e o ve r t he se t wo
cases.
4.8.1.4 O n t h e a nt iq ui ty o f c l i ti c p ro no un s i n G er ma ni c
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T h e o l d e r G M C l a n g u a g e s d o n o t o f f e r m u c h o r t h o g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e t h a t c o u l d b e u s e d
t o a rg ue f or a c on tr as t b et we en s tr on g a nd c li ti c p ro no un s. N on et he le ss , t he re i s
d is tr ib ut io na l e vi de nc e t ha t t he p ro no un s i n t he se l an gu ag es h ad t he p ro pe rt ie s o f
c l it i cs i n a t l e as t s o me c o nt e xt s , a s s u mi n g t h at t h e d e fi n in g p r op e rt y o f c l it i cs i s t h ei r
m or ph os yn ta ct ic d ep en de nc e o n a no th er e le me nt , t o w hi ch t he y m us t b e a dj ac en t.
Eythor ss on (1995: 2 9f f. ) m ak es n ot e o f t he s tr ik in g f ac t t ha t i n G O, w hi le c om pl e-
m e nt s o f v e rb s i n g e ne r al p r ec e de t h os e v e rb s , p r on o un s g e ne ra l ly f o ll o w t h em .24
Eythor ss on p oi nt s o ut t ha t, g iv en t he t en de nc y w e h av e o bs er ve d f or p ro no un s
e ls ew he re i n G MC t o o cc ur f ur th er t o t he l ef t t ha n c om pl em en ts o f o th er t yp es , t hi s
s t a t e o f a f f a i r s a p p e a r s q u i t e u n - G e r m a n i c , t a k e n a t f a c e v a l u e . H e p r o p o s e s , h o w e v e r ,
T h e r e i s s u p p o r t f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s e l s e w h e r e i n e a r l y G M C . E y t h o r s s o n n o t e s t h a t i n
r u ni c i n sc r ip t io n s i n t h e o l de r futhark , v e rb s n o rm a ll y f o ll o w t h ei r s u bj e ct s , w it h o n e
e xc ep ti on ; t he s pe ci al f ir st p er so n s in gu la r p ro no mi na l f or m eka ‘ I’ o nl y o cc ur s
a tt ac he d t o t he r ig ht o f v er bs .
Eythor ss on ’s a cc ou nt f or t hi s i s a ga in t ha t eka i s a s u b j e c t c l i t i c , w h i c h o c c u r s i n a
l e f t w a r d pos i t i on i n c l a us a l s t r uc t ur e ( a dj oi ne d t o t he c om pl e m e nt i z e r pos i t i on) a nd, a s
i n GO, i s s up po rt ed b y mo ve me nt o f t he v er b i nto t he co mp lem en tiz er s lo t. Of
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s ub st an ti al ly t he s am e n at ur e i s a s tr ik in g p at te rn t ha t e me rg es i n s om e ( th ou gh n ot
a ll ) O E p ro se t ex ts , f or e xa mp le , t he O E t ra ns la ti on o f B ed e’ s E ccl es i a st i ca l H i s t or y.
I n t h at t e xt , s u bj e ct N Ps t y pi c al l y p r ec e de t h ei r v e rb s :
O ve rw he lm in gl y, h ow ev er , w he n t he s ub je ct i s a p er so na l p ro no un w hi ch w ou ld
o t he r wi s e b e c l au s e- i ni t ia l , t h e o r de r w h ic h a p pe a rs i s V –S .
(4.149) d. Cwæd o n h eo to him. . .
said they to him. . .
( OE , B e de ( M il l er ) 1 0 0: 2 4)
e. Cwom he to þæm c y ci n gecame he to the king
i mm ed ia te ly t o t he r ig ht o f f ro nt ed v er bs o r c om pl em en ti ze rs a nd , c ru ci al ly , d o n ot
c o un t a s s e pa r at e c o ns t it u en t s f o r t h e p u rp o se o f t h e s t ri c t V er b -S e co n d r e qu i re m en t
w hi ch a pp li ed i n b ot h m ai n a nd s ub or di na te c la us es i n O ld I C ( 4. 14 9i ).25
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T h u s , w e s e e e v i d e n c e f o r t h e c l i t i c s t a t u s o f s u b j e c t p r o n o u n s i n G O , O E a n d i n R u n i c
GMC.
L e f t w a r d d i s p l a c e m e n t o f o b j e c t p r o n o u n s i s s i m i l a r l y a n o l d f e a t u r e i n W e s t G M C ,
o c c u r r i n g i n O S a n d O E ( c f . M i t c h e l l 1985: I I , 9 7 8 ; Q u i r k a n d W r e n n 1955: 9 4 ) , w h e r e
p ro no mi na l o bj ec ts t en d t o p re ce de t he v er b i n m ai n c la us es w hi le f ul l N P o bj ec ts
us ua ll y f ol low t he m :
A s im il ar a sy mm et ry h ol ds i n p re po si ti on al p hr as es ; p er so na l p ro no un o bj ec ts o f
p re po si ti on s t yp ic al ly p re ce de t ho se p re po si ti on s, w hi le f ul l N P o bj ec ts g en er al ly
f o l l o w t h e m . ( F o r O E , s e e Q u i r k a n d W r e n n 1955: 9 0 . )
W h e n t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e i s t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f a v e r b i n O E a n d O S i t s p r o n o u no bj ec t t yp ic al ly o cc ur s t o t he l ef t o f b ot h t he p re po si ti on a nd t he v er b.
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T he O S e xa mp le s ho ws , i n f ac t, t ha t t he o bj ec t p ro no un u nd er go es l on g o bj ec t s hi ft ,
o cc ur ri ng f ur th er t o t he l ef t t ha n t he c la us al s ub je ct . T hi s w as , i n f ac t, t he u su al
t r ea t me n t o f o b je c t p r on o un s i n e a rl i er W es t G MC :
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e d G e r m a n i c l a n g u a g e s
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Y I s ti ll p re se rv es t he o ld er s y st em , u si ng ( or ig in al ly s ec on d p er so n p lu ra l) ir
f or p ol it e a dd re ss i n t he s in gu la r, o r f or n eu tr al a dd re ss i n t he p lu ra l, a nd du for
s i n g u l a r i n t i m a t e a d d r e s s , b u t i n s t a n d a r d G E , Sie i s u s e d f o r p o l i t e a d d r e s s f o r b o t h
s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l , a n d t h e o r i g i n a l s e c o n d p e r s o n p l u r a l ihr i s r e s e r v e d f o r i n t i m a t e
a dd re ss i n t he p lu ra l. T he p ol it e/ in ti ma te c on tr as t i s t hu s no w s ig na le d i n b ot h
s in gu l ar a nd p l ur al . T hr ou gh t he a ge nc y o f G E i nf lu en ce i n p os tm ed ie va l t im es ,
t hi s s ys te m h as s pr ea d t o D A, a s w el l, w he re p ol it e s ec on d p er so n s in gu la r a nd
p lu ra l p ro no un s a re h o mo ph on o us w it h t he t hi rd p er so n p lu ra l ( De, Dem, Dere s )
e xc ep t i n t he ir r ef le xi ve f or ms , a s n ot ed a bo ve . T h es e r ep la ce a n e ar li er p lu ra l- as -
pol i t e I ‘ you’ .
I C m ak es u se o f s ti ll d if fe re nt m ea ns t o i ns ta nt ia te t hi s d is ti nc ti on . I t u se s t he
or i gi na l dua l f or m þið a s t h e i n t i m a t e f o r m o f a d d r e s s i n t h e p l u r a l a n d h a s r e s e r v e d
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or i gi na l dua l f or m , þið, a s t h e i n t i m a t e f o r m o f a d d r e s s i n t h e p l u r a l , a n d h a s r e s e r v e d
t he or i gi na l pl ur a l s e c ond pe r s on pr onoun, þe $r , f o r p o l i t e a d d r e s s ( s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l ) .
T h e F A tygum ‘ y o u ( p o l i t e s i n g u l a r ) ’ i s f r o m a s i m i l a r s o u r c e , t h o u g h p r e s e n t i n g s o m e
f o r m a l p r o b l e m s ( f o r w h i c h s e e H a u g e n 1982: 1 0 8 ) . I n I C , a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i s t i n c t i o nh a s a ri s en b e tw e en við ‘ we ’ ( or ig in al ly d ua l b ut n ow n eu tr al p lu ra l) a nd ve $r ‘we’
(originally plural and now plural honorific, equivalent, roughly, to the EN
editorial/royal ‘we’).
A s i n o th er E ur op ea n l an gu ag es , t he c on te xt s o f a pp ro pr ia te ne ss f or p ol it e a nd
i nt i m a t e f or m s of a ddr e s s ha ve c ha nge d s ubs t a nt i a l l y s i nc e t he 1960s , t he l a t t e r be c om -i ng a cc ep ta bl e e ve n a mo ng s tr an ge rs u nd er s om e c ir cu ms ta nc es . S o, f or e xa mp le ,
Bandle e t a l. (2005: 1 63 1) r ep or t t ha t m an y D an es h ar dl y e ve r u se De a nymor e , a nd
t h a t i n t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , du h a d b e c o m e t h e u n m a r k e d f o r m o f
a d d r e s s i n N O ( B a n d l e e t a l . 2005: 1 5 9 5 ) .
A f u rt h er e l ab o ra t io n o f t h e p r on o un s y st e m i n c o nt i ne n ta l S c an d in a vi a n ( D A, S Wa n d B N b u t n o t N N ) i s t h e o n e i n v o l v i n g a b i f u r c a t i o n i n t h e t h i r d p e r s o n b e t w e e n a
( yours, ours) b u t n o t t h e a t t r i b u t i v e f o r m ( your , our ) a d d s a f i n a l - s, pr oba bl y m ode l l e d
on his. I n A pp al ac hi an E N, t he p re di ca te p os se ss iv es o f a ll p er so ns a nd n um be rs a re
f o r m e d w i t h - n ( yourn, hisn, ourn, e t c . ) ( T o o n 1982: 2 4 4 ) . S i m i l a r l y , F R , G E a n d A F
h av e d ev el op ed s pe ci al e nd in gs f or p re di ca ti ve p os se ss iv es ( in G E, l ar ge ly h om o-
p h on o us w it h s t ro n g a d je c ti v e e n di n gs ) :
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4 .8 .2 T he r ef er en ti al p r op er ti es o f p ro no un s
M o s t G M C l a n g u a g e s e x h i b i t a f o r m a l d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n r e f l e x i v e a n d n o n r e f l e x i v e
p r on o un s . I n G O ( 4 .1 5 4a ), ina ‘ h im ’ a n d im ‘ t he m ’ a r e p e rs o na l p r on o un s , w h il e sis
‘ h im s el f ’ i s a r e fl e xi v e.
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A s t h e E N g l o s s e s i n d i c a t e , t h o u g h , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n p r o h i b i t e d i n G O i s p e r f e c t l y
p os si bl e i n E N; p er so na l p ro no un s a re p os si bl e ( an d r ef le xi ve s a re n ot ) i n r ef er en ce
t o t he m ai n c la us e s ub je ct i n t he se c on st ru ct io ns i n E N. T he f ir st p ar am et er d iv id in g
t he G MC l an gu ag es , t he re fo re , i s w he th er a p ro no mi na l i n a n on fi ni te ( in fi ni ti ve o r
p a r t i c i p l e ) c l a u s e c a n b e c o r e f e r e n t w i t h t h e m a i n c l a u s e s u b j e c t . I C p a t t e r n s w i t h G O
i n d i sa l lo w in g t h e p e rs o na l p r on o un h e re a n d r eq u ir i ng t h e r e fl e xi v e, a s d o es M HG :
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O n t he o th er h an d, M od er n G E p at te rn s w it h E N. T he p ro no un i s p os si bl e i n s uc h
constructions.
I n t h e c o nt i ne n ta l S ca n di n av i an l a ng u ag e s t o o, a p e rs o na l p r on o un c a n r e fe r t o t h e
m a in c l au s e s u bj e ct f ro m w i th i n t h e i n fi n it i ve c l au s e.
S e c o n d , t h e r e i s v a r i a t i o n i n t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o w h e t h e r a p e r s o n a l
p r o n o u n o c c u r r i n g a s t h e o b j e c t o f a l o c a t i v e p r e p o s i t i o n c a n r e f e r t o t h e s u b j e c t o f i t s
c l a u s e o r n o t . I t a p p a r e n t l y c o u l d n o t i n G O , w h e r e a G r e e k p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n r e f e r r i n g
t o t h e s u bj e ct w as c o ns i st e nt l y t r an s la t ed a s a r ef l ex i ve :
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E N d oes al lo w th e p ers on al p ro no un h ere, a s i nd ic at ed b y th e g lo ss es o n t hes e
e x am p le s , a n d t h e r e fl e xi v e i s a t l e as t a w kw ar d h e re f o r s o me s p ea k er s . T h e m a jo r it yo f t he G MC l an gu ag es , h ow ev er , i nc lu di ng S ca nd in av ia n, G E a nd D U, p at te rn w it h
G O i n d i sa l lo w in g t h e p e rs o na l p r on o un h e re a n d r eq u ir i ng a r ef l ex i ve :
T he S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es a gr ee w it h G O h er e. P ro no mi na l p os se ss iv es c an no t
b e u se d i n i nt en de d r ef er en ce t o t he c la us al s ub je ct , a nd r ef le xi ve p os se ss iv es m us t
b e u s ed i n st e ad w h er e s u ch c o re f er e nc e i s i n te n de d :
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O n t he o th er h an d, i n O E t he p ro no mi na l p os se ss iv e o cc ur ri ng i n a n on su bj ec t N P
c ou ld r ef er b ac k t o t he s ub je ct o f t he c la us e:
s u b j e c t , b u t o n l y i f t h e r e f l e x i v e i s i n s i d e a n a d v e r b i a l p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e – n o t i f i t i s
a d ir ec t o bj ec t, f or e xa mp le . T hi s i s s ho wn i n ( 4. 16 2a ):
No te th at th e p ers ona l p ro no un i s a ls o p os si ble i n t he se ca se s, s o t ha t th e u su al
c o mp l em e nt a ri t y b e tw ee n r e fl e xi v es a n d p e rs o na l p r on o un s a g ai n b r ea k s d o wn h e re .
H ow ev er , a s t hi s e xa mp le s ho ws , o nl y zich, n o t zichzelf , c a n b e u s e d t o r e f e r t o t h e
m ai n c la us e s ub je ct . E ve ra er t (1991: 8 0) , a s w el l a s o th er s, e xp re ss es t he v ie w t ha to n ly m o rp h ol o gi c al l y s i mp l e a n ap h or s c a n s e rv e a s L D -a n ap h or s . T h is i s c o ns i st e nt
w it h t h e o b se rv a ti o n t h at r e ci p ro c al s l i ke e a c h o t he r a r e u n if o rm l y S D a n ap h or s .
T h f l l i l l d h l i h lf b i h
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T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e w o u l d s e e m t o s u g g e s t t h a t , c o n v e r s e l y , zichzelf b u t n o t zich
c a n b e a S D a n a p h o r , r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s u b j e c t o f i t s o w n c l a u s e .
I n f a c t t h i s i s n o t q u i t e c o r r e c t , a s E v e r a e r t p o i n t s o u t . I n c a s e s l i k e t h i s , w h e r e t h e v e r b
i s s em an ti ca ll y t ra ns it iv e, w it h b ot h a s ub je ct a nd a n o bj ec t a rg um en t, o nl y zichzelf i s a l l ow e d. H ow eve r , zich d oe s o c cu r a s t h e r e fl e xi v e o b je c t o f “ i nh e re n tl y r e fl e xi v e
v er bs ” – t ha t i s, v er bs w it h n on -t ra ns it iv e m ea ni ng s w hi ch t ak e s em an ti ca ll y e mp ty
r ef l ex i ve o b je c ts a s a p u re l y g r am m at i ca l r e qu i re m en t . Zichzelf i s n ot a ll ow ed h er e.
s im pl e c la us e c on t ai ni ng i t i f i t i s t he t he ma ti c o bj ec t o f t he v er b a nd t he s ub je ct i s t he
a ge nt o f t ha t v erb . I t c an o nl y r ef er b ac k t o t he s ub jec t i f t he t wo a re s em an ti c a rg um ent s o f
s ep ar at e v er bs , a s i n t he L D c as e, o r i f t he r ef le xi ve i s n ot a ss oc ia te d w it h a s em an ti c
a r gum ent r ole a t a l l ( c f . E ve ra er t 1986, 1991, i n w hic h t hes e r e st r ic t ions a re i m pl e me nte d
i n di f f e r e nt w a ys ) . T he r e a r e s om e c a s e s i n w hi c h e i t he r zich or zichzelf can occur.
T he se c an b e a cc om mo da te d b y a ss um in g t ha t D U h as b ot h a t ra ns it iv e v er b ‘ wa sh ’,
w ho se o bj ec t c an b e a r ef le xi ve zichzelf , a nd a n i nh er en tl y r ef le xi ve , s em an ti ca ll y
i n tr an s it i ve v e rb ‘ wa s h’ , w h ic h c o -o c cu r s w i th zich. C om pa re t he t wo E N g lo ss es t o
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t he s e e xa mpl e s .28
I t i s a l s o zich, n o t zichzelf , w hi ch o cc ur s a s a c om pl em en t t o l oc at iv e p re po si ti on s i n D U.
N o t e a g a i n t h a t t h i s i s a m o n g t h e m a r k e d c o n t e x t s f o r r e f l e x i v e s ; E N p r e f e r s p r o n o u n s
h e r e , a n d D U a l l o w s t h e m , s o t h i s i s a g a i n a c o n t e x t w h e r e t h e u s u a l c o m p l e m e n t a r i t y
b e tw e en p r on o un s a n d r ef l ex i ve s b r ea k s d o wn .
I n s u m m a r y , t h e n D U i s a “ t w o - r e f l e x i v e l a n g u a g e ” ; t h e t w o f o r m s h a v e i n c o m m o n
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y d e p e n d o n a p r e c e d i n g n o m i n a l p h r a s e f o r t h e i r r e f e r e n c e . T h e y d i f f e r
i n t e r m s o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h a t a n t e c e d e n t , h o w e v e r . Zich c a n r e f e r b a c k t o i t f r o m
w i t h i n a n i n f i n i t i v e c l a u s e , o r a l o c a t i v e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e ( i n b o t h o f w h i c h c o n t e x t sl i b l ) A b j f l i P P d i b j i
(Everaert 1980: 2 1) . S tr ik in gl y, h ow ev er , t he D U t wo -r ef le xi ve s ys te m c on ve rg es
wit h t hat o f o th er GM C l an gu ag es . Vi kn er (1985) o bse rv es t hat DA m ai nta in s a
di s t inc t ion be t we e n sig and s ig s el v w hi ch o ve rl ap s w it h t he d is ti nc ti on i n D U t o
a s ur pr is in g e xt en t. O nl y sig i s a LD anaphor, capable of referring back to the
m a in c l au s e s u bj e ct f ro m w it h in a n i n fi n it i ve c l au s e. S i g s el v m u s t r e f e r t o t h e c l o s e r
subject:
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T a ra l ds e n (1996) r ep or ts s im il ar f ac ts f or I C. Sja $l fa s ig m us t b e u sed to ref er b ack
t o t he s ub je ct o f i ts o wn c la us e, a s i n ( 4. 16 4a ), b ut sig b y i t s e l f c a n r e f e r b a c k t o t h e
s u bj e ct o f t h e m a in c l au s e f ro m w i th i n a n a c cu s at i ve w i th i n fi n it i ve c o ns t ru c ti o n:
DA sig c a n , l i k e D U zich, t a k e t h e s u b j e c t o f i t s o w n c l a u s e a s a n a n t e c e d e n t j u s t i n t h e
c as e o f i n he re n tl y r ef l ex i ve v e rb s :
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I n f ac t, p os si bl e e vi de nc e t ha t s uc h a t wo -r ef le xi ve s ys te m e xi st ed e ve n i n e ar ly
G M C m a y b e r e v e a l e d b y a c l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e f l e x i v e f o r m s i n
t h e G O t r an s la t io n s. T h e G O r ef l ex i ve sik / sis oc cur s s ys t em a t i ca l l y i nde pe nde nt l y of
t he G re ek u nd er t wo s et s o f c ir cu ms ta nc es . F ir st , i t i s u se d w he ne ve r t he G O t ex t
t ra ns la te s a G re ek ( no nr ef le xi ve ) m id dl e o r p as si ve v er b a s a n i nh er en tl y r ef le xi ve
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v er b. S uc h c as es a re v er y n um er ou s, i nc lu di ng s uc h v er bs a s g a wa s id a s i k ‘washed
( hi m s e l f ) ’ , u sh of s ik ‘rose’, u sh ah ai h s ik ‘ h an g ed h i ms e lf ’, a fs k ai s ka i du n s i k
‘departed’, a t n e hw i da s i k ‘approached’, i n m ai d id a s i k ‘ wa s t ra ns fi gu re d’ a nd s o o n.
I n t h e s e c a s e s , t h e r e f l e x i v e h a s n o c o u n t e r p a r t i n t h e G r e e k t e x t .
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( C f . a l s o L u k e 1 3 : 2 9 , P h i l . 1 : 1 7 ) . C o m p a r e t h e G O e x a m p l e w i t h t h e a n a l o g o u s c a s e i n
I C ( 4 . 1 6 4 b ) , w h e r e a n u n r e i n f o r c e d r e f l e x i v e i s a l s o u s e d . T h e e v i d e n c e o n t h e w h o l e ,
t h er ef o re , s u gg e st s t h at t h e t w o- re f le x iv e s y st e m w as p r es e nt i n e a rl y G M C.
4.8.2.3 V er y- lo n g - d is t a n ce a na p h o rs o r l o g o ph o r s ?I n a f ew G MC l an gu ag es , r ef le xi ve s a re e ve n a ll ow ed t o p ic k o ut a nt ec ed en ts o ut -
s i de of t he f i ni t e c l a us e c ont a i ni ng t he m , unde r s om e c i r c um s t a nc e s . T he s e “ t r ul y l ong-
d i st a nc e r ef l ex i ve s ,” a s T h rai ns so n (1991: 5 4) l ab el s t he m, h av e r ec ei ve d t he m os t
a t te n ti o n i n I C ( e. g ., T h rainsson 1991; S i gurðs s on 1986) , b u t a r e a l s o f o u n d i n F A :
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R at he r d if fe re nt f ro m t he se a re v er y- lo ng -d is ta nc e u se s o f -self r e fl ex iv es i n s om e
d i al e ct s o f E N , i n cl u di n g I ri s h E N , w h ic h w i ll b e d i sc u ss e d b e lo w .
I n m os t d ia le ct s o f I C, r ef le xi ve s w ho se a nt ec ed en ts o cc ur o ut si de t he m in im al
c la us e c on ta in in g t he m a re r es tr ic te d t o s ub ju nc ti ve c la us es : t he y c an no t o cc ur i n
S tr ik in gl y, t he r ef le xi ve b ec om es p os si bl e h er e i f t hi s s en te nc e i s m ad e i nt o t he
c om pl em en t o f a v er b o f s ay in g:
Thrai ns so n (1991: 5 6) an d o the rs (e. g., M al in g 1984) note that the choice of
s ub ju nc ti ve o r i nd ic at iv e i n c om pl em en ts o f v er bs o f s pe ak in g a nd t hi nk in g i n I C ( as
e l s e w he r e i n G MC ) i s c ondi t i one d by poi nt - of - vi e w c ons i de r a t i ons . W he n i ndi c a t i ve i s
u s e d , t h e s p e a k e r i s i m p l y i n g t h a t s / h e b e l i e v e s i n t h e t r u t h o f t h e c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e ,w h er ea s w h en s / he u s es s u bj u nc t iv e , s / he i s r ep o rt i ng t h e o r ig i na l u t te r an c e f r om t h e
p o i n t o f v i e w o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o u t t e r e d i t , a n d t a k i n g n o p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
truth of the utterance. The use of the reflexive in these instances is held to be
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c o nd i ti o ne d b y “ p oi n t- o f- v ie w” c o ns i de ra t io n s o f a s i mi l ar s o rt . T h us , n o r e fl e xi v e i s
p o s s i b l e i n ( 4 . 1 7 0 e ) b e c a u s e i t c o n t a i n s n o r e p o r t o f J on ’ s s p e e c h o r t h o u g h t s , w h e r e a sJon ’ s s p e e c h i s b e i n g r e p o r t e d , f r o m h i s p o i n t o f v i e w , i n ( 4 . 1 7 0 f ) , a s s i g n a l e d b y b o t h
t h e s u bj u nc t iv e o f i n di r ec t d i sc o ur s e a n d t h e r e fl e xi v e.
I n t hi s r es pe ct , t he se u se s o f t he r ef le xi ve r es em bl e t he u se s o f “ lo go ph or ic p ro -
n ou ns ” s uc h a s t ho se f ou nd i n E we , a N ig er -C on go l an gu ag e ( Cl em en ts 1975) . E we
h as f or ms d is ti nc t f ro m b ot h t he s tr ic t r ef le xi ve s a nd t he p er so na l p ro no un s o f t ha tl an gu ag e w hi ch a re u se d “ to d is ti ng ui sh r ef er en ce t o t he i nd iv id ua l w ho se s pe ec h,
t ho ug ht s, o r f ee li ng s a re r ep or te d o r r ef le ct ed i n a g iv en l in gu is ti c c on te xt , f ro m
r e f e r e nc e t o ot he r i ndi vi dua l s ” ( C l e m e nt s 1975: 1 4 1 ) . C l e m e n t s n o t e s t h a t c o r e f e r e n c e
w it h t he se f or ms s ee ms t o i nv ol ve p ri ma ri ly s uc h d is co ur se n ot io ns a s p oi nt o f v ie w,
r at he r t ha n p ar ti cu la r s yn ta ct ic r eq ui re me nt s, s uc h a s s ub je ct a nt ec ed en ts . T hu s,
t h e l o go p ho r ye c an f or s om e s pe ak er s b e a nt ec ed ed b y Kofi i n ( 4 17 0g ) b ut n ot
a l on g t im e t ha t t he o cc ur re nc e o f l on g- di st an ce r ef le xi ve s i n I C i s a ls o l in ke d t o
p oi nt -o f- vi ew c on si de ra ti on s o f t hi s t yp e ( Th rainsson 1976b) , a nd t ha t i de nt if yi ng
t h e m a s l o g o p h o r s , r a t h e r t h a n a n a p h o r s , p r o v i d e s a b a s i s f o r a c c o u n t i n g f o r a n u m b e r
o f t h ei r p r op e rt i es . F o r e x am p le , l i ke t h e l o go p ho r s o f E w e, t h e l o ng - di s ta n ce r ef l ex -
i v e s o f I C i n f a c t n e e d n o t f i n d a n a n t e c e d e n t i n t h e s a m e s e n t e n c e a t a l l , b u t m a y p i c k
u p t h ei r r ef e re n ce f r om a d i sc o ur s e a n te ce d en t a s i n ( 4 .1 7 0h ) :
( C ompa r e a l s o B a ndle e t a l 2005: 1 5 8 1 f o r F A F o r d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r a t h e r
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( C ompa r e a l s o B a ndle e t a l . 2005: 1 5 8 1 f o r F A . F o r d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r a t h e r
c o mp l ex s e ma n ti c s o f l o go p ho r s, s e e S i gu r ðs s on 1986; S e l l s 1987.)
F or I C, t ho ug h, t hi s c an no t b e t he w ho le s to ry . W hi le t he “ tr ul y l on g- di st an ce ”
r e f l e x i v e s o f I C ( l i k e t h e l o g o p h o r s o f E w e ) n e e d n o t h a v e a n a n t e c e d e n t i n t h e s a m e
s e n t e n c e a t a l l ( a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e n o t a n a p h o r s a t a l l , i n t h e s e n s e d e f i n e d a b o v e ) , w h e n
t he y d o h av e a n a nt ec ed en t i n t he s am e s en te nc e, t ha t a nt ec ed en t h as t o m ee t s om e
s yn ta ct ic r eq ui re me nt s, i n a dd it io n t o r ep re se nt in g t he o ri gi na to r o f t he s pe ec h o r
t h ou g ht s . I n p a rt i cu l ar , w he n t h ey h a ve a n te c ed e nt s w i th i n t h e s e nt e nc e , t h e a n te c e-
d en ts o f s uc h r ef le xi ve s i n I C ( un li ke t he l og op ho r o f E we ) m us t b e s ub je ct s. S om e
i nve st i ga tor s ( e . g. , C l e me nt s 1975; M al in g 1984) h av e p os it ed t ha t s uc h r es tr ic ti on s
r ep r es e nt a p a rt i al g r am m at i ci z at i on o f I C l o go p ho r s.
R ef le xi ve p ro no un s w it ho ut a nt ec ed en ts a ls o o cc ur i n s om e d ia le ct s o f E N – m os t
n ot ab l y i n I ri sh a nd H eb ri de an E N ( Fi lp pu la 1999: 8 0ff .) – u su al ly i n c as es w he re t he y a re
4.9 T he e x te r na l s yn ta x o f n ou n p h r as es : s ub je c ts
I n k e ep i ng w i th t h e f u nd a me n ta l ly d e sc ri p ti v e p u rp o se o f t h is v o lu m e, I w i ll s i de s te p
h e r e a n u m b e r o f t h o r n y i s s u e s h a v i n g t o d o w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n “ s u b j e c t , ”
a nd w il l r el y t o a c on si de ra bl e e xt en t o n t he r ea de r’ s i nt ui ti on s. E ve n p ic ki ng o ut t he
s u bj e ct s o f p a rt i cu l ar s e nt e nc es i s o c ca s io n al l y p r ob l em a ti c . I n e x pe ri e nc e r c o ns t ru c -
t io ns li ke t he f ol lo wi ng , f or ex amp le, t here is a m is mat ch b et ween th e “ co di ng
p r op e rt i es ” o f t h e u n de r sc o re d n o mi n al s , s u ch a s c a se a n d t h ei r ( i n) ab i li t y t o c o nt r ol
v er b a gr ee me nt o n t he o ne h an d, a nd t he ir s yn ta ct ic “ be ha vi or al p ro pe rt ie s” o n t he
o t he r . T h es e c a se s a re d i sc u ss e d i n S e ct i on 4.1.2.4.2:
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Q ue st io ns a ls o a ri se a bo ut w he th er o ne o r t he o th er o f t he u nd er sc or ed n om in al s i n
s uc h “ tr an si ti ve e xp le ti ve c on st ru ct io ns ” a s ( 4. 17 2) , o r b ot h, a re t o b e c ou nt ed a s
s u bj e ct s . T h es e c a se s w i ll b e t r ea t ed i n S e ct i on 4.9.2.2.
4 .9 .1 S ub je ct a gr ee me nt
4.9.1.1 A g re e me n t b e tw e en s u b je c t a n d v er b
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T he re w er e o ri gi na ll y d is ti nc t s uf fi xe s f or e ac h p er so n/ nu mb er c om bi na ti on.H o w e v e r , r e d u c t i o n o f f i n a l s y l l a b l e s h a d l e d t o s o m e s y n c r e t i s m e v e n i n t h e e a r l i e s t
GMC:
T he o ve ra ll t en de nc y h as b ee n t ow ar d f ur th er s yn cr et is m. A t o ne e nd o f t he
I n t h e N o r t h G M C l a n g u a g e s , t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s e c o n d a n d t h i r d p e r s o n i n t h e
s in gu la r h as b ee n e ra se d i n m os t c la ss es o f v er bs b y e xt en di ng t he h is to ri ca l s ec on d
p e rs o n e n di n g t o t h e t h ir d p e rs o n.29 T h u s , I C h a s :
T hi s i s l ik el y t he s ou rc e o f E N t hi rd p er so n -s as w el l, w hi ch a ro se i n t ho se p ar ts o f
E ng la nd s ub je ct t o N or se i nf lu en ce ; i n S he tl an ds E N, w hi ch w as u nd er p ar ti cu la rl y
s t r o n g N o r s e i n f l u e n c e , b o t h s e c o n d a n d t h i r d p e r s o n i n t h e s i n g u l a r t a k e t h e e n d i n g - s
( R ober t s on a nd G r a ha m 1991: 9 ) .M o d e r n H i g h G E a n d Y I h a v e n e u t r a l i z e d t h e c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n f i r s t a n d t h i r d p e r s o n
p lu ra l v er b e nd in gs . I n t he N or th S ea s ub gr ou p o f W es t G MC , p er so n d is ti nc ti on s i n
t h e p l u r a l h a v e b e e n l e v e l e d o u t i n a l l t e n s e s a n d m o o d s f r o m t h e t i m e o f t h e e a r l i e s t
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a tt es ta ti on , b y e xt en di ng t he h is to ri ca l t hi rd p er so n p lu ra l a ff ix t o t he o th er p er so ns .
T h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s i s s t i l l p r e s e r v e d f o r t h e m o s t p a r t i n M o d e r n D U :
No te he re t hat t her e i s al so p art ial c on fla tio n o f s eco nd a nd t hi rd p ers on s in th e
s in gu la r a s w el l. H ow ev er , a c on tr as t r e- em er ge s i n q ue st io n o rd er , i n w hi ch t he
s u b j e c t f o l l o w s t h e v e r b . O t h e r l a n g u a g e s i n t h i s s u b g r o u p h a v e p r o g r e s s e d s t i l l f a r t h e r
i n t he d ir ec ti on o f e li mi na ti on o f e nd in gs . E N h as n ow o nl y t he i so la te d -s o f t hi rd
p er so n s in gu la r. R ed uc ti on o f t he p ar ad ig m h as b ee n c ar ri ed s ti ll f ur th er i n m od er n
c o nt i ne n ta l S c an d in a vi a n w h er e t h e -r s u ff ix h as b ee n g en er al iz ed t hr ou gh ou t t he
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A s t he se e xa mp le s s ho w, i n e ar li er G MC , w he n a c on jo in ed s ub je ct a pp ea re d p re -
v er ba ll y, t he v er b s ta nd ar dl y e xh ib it ed d ua l o r p lu ra l a gr ee me nt , b ut w he n t he c on -
joined subject appeared postverbally, the verb standardly showed singular agreement,t h ou g h t h er e a re e x ce p ti o ns i n b o th d i re ct i on s :
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This pattern is also found in Modern IC, as in (4.174h), and it may survive
v e st i gi a ll y i n c o ll o qu i al E N p r es e nt a ti o na l c o ns t ru c ti o ns s u ch a s ( 4 .1 7 4i ) :
S o me t im e s, p l ur a l s u bj e ct s f o ll o wi n g t h e v e rb f ai l t o c o nt r ol v e rb a g re e me n t e v en
w h e n t h e y d o n o t c o n s i s t o f c o n j o i n e d s i n g u l a r s ( B a n d l e e t a l. 2002: 9 4 2 ) .
F in al ly , i n a t l ea st o ne i ns ta nc e a n a gr ee me nt a sy mm et ry d ep en ds o n c at eg or ia l
p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s u b j e c t ; I r i s h E N ( F i l p p u l a 2004: 88) , A ppa l a c hi a n E N ( Mont gom e r y
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T h e o t he r G MC l a ng u ag e s d o n o t i n g e ne r al a l lo w d r op p in g o f r e fe r en t ia l s u bj e ct s ,
a s ( 4. 18 0c ) f ro m M od er n E N s ho ws . T hi s e ve n s ee ms t o h av e b ee n t he c as e i n t he
a r ch a ic l a ng u ag e o f t h e o l de r r u ni c i n sc r ip t io n s ( An t on s en 1981: 5 3 ) .
R e fe r en t ia l s u bj e ct s c a n b e o m it t ed t o v a ry i ng d e gr ee s i n h i gh l y r es t ri c te d c o nt e xt s
i f h l h h i d i f h i i b j i l i l
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i n s om e o f t he se l an gu ag es , w he re t he i de nt it y o f t he m is si ng s ub je ct i s s al ie nt ly
r ec ov er ab le f ro m t he d is co ur se c on te xt . S o, f or e xa mp le , M od er n E N a ll ow s “ di ar yd ro p” – o mi ss io n o f f ir st p er so n p ro no un s f ro m i ni ti al p os it io ns i n m ai n c la us es – i n
c er ta in t yp es o f d is co ur se . G E a ll ow s o mi ss io n o f s ec on d p er so n s in gu la r p ro no un s
u n de r c o mp a ra b le c i rc u ms t an c es ( P ri n ce 1997: 1 6) , F R a ll ow s o mi ss io n o f s ec on d
p e rs o n s u bj e ct s ( H oe k st r a 1997: 1 39 ) an d YI a ll ows o mis si on o f p ro no un s o f an y
p e rs o n a n d n u mb e r f ro m c l au s e- i ni t ia l p o si t io n i f t h ey a r e d i sc o ur s e- s al i en t ( J ac o bse t a l. 1994: 4 0 8 ; P r i n c e 1997: 3 ) .
O l G O h ll d ll b j t t b i tt d i ll t t i
G O/ Mo de rn E N c on tr as t, b ut b re ak s d ow n e ls ew er e; e ar ly O HG , f or e xa mp le , a s
r ep r es e nt e d i n t h e I s id o r t r an s la t io n , i s n o t a r ef e re n ti a l p r o- d ro p l a ng u ag e . T h e L a ti n
m od el f or t ra ns la ti on r ou ti ne ly o mi ts s ub je ct p ro no un s, b ut t he O HG t ra ns la ti on
s ys te ma ti ca ll y r es to re s t he m. S o, f or e xa mp le , o ve rt p ro no un s a re s up pl ie d i n t he
O HG v er si on i n f or ty -s ev en i ns ta nc es o f c la us es w it h f ir st p er so n s in gu la r s ub je ct s,
t ho ug h i n t he L at in t ex t t he y a re a lm os t a ll u ne xp re ss ed . T hi s d if fe re nc e f ro m G O i s
n o t a t tr i bu t ab l e t o r e la t iv e r i ch n es s o f s u bj e ct - ve rb a g re e me n t, h o we v er . G O a g re e -
m en t m or ph ol og y i s n ot r ic he r i n a ny p la us ib ly r el ev an t s en se t ha n t he O HG o f t he
I s i d o r t r a n s l a t i o n , a s a c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e p a r a d i g m s i n ( 4 . 1 7 3 a ) a n d ( 4 . 1 7 3 e ) i n d i c a t e s .
T h e O H G p a r a d i g m s a r e a s r i c h a s t h o s e o f G O i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e r e i s a d i s t i n c t v e r ba g re e me n t e n di n g f o r e ac h p e rs o n/ n um b er d i st i nc t io n e x pr e ss e d i n t h e ( p ro ) no m in a l
s y s t e m . I n f a c t , i t i s i n t h i s s e n s e s o m e w h a t r i c h e r t h a n G O , h a v i n g s i x d i s t i n c t e n d i n g s
i n t he p re se nt s in gu la r a nd p lu ra l, r at he r t ha n o nl y f iv e. T he s am e q ue st io n a ri se s f or
su ch m od ern GMC l an gu age s a s IC an d GE as wel l; wh y are t he y n ot p ro dr op
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su ch m od ern GMC l an gu age s a s IC an d GE as wel l; wh y are t he y n ot p ro -dr op
l an gu ag es , i n s pi te o f h av in g a gr ee me nt m or ph ol og y w hi ch i s a t l ea st a s r ic h a s t ha to f S p a n i s h , f o r e x a m p l e ? J a e g g l i a n d S a f i r (1989) , R o h r b a c h e r (1994) a n d o t h e r s c l a i m
t h a t t h i s i s b e c a u s e r i c h m o r p h o l o g y i s o n l y a n e c e s s a r y , n o t a s u f f i c i e n t , c o n d i t i o n f o r
s t r o n g p r o - d r o p ; i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t o f r i c h a g r e e m e n t , t h e r e
a r e s y n t a c t i c r e s t r i c t i o n s o n t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f r e f e r e n t i a l n u l l p r o n o u n s w h i c h G E a n d
I C f a i l t o s a t i s f y . T h e i r f a i l u r e t o d o s o i s c o n n e c t e d i n t h e s e a n a l y s e s w i t h y e t a n o t h e r
o f t h e i r s a l i e n t s y n t a c t i c p r o p e r t i e s – t h e V - 2 p r o p e r t y . M o d e r n G E a n d I C d i f f e r f r o m
S p a n i s h a n d G O i n t h a t v e r b s i n m a i n c l a u s e s i n t h e f o r m e r l a n g u a g e s o c c u r s y s t e m a t -
i c a l l y i n s e c o n d p o s i t i o n , a n d t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h i s p r o p e r t y w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
p ro -d ro p i s h el d t o p re cl ud e t he o cc ur re nc e o f p ro -d ro p i n t he f or me r. F or d et ai ls o n
h o w t h e s e i d e a s a r e i m p l e m e n t e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y , s e e t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n V a n c e 1996. I t i s
a r gue d i n H a r be r t 1999 h o w e v e r t h a t t h e c l a i m e d a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n V - 2 s y n t a x a n d
m ar ke r, b ut i n r el at iv el y a gr ee me nt -r ic h I C, i t p re ce de s. E N a ls o l ac ks b ot h r ic h
a gr ee m e nt a nd V - t o- I m ove me nt .
J on as (1996a) n ot es t ha t F A, i nt er me di at e i n r ic hn es s b et we en I C a nd D A, h as o ne
d i al ec t w it ho ut V -t o- I a nd a no th er i n w hi ch i t i s o p ti on al . I de nt if yi ng a d ef in i te c ro s s-
l i nguis t ic a ll y va li d “ t hr es hhol d” of m orphol ogi c al r i chnes s f or t his purpose ha s pr ove d
e l us i ve , t hough ( s ee V i kne r 1995; T h r ainsson 1996; J o n a s 1996a f or di s cus si on) .
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4 .9 .2 T he t yp ol og y a n d d i st ri bu ti on o f “ e xp le ti ve ” a r gu me nt s
A s s e e n i n t h e p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n , G O a n d M o d e r n E N r e p r e s e n t o p p o s i t e v a l u e s o f t h e
“ p ro - dr o p p a ra m et e r. ” G O o m it s a r gu m en t al s u bj e ct s f re e ly w h il e E N r eq u ir e s o v er t
s ub jec ts i n fi nit e cl au ses . T he t wo a re a lso a t op po si te po le s wi th r es pect t o th e
r ep re se nt at io n o f e xp le ti ve , o r d um my , s ub je ct s. I n E N, a ll c la us es m us t h av e o ve rts u b j e c t s , a n d w h e r e t h a t r o l e i s n o t a s s u m e d b y a r e f e r e n t i a l p h r a s e , i t m u s t b e a s s u m e d
b y a “ d u m m y , ” o r p l a c e h o l d e r e l e m e n t . I n f a c t , E N h a s t w o s u c h “ p l a c e h o l d e r ” f o r m s :
it , w hi c h a ppe a r s i n e xt r a pos i t i on c ons t r uc t i ons a nd i n m e t e or ol ogi c a l e xpr e s s i ons , a nd
there, w hi ch a ppe ar s i n pr e se nt a ti ona l c ons tr uc ti ons .
T h e r ep r es e nt a ti o n o r n o nr ep r es e nt a ti o n o f s u ch e l em e nt s i s o f te n t r ea t ed t o ge t he r
w i t h t he om i s si bi l it y or i nom is s i bil i t y of r e f er e nti a l s ubj ec t s , a s a not he r m a ni fe s t at i on
o f p ar am et ri c v ar ia ti on i n p ro -d ro p. A nd i nd ee d, t he re s ee ms t o b e s om e b as is f or
c l a i m i n g t h a t t h e y a r e t y p o l o g i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d i n s o m e w a y . W h i l e t h e r e a r e l a n g u a g e s
w h i c h d o n o t a l l o w o m i s s i o n o f r e f e r e n t i a l s u b j e c t s b u t w h i c h d o a l l o w t h e o m i s s i o n o f
s uc h pl a c e hol de r e l e m e nt s unde r s om e c i r c um s t a nc e s ( e . g. , O l d a nd Mode r n G E ) , t he r e
a re n o l a ng u ag e s w h ic h a l lo w r e fe r en t ia l p r o- d ro p b u t r eq u ir e o v er t e x pl e ti v es . T h is
s u gg e st s a n i m pl i ca t io n al r e la t io n sh i p o f s o me s o rt , a n d m a ny r e ce n t t h eo r ie s o f p r o-
d r o p a r e d e s i g n e d t o y i e l d s u c h a r e s u l t , b y p r o p o s i n g o n e s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h m u s t
b l l d l l d il l i f i f h
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be m et t o al lo w a ny p ro -d ro p a t al l, an d a st il l st ri ct er se t o f re qu ir em en ts f or t he
om i s s i on of r e f e r e nt i a l s ubj e c t s . S uc h t w o- pa r t pa r a m e t e r s yi e l d a t hr e e f ol d c l a s s i f i c a -
t io n o f p ro -d ro p l an gu ag es – s tr on g p ro -d ro p l an gu ag es l ik e G O, w hi ch a ll ow b ot h
m i s s ing e xpl et i ve s a nd m i s s ing r e f er e nti a l s ubj ec t s , non- pr o- drop l a ngua ge s , l i ke E N ,
i n w hi c h bot h t ype s of s ubj e c t s m us t be ove r t , a nd a t hi r d s e t , w hi c h w e m a y c ha r a c t e r i z e
a s w e a k - p r o - d r o p l a n g u a g e s , s u c h a s O l d a n d M o d e r n G E a n d m u c h o f t h e r e s t o f G M C ,
w hi c h a l l ow e xpl e t i ve s ubj e c t s , a nd onl y t hos e , t o be m i s s i ng unde r s om e c i r c um s t a nc e s .A c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n o f e x p l e t i v e s i n t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s , h o w e v e r , d e m o n s t r a t e s a
r an g e o f v a ri a ti o n i n t y pe a n d c o nd i ti o ns f o r o c cu r re n ce t h at l a rg e ly n e ga t es a s i mp l e
t yp ol og y o f t hi s s or t. I n t he f ol lo wi ng , I w il l s ke tc h a r at he r d if fe re nt t yp ol og y o f
e xp le ti ve s ub je ct s, b as ed l ar ge ly o n t he d et ai le d a nd c om pr eh en si ve d is cu ss io n o f
Vikner 1995 – e s p e c i a l l y c h a p t e r s 6 a n d 7 . T h e t y p o l o g y i n q u e s t i o n i n v o l v e s t w o m a i n
“ C l aus a l s ubj ec t e xt ra pos it i on c ons tr uc ti ons ”:
Meteorological constructions:
L ey s p oi nt s o ut , t ho ug h, t ha t t hi s l is t o f c as es c an b e d iv id ed i nt o t wo d is ti nc t g ro up s
o n t he b as is o f t wo a pp ar en tl y i nd ep en de nt c on si de ra ti on s. O n t he o ne h an d, s om e o f
t h es e i n st a nc e s o f es p e rs is t e ve n w he n t he y a re n on -i ni ti al – f or e xa mp le , w he n t he y
a re i n s ub or di na te c la us es , o r w he n t he s en te nc e b eg in s w it h a t op ic . T hi s i s t he c as e
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, g p
w i t h t he c l a us a l s ubj ec t e xt ra pos it i on es a nd t he m e t er ol ogi c a l es :
L ey s n ot es f ur th er t ha t t he t wo t yp es o f es – t h os e w h ic h d i sa p pe ar w h en n o n- i ni t ia l
a n d t h o s e w h i c h d o n o t – h a v e d i f f e r e n t t r a n s l a t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t s i n ( M o d e r n S t a n d a r d )
D U. T h e f o rm e r t r an s la t e a s er , w hi le t he l at te r t ra ns la te a s het :
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n on -an ap ho ri c, as i n t he c as e o f “ weat her -i t,” wh ic h ha s g en eral s it uat io na l
( “u mw el tb ez og en ”) r ef er en ce . A s im il ar d is ti nc ti on i s a rg ue d f or i n V ik ne r 1995:
c h . 6 , w h o c h ar ac t er i ze s t h e es2 t y p e a s “ q ua s i- ar g um e nt s ,” f o ll o wi n g C h om s ky , a n d
p ro po se s, a s d oe s L ey s, t ha t t he y a re s im pl y p ro no un s a ss ig ne d a s em an ti c r ol e b y
t he v er b.E xt en di ng t hi s d is ti nc ti on a cr os s t he f am il y p ro vi de s u s w it h a f ir st p ar am et er o f
v ar ia ti on i n G MC e xp le ti ve s. S om e G MC l an gu ag es , l ik e E N a nd s ta nd ar d D U,
d is ti ng ui sh f or ma ll y b et we en t he t wo t yp es , h av in g b ot h o ve rt ‘ it ’- ty pe q ua si -a rg u-
m en ts a nd ‘ th er e’ -t yp e e xp le ti ve s. H er e a s w el l g oe s D A, w hi ch u se s der as a true
e xpl et i ve a nd det i n qua s i- a r gum e nt r ol e s:
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S W, o n t he o th er h an d, i s of t he s in gl e-f or m t yp e, u si ng det a s t he t ra ns la ti on al
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G O a nd O HG b el on g i n t hi s c at eg or y t oo , i n a t ri vi al w ay ; t he y f ai l t o d is ti ng ui shb et we en t he t wo t yp es o f e xp le ti ve p ro no un s b y v ir tu e o f h av in g n o o ve rt e xp le ti ve
p r on o un s a t a l l.
T he s it ua ti on i n G E i s s li gh tl y d if fe re nt . G E u se s es i n b ot h f un ct io ns , b ut t he t wo
c an b e t ol d a pa rt i n t ha t t he p ur e e xp le ti ve es ( r e qu i re d w h en s e nt e nc e i n it i al ) d i sa p -
p ea rs w he n t he c on di ti on s f or i ts o cc ur re nc e a re n ot m et , b ut t he w ea th er -es a nd t heextraposition-es d o n o t s i m i l a r l y a l t e r n a t e w i t h z e r o . M o d e r n D U w a s a l s o o f t h i s s o r t
u nt il t he s ev en te en th c en tu ry , u si ng het i n i m pe rs o na l p a ss i ve s a n d p r es e nt a ti o na l
s e n t e n c e s , a s w e l l a s i n e x t r a p o s i t i o n c o n s t r u c t i o n s , i n w h i c h u s e s i t w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y
r e pla c e d by er . ( L ey s n o te s t h at t h e e a rl i er s i tu a ti o n s t il l p e rs i st s i n W es t F l em i sh . )
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S im il ar v ar ia bi li ty i n t he o mi ss ib il it y o f e xt ra po si ti on ‘ it ’ ( wh ic h w as o ve rt e ve n i n
s om e e ar ly G MC l an gu ag es , s uc h a s O E a nd O N) i s n ot ed i n F aa rl un d 1990: 7 2 a n d
Vikner 1995: 2 2 6 .
F in al ly , V ik ne r (1995: 2 29 ) p oi nt s o ut t hat , in s om e GM C l an gu ag es , t her e are
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c e rt a i n c onte xt s i n w hi ch e xple t i ves a nd ( e xtr a posi t i on) qua s i - a rgum ent s ove rl a p, a ndw h e r e e i t h e r i s p o s s i b l e . F o r e x a m p l e , i t i s p o s s i b l e i n D A a n d i n D U , b u t n o t i n E N .
S u ch a l te r na t io n s a re c o ns i de r ed a t s u bs t an t ia l l e ng t h b y V i kn e r (1995: c h . 7 ) .
I C a ll ows e xcep ti on s t o t he d efi nit en ess eff ect wi th u na ccu sat iv e v er bs (s ee
Section 4.9.4.1.2.5) , b ut n ot w it h t ra ns it iv e v er bs .
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I n G E, o n t he o th er h an d, t he d ef in it en es s e ff ec t i s a bs en t e ve n w it h t ra ns it iv e v er bs .
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T he i nd ep en de nc e o f t he se f ro m t he G re ek m od el c an n ot b e e st ab li sh ed . O E e mp lo ysmid , þurh, fram, w hi c h w e r e s uppl a nt e d by of/by i n ME ( V i s s e r 1963: 2176ff.). Modern
E N , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t , u s e s by, w i t hout r e ga r d t o t he s e m a nt i c r ol e of t he l ogi c a l s ubj e c t .
Standard GE, prescriptively at least, distinguishes between von f or l ogi c al s ubj e ct s w i th
a ge nt a nd e xp er ie nc er r ol es , durch f or l og ic al s ub je ct s w it h i ns tr um en ta l r ol es o r
s ec onda ry a gent r ole s , a nd mit f or l ogi c al s ubje c ts w it h i ns tr um ent al r ole s .
D U , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , u s e s door f or a g en t s a s w el l a s i n st r um e nt s .
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C o nt i ne n ta l S ca n di n av i an u s es av/af , a ga in w it ho ut a pp ar en t s en si ti vi ty t o t he
s em an ti c r ol e o f t he s ub je ct . I C a ls o u se s af (Sigurðsson 1989: 2 68 ), t ho ug h a ge nt s
a re o nl y r ar el y e xp re ss ed i n p as si ve s en te nc es , s in ce p as si ve s a re g en er al ly u se d i n
o r de r t o l e av e t h e a c to r u n ex p re s se d ( K re s s 1982: 1 5 0 ; B a n d l e e t a l. 2002: 9 4 3 ) .32
4.9.4.1.2 P a ss i ve v o ic e a n d a r gu m en t s t r u c tu r e I n t h e c a no n ic al i n st a nc e, r e pr e-
s e n t e d i n e x a m p l e s ( 4 2 0 0 a b ) a b o v e t h e p r e d i c a t e o f a p a s s i v e s e n t e n c e i s a t r a n s i t i v e
p r ep o si t io n i n t h e c o rr es p on d in g p a ss i ve s e nt e nc e . H o we v er , i n di v id u al l a ng u ag e s
e x hi b it a m o re e x te n si v e r an g e o f c o rr e sp o nd e nc e s.
4.9.4.1.2.1 P a s s ives o f d i t r a n si t i ve s en ten ces P a ir s o f s e nt e nc e s l i k e t h e f o l l ow in g
m i g h t g i v e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e f o r a ( p r e p o s i t i o n a l l y m a r k e d ) i n d i r e c to bj ec t i n an act iv e se nte nce to c orre sp on d to th e s ub je ct o f t he rel ate d p ass iv e
sentence.
T hi s a pp ea ra nc e i s i ll us or y, h ow ev er . I n E N, s uc h “ in di re ct p as si ve s” a re l im it ed t ot h os e d i tr an s it i ve v e rb s w h ic h c a n a l te rn a ti v el y p a rt i ci p at e i n d o ub l e o b je c t c o ns t ru c -
t io ns ( DO Cs ) s uc h a s ( 4. 20 2b ). T hu s, donate al lo ws n ei th er t he D OC n or i nd ir ec t
pa s s ive s ( 4. 202c ) ( s e e S e c t i on 4.1.2.3.1).
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S im il ar ly , N O h as b ot h D OC s a nd i nd ir ec t p as si ve s ( as d o D A, w it h r es tr ic ti on s
( A l l a n e t a l . 1995: 3 0 6 , 3 1 5 ) a n d S W ( H o l m e s a n d H i n c h c l i f f e 1994 : 4 9 7 ; H e r s l u n d
1986)).33
T he i mp li ca ti on al r el at io ns hi p b et we en D OC s a nd i nd ir ec t p as si ve s h ol ds i n o ne
d ir ec ti on o nl y, t ho ug h. I n D A, f or e xa mp le , n ot a ll a ct iv e d ou bl e o bj ec t s en te nc es
c or re s pond t o w e l l- f orm e d i ndi re c t pa s s ive s :
S im il ar ly , F R a nd D U h av e D OC s b ut n o i nd ir ec t p as si ve s ( Ti er sm a 1999: 94 , 1 01 ;
Donaldson 1981: 1 6 3 ) .
I n l a ng u ag e s s u ch a s I C , w h ic h m a in t ai n a n a c cu s at i ve / da t iv e c a se d i st i nc t io n , t h e
t wo o b je c ts a r e d i ff e re n tl y m a rk e d. T h e I O r e ce i ve s d a ti v e c a se .
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I n I C p a ss i ve s e nt e nc e s i n vo l vi n g s u ch d i tr an s it i ve v e rb s , e i th e r o b je c t c an a p pe a r i n
clause-initial position.
T h e r e i s a l s o a c e r t a i n d e g r e e o f v a r i a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o w h e t h e r t h e s e c o n d o b j e c t
i n D OC s c an b e m ad e s ub je ct o f t he c or re sp on di ng p as si ve s en te nc es . W hi le s om e
s pe ak er s o f E N a dm it s en te nc es l ik e ( 4. 20 3e ), o th er s d o n ot . S pr ou se (1989: 255)
c h a r a c t e r i z e s i t a s a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n A m e r i c a n a n d B r i t i s h E N .34 F or a n i nt e r e s t i ng
a n al y si s o f t h is d i ff er e nc e, s e e D r ye r 1986: 8 3 2f f.
4.9.4.1.2.2 P r ep o si t i o na l p a s si ves E N a nd c on ti ne nt al S ca nd in av ia n ( ex cl ud in g
D A , V i kne r 1995: 2 4 6 ) d e v i a t e f r o m t h e m a j o r i t y p a t t e r n i n G M C i n a l l o w i n g o b j e c t s
o f c e r t a i n p r e p o s i t i o n s i n a c t i v e s e n t e n c e s t o b e c o m e t h e s u b j e c t s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
i t
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pa s s ive s e nt enc e s.
I w il l r ef er t o t he se a s p re po si ti on al p as si ve s, r at he r t ha n a do pt t he w id es pr ea d b ut
i nf el i c it ous l a bel “ ps eudopas s i ve” f or t he m .
I n g e n e r a l , t h e p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e m u s t b e a c o m p l e m e n t o f t h e v e r b , r a t h e r t h a n a n
a dver bi al a dj unc t :
T he re i s c ro ss li ng ui st ic v ar ia ti on i n w he th er i t m us t a ls o b e a dj ac en t t o t he v er b:
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T h e s e s o r t s o f p a s s i v e s a r e n o t f o u n d e l s e w h e r e i n G M C , e v e n i n l a n g u a g e s ( I C , D A
a nd O E) w hi ch a ll ow p re po si ti on s tr an di ng i n o th er c on st ru ct io ns s uc h a s r el at iv e
c l a us e s a nd t opi ca l i za t i on c ons tr uc ti ons , f or e xa mpl e .35
T h e f a c t t h a t E N d i d n o t a d m i t s u c h p a s s i v e s u n t i l M E t i m e s , a f t e r i t h a d l o s t o b j e c t
c as e d is ti nc ti on s a nd d ev el op ed V O w or d o rd er , c ou pl ed w it h t he f ac t t ha t N O a nd
S W , w h i c h a l s o a l l o w p r e p o s i t i o n a l p a s s i v e s , a l s o e x h i b i t t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s , l e n d s s o m e
i ni ti al p la us ib il it y t o t he f re qu en t c la im t ha t t he se c ha ra ct er is ti cs a re t yp ol og ic al ly
c on ne ct ed t o t he p os si bi li ty o f p re po si ti on al p as si ve s t ho ug h a s D A d em on st ra te s
4.9.4.1.2.3 N o n - l oca l pa s s i ves I n a ll o f t he e xa mp le s t re at ed t o t hi s p oi nt , t he s ub je ct
o f t he p ass iv e cl au se i s a s em an ti c arg um en t o f th e v erb o f th e p as si ve c la use . I n
s en te nc es l ik e t he f ol lo wi ng , h ow ev er , t he s ub je ct o f t he p as si ve c la us e i s n ot u nd er st oo d
t o b e r el at ed s em an ti ca ll y t o t he v er b o f t ha t c la us e, b ut r at he r t o b e a n a rg um en t o f
t h e i n f i n i t i v a l v e r b . W h a t i s b e l i e v e d i s n o t “ h e ” b u t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n “ H e i s a l i a r ” .
I w il l r ef er t o t he se c as es , i n w hi ch t he s ub je ct o f a p as si ve v er b i n a m ai n c la us e i s
u n d e r s t o o d t o b e a s e m a n t i c a r g u m e n t o f t h e v e r b o f t h e i n f i n i t i v e c l a u s e , a s “ n o n - l o c a l
p ass iv es ,” s in ce t he p as si ve s ub ject i s n ot p ar t o f th e arg um en t s tr uct ure o f t hep r e d i c a t e o f i t s c l a u s e . D e s c r i p t i v e l y , t h e y a r e f o u n d o n l y w i t h t h o s e m a i n v e r b s w h i c h
a dm it “ Ac cu sa ti ve -w it h- In fi ni ti ve ” ( Ac I) c on st ru ct io ns o f t he s or t d is cu ss ed i n
Section 4.9.5.2.
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T hu s, t he y a re f ou nd o nl y i n l an gu ag es w hi ch h av e s uc h A cI c on st ru ct io ns , l ik e E N
a n d I C ( s e e F a g a n 1992: 1 0 8 f . ) , a n d n o t l a n g u a g e s l i k e G E , w h i c h l a c k A c I .
T h es e c o ns t ru c ti o ns , d a ti n g b a ck t o a t l e as t t h e t h ir t ee n th c en t ur y , a c co r di n g t o E n gh ,
a r e d i s c u s s e d i n E n g h 1984, C hr i s t e ns e n 1985, 1986, T a r a l ds e n 1984 a nd H e l l a n 1984.
4.9.4.1.2.4 I m p er so n a l pa s s i ves I n t he c or e c as e o f p as si ve d es cr ib ed a bo ve , t he
o bj ec t o f a n a ct iv e s en te nc e a pp ea rs a s t he s ub je ct o f t he c or re sp on di ng p as si ve
s en te nc e. S om e l an gu ag es , t ho ug h, a dm it p as si ve s en te nc es i n w hi ch t he o bj ec t o f
t h e v e r b a p p e a r s t o r e m a i n i n c o m p l e m e n t p o s i t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n b e c o m i n g t h e s u b j e c t ,
a n d t h e s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n i s e i t h e r u n r e p r e s e n t e d o r r e p r e s e n t e d b y a n e x p l e t i v e T h i s i s
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a n d t h e s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n i s e i t h e r u n r e p r e s e n t e d o r r e p r e s e n t e d b y a n e x p l e t i v e . T h i s i s
i n f ac t t he n or ma l c as e a cr os s t he G MC l an gu ag es w he n t he o bj ec t i s a c la us e:
H o w e v e r , e v e n n o m i n a l o b j e c t s s o m e t i m e s r e m a i n o b j e c t s i n p a s s i v e s e n t e n c e s , r a t h e r
t ha n b ec om in g s ub je ct s. T hi s i s t he c as e, f or e xa mp le , i n G E w it h l ex ic al ly m ar ke d
( d at i ve o r g e ni t iv e ) s o le o b je c ts o f v e rb s l i ke helfen ‘help’:
t he p as si ve c on st ru ct io n. T hi s i s n ot u ni ve rs al ly t ru e i n G MC , h ow ev er . P as si ve s i n
w hi ch a n o bj ec t w it ho ut l ex ic al c as e r em ai ns a n o bj ec t i n a p as si ve s en te nc e a re
d es cr ib ed s ys te ma ti ca ll y f or N O ( BN a nd N N) b y Af a r l i (1992) , b u t t h e p h en o me n on
a ppe a rs t o e xis t i n ot he r c ont ine nt a l S c andina vi a n l a nguage s ( cf . A l la n e t a l . 1995: 1 6 1
f or D A ; T hor e l l 1973: 2 0 2 f o r S W ) , a n d i n I C ( B a r ð d a l a n d M o l n ar 2000) . T h u s , i n N O ,f or e xa mp le , a d ire ct o bje ct m ay b ec om e t he s ub je ct i n a p as si ve s en ten ce , o r i t m ay
r e ma in pos tve rba l, t he s ubje ct posi t ion t hen be ing r e pr e se nte d by t he e xpl e ti ve det .
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T he re i s a d ef in it en es s c on di ti on o n t he i mp er so na l p as si ve c on st ru ct io n i n N O: t he
4.9.4.1.2.5 I n tr a ns i ti v e p a ss i ve s a n d t h e u n ac c u sa t iv e h y po t he s is A fu rt he r d ev i-
a ti on f ro m t he c or e c as e d es cr ib ed a bo ve i nv ol ve s p as si ve s f or me d o n a pp ar en tl y
i n t r a n s i t i v e v e r b s w h i c h , i n t h e i r a c t i v e u s e s , d o n o t a p p e a r w i t h a n o m i n a l o b j e c t a t a l l .
I n t h e s e c a s e s , t h e s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n , i f r e a l i z e d a t a l l , m u s t o n c e a g a i n b e r e a l i z e d b y a n
e xp le ti ve , s in ce t he re i s n o o bj ec t t o b e t ur ne d i nt o a s ub je ct b y p as si ve .
I n t r a n s i t i v e p a s s i v e s o f t h i s s o r t a r e r e c e n t . T h e y d o n o t s e e m t o h a v e e x i s t e d i n o l d e r G M C , b e i n g a t t e s t e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n G E , f o r e x a m p l e , o n l y f r o m t h e e n d o f t h e O H G
period (Dal 1966: 130) . T he y a r e none t he l e s s s ur pr i s i ngl y w i de s pr e a d i n W e s t a nd N or t h
G MC – t ho ug h n ot ab ly a bs en t i n p re -m od er n a nd M o de rn E N, a s ta te o f a ff ai rs w hi ch
l e ads one t o s uspe ct c r os s l ingui s ti c di ff usi on. T he f oll owi ng a r e s ome e xam ple s :
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T he s yn ta x o f t he se i nt ra ns it iv e p as si ve c on st ru ct io ns h as b ee n m os t e xt en si ve ly
d e b a t e d b y r e f e r e n c e t o D U , b e c a u s e t h a t h a p p e n s t o h a v e b e e n t h e l a n g u a g e c i t e d i n
a n i n fl u en t ia l p a pe r b y P e rl m ut t er (1978) , w h o p o i n t e d o u t , a s h a d o t h e r s , t h a t n o t a l l
a c t i ve s e nt enc e s t r a di t i onal l y c ons ide r ed t o be i nt ra ns i ti ve c or re s pond t o w e l l- f orm e d
p a ss i ve s e nt e nc es . T h e e x am p le s i n ( 4 .2 0 9) a r e a c ce p ta b le , w h il e t h e o n es i n ( 4 .2 1 0)a r e n o t.
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s ta te s, i nc lu di ng v er bs w ho se s ol e a rg um en t h as t he s em an ti c r ol e o f p at ie nt ( ‘s in k’ ,
‘ fl o at ’ , ‘ fa l l’ , ‘ d ro w n’ , ‘ ro l l’ , ‘ b oi l ’ a n d s o o n ), a n d v e rb s w h ic h d e sc ri b e t h e c o mi n g
i n to b e in g o r c o nt i nu a ti o n o f a s t at e ( ‘ ex i st ’ , ‘ c om e ’, ‘ h ap p en ’ , ‘ b eg i n’ , ‘ d is a pp e ar ’ ,
‘ re ma in ’ a nd s o o n) . T he d if fe re nc e b et we en t he t wo g ro up s i s b ro ug ht o ut v er y
s a li e nt l y b y t h e c o nt r as t b e tw e en ( 4 .2 0 9d ) a n d ( 4 .2 1 0c ).S im il ar c on tr as ts a re f ou nd i n o th er l an gu ag es w it h i nt ra ns it iv e p as si ve s, a s t he
f ol low i ng N O e xa mpl e s i ndi ca t e :
P er lm ut te r’ s c on cl us io n, h ow ev er , i s t ha t t he d is ti nc ti on b et we en t ho se a pp ar en t
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, , ppin tra nsi ti ve v erb s wh ich al lo w p as si vi zat io n a nd t ho se wh ich d o n ot i s n ot b es t
c h ar a ct e ri z ed i n s e ma n ti c t e rm s , b u t i n s y nt a ct i c t e rm s . T h e s o le a r gu m en t s o f v e rb s
l i k e ‘ f a l l ’ , w h i c h b e a r t h e t h e m a t i c r o l e o f p a t i e n t , a r e n o t b a s i c s u b j e c t s . R a t h e r , t h e y
s ta rt o ut a s d ir ec t o bj ec ts a nd a re “ pr om ot ed ” i nt o t he s ub je ct r ol e. P er lm ut te r l ab el s
t h es e t w o g r ou p s o f v e rb s “ u ne r ga t iv e s” a n d “ u na c cu s at i ve s ” r es p ec t iv e ly , a n d c al l st h e h y po t he s is o f s u ch a p a rt i ti o ni n g t h e “ u na c cu s at i ve h y po t he s is . ”
P ro vi di ng g en er al s up po rt f or t he u na cc us at iv e h yp ot he si s i s t he f ac t t ha t m an y o f
t he v er bs i n t he u na cc us at iv e c at eg or y a lt er na te w it h f or ma ll y i de nt ic al t ra ns it iv e
v er bs , a nd t he a rg um en t w hi ch a pp ea rs a s t he s ol e a rg um en t o f t he f or me r s ho ws u p
a s t h e d i r e c t o b j e c t o f t h e l a t t e r :
di r e c t obj e c t s , w i t h det i n t h e s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e s o l e a r g u m e n t s o f v e r b s o f
t h e u n er g at i ve t y pe c a nn o t:36
M or eo ve r, a s p oi nt ed o ut i n B an dl e e t a l. 2005: 1 58 8, i n N O, a n on fi ni te u na cc u-
s a t i v e v e r b a n d a f o l l o w i n g “ s u b j e c t ” a r g u m e n t c a n m o v e t o t h e f r o n t o f t h e c l a u s e a s a
s i ng l e c o ns t it u en t – a p o ss i bi l it y n o rm a ll y r e se rv e d f o r v e rb s a n d t h ei r o b je c ts .
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s i ng l e c o ns t it u en t a p o ss i bi l it y n o rm a ll y r e se rv e d f o r v e rb s a n d t h ei r o b je c ts .
G i ve n t h is u n ac c us a ti v e h y po t he s is , t h e c o nt r as t b e tw ee n ( 4 .2 0 9) a n d ( 4 .2 1 0) c a n b e
s t at e d, f o r o u r p r es e nt d e sc r ip t iv e p u rp o se s , a s f o ll o ws : u n er g at i ve ( b as i c i n tr a ns i ti v e)
v er bs c an f or m i nt ra ns it iv e p as si ve s, b ut u na cc us at iv e v er bs ( th os e w ho se s ub je ct
o r ig i na t es a s a o b je c t) c a nn o t, s i nc e t h ey a re n o t i n tr an s it i ve .
O th d i ti h b t d d i ti i h i b t t i
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F or t he s ak e o f k ee pi ng t he m s ep ar at e, I h av e d es ig na te d t he se T yp e I a nd T yp e I I
m i dd l es r e sp e ct i ve l y, t h e d i ff e re n ce b e in g w h et h er t h e s u bj e ct o f t h e c o ns t ru c ti o n i s
u nd er st oo d a s t he l og ic al s ub je ct a nd o bj ec t o f t he b as e v er b ( Ty pe I ), o r t he l og ic al
o bj ec t a lo ne ( Ty pe I I) . T yp e I a pp ea rs t o b e o f G MC a nt iq ui ty ( se e S tr ei tb er g 1920:
1 9 2 a n d K e m m e r 1993: 1 8 2 f o r e v i d e n c e f r o m G O ) . T y p e I I a p p a r e n t l y e m e r g e s l a t e r ,
i n i nd iv id ua l l an gu ag es . O f c on ce rn h er e w il l b e p ri ma ri ly T yp e I I. I t w il l b e s ee n,
h ow ev er , t ha t t hi s c oa rs e t yp ol og y g re at ly u nd er -r ep re se nt s t he d iv er si ty o f m id dl e
c o ns t ru c ti o ns i n G MC . T h e I C m i dd l e v o ic e c o ns t ru c ti o n r e pr es e nt e d i n ( 4 .2 1 5a ) h a s
s y nt a ct i c a n d s e ma n ti c p r op e rt i es w h ic h a re v e ry d i ff e re n t f ro m t h os e o f E N m i dd l es .
E N m i d d l e s , i n f a c t , r e p r e s e n t a t y p e w i t h a n u m b e r o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e m a n t i c p r o p e r -
t i e s w h i c h a r e s h a r e d b y m i d d l e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n G E a n d D U , b u t n o t f o u n d a s a c l u s t e r
elsewhere in GMC. I will refer to this special type as the West GMC middle
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c on st ru ct io n, w it ho ut w is hi ng t o i mp ly a ny h is to ri ca l r el at io n a mo ng i ts v ar io us
i ns ta nc es . I n f ac t, t he c lu st er o f p ro pe rt ie s d ef in in g t he W es t G MC m id dl e a pp ea rs t o
be of r a t he r l a t e , pos t m e di e va l or i gi n, not oc c ur r i ng i n E N unt i l t he f i f t e e nt h c e nt ur y, f or
e xam pl e . T o t he e xt ent t ha t t he s e l a nguage s r es e mbl e e ac h ot he r , t he r ef ore , w e s e em t o
b e d ea li ng w it h y et a no th er c on ve rg en t f ea tu re . I n t he f ol lo wi ng s ec ti on , I w il l d is cu sst h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e W e s t G M C m i d d l e . I w i l l t h e n g o o n t o c o n t r a s t i t s p r o p e r t i e s w i t h
t he ve ry di ff er e nt pr ope rt i es of I C m i ddl es , a s de sc ri bed i n S i gur ðs s on 1989.
4.9.4.2.1 S e ma n ti c a n d s y n t ac t ic r e st r ic t i on s o n W e st G e rm a ni c m i dd l es West
G MC id dl i t t i h it h i d it h t h t i
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p r o p e r t y o f f r a g i l i t y t o t h e g l a s s . I t d o e s n o t a s s e r t t h a t i t h a s b e e n ( o r w i l l b e ) b r o k e n .
F ro m t hi s f ac t f ol lo w a n um be r o f i nd iv id ua l p ro pe rt ie s. F ir st , m id dl es c ar ry a n
i mp li ca ti on o f m od al it y. T ha t i s, t he y c an t yp ic al ly b e p ar ap hr as ed a s p as si ve s w it h
t h e m o d a l ‘ c a n ’ ( ‘ T h e s e b o o k s r e a d e a s i l y ’ ¼ ‘ T h e s e b o o k s c a n b e e a s i l y r e a d ’ ) ( F a g a n
1992: 1 9 ) . S e c o n d , t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e m i d d l e m u s t h a v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h f a c i l i t a t ec ar ry in g o ut t he a ct io n d es cr ib ed b y t he v er b. A s s uc h, t he y a re a no ma lo us i n c as es
w h e r e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c a r r y i n g o u t t h e a c t i o n o f t h e v e r b o n t h e s u b j e c t i s n o t s u b j e c t
t o s u bs t an t ia l i n fl u en c e b y t h e c h ar a ct e ri s ti c s o f t h e s u bj e ct . T h us , f o r e x am p le , ‘ T he
g la ss b re ak s/ cl ea ns e as il y’ i s w el l f or me d, b ec au se g la ss c an h av e p ro pe rt ie s w hi ch
a ff ec t i ts b re ak ab il it y o r c le an si bi li ty , b ut ‘ ?? Th e g la ss b uy s/ ad mi re s e as il y’ i s o dd
b ec au se g la ss d oe s n ot h av e o bv io us p ro pe rt ie s w hi ch w ou ld a ff ec t i ts b uy ab il it y
o r a dm ir ab il it y. F ag an (1992: 76) refers to this requirement of the subjects of
m id dl es a s “ re sp on si bi li ty .” T hu s, m id dl es a re r es tr ic te d l ex ic al ly i n a w ay t ha t
p as si ve s a re n ot .
P e rh a ps c o nn e ct e d w i th t h is i s t h e r eq u ir e me n t t h at m i dd l e c o ns t ru c ti o ns c o nt a in ,
i m p l i c i t l y o r e x p l i c i t l y , a m a n n e r e l e m e n t – a n e l e m e n t w h i c h a n s w e r s t h e q u e s t i o n o f
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h o w t h e a c t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t . T h i s c a n b e e x p r e s s e d b y m e a n s o f a n a d v e r b , l i k e well or
easily, fo r ex am pl e, o r i t can be a by- ph ra se e xp re ss in g m ea ns , a s i n ( 4. 21 9a ) o r, a s
F ag an p oi nts o ut , i t ca n b e i mpl ici t in t he v erb , as in (4 .2 19 b), wh ich i s p oss ib le
because button i n h er en t ly d e sc ri b es a p a rt i cu l ar m a nn e r o f f a st e ni n g, w h ic h c o nt r as t s
w i t h ot he rs :
A ls o c on ne ct ed w it h t he f ac t t ha t t he y e xp re ss a g en er al , t im el es s p ro pe rt y o f t he
b j i h f h h i l i d / l i l b j b i d b i
F ag an n ot es t ha t t he re a re n o “ pr ep os it io na l m id dl e c on st ru ct io ns ” e ve n i n l an -
g u ag e s t h at a l lo w p r ep o si t io n al p a ss i ve s , s u ch a s E N :
a nd i nt e r pr e t s t hi s a s e vi de nc e t ha t m i ddl e c ons t r uc t i ons , unl i ke pa s s i ve c ons t r uc t i ons ,
a re c r ea t ed b y l e xi c al r u le s .
4 9 4 2 2 The Icelandic middle construction T h e I C m i d dl e c o ns t ru c ti o n w i th - st
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4.9.4.2.2 The Icelandic middle construction T h e I C m i d dl e c o ns t ru c ti o n w i th - st ,
o ri gi na ti ng f ro m a r ed uc ed r ef le xi ve , i s d at ed b y H au ge n (1982: 1 3 4 ) t o e a r l y i n t h e
c o m m o n S c a n d i n a v i a n p e r i o d o n t h e b a s i s o f i t s a r c h a i c m o r p h o l o g i c a l s h a p e i n s o m e
i n s t a n c e s . V i r t u a l l y n o n e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f W e s t G M C m i d d l e s a r e f o u n d i n t h e
I C c o ns t ru c ti o ns , a s s e en i n ( 4 .2 2 2) .
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v a r i a b l e a c r o s s G M C , a n d w i l l b e t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s
section.
4.9.5.1 S u b j ect r ai s i n g co n s t ru ct i o ns
A s ( 4 . 2 2 3 e ) a n d ( 4 . 2 2 3 f ) s h o w , þugkjan ‘ s e e m ’ i n G O , l i k e i t s c o u n t e r p a r t seem i n E N ,c a n a p p e a r w i t h a f i n i t e c l a u s a l a r g u m e n t ( ‘ I t s e e m s ( t o m e ) t h a t h e r u n s f a s t ’ ) , o r i t c a n
o c c u r w i t h a n o m i n a l s u b j e c t a n d a n i n f i n i t i v e c o m p l e m e n t ( ‘ He s e e m s ( t o m e ) t o r u n
fast ’) . In th e l at ter c as e, th ere i s n o s em an ti c co nn ect io n b etwe en ‘s eem ’ a nd i ts
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DA an d NO ex hi bi t a s im il ar co nt ras t b et wee n t he t wo t yp es wi th re sp ect t o t he
a d mi s si b il i ty o f a p r ep o si t io n al i n fi n it i ve m a rk e r ( Si g ur ð ss o n 1989: 8 3), an d t hi s, i n
a d di t io n t o o t he r e v id e nc e , h a s l e d s o me i n ve s ti g at o rs t o c o nc l ud e t h at B - ty p e i n fi n i-
t i ve phr a s e s a r e s ynt a c t i c a l l y di f f e r e nt f r om L - t ype i nf i ni t i ve phr a s e s , c ont a i ni ng m or e
s t r u c t u r e . W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e L - t y p e i s f o u n d i n a l l o f t h e l a n g u a g e s
o f t he f am il y, o ld a nd n ew , a nd i ts n at iv en es s i n G MC i s b ey on d d is pu te . E xa mp le s
l i k e t h o s e i n ( 4 . 2 2 8 ) f r o m G O a r e e a s y t o f i n d i n a l l t h e o t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s .
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L e s s c l e a r i s t h e s t a t u s o f t h e B - t y p e i n e a r l y G M C . O n t h e o n e h a n d , i t i s a t t e s t e d i n
G O i h id f b f i d hi k i i l di d j ‘j d ’
Moreover, it is even found in the absence of a model in the Greek text in a few
i n st a nc e s, a s i n ( 4 .2 2 9e ), w h er e t h e G re e k h a s a s u bj e ct c o nt r ol c o ns t ru c ti o n:
T a k e n a t f a c e v a l u e , t h e s e f a c t s w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t B - t y p e A c I w a s f o u n d e v e n i n e a r l yG MC . T h er e a r e, h o we v er , s o me c o ns i de r at i on s w h ic h w ei g h a g ai n st s u ch a c o nc l u-
s io n. F ir st , i t i s c ou nt er in di ca te d b y t he c om pa ra ti ve e vi de nc e. B -t yp e A cI w as ,
a cc or di ng t o F is ch er (1990: 7 3), at tes ted i n OE o nl y i n s lav ish t ran sl at io ns f ro m
L at in , a nd i t d id n ot e me rg e a s a n at iv e ( or n at iv iz ed ) p os si bi li ty u nt il M E ( th ou gh
s e e M i ll e r 2002: 1 6 0 f . , 1 7 0 , w h o c l a i m s t h a t i t w a s a p a r t o f t h e l a n g u a g e b y a t l e a s t
l a t e O E , a n d p e r h a p s e a r l i e r ) .39 I n G E ( a n d i n t h e r e s t o f c o n t i n e n t a l W e s t G M C ) i t i s
il l i bl
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s t il l n o t p o ss i bl e :
T h u s , B - t y p e A c I i s p r o b a b l y n o t t o b e r e c o n s t r u c t e d f o r G M C , a n d t h e r e f o r e , i f i t w a s a
gr a m m a t i c a l pos s i bi l i t y i n G O , t he n G O m us t ha ve i nnova t e d, i nde pe nde nt of t he r e s t of
G MC . A s t il l m ore t r oubl ing c ons i de r at i on be ar i ng on t he i nte rpr et a ti on of t he G O da ta
i s t h a t m a n y o f t h e v e r b s f o u n d i n B - t y p e A c I c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n t h e G O t e x t a r e a l s o f o u n d
W e s e e i n t h e f i r s t p a i r o f e x a m p l e s t h a t w h e n t h e G r e e k deı takes no nominal argument,
b ut o nl y a n i nf in it iv e c la us e G O t ra ns la te s t he c on st ruc ti on q ui te l it er al ly a s a n
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b ut o nl y a n i nf in it iv e c la us e, G O t ra ns la te s t he c on st ruc ti on q ui te l it er al ly , a s a n
i m pe r sonal c ons t ruc ti on. W hen i n t he G re e k t her e i s a nomi nal a r gum ent i n a c cus at i ve
c as e ( ‘I t i s n ec es sa ry ( fo r) u s. . . ’) , a s i n ( 4. 23 1d ), G O p er so na li ze s t he c on st ru ct io n s,
t ur ni ng t he a c c us a t i ve a r gum e nt i nt o t he s ubj e c t of t he m oda l skulan ‘ s houl d, be obl i ge d
t o’. F i na l ly, w hen t he G re e k c ons t ruc ti on i nvol ve s a n a cc usa t ive nomi nal a rgum ent a nd ap as si ve i nf in it iv e ( ‘i t w as n ec es sa ry ( fo r) u s t o b e r ev ea le d’ ), G O d oe s n ot c op y t he
G r ee k c ons t ruc t ion, us ing a pa ss ive i nfi nit i ve . R a the r, i t us es t he pr edi ca t e s ku ld w i sa n
‘ be obl i ge d’ , i n pl a c e of skulan, w i t h a n i nf i ni t i ve w hi c h i s not m a r ke d f or pa s s i ve . Weis
‘ we ’ i s t he s ub je ct ( 4. 23 1e) , a s e vi de nc ed b y t he f ac t t ha t i t c on tr ol s p er so n/ nu mb er
O t he r G M C l a ng u ag e s e x hi b it c o ns t ru c ti o ns s u pe r fi c ia l ly r e se m bl i ng E N t o ug h -
m ove m e nt c ons t r uc t i ons , w hos e pr e di c a t e s onc e a ga i n t ypi c a l l y i nvol ve t he not i ons of
e a s e o r d i f f i c u l t y o f p e r f o r m i n g a n a c t i o n . I C i s a n e x c e p t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o H o l m b e r g
a n d R i jk h of f (1998: 8 7 ) .
H o we v er , s u pe r fi c ia l s i mi l ar i ti e s h e re m a y m a sk d e ep e r s y nt a ct i c d i ve r ge n ce i n s o me
of t he s e c a s e s . S om e i nve s t i ga t or s ( T hi e r s c h 1978; H a w ki ns 1986; C o m r i e 1995) h a v e
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of t he s e c a s e s . S om e i nve s t i ga t or s ( T hi e r s c h 1978; H a w ki ns 1986; C o m r i e 1995) h a v e
p oi nt ed o ut t ha t t ou gh -m ov em en t d if fe rs b et we en G E a nd E N i n a t l ea st a c ou pl e o f
s i gn i fi c an t w ay s . A mo n g o t he r t h in g s, i n G E , t h e “ l on g d i st a nc e m o ve m en t ” p r op e rt y
o f t h e c o ns t ru c ti o n s e em s t o b e l a ck i ng .
T he re a re a ls o f ar f ew er p re di ca te s w hi ch p ar ti ci pa te i n t he c on st ru ct io n t ha n i n E N.
T h ie r sc h (1978) a ss er ts t ha t t he c on st ru ct io n d oe s n ot o cc ur w it h t ru e a dj ec ti ve s a t
a l l , b u t o n l y w i t h t h o s e a p p a r e n t a d j e c t i v e s w h i c h a l s o a d m i t o f a n a d v e r b i a l i n t e r p r e t -
a ti on , a n o pi ni on w hi ch i s s ec on de d a nd a rg ue d f or a t l en gt h b y D em sk e- Ne um an n
(1994) . W ha t a pp ea r t o b e t ou gh -m ov em en t c on st ru ct io ns i n G E a re i n f ac t s pe ci al
c as es o f w ha t D em sk e- Ne um an n c al ls m od al p as si ve c on st ru ct io ns . I n t he se c on -
s tru ct io ns , i ll us trat ed in ( 4.2 32 h), a n om in al p hra se ap pear s a s t he s ub ject o f a
s en te nc e w it h a c op ul a a nd a p re po si ti on al i nf in it iv e, t he w ho le b ei ng u nd er st oo d a s
h av in g p as si ve -l ik e i nt er pr et at io n, w it h a n e le me nt o f m od al m ea ni ng ( po ss ib il it y,
necessity/obligation):
A dv er bs c an b e a dd ed t o t he se , i nc lu di ng m od al a dv er bs s uc h a s kaum ‘hardly’.
W he re t he a dv er b i s h om op ho no us w it h a n a dj ec ti ve , a s i s leicht ‘ e a s y/ e a s il y’ , t he
r es ul t r es em bl es a t ou gh -m ov em en t c on st ru ct io n. T he r es em bl an ce b el ie s a f un da -
m en ta l s tr uc tu ra l d if fe re nc e I n t he f or me r t he i nf in it iv e i s t he p re di ca te a nd t he
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m en ta l s tr uc tu ra l d if fe re nc e. I n t he f or me r, t he i nf in it iv e i s t he p re di ca te , a nd t he
a dv er b i s a m od if ie r. I n t ou gh -m ov em en t c on st ru ct io ns , t he a dj ec ti ve i s t he h ea d o f
t he pr e di c a te .
D e m ske - Ne um ann (1994) o bs er ve s t ha t b ot h t ou gh -m ov em en t c on st ru ct io ns a nd
m o da l p a ss i ve c o ns t ru c ti o ns ( o r ‘ r et r oa c ti v e i n fi n it i ve s ’ – s e e K ag e ya m a 1992: 1 14 )
e xi st ed i n e ar li er G MC . S en te nc e ( 4. 23 3a ), f or e xa mp le , i s c le ar ly a m od al p as si ve
c o ns t ru c ti o n, a s i s ( 4 .2 3 3b ) , s i nc e leohtsamo i s c le ar ly a n a dv er b o n m or ph ol og ic al
g ro un ds . O n t he o th er h an d, i n ( 4. 23 3c ), w e a re d ea li ng w it h a t ou gh -m ov em en t
c ons tr uc ti on, s i nce suua re i s c l ea r ly a n a d je ct i ve o n i n fl e ct i on a l g r ou n ds .
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T he br e a kdow n of m or phol ogi c a l di s t i nc t i ons be t w e e n a dve r bs a nd pr e di c a t e a dj e c -
t i v e s , h o w e v e r , p r e c i p i t a t e d r e a n a l y s i s i n s o m e o f t h e s e l a n g u a g e s ; G E g a v e u p t o u g h -
m o ve m en t c o ns t ru c ti o ns , w h il e p e rp e tu a ti n g t h e m o da l p a ss i ve c o ns t ru c ti o ns w hi c h
o cc as io na ll y r es em bl e t he m. I n E N, t he m od al p as si ve c on st ru ct io n w as v ir tu al ly
e li mi na te d, a nd i s r es tr ic te d i n M od er n E N t o a f ew c on ve nt io na li ze d c as es , l ik e ‘ He
i s ( h ar d ly ) t o b l am e ’ ( De m sk e -N eu m an n 1994: 11). For the most part, it has been
e l im i na t ed b y r e pl a ci n g t h e u n ma r ke d i n fi n it i ve w i th a p e ri p hr as t ic p a ss i ve i n fi n it i ve ,
a s d o c u m e n t e d i n d e t a i l b y v a n d e r G a a f ( 1928a).
C ur io us ly , a s d et ai le d b y v an d er G aa f, t hi s s am e d ev el op me nt c am e c lo se t o s up -
pl a nti ng t ough- m ovem e nt c ons tr uc ti ons , a nd s i m i la r a dj ec t i ve þ i nf i ni ti ve c ons tr uc -
t io ns . I n ( 4. 23 3) , f or i ns ta nc e, E ar ly M od er n E N u se s a n o ve rt ly p as si ve i nf in it iv e
w h e r e O l d a n d M o d e r n E N w o u l d u s e a n u n m a r k e d i n f i n i t i v e ( s e e a l s o F i s c h e r 1990;
Miller 2002: 2 3 3f . ). T h us , M o de r n E N t o ug h -m o ve m en t c o ns t ru c ti o ns a p pe a r t o b e a
r e s t o r a t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n a c o n t i n u a t i o n , o f t h e O E p h e n o m e n o n ( s e e D e m s k e - N e u m a n n
1994: 2 2 4f f. ) .
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)
5
T he v er ba l s ys te ms o f G er ma ni c:
p a ra d ig m at i c a n d s y nt a gm a ti ccomparison
5.1 H i st o r ic a l p r e l ud e : t h e I n do - Eu r op e an h e ri t ag e a n d
G erma ni c i n n ov a t i o ns
5 .1 .1 T yp es o f v er ba l i nf le ct io n
V er ba l i nf le ct io n i n G MC t en ds t o b e m or e d yn am ic t ha n n om in al i nf le ct io n. V er bs
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p a rt i ci p at e i n m o re i n fl e ct i on a l c a te g or i es t h an n o un s d o , i n fl e ct i ng f o r t e ns e , m o od
a n d v o i c e a s w e l l a s f o r a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r o f t h e s u b j e c t , a n d t h e
e nd in gs o f v er bs , a s a n a cc id en ta l c on se qu en ce o f t he ir p ho no lo gi ca l s ha pe , h av e i n
g en er al m or e s uc ce ss fu ll y r es is te d t he e ff ec ts o f f in al s yl la bl e r ed uc ti on . S o, f or e xa mp le , o f t he e ig ht o ri gi na ll y d is ti nc t c as e e nd in gs o f t he s in gu la r o f m as cu li ne
o- st em n ou ns i n I E, o nl y t hr ee ( Ge ni ti ve tag-es, D at i ve tag-e a nd i ns t rum e nta l tag-u )
r e m a i n d i s t i n c t i n O H G , a n d o n l y t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e i s s t i l l f o u n d i n M o d e r n G E . O n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , a l l o f t h e t h r e e p e r s o n s o f t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e v e r b , i n b o t h s i n g u l a r a n d p l u r a l ,
m ov ea bl e, a s d is cu ss ed i n S ec ti on 3 .3 .4 , c ap ab le o f f al li ng e it he r o n t he r oo t o r o n a
s u f f i x . T h e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f s t r e s s a f f e c t e d t h e q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y o f t h e v o w e l ,
a nd l ed t o t he v ow el a lt er na ti on s w hi ch w e k no w a s a bl au t, s ti ll v er y m uc h a p ar t o f
v e r b i n f l e c t i o n i n m a n y G M C l a n g u a g e s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e v o w e l / e / a p p e a r s i n p o s i t i o n s
w h i c h r e c e i v e d s t r e s s . O n e r e f e r s t o s u c h f o r m s a s e- g r a d e f o r m s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i n
uns t r e s s e d pos i t i ons , t he vow e l c ha r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y di s a ppe a r e d, yi e l di ng s o- c a l l e d z e r o-
gr a de f or m s . A n or i gi na l a l t e r na t i on be t w e e n a r oot - s t r e s s e d f or m a nd a n a f f i x- s t r e s s e d
f or m i s s ti ll r ef le ct ed i n O ld U pp er G E ziuhan ‘ to p ul l’ z [ ] ug um ‘ we p ul le d’ . T he
b ra ck et s i nd ic at e t he p os it io n o f t he v ow el w hi ch h as b ee n ‘ ze ro ed o ut ’ i n t he z er o-
g ra de f or m. N ot e a ls o t ha t t he t wo f or ms d if fe r w it h r es pe ct t o t he m ed ia l c on so na nt .
T h i s i s b e c a u s e o f a s e c o n d a r y d e v e l o p m e n t i n e a r l y G M C , V e r n e r ’ s L a w , d i s c u s s e d i n
3 .1 .2 , i n w hi ch a m ed ia l f ri ca ti ve c on so na nt b ec am e v oi ce d w he n n ot i mm ed ia te ly
p r e c e d e d b y s t r e s s . G i v e n t h e i r c o m m o n d e p e n d e n c e o n a b s e n c e o f a c c e n t , w e e x p e c t
t he v oi ce d V er ne r’ s L aw f ri ca ti ve s t o b e f ou nd i n z er o- gr ad e f or ms , a nd t he c or re s-
p on di ng v oi ce le ss f ri ca ti ve t o b e f ou nd i n e- gr ad e f or ms . T he e xp ec te d p at te rn i s
i l lu s tr a te d i n t h e/ hg / a lt er na ti on o f t he se e xa mp le s. S ti ll o th er f or ms e xh ib it a t hi rd
a bl au t v ar ia nt o f i mp or ta nc e, t he “ o- gr ad e. ” F or d is cu ss io n o f i ts o ri gi n, s ee B ee ke s
1 99 5 1 66 T hi bl d i l f l d i h d i f l b
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1 99 5: 1 66 . T hi s a bl au t g ra de i s a ls o r ef le ct ed i n t he p ar ad ig m o f o ur e xa mp le v er b,
t ho ug h s om ew ha t o bs cu re d b y l at er s ou nd c ha ng es , i n t he t hi rd p er so n s in gu la r z oh
‘ I p u l l e d ’ ( f r o m a G M C *zauh, s h o r t / o / h a v i n g b e c o m e / a / i n G M C ) .
S u c h a l t e r n a t i o n s i n t h e v o w e l s a n d c o n s o n a n t s o f t h e r o o t h a v e c e a s e d t o p l a y a n yr o l e a t a l l i n t h e i n f l e c t i o n o f G M C n o u n s . T h e r e a r e n o G M C n o u n s w h i c h e x h i b i t o n e
ab lau t g rad e i n o ne ca se an d a d iff ere nt ab lau t g rad e i n an ot he r c as e. T her e are
s im il ar ly n o n ou ns w hi ch e xh ib it V er ne r’ s l aw a lt er na ti on s w it hi n i nd iv id ua l p ar a-
d i gm s . I t i s o n ly c o mp a ra t iv e e v id e nc e t h at a l lo w s u s o c ca s io n al l y t o r e co v er f o rm e r
I t i s a ls o o nl y i n t he v er ba l p ar ad ig ms t ha t i nf le ct io na l p re fi xe s a re f ou nd , t ho ug h
e v e n t h e r e t h e y a r e a m a r g i n a l p h e n o m e n o n . S u r v i v i n g f r o m I E a r e t h e G O r e d u p l i c a -
t i v e p r e f i x e s i n t h e p r e t e r i t e s o f a s m a l l s e t o f s t r o n g v e r b s ( C l a s s 7 s t r o n g v e r b s , i n t h e
t r ad i ti o na l c l as s if i ca t io n s y st e m) . A f e w o f t h es e a r e e x em p li f ie d i n ( 5 .2 ) :
T h e p r e f i x h e r e i s f o r m e d b y c o p y i n g t h e i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t o r c l u s t e r t o t h e l e f t o f t h e
s te m, a nd a dd in g a l in ki ng v ow el / e/ ( wr it te n <ai>) . W he th er t he i ni ti al c lu st er w as
c o p i e d , o r o n l y t h e f i r s t c o n s o n a n t o f t h e c l u s t e r , d e p e n d e d i n a n i n t e r e s t i n g w a y o n t h e
n at ur e o f t he c lu st er , a s t he se e xa mp le s r ef le ct ( se e S ec ti on 3 .3 .1 ). R ed up li ca ti ve
p re fi xa ti on i s a r el ic h er e, t ho ug h, a nd v er bs o f t hi s c la ss h av e b ee n r es tr uc tu re d i n
t h e o t he r G M C l a ng u ag e s, w h er e a n e w r o ot - in t er n al v o we l a l te r na t io n h a s d i sp l ac e d
r e d u p l i c a t i o n a s t h e s i g n a l o f t h e p a s t t e n s e i n t h i s c l a s s o f v e r b s . T h e c o n t i n e n t a l W e s t
G MC l an gu ag es h av e d ev el op ed o ne n ew i nf le ct io na l p re fi x, t he ge- w hi ch c ha ra c-
t e r i ze s pa s t pa r t ic i pl es , t hr ough gr a mm a t i ci z a ti on of a de r i va t i ona l pr e fi x w i t h pe r fe c -
t i i i i
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t i vi zi ng m e a ning.
O ve rw he lm in gl y, t ho ug h, i n v er bs , a s w el l a s i n n ou ns , i nf le ct io n i n t he G MC
l an gu ag es h as b ee n e ff ec te d t hr ou gh s uf fi xa ti on , a nd t hi s h as b ec om e i nc re as in gl y
t ru e o ve r t im e. B ot h a bl au t a nd r ed up li ca ti on a re o nl y r el ic m ea ns o f m ar ki ng p as t
t e ns e i n t h e m e di e va l l a ng u ag e s, t e nd i ng t o wa r d r ed u ct i on , s i mp l if i ca t io n o r e l im i n-
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I n t he c at eg or y o f v oi ce , G MC h as o nl y i so la te d r el ic s o f t he i nf le ct io na l m id dl e
v oi ce o f I E, p ri ma ri ly i n t he v er b ‘ is c al le d’ ( OE h a tte) . I n p la ce o f t hi s, G MC v er y
e ar ly i nt ro du ce d a p er ip hr as ti c m id dl e i nv ol vi ng a r ef le xi ve p ro no un . F or f ur th er
d i sc u ss i on o f s u ch c o ns t ru c ti o ns , s e e S ec t io n 5 . 1. 9 .3 .
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G O, a lo ne a mo ng t he o ld er G MC l an gu ag es , h as a n i nf le ct io na l p as si ve ( ba se d o n
t he I E m id dl e) , b ut o nl y i n t he p re se nt t en se , a s i n ( 5. 7a ). E ls ew he re , G re ek p as si ve s
a r e r en d er ed a s e i th e r a n al y ti c p a ss i ve s , c o ns i st i ng o f t h e p a st p a rt i ci p le p l us t h e v e rb‘ be ’ o r a s i nc ho at iv e v er bs w it h t he d er iv at io na l s uf fi x -nan :
s ha pe o f t he t en se f or ms o f m an y b as ic G MC v er bs c an b e t ra ce d t o I E s ou rc es . S o,
f o r e x am p le , n o n- d er i ve d v e rb s t y pi c al l y ( t ho u gh n o t e x cl u si v el y ) h a d e- gr ade voc al -
ism and root accent in the IE present, and many of the basic verbs of GMC
a cc or di ng ly e xh ib it / e/ i n t he p re se nt t en se . T he i nh er it ed G MC p as t t en se d er iv ed
f ro m t he I E p er fe ct , a nd e xh ib it s a d if fe re nt v ow el p at te rn . T he p er fe ct s in gu la r o f I E
w a s t y p i c a l l y r o o t s t r e s s e d , b u t h a d o- g ra d e r a th e r t h an e- gr ade voc al i s m . T he pe r fe c t
plural, on the other hand, had stress on the affix. The vowel of the root, in the
a bs en ce o f s tr es s, d ro pp ed o ut , y ie ld in g z er o- gr ad e v oc al is m. G MC i nc or po ra te d a
s i mi l ar l y s u ff i x- s tr es s ed v e rb a l a d je c ti v e i n to t h e v e rb a l s y st e m a s t h e p a st p a rt i ci p le
in v erb s o f t he se ty pe s, s o t hat t he p as t p ar ti ci pl es o f t hes e v erb s, as we ll as t he
p re te ri te p lu ra ls , u su al ly e xh ib it r ef le xe s o f z er o- gr ad e v oc al is m. V er bs o f t hi s
p e di g re e h a ve b e en k n ow n s i nc e t h ei r d e sc ri p ti o n b y J a co b G r im m a s “ s tr o ng v e rb s .”
T he b as ic p at te rn f or s tr on g v er bs j us t d es cr ib ed (e- gr ad e i n t he p re se nt , o- g ra d e i n
t he p re te ri te s in gu la r, z er o- gr ad e i n t he p re te ri te p lu ra l a nd t he p as t p ar ti ci pl e) i s
r ef le ct ed i n t he G O e xa mp le s i n ( 5. 8) . I t i s c us to ma ry i n g ra mm ar s o f a t l ea st t he
e ar ly G MC l an gu ag es t o r ep re se nt t he a bl au t o f t he s tr on g v er b c la ss es b y c it in gth ese fo ur “p rin cip al p art s.” (T he se ex amp les are d ra wn fr om o nly two o f th e
t ra di ti on al s ev en c la ss es o f s tr on g v er bs b ut t he y a re s uf fi ci en t f or t he p re se nt
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t ra di ti on al s ev en c la ss es o f s tr on g v er bs , b ut t he y a re s uf fi ci en t f or t he p re se nt
p ur po se o f i ll us tr at in g t he k in ds o f s ec on da ry c ha ng es w hi ch h av e a ff ec te d t he
s ub se qu en t s ha pe o f s tr on g v er bs i n t he G MC l an gu ag es .)
h av e f un ct io ne d a s a s yl la bi c n uc le us . H ow ev er , e ar ly G MC s ys te ma ti ca ll y d is pr e-
f e r r e d s u c h s y l l a b i c r e s o n a n t s , a n d “ r e s o l v e d ” t h e m b y i n t r o d u c i n g a n e p e n t h e t i c / u / t o
s er ve a s t he s yl la bl e n uc le us , w hi ch w as l ow er ed b y u ml au t t o / o/ i n l an gu ag es o th er
t h a n G O w h e n f o l l o w e d i n t h e n e x t s y l l a b l e b y a l o w v o w e l , a s i n p a s t p a r t i c i p l e s l i k e
giholpfan. T h e s e c o n d t h i n g t o n o t e i s t h e a l t e r n a t i o n b e t w e e n / s / a n d / r / i n t h e p r e t e r i t e
of kiosan i n O HG . T hi s i s a r ef le x o f V er ne r’ s L aw , u nd er w hi ch v oi ce le ss f ri ca ti ve s
t ur ne d i nt o v oi ce d f ri ca ti ve s i n z er o- gr ad e f or ms – / s/ b ec om in g / z/ i n t he p re se nt
e xa mp le , w hi ch i n t ur n b ec am e / r/ b y a l at er c ha ng e. N ot e, t ho ug h, t ha t t he re i s n o
s i m i l a r a l t e r n a t i o n i n G O b e t w e e n / s / a n d / z / i n kiusan. T h i s i s a r e f l e c t i o n o f a s t r o n g
t e nd e nc y i n G M C, i n st a nt i at e d e a rl y o n i n G O, t o e l im i na t e t h e r e du n da n t a l te r na t io n
b et we en V er ne r’ s L aw c on so na nt s a nd t he ir n on -V er ne r’ s L aw c ou nt er pa rt s i n t he
s t r ong- ve r b s ys t e m . R e l i c s ur vi va l s s t r ongl y i ndi c a t e t ha t G O unde r w e nt V e r ne r ’ s L a w
w i t h t h e r e s t o f G M C , b u t a l l o f t h e r e s u l t a n t a l t e r n a t i o n s h a v e b e e n l e v e l e d o u t i n t h e
s t r ong- ve r b s ys t e m , i n f a vor of t he voi c e l e s s a l t e r na nt . T hi s t e nde nc y t ow a r d pa r a di gm
l ev el in g i s c ar ri ed e ve n f ar th er i n t he M od er n G E e xa mp le s. H er e, n ot o nl y i s t he
V e r n e r ’ s L a w d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p r e t e r i t e s i n g u l a r a n d t h e p r e t e r i t e p l u r a l l e v e l e do u t , b u t s o i s t h e v o w e l d i f f e r e n c e . G E n o l o n g e r s h o w s a n y o f t h e i n h e r i t e d v a r i a t i o n
in root shape between singulars and plurals in the past tense of strong verbs
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in root shape between singulars and plurals in the past tense of strong verbs.
( Et ym ol og ic al ly i de nt ic al a lt er na ti on s d o s ur vi ve i n G E a nd e ls ew he re i n G MC i n
t he pr e s e nt t e ns e of “ pr e t e r o- pr e s e nt ” ve r bs , w hos e present t e n s e f o r m s a r e b a s e d o n I E
pe r f e c t s ( G E darf ‘ I m a y ’ / du¨
rfen ‘ w e m a y ’ ) . ) W h a t i s t r u e o f G E i s a l s o t r u e o f t h e l e s sr i ch l y i n fl e ct e d m o de rn l a ng u ag e s ( E N, c o nt i ne n ta l S c an d in a vi a n, D U, f o r e x am p le ),
w h er e l i tt l e t r ac e o f f o rm e r s i ng u la r /p l ur a l v o we l d i ff e re n ce s r em a in s i n t h e p r et e ri t es
o f s t r o n g v e r b s . A m o n g t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s , s u c h a l t e r n a t i o n s a r e f o u n d o n l y i n I C
a n d F A , a n d e v e n t h e s e l a n g u a g e s h a v e g i v e n u p t h e V e r n e r ’ s L a w c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n
t h e i r p a s t p a r t i c i p l e s . W e a k v e r b s a r e t h e p r o d u c t i v e p a t t e r n i n G M C , w h i l e s t r o n g
v er bs a re a re li c c la ss . F ro m e ar li es t t im es , w he n n ew v er bs a re a dd ed t o G MC
l a n g u a g e s , t h r o u g h d e r i v a t i o n f r o m o t h e r w o r d c l a s s e s o r t h r o u g h b o r r o w i n g , t h e y
a re a dd ed a s w ea k v e rb s. E xc ep ti on s t o t hi s g en er al iz at io n ( su ch a s t h e b or ro we d
YI s e x t n ‘ to r it ua ll y s la ug ht er ’, w ho s e p as t p ar ti ci pl e i s g@s o x t n ( J a c o b s 2 0 0 5 :
2 14 ), a nd t he b or ro we d E N v er bs t h r i v e and s t r i v e – p o i n t e d o u t t o m e b y R o g e r
L a ss ) a r e r a re . M o re o ve r , w h en v e rb s s w it c h i n fl e ct i on a l t y pe , t h ey c h an g e f r om
s tr on g t o w ea k a nd , a ga in w it h m ar gi na l e xc ep ti on s, n ot t he o th er w ay a ro un d.
T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n p r o d u c t i v i t y c a n b e v i e w e d i n p a r t a s a m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a G M C
p re fe re nc e f or a ff ix at io n, i ns te ad o f i nt er na l m od if ic at io n, a s a w ay o f s ig na li ng
g r am m at i ca l c o nt r as t s, a n d i n p a rt a s a c o ns e qu e nc e o f t h e i n cr ea s in g c o mp l ex i ty
o f t he s tr on g v er b a lt er na ti on s t ha t r es ul te d f ro m s ec o nd ar y c ha ng es o f t he s or t
d is cu ss ed a bo ve . I n E ar ly M od er n E N, s uc h s h if ti ng f ro m t he h ig hl y v ar ie d a nd
i nc re as in gl y a to mi st ic s tr on g c la ss es t o t he m or e u ni fo rm a nd r eg ul ar w ea k
p at te rn s t oo k p la ce o n a l ar ge s ca le . A p ar ti al l is t o f v er bs w hi ch s hi ft ed f ro m
s t r o n g t o w e a k i n E a r l y M o d e r n E N i s g i v e n i n ( 5 . 1 0 ) . S o m e p a t t e r n s ( e . g . , t h a t o f w r i t e / w r o t e / w r i t t e n and s i n g / s a n g / s u n g ) r e si s te d t h is t r en d m o re s u cc e ss f ul l y t h an
o t h e r s .
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o t h e r s .
I n te re s ti n gl y , w h il e i n di v id u al v e rb s h a ve s h if t ed f ro m s t ro n g t o w ea k i n o t he r G M C
l an gu ag es , n o o th er l an gu ag e h as e xp er ie nc ed s uc h a l ar ge -s ca le d ef ec ti on . B y m y
c ou nt , t he re a re o nl y a bo ut 7 0 b as ic s tr on g v er bs r em ai ni ng i n E N, c om pa re d t o
ro ug hly 18 0 in DU, fo r e xam ple , an d ab ou t an eq ual n umb er f or GE (cf . B oo ij
5.1.2.2 M o od : i n di c at i ve , s u b j u nc t iv e , a n d i m pe r at i ve
5.1.2.2.1 Subjunctive G MC h as t hr ee m oo ds : t he i nd ic at iv e, t he i mp er at iv e a nd
a n “ i rr ea l is ” m o od u s ed f o r t a lk i ng a b ou t c o nt r ar y -t o -f ac t s c en a ri o s a n d e v en t ua l it i es
w it h l ow p ro ba bi li ty o f o cc ur re nc e. T he re i s a c er ta in a mo un t o f t er mi no lo gi ca l
c o nf u si o n i n vo l ve d i n l a be l in g t h e l a t t er . I n g r am m ar s o f t h e o l de r l a ng u ag e s, i t t e nd s
t o b e c a l l e d “ o p t a t i v e . ” I n g r a m m a r s o f t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t i s
u s ua l ly r e fe r re d t o a s “ s ub j un c ti v e” ( GE “ Ko n ju n kt i v” ) . F r om t h e s t an d po i nt o f e t y-
m ol og y, t he f or me r i s m or e a cc ur at e, s in ce t he f or ms i n q ue st io n d er iv e f ro m I E o pt at iv e
f or ms . I n t he ir u se , h ow ev er , t he y c on fl at e t he f un ct io ns o f t he I E o pt at iv e a nd t he
s u b j u n c t i v e , w h i c h d o e s n o t s u r v i v e f o r m a l l y i n G M C . A d d i n g f u r t h e r t o t h e t e r m i n o -
l ogi c a l c onf us i on i s t he c oe xi s t e nc e i n G MC of t w o di f f e r e nt i nf l e c t i ona l pa r a di gm s f or
t h is o p ta t iv e /s u bj u nc t iv e m o od . T h es e a r e m o st s t an d ar d ly r e fe r re d t o a s p r es e nt s u b-
junctive and past subjunctive (or present optative and preterite optative) respectively.
I t i s i mp or ta nt t o k ee p i n m in d, h ow ev er , t ha t t he se t er ms a re b as ed o n t he m or ph o-
l og ic al s ha pe s o f t he f or ms i n q ue st io n, a nd n ot o n t he ir m ea ni ng s. T he re i s n ot , a nd
n ev er h as b ee n, a c on tr as t i n t im e r ef er en ce b et we en t he t wo ( bu t s ee b el ow f or a ni m por t a nt qua l i f i c a t i on) . S om e gr a m m a t i c a l t r a di t i ons ha ve di s pe ns e d w i t h t he s e l a be l s
a l to g et h er . F o r e x am p le , i n G E g r am m at i ca l d e sc r ip t io n s, t h ey a re g e ne r al l y k n ow n
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g p , g p , y g y
r e sp e ct i ve l y a s s u bj u nc t iv e I ( f o r “ p re s en t s u bj u nc t iv e ”) a n d s u bj u nc t iv e I I ( fo r “ p as t
s ub ju nc ti ve ”) . I w il l c on ti nu e t o u se t he t ra di ti on al t er ms , a nd w e w il l t ur n s ho rt ly t o
e vi de nc e i ndi c a t i ng t ha t t he l a be l s “ pr e s e nt s ubj unc t i ve ” a nd “ pa s t s ubj unc t i ve ” a r e notwholly inappropriate.
P r es e nt s u bj u nc t iv e s a r e s o -c al l ed b e ca u se t h ei r s t em r e se m bl e s t h at o f t h e p r es e nt
t e n s e i n d i c a t i v e – t h a t i s , t h e e- g r a d e f o r m o f t h e r o o t i n s t r o n g v e r b s . P a s t s u b j u n c t i v e s
a r e s o - c a l l e d b e c a u s e t h e y a r e t y p i c a l l y f o r m e d f r o m t h e s a m e r o o t a s t h a t u s e d i n t h e
I n e ac h o f t he se c as es , w e s ee t hat t he v owe l o f t he p re se nt s ub ju nc ti ve i s l ik e t hat o f
t he p re se nt s in gu la r i nd ic at iv e, w hi le t he v ow el o f t he p as t s ub ju nc ti ve i s l ik e t ha t
o f t h e p a st p l u ra l i n di c at i ve , a s id e f r om d i ff e re n ce s i nt r od u ce d b y l at e r s o un d c h an g es ,
s u c h a s t h e u m l a u t i n stu n d en p r o d u c e d b y t h e f o r m e r f r o n t v o w e l o f t h e s u b j u n c t i v e
su ffi x. T hi s al i gnm e nt bet we en pr e s ent a nd pa st t ens e and th e t wo t yp es of
s ub ju nc ti ve s a pp ea rs t o h av e b ee n a cc id en ta l i n o ri gi n – r ef le ct i ng t wo d i ff er en t
m od es o f f or mi ng o pt at iv es i n I E ( at he ma ti c a nd t he ma ti c) w hi ch h ad n o o ri gi na l
t em por al s ig ni fi ca nc e, a nd s im pl y h ap pe ne d t o l in e u p i n a p ar ti cu la r w ay w it h
G M C p r e s en t / p as t p a r ad i g m s ( B e ek e s 1995: 2 4 6 ) . H o w e v e r , G M C h a s s y s t e m a t i z e d
a nd r ei nf or ce d t hi s l in k b et we en t he t wo s ubj un ct iv e f or ma ti on s a nd t en se . F or
e xa mp le , t ho se s tr on g v er bs w hi ch i nt ro du ce d a l on g / e: / i n p la ce o f z er o g ra de i n
t h e p r e t e r i t e p l u r a l s a l s o d i d s o i n t h e p a s t s u b j u n c t i v e o f t h e s a m e v e r b c l a s s e s ( G O
beru n ‘ t h e y b o r e -P a s tI n d i c’ , b er e i n a ‘ m ig h t t h e y b e a r -P a s t Su b j u nc t ’ ) , t h u s c o n t in u -
ing th e f or mal c or re sp on de nc e be twe en t he t wo . Ov er t ime , t he t wo t ype s of
s u bj u n ct i ve s h a ve b e co m e p r og r es s iv e ly l e ss d i st i nc t f r om t he f o rm a ll y c o rr e sp o nd -
i ng t en se s i n t he i nd ic at iv e. P re se nt s ub j un ct iv es h av e b ec om e l es s d is ti nc t f ro mp re se nt i nd ic at iv es , a nd p as t s ub j un ct iv es f ro m p as t i nd i ca ti ve s. S o, f or e xa mp le ,
w hi le G O s ys te ma ti ca ll y d if fe re nt ia te d p as t s ub ju nc ti ve f ro m p as t i nd ic at iv e i n
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y y p j p
w ea k a s w el l a s s tr on g v er bs ( h a b a i d a ‘ he h ad ’ / h a b a i d ed i ‘ h e m ig ht h av e’ ), p as t
i n d i c a t i v e s a n d p a s t s u b j u n c t i v e s h a v e b e c o m e i d e n t i c a l f o r r e g u l a r w e a k v e r b s e v e n
i n s uc h r el at iv el y c on se rv at iv e m od er n l an gu ag es a s G E a nd I C ( GE ho¨
rte , ICh eyr þ e ‘ h e ar d ( 3 Sg P as t Su b ju n ct / In d ic ) ’. B o th l a ng u ag e s k e ep t h e t w o d i st i nc t o n ly
in th e s ub cla ss o f we ak v er bs ex hi bi ti ng “ Ru cku m l a u t ” – t ha t i s, u ml au t i n t he
i ndi c a t i ve pr e s e nt but not t he i ndi c a t i ve pa s t t e ns e . W i t h t he s e ve r bs , t he pa s t i ndi c a t i ve
h as a n u nu ml au te d v ow el , w hi le t he p as t s ub ju nc ti ve h as a n u ml au te d v ow el ( GE
280 5 T he v e rb al s ys te m s o f G er ma ni c
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f o r m f o r t h i r d p e r s o n ( s e e , e . g . , E i n a r s s o n 1945: 1 5 0 o n I C ) . I n G O , w h e r e t h e r e i s s t i l l
a t h i r d p e r s o n i m p e r a t i v e , b o t h i t a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r e s e n t s u b j u n c t i v e f o r m s a r e
u se d t o t ra ns la te G re ek i mp er at iv es , d ep en di ng o n t he d eg re e t o w hi ch t he s pe ak er
w is he s t he o ut co me . T hi rd p er so n i mp er at iv e i s u se d o nl y w he n i t i s c le ar t ha t t he
s p e a k e r d o e s n o t d o s o , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g :
C om pa re t he f ol lo wi ng , i n w hi ch t he G re ek i mp er at iv e i s t ra ns la te d a s a p re se nt
subjunctive:
I n o th er u se s, t he d if fe re nc e b et we en p re se nt a nd p as t s ub ju nc ti ve i s n ot s o s ha rp .
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F or e xa mp le , G E u se s s ub ju nc ti ve i n r ep or te d s pe ec h, t o d is ta nc e t he s pe ak er f ro m
c o mm i tm e nt t o t h e t r ut h o f t h e s p ee ch b e in g r e po r te d . I n p r in c ip l e, e i th e r s u bj u nc t iv e
c an b e u se d b as ic al ly i nt er ch an ge ab ly h er e, t ho ug h w he re o ne o f t he f or ms i s n on -d i st i nc t f r om i t s i n di c at i ve c o un t er p ar t t h er e i s a t e nd e nc y t o p r ef e r t h e o t he r.
G E d o e s n o t e x h i b i t t h e t e n s e s h i f t t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n d i r e c t r e p o r t i n g o f s p e e c h i n
e i t h e r a p p e a r i n g a s a p r e s e n t s u b j u n c t i v e ( 5 . 1 5 d ) o r a s a p a s t s u b j u n c t i v e ( 5 . 1 5 e ) ( K r e s s
1982: 2 3 6 ) .
T hi s i s s ig ni fi ca nt , s in ce i t i nd ic at es t he t wo d if fe re nt s ub ju nc ti ve f or ms d o h av e
c o nt r as t iv e t e ns e v a lu e s f o r s o me p u rp o se s . I t i s n o t a d i ff er e nc e i n m e an i ng , t h ou g h.
T h i s i s s h o w n b y t h e f a c t t h a t , w h e n t h e o r i g i n a l u t t e r a n c e h a s a p a s t t e n s e v e r b , i t m u s tb e r e po r te d i n i n di r ec t d i sc o ur s e b y m e an s o f a p e ri p hr as t ic p e rf e ct c o ns t ru c ti o n w i th
‘ h a v e ’ i n o n e o r a n o t h e r s u b j u n c t i v e f o r m ( d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t e n s e o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e ) .
282 5 T he v e rb al s ys te m s o f G er ma ni c
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A s a p r o d u c t i v e d e v i c e , h o w e v e r , i t h a s b e e n s u p e r s e d e d i n t h i s f u n c t i o n b y m o d a l p l u s
infinitive constructions.
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infinitive constructions.
(5.16) g. Ja, m a h o n l e ve. . .!
l on g m ay s he l iv e( SW , H o lm e s a n d H i nc h cl i ff e 1 9 94 : 2 9 5)
I n s om e o f t he se l an gu ag es , t he p re se nt s ub ju nc ti ve s ur vi ve s i n a s om ew ha t m or e
p r o d u c t i v e w a y a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h i r d p e r s o n i m p e r a t i v e s i n s u c h c o n t e x t s a s r e c i p e s
( c f. D onal ds on 1981: 1 6 0 ) .
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Table 5.1 I n fl e c ti o na l e n di n gs o f a c ti v e s t ro n g v e r bs i n s e le c te d G e rm a ni c l a ng u ag e s
5.2 M o d a l a u x i li a ri es
T he t re at me nt o f m od al v er bs i s c om pl ic at ed b y t he f ac t t ha t t he s em an ti c, m or ph o-
l og ic al , s el ec ti on al a nd s yn ta ct ic c ri te ri a f or t he ir i de nt if ic at io n d o n ot c on ve rg e
e xa ct ly o n a s in gl e s et o f e le me nt s. O n t he m or ph ol og ic al s id e, m os t m od al v er bs
a re , h i st o ri c al l y, “ p re t er o -p r es e nt ” ( o r p e rf e ct - pr e se n t) v e rb s – t h at i s , v e rb s w h os e
p r e s e n t t e n s e i s f o r m e d o n t h e I E p e r f e c t , r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e I E p r e s e n t ( a f a c t r e l a t e d t ot h ei r g e ne r al l y s t at i ve m e an i ng s ). T h is r e su l ts i n p r es e nt t e ns e f o rm s w h ic h r es e mb l e
t he p as t t en se f or ms o f b as ic s tr on g v er bs w it h r es pe ct t o t he ir v oc al is m a nd e nd in gs .
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T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e G O kunnan ‘ t o k n o w ’ h a s a p r e s e n t t e n s e w h i c h l o o k s l i k e t h e
p as t t en se o f a c or re sp on di ng r eg ul ar s tr on g v er b o f t he s am e c la ss :
B e c a u s e o f t h i s o r i g i n , u n l i k e r e g u l a r v e r b s i n t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e , t h e y a r e e n d i n g l e s s
i n t he f ir st a nd t hi rd p er so n s in gu la r – a c ha ra ct er is ti c o f s tr on g v er b p as t t en se s.
b ut f ai l t o p at te rn a s m od al s w it h r es pe ct t o o th er c ri te ri a, i nc lu di ng m ea ni ng ( se e
b el ow ). T he re i s, t ho ug h , a h is to ri ca l t en de nc y t o a dj us t t he m or ph ol og y i n s uc h a
w ay a s t o m ax im iz e t he c or re sp on de n ce b et we en t hi s d is ti nc ti ve p re te ro -p re se nt
i n fl e ct i on a l p a tt e rn a n d m o da l m e an i ng . T h us , o n t h e o n e h a nd , d a r e , h i s t o r i c a l l y a
p re te ro -p re se nt b u t w it h a n on -m od al m ea ni ng , n ow o cc ur s w it h t he r eg ul ar 3 Sg - s
i n a t l ea st s om e s yn t ac ti c c ir cu ms ta nc es ( ‘H e d ar es t o d o t ha t’ , v s. ‘ He d ar e n ot d o
t h a t ’) . C o n v er s e ly , n eed , o ri gi na ll y a r eg ul ar w ea k v er b, n ot a p re te ro -p re se nt , b ut
w it h a m oda l m ea ni ng, no w t en ds t o ap pe ar wi th out the - s u n de r s om e c ir cu m-
s ta nc es (‘H e n eeds t o do t hat ’, b ut ‘ He ne ed no t d o t ha t’). No te t ha t i t ha s a lso
a ss im il at ed t o m od al s w it h r es pe ct t o s yn ta ct ic p ro pe rt ie s, s uc h a s t he a bi li ty t o
p re ce de t he c la us al n eg at or , a nd t he a bi li ty t o a pp ea r w it h p re po si ti on l es s i nf in i-t iv es , w hi ch w il l b e d is cu ss ed b el ow . D ev el op me nt s c om pa ra bl e t o o ne o r a no th er
o f t h e s e a r e a l s o f o u n d i n o t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s . Y I f l eg n ‘ u s e d t o ’ a n d ker n ‘ ought
t o ’, o r ig i na l ly n o n- p re t er o -p r es e nt w i th m o da l -l i ke m e an i ng s , h a ve c o me t o i n fl e ct
a s a p re te ro -p re se nt i n s om e v ar ie ti es o f Y I ( Bi rn ba um 1979 : 2 63 ; J ac ob s 2005 :
2 16 ), w hi le G E t a u g en, ‘b e o f us e, av ai l’, an d go¨
n n en ‘ to n o t b e gr ud g e ’, o r ig i na lp re te ro -p re se nt s w it h n on -m od al m ea ni ng s, h av e c ea se d t o i nf le ct a s p re te ro -
p re se nt s. M or eo ve r, a s D en is on (1993: 2 96 f. ) p oi nt s o ut , o th er m em be rs o f t he c la ss
f t t it h t d l i h t d d t d i t i i
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o f p re te ro -p re se nt s w it ho ut m od al m ea ni ng s h av e t en de d t o d is ap pe ar o ve r t im e i n
E N ( e .g . , unnan ‘ t o g r an t ’, dugan ‘avail’, witan ‘ to k no w’ a nd a ll o th er n on -m od al
p re te ro -p re se nt s i n O E) , t hu s f ur th er i nc re as in g t he c or re sp on de nc e. W hi le t hec o rr e sp o nd e nc e b e tw ee n t h is m o rp h ol o gy a n d m e mb e rs h ip i n t h e m o da l c at e go r y i s
n ot c om pl et e, i t i s t he m os t d is ti nc ti ve c ha ra ct er is ti c o f t he c la ss a cr os s t he G MC
l a n g u a g e s , a n d o n e w h i c h s e e m s t o h a v e b e c o m e m o r e s t r o n g l y a l i g n e d w i t h s e m a n t i c
p r op e rt i es o v er t i me . O t he r m o rp h ol o gi c al p r op e rt i es i n cl u de p a rt i ci p at i on i n t h e G E
d o ub l e- i nf i ni t iv e c o ns t ru c ti o n i n p e rf ec t t e ns e s d i sc u ss e d i n n o te 1 2 H o we v er t h is i s
R o ot m e an i ng s a re s o me t im e s f u rt h er c at e go r iz e d a s d e on t ic ( o bl i ga t io n a n d p e rm i s-
s i on ) a n d d y na m ic ( t ho s e h a v i ng t o d o w i th p o ss i bi l it y a n d i n te n t) .
E pi st em ic a nd r oo t i nt er pr et at io ns o f m od al s a re f ou nd i n a ll o f t he m od er n G MC
l a ng u ag e s. H o we v er , e p is t em i c i n te rp r et a ti o ns s e em t o b e l e ss f r eq u en t i n t h e e a rl i er l a n g u a g e s , l a r g e l y r e s t r i c t e d i n O E , f o r e x a m p l e , t o ‘ m a y / m i g h t ’ ( D e n i s o n 1993: 2 9 8 ) .
5.2 Modal auxiliaries 287
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G oos s e ns (1982) c l a i m s t h a t t h e y a r e i n l a r g e p a r t a s e c o n d a r y d e v e l o p m e n t i n E N . I f
s o , t h e n t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n a c r o s s t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s w o u l d a p p e a r t o b e a n o t h e r c a s eo f s i mi l ar i ty b y c o nv e rg e nc e .
T he s em an ti c a rg um en t o f t he m od al i s t he e nt ire p re di ca ti on ( ‘h e i s a rr es te d’ i n
( 5. 20 a, b ), f or e xa mp le ). T he f ir st o ne a ss er ts t ha t t ha t p ro po si ti on i s d es ir ab le . T he
s ec on d a ss er ts t ha t i t i s h ea rs ay . I n n ei th er o ne i s t he re a d ir ec t, s em an ti c c on ne ct io n
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K re ss ( 19 82 : 1 4 7f f. ), l ik e E in ar ss on , t re at s b ot h o f t h e I C c on st ru ct io ns a s d is ti nc t
p e ri p hr a st i c v e rb a l a s pe c t c o ns t ru c ti o ns , b o th o f w h ic h b e lo n g t o v e rb a l p a ra d ig m s,c l a s s i f y i n g t h e m r e s p e c t i v e l y a s “ R e s u l t a t i v e / S i t u a t i v e ” a n d “ P e r f e c t ” c o n j u g a t i o n s .
I t i s n o t o b v i o u s , h o w e v e r , i n v i e w o f i t s s t a t i v e m e a n i n g , t h a t t h e f o r m e r m i g h t n o t
b e b e tt e r a n al y ze d a s a p r ed i ca t e a d je c ti v e c o ns t ru c ti o n w i th a p a rt i ci p ia l a d je c ti v e,
r a t h e r t h a n a v e r b a l c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a v e r b a l p a s t p a r t i c i p l e . S e e M i t c h e l l 1985 : I,
3 03 ff . f or a s im il ar r es er va ti on a bo ut w he th er t he re w as a t ru e p er fe ct w it h ‘ be ’
i n O E .
A s im il ar s et o f q ue st io ns a ri se s w it h r es pe ct t o p ro gr es si ve , o r c on ti nu ou s t en se ,
c o ns t ru c ti o ns . A s n o te d a b ov e , E N h a s a p r og r es s iv e c o ns t ru c ti o n, c o ns i st i ng o f t w o
c o m p o n e n t s : a n a u x i l i a r y a n d a n o n f i n i t e v e r b f o r m . T h e - ing g e r u n d i n ( 5 . 3 2 ) b e h a v e s
l i ke a v e rb i n , f o r e x am p le , t a ki n g a d ve r bi a l m o di f ie rs a n d N P c o mp l em e nt s .
(5.32) I am slowly finishing this chapter
S in ce i t i s b ui lt u p f ro m t he s am e t yp es o f e le me nt s a s o th er p er ip hr as ti c t en se /a sp ec t
t t i i t h l di i t t f t h t / t t f
5.3 Developments in the expression of tense in Germanic 295
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c on st ru ct io ns i n t he l an gu ag e, r eg ar di ng i t a s a p ar t o f t he t en se /a sp ec t s ys te m o f
E N, t ha t i s, a s a p ar t o f t he v er ba l c on ju ga ti on ( in a s en se a pp ro pr ia te ly e nl ar ge d t o
i n cl u de p e ri p hr as t ic c o ns t ru c ti o ns ) , s e em s u n pr o bl e ma t ic . I C a l so h a s a c o ns t ru c ti o nw h ic h s i gn i fi e s c o nt i nu o us t e ns e , c a ll e d “ p ro g re s si v e” b y T h rai n s s o n (1994: 1 6 3 ) a n d
“ k u r s i v ” b y K r e s s (1982: 1 5 9 ) . T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n , t o o , i s f o r m e d w i t h a n a u x i l i a r y ‘ b e ’
p l u s a n o n f i n i t e f o r m o f t h e v e r b – i n t h i s c a s e , t h e i n f i n i t i v e . H o w e v e r , i t a l s o i n c l u d e s
a t h ir d e l em e nt , t h e i n fi n it i ve m a rk e r að .5
F a r t h e r t o w a r d t h e m a r g i n s i s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i n D A ( 5 . 3 3 b ) a n d F A ( B a r n e s 1994:
2 11 ), a nd t he Y I c on st ru ct io n i n ( 5. 33 c) , w hi ch i nc lu de s, b es id es t he a ux il ia ry , t he
n o nf i ni t e v e rb a n d t h e c o mp l em e nt i ze r, a p r ep o si t io n .
F a r t h e r s t i l l f r o m t h e c a n o n i c a l s t r u c t u r e o f a p e r i p h r a s t i c t e n s e / a s p e c t i s t h e c o n s t r u c -
t i o n i n A F ( 5 . 3 3 d ) t h a t L o c k w o o d ( 1965: 2 1 0 ) r e f e r s t o a s “ c o n t i n u o u s t e n s e ” ( s e e a l s o
Donaldson 2000: 1 1 4 ) .
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T he m ea ni ng o f t hi s c on st ru ct io n a ga in o ve rl ap s w it h t ha t o f t he E N p ro gr es si ve , b uth e r e w e w o u l d b e o n m o r e s o l i d g r o u n d i n d e n y i n g i t s t a t u s a s a p a r t o f t h e t e n s e / a s p e c t
m a rk i ng p a ra d ig m s o f A F, s i nc e skryf i s n o t a f o r m o f a v e r b a t a l l , b u t a n o u n .
E b e r t (2000: 6 0 7 ) e x t e n d s t h e u m b r e l l a o f “ p r o g r e s s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s ” f a r e n o u g h t o
i nc lu de p ar ap hr as es l ik e ( 5. 33 e) , f ou nd i n a n um be r o f m od er n G MC l an gu ag es , a nd
c o nc l ud e s t h at a l l o f t h e m o de r n l a ng u ag e s h a ve p r og r es s iv e c o ns t ru c ti o ns ( s ee a l so
pe ri phr a st i c c onst ruc t ions c onsi s ti ng of no m ore t han a ( ver ba l ) f orm of t he l e xi c al ve rb
( i nf i ni t i ve , pa r t i c i pl e or ge r und) , a n a uxi l i a r y, a nd a n i nf i ni t i ve m a r ke r s uc h a s to and að.
Excluded by this criterion are such constructions as the “singulative aspect” construction
us ed i n Y i ddi sh t o e xpr e ss one- ti m e a c ti on ( J ac obs 2005: 22 2), a s i n er tut a k uk ‘he gives
a g la nc e’ , s in ce i t a pp ea rs t o i nv o lv e a n o un , r at he r t ha n a n on fi ni te v er b f or m, t ho u gh
a s J a c o b s p o i n t s o u t , t h e s i t u a t i o n i s n o t q u i t e s o c l e a r - c u t a s t h i s .
5.3.2 Future
G M C l a c k s a n i n f l e c t i o n a l f u t u r e . A l l o f t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s a l l o w t h e u s e o f “ p r e s e n t ”
t e n s e f o r m s i n r e f e r e n c e t o f u t u r e t i m e . T h i s i s t h e n o r m a l e x p r e s s i o n o f f u t u r e i n G O ,
f or e xa mpl e ( S t re i t ber g 1920: 2 01 ). G O m ak es m ar gi na l u se o f t he p er fe ct iv e p re fi x
ga- t o r e i n f o r c e t h e f u t u r e m e a n i n g o f p r e s e n t t e n s e f o r m s w i t h d u r a t i v e v e r b s , t h o u g h
a l w a y s w i t h a n a c c o m p a n y i n g s e n s e o f p e r f e c t i v i t y . S o , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e f o l l o w i n g ,
t he f ir st v er b t ra ns la te s a G re ek f ut ur e, a nd t he s ec on d a G re ek p re se nt .
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S om e ( t hough pos s i bl y not a l l ) of t he m ode r n l a ngua ge s ha ve de ve l ope d pe r i phr a s t i cf ut ur e c on st ru ct io ns . E ve n i n l an gu ag es w he re a p er ip hr as ti c f ut ur e h as d ev el op ed ,
p re se nt f or ms c an b e u se d t o c on ve y f ut ur e m ea ni ng s, a nd t he re a re s om e c on te xt s w he re
o n l y t h e p r e s e n t , n o t t h e p e r i p h r a s t i c f u t u r e , c a n b e u s e d i n r e f e r e n c e t o f u t u r e t i m e . S o ,
f o r e x a m pl e , p r es e nt t e ns e s t an d s i n f o r t h e f u t u re q u it e g e ne r al l y i n s u bo r di n at e t i me
(5.35) d. I’ll call you tomorrow
( Th e u se o f p re se nt f or f ut ur e i s n ot u nr es tr ic te d e ls ew he re , h ow ev er . A ll en et al .
(1995: 2 69 ) p oi nt o ut t ha t i n D A, p re se nt -a s- fu tu re i s f re qu en t w it h t el ic v er bs ( th os e
w h i c h i m p l y a g o a l o r e n d - p o i n t ) , s u c h a s ‘ s t o p ’ , ‘ c o m e ’ , b u t n o t g e n e r a l l y w i t h a t e l i c
v e r b s ( w h i c h d o n o t i m p l y a g o a l o r e n d - p o i n t ) , s u c h a s ‘ l i v e ’ , ‘ r e a d ’ , ‘ e a t ’ , w i t h w h i c ha f u tu r e a u xi l ia r y i s n o rm a ll y u s ed . )
T he p re se nt t en se E N g lo ss o n ( 5. 35 c) , h ow ev er , i s p os si bl e i n a s it ua ti on w it h
i nt en ded fu tu re re fere nce i f u tt ered i n a co nte xt wh er e th e s pe ak er is o ff eri ng a
r e mi n de r /a s ki n g f o r a c o nf i rm a ti o n o f a p r e- ex i st i ng p l an :
(5.35) e. So it’s s ettled. I call y ou tomorrow and then y ou call John.
I n g e n e r a l , i t s e e m s t o b e t h e c a s e t h a t s i m p l e p r e s e n t s u s e d a s f u t u r e s a r e p o s s i b l e o n l y
w h er e t h is r e qu i re m en t o f r ef e rr i ng t o a n a l re a dy s c he d ul e d f u tu r e e v en t i s s a ti s fi e d.
(5.35) f. The train leaves on Friday
T hi s r es tr ic ti on h as t o d o w it h m or e g en er al d if fe re nc es b et we en E N a nd o th er G MC
l a n g u a g e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e s i m p l e p r e s e n t – i n p a r t i c u l a r , i t i s r e l a t e d
t o t he g en er al f ac t t ha t t he E N s im pl e p re se nt d oe s n ot p oi nt t o s pe ci fi c i ns ta nt s i n
t im e b ut r at he r i s u se d i n p re di ca ti on s o f a g en er ic h ab it ua l t im el es sl y t ru e n at ur e
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t im e, b ut r at he r i s u se d i n p re di ca ti on s o f a g en er ic , h ab it ua l, t im el es sl y t ru e n at ur e,
with present progressive being used to locate events in the immediate now.
C or re sp on di ng ly , p re se nt p ro gr es si ve c an b e u se d t o e xp re ss f ut ur e t en se i n E Nw i th o ut t h e l i mi t at i on s i m po s ed o n s i mp l e f u tu r e.
(5.35) g. I’m seeing the new Star Wars film tomorrow
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N ot t ak en i nt o a cc ou nt i n t hi s t yp ol og y i s t he s tr ik in g u se o f h a b a n ‘ ha ve’ as a
f ut ur e a ux il ia ry i n G O f or d ur at iv e v er bs ( St re it be rg 1920: 2 01 ), r efle ct ed i n
( 5. 3 7a ) , f o r i n st a nc e , w h er e t a u j a and t au j an h a ba t ra ns la te a G re ek p re se nt a nd
f u t ur e r e s p ec t i v el y .
T his i s u ni qu e in GM C, t ho ug h i t h as a n in ter es tin g a nal og ue i n m os t Ro man ce
la ng ua ges , wh ere th e fu tu re su ff ix i s d eri ved fro m L at in habere ( Ro be rt s a nd
Roussou 2002: 3 6 ) .
C a s e ( 5 . 3 6 a ) i s i n s t a n t i a t e d i n G E ( a n d i n p e r h a p s p a r t i n Y I – s e e b e l o w ) , w h i c h h a s
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a da pt e d t he i nc hoa t i ve ve r b werden ‘ be c om e ’ t o us e a s a f ut ur e a uxi l i a r y. I nt e r e s t i ngl y,
D U , A F a n d F R f a i l e d t o d e v e l o p a f u t u r e o f t h i s t y p e , e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o g n a t e o f t h i sv er b ( DU worden, FR wurde) is u sed as an au xi li ar y i n o th er c on st ru cti on s, f or
e xa mpl e , pa s s ive ( A bra ha m 1989: 3 6 2 ) .
C as e ( 5. 36 b) , i n w hi ch v er bs o f m ot io n b ec om e f ut ur e a ux il ia ri es , i s f ou nd i n a
v ar ie ty o f W es t a nd N or th G MC l an gu ag es . ‘ Co me ’ a s a f ut ur e a ux il ia ry i s p ri ma ri ly
T hi s i s n ot u ni ve rs al a mo ng t he se l an gu ag es , t ho ug h. W F, f or e xa mp le , l ac ks s uc h
‘ go ’- fu tu re c on st ru ct io n , a si de f ro m c as es i n w hi ch a ct ua l m ot io n i s i nv ol ve d, a s d oe s G E.
I n g e n e r a l , t h e ‘ g o ’ f u t u r e i s u s e d f o r p r o x i m a t e f u t u r e , f o r e x a m p l e , i n E N , D U a n d Y I .F in al ly , i n c as e ( 5. 36 c) , f ut ur e a ux il ia ri es d er iv e f ro m m od al v er bs . A ll m od al v er bs a re
i nher e nt l y f utur e- ori e nt e d, s i nc e t he s e nt e nc es i n w hic h t hey oc cur de sc ri be pote nti al i ti e s .
I n f ac t, t ho ug h, o n ly t he m od al ‘ wi ll ’, w it h i ts o ri gi na l v ol it io na l m ea ni ng , a nd ‘ sh al l’ ,
w i t h i t s or i gi na l m e a ni ng of obl i ga t i on, e vol ve i nt o f ut ur e a uxi l i a r i e s . A l l of t he m ode r n
G MC l an gu ag es e xc ep t f or G E, w hi ch h as c ho se n t he i nc ho at iv e werden a s i ts f ut ur e
a ux il ia ry e xc lu si ve ly , a nd I C, w hi ch h as d ev el op ed n o t ru e f ut ur e a ux il ia ry a t a ll , h av e
t ur ne d one or t he ot he r of t he s e t w o m oda l s i nt o a f ut ur e a uxi l i a r y ( w hi l e s om e t i m e s a l s o
r e ta i ni ng i t i n i t s m oda l f unc ti ons ) . I n e a rl i er s t age s of G E , t oo, ‘ s ha l l’ w a s t he m ost us ua l
c hoi c e f or t he e xpr e s s i on of f ut ur e , oc c ur r i ng w i t h r e gul a r i t y i n O H G , t hough ge ne r a l l y
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c o c e o t e e p e s s o o ut u e , oc c u g w t e gu a t y O G , t oug ge e a y
r e ta i ni ng s ome of i t s e a rl i er m oda l m e aning ( E rdm ann 1874: 5 ) . A b r a h a m (1989: 3 6 8 )
n ot es t ha t F R, l ac ki ng t he ‘ go ’ f ut ur e o f o th er W es t G MC l an gua ge s a nd t he werden-
f ut ur e o f G E a nd Y I, i s u ni qu e a m ong t he G MC l an gu ag es i n h av in g o n ly t he m od al t yp e,
w i t h t he a uxi l i a r y sille. T h e r e i s w i d e v a r i a t i o n a c r o s s m o d e r n G M C w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
c hoi c e be t w e e n t he s e t w o m oda l s a s t he f ut ur e a uxi l i a r y. S om e di a l e c t s of E N us e bot h,
a nd e i ght ee nth- ce ntur y pr es c ri pti ve a t t em pts a t r e gul at i ng t hei r di s tr ibuti on l e d t o t he
I n s om e o f t he o ld er l an gu ag es , t he p ar ti ci pl e e xh ib it ed v ar ia bl e a gr ee me nt w it h a
c o - o c c u r r i n g N P ( t h e s u b j e c t i n c a s e t h e p e r f e c t a u x i l i a r y w a s ‘ b e ’ , o r t h e o b j e c t i n c a s e
i t w as ‘ ha ve ’) . T he f or me r c as e i s i ll us tr at ed i n ( 5. 41 e) . T he l at te r i s i ll us tr at ed i n
( 5 . 4 1 a ) . I t w a s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o h a v e a n o n - a g r e e i n g p a r t i c i p l e , h o w e v e r , e v e n i n t h e s e
e a rl y l a ngua ge s ( 5. 41b) .
I n t he se o ld er l an gu ag es , t he u ni nf le ct ed p ar ti ci pl e i s d ec id ed ly t he m or e f re qu en t
(Watts 2001: 1 29 ). I t i s n ot c le ar t ha t t hi s v ar ia ti on i s c on ne ct ed d ir ec tl y w it h t he
a s su m ed t r an s it i on f r om a d je ct i va l p a rt i ci p le s t o v e rb a l o n es . P a rt i ci p le a g re e me n t i n
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G MC p er fe ct c on st ru ct io ns h as t en de d t o d is ap pe ar o ve r t im e. S o, f or e xa mp le ,
E i na r ss o n (1945: 1 63 ) n ot es t ha t i n M od er n I C, t he p ar ti ci pl e i n p er fe ct c on st ru ct io nwith hafa ‘ h av e’ t ak es a n i nv ar ia nt s in gu la r n eu te r e nd in g, a s i n ( 5. 41 c) , b ut h e n ot es
t ha t i n e ar li er s ta ge s, t he p ar ti ci pl e c ou ld a gr ee w it h t he o bj ec t, a s i n ( 5. 41 d) :
I n S W , t h e d i st i nc t io n b e tw e en d e fa u lt - ne u te r p a rt i ci p le s i n p e rf ec t c o ns t ru c ti o ns
a n d a g re ei n g p a rt i ci p le s e l se wh e re ( e .g . , i n p a ss i ve s a n d i n a d je c ti v al u s es ) h a s l e d i n
r e la t iv e ly r e ce n t t i me s t o a f u rt h er f o rm a l e l ab o ra t io n b e tw ee n i n va ri a nt s u pi n e f o rm s
a nd i nf le ct ed p as t p ar ti ci pl e f or ms ( se e S ec ti on 5.5.3 a n d H ol me s a nd H in ch cl if fe
1994: 2 8 7 f o r d i sc u ss i on ) .
5.3.3.1.1 O m is s io n o f t h e p e rf e c t a u xi l ia r y S W, N O ( Ba nd le e t a l. 2005: 1 59 2)
a n d p r e- t we n ti e th - ce n tu r y M o de r n G E a l lo w t h e o m is s io n o f t h e p e rf ec t a u xi l ia ry i n
s ubordi na te c l a use s .
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T hi s c on st ru ct io n w as a pp ar en tl y b or ro we d i nt o S W f ro m G E i n t he s ev en te en th
c e n t u r y , b u t t h e n l o s t f r o m G E w h i l e i t w a s r e t a i n e d i n S W ( H a u g e n 1976: 3 7 7 ) .
5.3.3.2 P e r fe c t a ux i li a ry c h o ic e
W it h t he e xc ep ti on o f t he O HG e xp er im en t w it h eigan , p er fe ct a ux il ia ri es i n t he
W he th er I C b el on gs i n t hi s g ro up d ep en ds o n t he p ro pe r a na ly si s o f vera-perfects,
d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 5 . 1 . 4 . 1 . I n s o m e v a r i e t i e s o f A F , t o o , ‘ h a v e ’ i s u s e d a s t h e p e r f e c t
a u x i l i a r y w i t h a l l v e r b s , a l t h o u g h , m o r e u s u a l l y , ‘ b e ’ i s s t i l l u s e d f o r t h e p e r f e c t o f t h e
verb wees ‘ be ’ ( D onal ds on 1993: 2 3 7 ) .
T h e o p po s it e c a se i s r e pr es e nt e d i n S h et l an d s E N , w h er e, a s r ep o rt e d i n R o be rt s on
a nd G ra ha m 1991 a n d M e lc h er s 1992, o nly ‘b e’ o cc urs as a p erfec t au xi li ar y ( as i t u a t i o n a p p a r e n t l y u n i q u e i n t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s , t h o u g h M e l c h e r s d i s c u s s e s r e p o r t s
o f a p pa re n t h i gh l y s p or a di c i d io l ec t al p a ra l le l s i n s o ut h we s te r n N O) .
O th er l an gu ag es h av e a lt er na ti on s i n a ux il ia ry c ho ic e; i n D A, N or th er n L ow G E
a nd , v ar ia bl y, O E a nd M E ( Vi ss er 1963: 2 04 4; M us ta no ja , c it ed i n M it ch el l 1985: I,
3 0 2 ) , ‘ b e ’ i s s e l e c t e d b y i n t r a n s i t i v e m o t i o n v e r b s a n d c h a n g e o f s t a t e v e r b s a s a p e r f e c t
a u xi l ia r y, t h ou g h t h e v e rb ‘ b e’ i t se l f s e le c ts ‘ h av e ’:
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not existieren ‘ ex i st ’ a n d verweilen ‘ st ay , l in ge r’ . ( Se e L ie be r a nd B aa ye n, 1997,
a pp en di x, f or a n e xt en si ve l is t o f v er bs i n D U c at eg or iz ed b y a ux il ia ry c ho ic e. )
H e r e , h o w e v e r , v a r i a b i l i t y b e g i n s t o m a n i f e s t i t s e l f n o t o n l y i n t h e f o r m o f d i f f e r e n c e s
b et we en n ea r s yn on ym s, b ut a ls o b et we en s pe ak er s. I n G E, f or e xa mp le , v er bs o f
p o s i t i o n m a y t a k e e i t h e r a u x i l i a r y , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s p e a k e r , a n d P o n e l i s ( 1993: 4 4 6 ) ,
L ie be r a nd B aa ye n (1997) r ep or t b ot h d ia le ct v ar ia ti on a nd h is to ri ca l c om pe ti ti onb e tw e en ‘ h av e ’ a n d ‘ b e’ a s t h e p e rf e ct a u xi l ia ry w i th zijn ‘ b e ’ i n D U .
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I n t h o s e l a n g u a g e s i n w h i c h v e r b s o f m o t i o n c a n t a k e ‘ b e ’ a s a n a u x i l i a r y , t h e y d o s o
o n l y i n c a s e s w h e r e t h e m o t i o n i s “ t e l i c ” – t h a t i s , m o t i o n t o w a r d a g o a l . I n a t e l i c u s e s ,
t he v er bs o f m ot io n t ak e ‘ ha ve ’ a s a n a ux il ia ry . T hu s, f or e xa mp le , ‘ ru n’ i n L ow G E
t a k e s ‘ h a v e ’ , a s i n ( 5 . 4 4 a ) , u n l e s s a g o a l o f m o t i o n i s s p e c i f i e d ( a s i n 5 . 4 3 g ) .
di s cus s e d f ur the r i n S e ct i on 4.9.4.1.2.5. U nd e r th a t h y po t he s is , t he s u rf ac e s u bj e ct s o f
t h e “ i n t r a n s i t i v e ” v e r b s w h i c h t a k e ‘ b e ’ a s t h e i r a u x i l i a r y a r e i n f a c t u n d e r l y i n g l y d i r e c t
obj e c t s , w hi l e t hos e w hi c h t a ke ‘ ha ve ’ a r e unde r l yi ngl y s ubj e c t s . T hi s m a ke s t he f or m e r
l oo k m uc h l ik e p as si ve s en te nc es , a nd t he c la im i s t ha t ‘ be ’ a pp ea rs a s a p er fe ct a ux il ia ry
i n t h e s e c a s e s f o r t h e s a m e r e a s o n t h a t i t a p p e a r s a s a p a s s i v e a u x i l i a r y i n s o m e o f t h e s e
l a ngua ge s . Mor e r e f i ne d ve r s i ons of t hi s hypot he s i s ha ve be e n a dva nc e d. O t he r i nve s t i -g a t o r s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t t h e d e t e r m i n a n t s o f a u x i l i a r y c h o i c e a r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y s e m a n -
t i c, a n d n o t r e du c ib l e t o s y nt a ct i c s t ru c tu r e. I n ve s ti g at o rs e s po u si n g a p o si t io n o f t h is
t y pe a re d i vi d ed a b ou t w h et h er t h er e a r e m u lt i pl e s e ma n ti c d e te r mi n an t s o f a u xi l ia ry
s e l e c t i on, l e a di ng t o i r r e duc i bl e s c a l a r i t y i n a uxi l i a r y s e l e c t i on ( e . g. , S ha nnon 1995) or
w he th er i t i s p os si bl e t o i de nt if y a s in gl e s em an ti c d et er mi na nt ( Li eb er a nd B aa ye n1997) . S o r a c e ( 2 0 0 0 ) , o n t h e b a s i s o f f a c t s f r o m s o m e R o m a n c e a n d G M C l a n g u a g e s ,
a d va n ce s t h e f o ll o wi n g d e sc ri p ti v e A u xi l ia ry S el e ct i on H ie r ar c hy t o c h ar a ct e ri z e t h e
v a r i a t i o n . L a n g u a g e s d i f f e r w i t h r e s p e c t t o h o w f a r d o w n t h e h i e r a r c h y ‘ b e ’ e x t e n d s .
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5 .3 .4 T he m ea ni ng o f t he ( pr es en t) p e rf ec t a nd t he p a st
W h a t e x a c t l y t h e p e r f e c t m e a n s , w h e t h e r i t i s a n a s p e c t o r a t e n s e , a n d w h e t h e r i t h a s a
c om mo n m ea ni ng a cr os s t he G MC l an gu ag es a re a ls o m at te rs o f s ub st an ti al a nd
(5.46) a. He has just left
b . I h a v e o n l y s e e n t h r e e M e l G i b s o n m o v i e s ( t h i s y e a r )
c . ! ! I n L o n d o n i n t h e 7 0 s , I h a v e s e e n B i g B e n t h r e e t i m e s
T he re a re r at he r r em ar ka bl e d if fe re nc es a cr os s t he G MC l an gu ag es , t ho ug h, w it h
r es pe ct t o h ow t hi s “ pr es en t r el ev an ce ” r eq ui re me nt i s c on st ru ed . O n t he o ne h an d,
i n ( St an da rd ) E N, D A a nd S W, f or e xa mp le , p re se nt p er fe ct i s a ls o u se d t o e xp re ss
d ur at iv e e ve nt s w hi ch s ta rt ed i n t he p as t b ut c on ti nu e o n i nt o t he p re se nt , w he re as i n
G E, D U, A F a nd I ri sh E N t he se a re t yp ic al ly e xp re ss ed a s s im pl e p re se nt e ve nt s.6
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B o og a ar t (1999: 1 51 ) n ot es t ha t D U c an u se e it he r p re se nt t en se o r p re se nt p er fe ct i n
su ch co nt ex ts , a s ca n GE ( Hen dri ck s (1981: 4 0), t ho ugh wi th a su bt le m ea nin g
d i f f e r e n c e . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e E N , D A a n d S W s e n t e n c e s h e r e l o s e t h e “ c o n t i n u i n g i n t o
t he p re se nt ” s en se w he n t he t im e p hr as e i s o mi tt ed , w hi le r et ai ni ng “ pr es en t r el e-
v a nc e. ” E x am p le ( 5 .4 7 h) c a n b e i n te r pr et e d t o m e an t h at t h ey a re n o l o ng e r m a r r ie d .
(5.47) h. They have been married
H o we v er i t d i ff e rs f r om
(5.47) i. They were married
in t ha t (5 .4 7h ) s ti ll s ug ges ts t hat t he t im e f ram e i s s til l o pen , an d t hat t hey ma yt h e r e f o r e r e m a r r y a t s o m e p o i n t i n t h e f u t u r e , w h e r e a s ( 5 . 4 7 i ) d o e s n o t . T h i s i n d i c a t e s
t ha t t he d ef au lt i nt er pr et at io n o f p re se nt p er fe ct i s ‘ ev en t/ s ta te e xi st in g p ri or t o t he
p re se nt , b ut w it h p re se nt r el ev an ce ’, b ut t ha t i n s om e l an gu ag es , t he p re se nc e o f
d u ra t io n p h ra s es a l lo w s t h e s t re t ch i ng o f t h e e v en t i t se l f i n to t h e p r es e nt .
I n D A a n d S W , b u t n o t i n E N , t h e r e q u i s i t e “ p r e s e n t r e l e v a n c e ” c a n b e s u p p l i e d b y
t h e s i m p l e c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e o f a n o b j e c t / s t a t e c r e a t e d b y a p a s t e v e n t , a s i n ( 5 . 4 8 ) :
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T hi d d f “ l ” i j f i f f i
V ar ia ti on i s f ou nd w it h r es pe ct t o p re se nt r el ev an ce e ve n i n d ia le ct s o f a s in gl e
l an gu ag e. B ri ti sh E N, f or e xa mp le , r eq ui re s p re se nt p er fe ct i n I ’v e a lr ea dy e a te n,w he re as A me ri ca n E N a nd I ri sh E N a dm it I a lr ea dy a te (Harris 1993: 1 6 2 ) .
V a ri o us m e an s h a ve b e en a d va n ce d f o r c a pt u ri n g t h is d i ff e re n ce b e tw ee n p e rf e ct
a n d p a st f o rm a ll y . M a ny i n ve s ti g at o rs h a ve a t te m pt e d t o c h ar a ct e ri z e t h e d i ff e re n ce
i n f un da me nt al ly t em po ra l t er ms , i nv ol vi ng t he b as ic o pp os it io ns a nt er io ri ty /
non- ant e ri or i ty a nd s i m ult a nei t y/ non- s im ul t ane i t y. S e e Mus a n 2001 f or a s um ma ryo f s uc h a cc ou nt s. I n t he se a cc ou nt s, w hi ch t yp ic al ly s ta rt o ut f ro m t he s ch em at a f ir st
a dv an ce d b y R ei ch en ba ch (1947) , t en se s a re c ha ra ct er iz ed b y r ef er en ce t o t hr ee
d if fe re nt p oi nt s o n t he t im el in e a lo ng w hi ch t he y o cc ur . [ E] i s t he t im e o f t he e ve nt
i ts el f. [ S] i s t he t im e o f t he s pe ak er ’s u tt er an ce o f t he s en te nc e. [ R] i s a “ re fe re nc e
t i m e ” – a t h i r d p o i n t a l o n g t h e t i m e l i n e , w h i c h m a y o r m a y n o t b e d i s t i n c t f r o m t h e f i r s t
t wo – b y ref eren ce t o wh ich t he ev en t i s l oca li ze d i n ti me. T hu s, fo r e xam pl e, i n
A nd er ss on ’s a cc ou nt ( 19 89 : 4 1) , p as t t en se m ea ns s im pl y [ E < S ] – t h a t i s , t h a t t h e
t i m e o f t h e e v e n t i s a n t e r i o r t o t h e t i m e o f s p e a k i n g . P e r f e c t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s h a r e s
w i t h t h e p a s t t h a t c o m p o n e n t o f m e a n i n g , a d d s t h e a d d i t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t [ R , S ] – t h a t
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i s , R i s s i m u l t a n e o u s w i t h S – i n t r o d u c i n g t h e n o t i o n o f p r e s e n t r e l e v a n c e . A n d e r s s o n
t hu s m ai nt ai ns ( 19 89 : 4 5) t ha t t he p er fe ct t en se s o f G MC a re f un da me nt al ly t en se s,
c o mp l et e ly c h ar ac t er i za b le i n t e rm s o f p o in t s a l on g a t i me l in e ( s ee , h o we v er , M u sa n
2001 f or a n al te rn at iv e v iew). P as t p er fect , in th is s che me, i s u se d to a ss er t t he
o cc ur re nc e o f a n e ve nt E p ri or t o a r ef er en ce p oi nt R w hi ch i s a ls o p ri or t o t he t im e
o f t h e u t t e r a n c e S [ E<R<S ] P as t p er fe ct i s t hu s a “ re la ti ve p as t t en se ”
T h i s i s a l s o , a c c o r d i n g t o A n d e r s s o n (1989: 3 1 ) , r e l a t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t i n G E a n d S W ,
p re se nt t en se i nd ic at iv e c an b e u se d i n c om ma nd s ( Du a r ty st n u!), but not in EN,
w h e r e a f u t u r e i s r e q u i r e d ( Y o u w i l l b e q u i e t ) . B a l l w e g (1989: 8 9 ) c l a i m s , i n f a c t , t h a t
“ pr es en t t en se ” i n t he se l an gu ag es i mp os es n o r es tr ic ti on s a t a ll o n t he r ef er en ce
t im e [ R] . T hi s i s w hy s o- ca ll ed p re se nt t en se c an b e u se d i n r ef er en ce t o p as t t im e
( “n ar ra ti ve p re se nt ”) a s w el l a s f ut ur e. T he i de a t ha t p re se nt p er fe ct s en te nc es a re a
k i n d o f p r e s e n t s e n t e n c e i s s u p p o r t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e s e s a m e l a n g u a g e s , p r e s e n t
p e r f e c t h a s t h e s a m e u n r e s t r i c t e d t i m e r e f e r e n c e a s p r e s e n t s e n t e n c e s d o ; a s E h r i c h a n dV a t e r (1989: 1 1 5 ) p o i n t o u t , i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r p r e s e n t p e r f e c t s e n t e n c e s i n G E a n d S W
t o c o n t a i n f u t u r e t i m e p h r a s e s , a n d t o r e f e r t o f u t u r e e v e n t s ( a n t e r i o r t o a r e f e r e n c e t i m e
i n t h e f u t u r e ) . T h i s i s a g a i n n o t p o s s i b l e i n E N .7
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(Boogaart 1999) s ug ge st s t ha t t he i nt er pr et at io n o f t he p re se nt p er fe ct c on st ru ct io n
c a n n o t b e s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f t h e m e a n i n g o f i t s c o m p o n e n t s , b u t m u s t b e a t l e a s t i n p a r t
a f u nc t io n o f t h e a v ai l ab i li t y o f o t he r t e ns e /a s pe ct f o rm s i n t h e s y st e m.
T he s pe ci al p ro bl em p os ed b y G E a nd D U f or t he p os it io n t ha t t he m ea ni ng s o f
p re se nt p er fe ct c on st ru ct io ns a re b ui lt u p f ro m t he m ea ni ng s o f t he ir c om po ne nt s i s
t ha t t he “ pr es en t p er fe ct ” i n t ho se l an gu ag es i s a pp ar en tl y n ot a lw ay s s ub je ct t o ap re se nt r el ev an ce r eq ui re me nt i n t he s am e w ay a s i n t he o th er l an gu ag es , a nd t ha t
t h e r e f o r e , i n a w i d e r a n g e o f c o n t e x t s , i n G E , a t l e a s t , i t g i v e s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f b e i n g
s e ma n ti c al l y e q ui v al e nt i n s e nt e nc e s l i ke ( 5 .5 2 a) t o t h e s i mp l e p a st :
T h l t b i t d i f f t f E N d t h l t h i i t
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T h e s e l a n g u a g e s s e e m t o b e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f r o m E N a n d o t h e r l a n g u a g e s o n t h i s p o i n t ,
w h er e s e nt e nc e s l i ke ! I have come yesterday a r e n o t p o ss i bl e .
P e r f e c t s e n t e n c e s l i k e ( 5 . 5 2 a , c ) t e n d t o a p p e a r i n G E a n d D U i n n o n - n a r r a t i v e ( a n d
t he re fo re m ai nl y i n s po ke n l an gu ag e) e xc ep ti ng o nl y f or a ux il ia ry a nd m od al v er bs .
T he s im pl e p as t i s l ar ge ly r es tr ic te d t o n ar ra ti ve d is co ur se ( an d i s t he re fo re m or e
f re qu en t i n w ri tt en l an gu ag e) . T hi s d is tr ib ut io n i s a pp ar en tl y o ld , b ei ng f ou nd , f or
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E xt en si ve ly d eb at ed i n G E i s w he th er t he p re se nt p er fe ct h as t hu s b ec om e s im pl ya n a lt er na ti ve e xp re ss io n o f p as t t en se . T he q ue st io n t ak es o n p ar ti cu la r i nt er es t i n
c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t i n s o m e G E d i a l e c t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e s o u t h ( e . g . , S w i s s
G E , K el l er 1961: 6 7) , as we ll as s ou th ern d ial ec ts o f DU (d e Vo oy s 1957: 42), YI
(Jacobs 2005: 2 1 7 ) a n d A F ( P o n e l i s 1993: 3 8 3 ) , t h e s i m p l e p a s t t e n s e h a s d i s a p p e a r e d
a s i d e f r o m r e l i c s , a n d t h e p r e s e n t p e r f e c t i s t h e o n l y m e a n s r e m a i n i n g o f t a l k i n g a b o u tp a s t t i m e . A t o n e e x t r e m e i s t h e v i e w t h a t e v e n i n s t a n d a r d G E , s i m p l e p a s t a n d p e r f e c t
a r e s i m p l y t w o m o r p h o l o g i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t e x p r e s s i o n s o f p a s t t e n s e ( s e e t e n C a t e 1989:
1 4 1 f o r r e f e r e n c e s ) . L i n d s t e d t (2000: 3 7 1 ) c l a i m s t h a t w h e n a p e r f e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n
b e u s e d a s a n a r r a t i v e t e n s e i t h a s c e a s e d t o b e a p e r f e c t ; t h a t t h i s i s w h a t h a s h a p p e n e d
i n S ou th G E, a s w el l a s o th er a dj ac en t l an gu ag es , i nc lu di ng N or th I ta li an a nd s po ke n
F re nc h, i n w ha t h e v ie ws a s a n a re al d ev el op me nt . O th er s h ol d t ha t s im pl e p as t a nd
p re se nt p er fe ct s a re a lw ay s s em an ti ca ll y d is ti nc t, t ho ug h t he t wo m ea ni ng s a re n ot
a lw ay s d is ti ng ui sh ab le i n p ra ct ic e. T he re i s n o r oo m h er e t o e xa mi ne a ll o f t he se
v i e w s , m u c h l e s s t o a t t e m p t t o a r b i t r a t e a m o n g t h e m . T h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d e s p e c i a l l y
t o A b r a h a m a n d J a n s s e n 1989 f o r a g o od r ep r es e nt a ti o n o f o p in i on s
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t o A b r a h a m a n d J a n s s e n 1989 f o r a g o od r ep r es e nt a ti o n o f o p in i on s .
B a l l w e g (1989: 9 4 ) a n d Z i f o n u n e t a l . (1997: 1706f f . ) pr opos e a pr a gm a t i c a l l y ba s e d
a cco un t fo r t he in ter pret at io n o f t he t wo t en ses ; wh il e th e m ea nin g o f “ pas t” i s
c om pu ta bl e i n o ne s te p ( [ E<S ], i n o ur t er ms – t ha t i s, ‘ lo ok f or a n e ve nt t im e p ri or
t o t he t im e o f s pe ak in g’ ), t he c om pu ta ti on o f t he m ea ni ng o f “ pe rf ec t” i s a t wo -s te p
p ro ce ss . T he p er fe ct o pe ra to r s ig na ls a n e ve nt w hi ch i s a nt er io r t o a r ef er en ce t im e
d is co ur se t yp es , a nd , t he re fo re , c ho ic e o f o ne o ve r t he o th er w il l a lw ay s h av e s al ie ntp r a g m a t i c c o n s e q u e n c e s . I n G E , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e s e l e c t i o n o f o n e o v e r a n o t h e r i s
a n a u t o m a t i c c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e d i s c o u r s e t y p e i n w h i c h i t i s b e i n g u s e d ( c o n v e r s a t i o n
v e rs u s n a rr at i ve ), a n d t h er e fo r e l e ss p r ag m at i ca l ly s i gn i fi c an t . I n S o ut h er n G E , w h er e
t h er e i s n o c o nt r as t , t h es e p r ag m at i c c o ns i de ra t io n s w i ll n o t b e a ct i ve ( Z if o nu n e t a l.
1997: 1 7 0 6 ) . C o m p a r e M u s a n 2001: 3 9 8 f o r a n a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w , i n w h i c h t h e v a r i a b i -l it y i n t he i nt er pr et at io n o f t he G E p re se nt p er fe ct i s a m at te r o f w hi ch c om po ne nt o f
i ts s tr uc tu re i s i n f oc us . N ot e t ha t p re se nt p er fe ct i s a ls o r ou ti ne ly u se d t o d es cr ib e a
p a st e v en t w i th p r es e nt r e le v an c e i n G E , i n t h e p r es e nc e o f a p pr o pr i at e t i me a d ve rb s ,
s u c h a s schon ‘ a l r e a dy’ ( l a be l e d “ U p- t o- N ow ” a dve r bs i n H e ndr i c ks 1981) . T h u s , e v e n
i n G E , t h e p r es e nt p e rf e ct i s p r ef e re n ti a ll y u s ed i n c o nt e xt s o f p r es e nt r e le v an c e.
5 .3 .5 P ro gr es si ve
A s o bs er ve d i n S ec ti on 5.3.1, v ar io us G MC l an gu ag es h av e w ay s o f d es cr ib in g
c on ti nu ou s a ct io n, b ut n ot a ll o f t he se c an b e p la us ib ly r eg ar de d a s i nt eg ra l p ar ts
o f t he t en se /a sp ec ts s ys te ms o f t ho se l an gu ag es . T he t wo c on st ru ct io ns w hi ch m ay
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m o s t p r o b a b l y b e i d e n t i f i e d a s g e n u i n e p r o g r e s s i v e a s p e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e t h e E N beþ V-ing c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e I C vera þ að þ infinitive construction:
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( I n S t a nda r d D U , a nd i n A F , t hi s oppos i t i on br e a ks dow n s om e w ha t , s i nc e i n t he pe r f e c tt en se s, t he p as t p ar ti ci pl e o f t he p as si ve a ux il ia ry worden i s o m it te d, a nd t he p as si ve
construction thus resultantly contains the perfect auxiliary zijn pl us a pa ss i ve pa rt i ci ple ,
t hus l e a di ng t o a f or m a l ne ut r a l i z a t i on of t he s t a t a l pa s s i ve / a c t i ona l pa s s i ve di s t i nc t i on i n
t he s e t e ns e s . S e e va n de r W a l 1990 f or a di s c us s i on of t he or i gi n of t hi s c ons t r uc t i on. )
T h e c o g n a t e s o f worden and zijn a r e u s e d t o f o r m p a s s i v e s i n o t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s a sw el l, f or e xa mp le , O E, G O, O HG , a nd O ld a nd M od er n I C, b ut i n t he se l an gu ag es ,
u nl ik e M od er n G E a nd M od er n D U, n o c or re sp on di ng s ta te /e ve nt m ea ni ng c on tr as t
h as e me rg ed . C om pa re t he G O e xa mp le s i n ( 5. 56 c, d ) a nd t he f ol lo wi ng e xa mp le s
f r o m O E :
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S e e a l s o Mi t c he l l 1985: 3 3 2 . V a n d e r W a l ( 1990) d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t O l d F R , O H G a n d
M i d d l e D U a l s o u s e d b o t h ‘ b e ’ a n d ‘ b e c o m e ’ f o r a c t i o n a l p a s s i v e s , a s d o e s N N , w h e r e
t h e G M C *werþan ‘ b ec om e’ s ha re s t he f un ct io n o f p as si ve a ux il ia ry w it h i ts n ew er
M od er n E N, h av e r es ol ve d i t b y d is po si ng o f ‘ be co me ’, a nd u si ng ‘ be ’ a s t he g en er alp a ss i ve a u xi l ia r y i n a ct i on a l a s w el l a s s t at a l p a ss i ve s .
I n E N, t he i nh er it ed v er b werþan ‘ b ec o me ’ h a d d i sa p pe a re d n o t o n ly f r om p a ss i ve
c on st ru ct io ns , b ut f ro m t he l an gu ag e i n g en er al b y t he f ou rt ee nt h c en tu ry . I t i s s ti ll
f ou nd i n O ld M od er n I C, b ut f un ct io ns a s a p as si ve a ux il ia ry o nl y i n c er ta in s pe ci al
s en se s. I n M od er n I C, f or e xa mp le , verða p a ss i ve s a r e m o da l , i m pl y in g p o ss i bi l it y
( a nd, by e xt ens i on, f ut uri t y) :
K r e s s (1982: 1 5 1 ) p o i n t s o u t , t h o u g h , t h a t t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a c t i o n a l a n d s t a t a l
p a s s i v e s i s f o r m a l l y s i g n a l e d i n I C w h e n t h e v e r b i n v o l v e d i s o n e w h i c h t a k e s o b j e c t s
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i n c as es o th er t ha n a cc us at iv e. I n s uc h i ns ta nc es , t he o bj ec t r et ai ns i ts o bl iq ue c as e i nt he a c t i ona l pa s s i ve c ons t r uc t i on, w hi l e i n t he s t a t a l pa s s i ve c ons t r uc t i on, t he pa r t i c i pl e
i s c on st ru ed w it h a n om in at iv e N P ( se e a ls o B ar ðd al a nd M ol nar 2000).
5.4.1.1 O t h er p a s s i ve- l i ke co n s t ru ct i o ns
B es i de s t h e G O i n fl e ct i on a l p a ss i ve s a n d t h e p e ri p hr as t ic p a ss i ve s w i th ‘b e , b e co m e’ ,
w hi ch a re f ou nd i n a ll o f th e G MC l an gu ag es , t he re a re o th er c on st ru ct io ns a c ro ss t h e
f am i ly w h ic h h a ve b e en d es c ri b ed a s pa s si v e- l ik e . M o st i n te r es t in g am o ng t he s e i s th e
s- p as s iv e o f c o nt i ne n ta l S c an d in a vi a n, d i s cu s si o n o f w hi c h, h o w ev e r, w i l l b e d e fe rr e d
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u nt il a ft er m id dl e v oi ce c on st ru ct io ns h av e b ee n in tr od uc ed , si nc e t he t wo a re v er y
c l os e ly c o nn e ct e d h i st o ri c al l y. T h e s o -c al l ed p a s s iv e i n fi n it i ve s i n G M C a r e d i sc u ss e d
in Section 5.5.1.1.
O t he r c o ns t ru c ti o ns s o me t im e s m e nt i on e d a s a l te r na t iv e p a ss i ve s a r e E N get pas-
s i ve s G E bekommen p a s si v es D U krijgen p as si ve s a nd D A fa° p a ss i ve s T h e l a tt e r
T h er e a re n u me r ou s di f fe re n ce s b e tw e en t he t w o, ho w ev e r. M os t s i gn i fi c an t ly , get ,unlike be, i n p as si ve s en te nc es i mp os es s om e s el ec ti on al r es tr ic ti on s o n it s su bj ec t,
w hi ch c an no t b e a n e xp le ti ve e le me nt , fo r e xa mp le :
( 5. 62 ) d . T he re w er e t hr ee m en a rr es te d * Th er e g ot t hr ee m en a rr es te d
5.4.2 Middle voice
A s n ot ed in t he p re ce di ng ch ap te r, th e l ab el “ mi dd le v oi ce ” i s a pp li ed to a h et er o-
g e ne o us se t o f c o ns t ru c ti o ns . O n t h e o n e h a nd , i n l a ng u ag e s l i ke G re ek , m i dd l e v o ic e
f o rm s , i n t he i r c o re u s es , si g na l r e fl e xi v e o r s el f -d i re c te d ac t io n in w h ic h t he s u bj e ct
o f a t ra ns it iv e v er b i s u nd er st oo d t o r ep re se nt b ot h t he a ct or a nd t he p at ie nt o f t heaction. Thus, elou $sato m e a ns ‘ s he ba t hed (he r se l f )/ he ba t hed (hi m s el f ) ’. O n t he ot he r
h an d, c on st ru ct io ns l ik e t he E N ( 5. 63 ) a re a ls o c al le d m id dl e v oi ce c on st ru ct io ns .
( 5 .6 3 ) T h es e b o ok s s e ll w e ll
H er e, t he s ub je ct o f t he v er b i s u nd er st oo d t o r ep re se nt i ts t he me a rg um en t – t he t hi ng sw hi ch o ne s el ls , i n t he p re se nt c as e. Th is is n ot a n i ns ta nc e o f s el f- di re ct ed ac ti on
c ar ri ed o ut b y an e nt it y on i ts el f. T he a ct or – t he s el le r o f th e b oo ks – is i mp li ed b ut
u ne xp re ss ed . W it h r es pe ct t o t he s em an ti c r ol es o f t he ir s ub je ct s, m id dl e v oi ce
c on st ru cti on s o f t hi s k in d a re m uch c lo ser to p as siv es. In t he p re vi ou s c ha pt er
(Section 4.9.4.2) , t he s e w e r e l a bel e d T ype I m i ddle s a nd T ype I I m i ddle s r e s pec t i vel y.
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T he t wo t yp es o f m id dl e v oi ce c on st ru ct io ns a re q ui te d is ti nc t, b ut t he f ac t t ha t t he
s a m e l a b e l i s a p p l i e d t o b o t h t y p e s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r h a p s i n v o l v e s m o r e t h a n a s i m p l e
m at te r o f t er mi no lo gi ca l c on fu si on . T he re d oe s s ee m t o b e a c on ne ct io n b et we en
t h e m , a s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e f a c t t h a t m a n y l a n g u a g e s u s e t h e s a m e m e a n s f o r e x p r e s s i n g
b ot h. T hu s, I C setjast ‘ to s it d ow n’ ( li te ra ll y, ‘ to s et o ne se lf d ow n’ ) i s a n i ns ta nc e
The GMC languages can be partitioned into those which m ark m iddle voicec ons tr uc t ions ( of bot h t ype s ) w i th a r e f le xi ve pr onoun or a n a f f i x w hi c h de r ive s f r om
o ne a nd t ho se w hi ch d o n ot e mp lo y s uc h m ar ki ng .9 E N a nd D U a re o f t he l at te r t yp e;
t he ir m id dl e v oi ce c on st ru ct io ns d o no t i nc lu de t he r ef le xi ve p ro no un :
I n gene r al , i t a ppea r s tha t l a ngua ge s w hi ch e m pl oy r ef l e xi ve s or ves t i gia l r e f le xi ves i n
t he ir ( pr oduc t ive ) de r iva t i ons of una c cus a t ive ve r bs (s e e S e c ti on 4.9.4.1.2.5) also
e m pl o y t h em i n t h ei r m i dd l e v o ic e c o ns t ru c ti o ns ( s ee F a ga n 1992: 2 0 0 ) .
I n t h e S c an d in a vi a n l a ng u ag e s, t h e r e fl e xi v e o f t h e m i dd l e v o ic e c o ns t ru c ti o n h a s
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u n d e r g o n e a n u m b e r o f f o r m a l c h a n g e s w h i c h m a d e i t s i d e n t i t y a s a r e f l e x i v e p r o n o u n
i nc re as in gl y o pa qu e. I t w as f ir st r ed uc ed t o -sk , i n w h i c h f o r m i t a p p e a r s i n O N , a n d
t he n t ra ns fo rm ed t o -st i n M od ern IC (s ee Ot tos so n 1 99 2 f or d et ai le d d is cu ss io n) .
C or re sp on di ng ly , i t c ea se d b y s ta ge s t o p ar ti ci pa te i n t he i nf le ct io na l a lt er na ti on s
c ha ra ct er is ti c o f r ef le xi ve p ro no un s F ir st w he re as t he r ef le xi ve p ro no un sik was
S e co n d, w h er e as t h e c l it i c -sk o f O N w as e xc lu si ve ly t hi rd p er so n, a nd i n o pp os it io n
t o f ir st p er so n s in gu la r -mk , f or e xa mp le ( 5. 65 c) , t he -st o f M o d e r n I C i s u s e d f o r a l l
p er so ns a nd n um be rs , t hu s h av in g b ec om e f ul ly i nd ec li na bl e, l os in g a ll p ro no mi na l
f e at u re s a n d b e co m in g a p u re v o ic e m a rk e r ( 5 .6 5 d) .
Eythor ss on (1995: 2 35 ff .) p re se nt s a rg um en ts t ha t t he r ea na ly si s a s v oi ce m ar ke r
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h ad a lr ea dy t ak en p la ce i n O N. H is a rg um en ts i nc lu de t he s tr ik in g c on tr as t b et we en( 5 .6 5 e) , w h er e t h e p r ed i ca t e n o mi n al e x hi b it s a cc u sa t iv e c as e i n a g re em e nt w i th t h e
( fu ll ) r ef le xi ve o bj ec t i n t hi s s ti ll -t ra ns it iv e c on st ru ct io n, a nd ( 5. 65 f) , w he re t he
p re di ca te n om in al e xh ib it s n om in at iv e a gr ee me nt , i nd ic at in g t ha t t hi s i s a m id dl e
v oi ce c on st ru ct io n, w hi ch n o l on ge r c on ta in s a n o bj ec t f or t ha t p re di ca te n om in al t o
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5.4.2.1 O t he r m i d dl e v o i ce c o n s tr u ct i on sM o st G M C l a ng u ag e s, E N e x ce p te d , a d mi t a p e ri p hr a st i c m i dd l e v o ic e c o ns t ru c ti o n
w i th t h e v e rb ‘ l et ’ , w h ic h m a ke s e x pl i ci t t h e m o da l m e an i ng o f p o te n ti a li t y:10
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s e e m t o b e t h e c a s e i n S W . S e e H o l m e s a n d H i n c h c l i f f e 1994: 3 1 3 f o r a l i s t o f f a c t o r ss e rv i ng t o c o nd i ti o n t h e d i st r ib u ti o n o f t h e t w o i n t h at l a ng u ag e .
I n bot h l a ngua ge s pe r i phr a s t i c pa s s i ve s t e nd t o oc c ur w i t h c onc r e t e / hum a n s ubj e c t s ,
a nd i n s ta te me nt s w it h o bv io us f ut ur e t im e r ef er en ce . A mo ng t he m or e s tr ik in g
d if fe re nc es i s a r ep or te d d is tr ib ut io n d ep en de nt o n t he i nt er pr et at io n o f g ov er ni ng
m od al v er bs . A ll an et al. (1995: 3 18 ) r ep or t t ha t p er ip hr as ti c p as si ve s w it h bliveg en er al ly o cc ur a ft er m od al s i n t he ir e pi st em ic m ea ni ng s, w hi le s- pa ss iv es t en d t o
o c cu r a ft e r m o da l s i n t h ei r r o ot m e an i ng s :
I t w o u l d b e i n t e r e s t i n g t o i n v e s t i g a t e t o w h a t e x t e n t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p r e f e r r e dd i s t r i b u t i o n c a n b e v i e w e d a s v e s t i g e s o f t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n q u e s t i o n
( i .e . , t he r e su l ta t iv e o r ig i ns o f t h e b l i ( ve) c o n s t r u c ti o n ( B r au n m ul l e r 1 9 9 1 : 5 7 ) , a n d
t he m id dl e v oi ce o ri gi ns o f t he s- pa ss iv e) , a nd t o w ha t e xt en t i t i nv ol v es s im pl e
a rb i tr a ry a s si g nm e nt o f t h e t w o t o m ut u al l y e x cl u si v e c o nt e x ts b y w a y o f f u nc t io n -
al izi ng a n e mer gi ng f orm al co nt ras t b ut o f co urse s uc h an u nd ert ak in g i s n ot
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al izi ng a n e mer gi ng f orm al co nt ras t, b ut o f co urse s uc h an u nd ert ak in g i s n otp o s s ib l e h e r e.
5.5 N o nf i ni t e ve r b al f o rm s
GE , YI and DU . Ho weve r, du e to th e ero sio n of fi n a l s y l la b le s, o t he r G M Cla ngu ages have l ost th e nasal. So, for example, inf in itives end in -e (/ @ /) in DA,
F R a n d S wi ss GE , -a i n SW a nd I C . S o me GM C la ng u a ge s , i n c lu d in g E N a nd A F,
h av e g iv en u p i nf i ni ti v e a f f ix es a lt og et he r, a nd t h e re i s n o f o rm al d iff er en ce (w it h
m a rg in a l e xc e pt io n s , l a rg e ly l im i te d t o t h e v er b ‘ b e ’ a nd , i n A F, ‘ h a ve ’ ) b et we en
f i ni te a nd n o nf i n i te v er b s. I n A F, e ve n t h e s pe ci al f o rm s of t he i n f i n i t i ve s of ‘ b e ’ a nd‘ ha v e’ t en d t o b e r ep la ce d b y t h e c o r r es p o nd i ng f in i t e b as e s i n m an y a r e as ( P o n el i s
1993 : 4 11 ).
I n G MC , i nf in it iv es a re u se d t o r ep re se nt t he u nt en se d v er b i n c on st ru ct io n w it h
m o d a l s a n d f u t u r e a u x i l i a r i e s , i n n o n f i n i t e s u b j e c t a n d c o m p l e m e n t c l a u s e s , i n p u r p o s e
c l au s es a n d o t he r a d ve rb i al c l au s es , a n d i n i n fi n it i va l r el a ti v e c l au s es a n d q u es t io n s,
wh ere t hes e a re p os si bl e ( se e S ect io n 6.5.1.11).
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G O e xa mp le i n ( 5. 70 a) ( an d o th er s l ik e i t) t he i nf in it iv e t ra ns la te s a G re ek p as si veinfinitive.
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A s t he a lt er na ti ve g lo ss es s ug ge st , h ow ev er , i t i s p os si bl e t o a na ly ze t he se a s a ct iv e
i nf in it iv es , w ho se n on -s pe ci fi c s ub je ct i s n ot e xp re ss ed . T hi s i s a f ai rl y s ta nd ar d
a na lys i s ( c f . C a l la w a y 1913: 3 0 ff . ; M i tc h el l 1985; K a ge y am a 1992; L i gh t fo o t 1991),˚
M o d e r n E N d i f f e r s f r o m O E i n l a c k i n g b o t h o f t h e s e t y p e s o f a p p a r e n t l y p a s s i v e u s e s
o f i n fi n it i ve s w i th o ut p a ss i ve m a rk i ng . T h us , i n M o de r n E N w e s a y:
(5.72) c. The king let his son be killed
d . T h e s e t h i n g s a r e t o b e d o n e
T h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s a t t r i b u t e d b y s o m e t o a r e a n a l y s i s o c c a s i o n e d b y t h e s h i f t f r o m O V
t o V O i n E N ( cf . L ig ht fo ot 1991) . H ow ev er , N O, a ls o a S VO l an gu ag e, s ti ll e xh ib it s
s u ch c o ns t ru c ti o ns a s ( 5 .7 2 e) w i th o ut p a ss i ve m o rp h ol o gy .
I nt er es ti ng ly , b ot h r el at iv e o rd er s o f o bj ec t a nd v er b a re a ll ow ed h er e, t ho ug h t he
N P - V o r d e r i s p r e f e r r e d . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , P l a t z a c k ( 1986: 1 3 0 ) p o i n t s o u t a s t r i k i n g
c on tr as t b et we en D A a nd S W w it h r es pe ct t o t he a bi li ty t o u se b ar e i nf in it iv es w it h
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c on tr as t b et we en D A a nd S W w it h r es pe ct t o t he a bi li ty t o u se b ar e i nf in it iv es w it h
p as si ve m ea ni ng . D A r eq ui re s t he o bj ec t t o p re ce de t he i nf in it iv e i n s uc h c on st ru c-
t i on s , w h il e S W r eq u ir e s t h at t h ey f o ll o w:
A ft er m od al v er bs , o ve rt ly p as si ve i nf in it iv e c on st ru ct io ns a re c on si st en tl y u se d
e v en i n t h os e l a ng u ag e s w h ic h a l lo w “ a ct i ve i n fi n it i ve s w i th p a ss i ve m e an i ng ” a ft e r
v e rb s o f c au s at i on a n d c o mm a nd .11
5.5.1.2 B a re i n fi n it i ve s a n d p r e p os i ti o na l i n fi n it i ve sA ll o f t he G MC l an gu ag es d is ti ng ui sh b et we en “ ba re ” i nf in it iv es a nd p re po si ti on al
i nf in it iv es – t ha t i s, i nf in it iv es p re ce de d b y p re po si ti on s. I t i s n ot c le ar w he th er t hi s
oppos i t i on c a n be r e c ons t r uc t e d f or t he pa r e nt l a ngua ge , s i nc e t he di f f e r e nt di a l e c t s us e
d if fe re nt p re po si ti on s i n t he l at te r, a nd d if fe r f ro m e ac h o th er a s w el l w it h r es pe ct t o
w he th er t he i nf in it iv e i nf le ct s f or c as e a ft er t he p re po si ti on . T he S ca nd in av ia n l an -
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p pg u a g e s u s e p r e p o s i t i o n s g o i n g b a c k t o O l d I C at a s a n i n f i n i t i v e m a r k e r , w h i l e t h e W e s t
G M C l a n g u a g e s u s e r e f l e x e s o f * to . G O u s e s du, w h i c h , i n s p i t e o f i t s r e s e m b l a n c e t o
*to , c an n ot b e r e la t ed t o t h e l a tt e r f o r p h on o lo g ic a l r ea s on s .
T he e ar li er W es t G MC i nf in it iv es i nf le ct f or d at iv e c as e a ft er t he p re po si ti on ( th e
r ed uc ti on s f or me rl y u ni nf le ct ed i nf in it iv es n ow e nd i n -e, w hi le t ho se f or me rl yi nfl ec ted fo r d at iv e c as e n ow e nd i n -en. As s ho wn i n e xa mpl e ( 5. 74 ), af te r th e
semi-modal doare ‘ d ar e ’ e i th e r t y pe o f i n fi n it i ve c a n o c cu r .
T h e -en i nf init ives of Moder n F R have a s ec ond his tori ca l s ourc e, t he ger und ( -en ¬ *-ande),
in which cases they do not co-occur with the preposition te, s o t ha t t he r e i s now a t r i pa r t i t e
d i s t i n c t i o n i n F R b e t w e e n - e i nf i ni t i ve s , -en i nf i ni t i ve s a nd te. . . -en infinitives.
T he d is tr ib ut io n o f t he t wo t yp es o f i nf in it iv es ( ba re a nd p re po si ti on al ) s ha re s
a t l ea st a c om mo n c or e a cr os s t he i nd iv id ua l d ia le ct s. I n G O, du- i nf i ni t iv e s s e em t o
be r e s t r i c t e d, w i t h f e w e xc e pt i ons , t o s ubj e c t i nf i ni t i ve s , pur pos e i nf i ni t i ve s a nd i nf i ni -
t iv es d ep en de nt o n n ou ns a nd a dj ec ti ve s. I n e ac h o f t he se c as es i nd ep en de nc e f ro m
t h e G r ee k m o de l f o r t r an s la t io n c a n b e d e mo n st r at e d:
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I n o t h e r f u n c t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n i n f i n i t i v a l c o m p l e m e n t s o f l e x i c a l v e r b s , a s w e l l a si n fi n it i ve s d e pe n de n t o n m o da l v e rb s a n d a u xi l ia r ie s , b a re i n fi n it i ve s o c cu r .
I n S W, t he d is tr ib ut io n o f t he t wo i s q ui te s im il ar . B ar e i nf in it iv es a re u se d w it h
m o d a l s , p e r c e p t i o n a n d c a u s a t i o n v e r b s a s i n ( 5 . 7 7 a - c ) , a s w e l l a s w i t h a d i v e r s e l i s t o f v e rb s c h ar a ct e ri z ed b y H o lm e s a n d H i nc h cl i ff e (1994: 2 68 ) a s “ mo da l e qu iv al en ts ,”
s o m e o f w h i c h a r e l i s t e d i n ( 5 . 7 7 d . ) :
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T he b as ic d if fe re nc e b et we en S W a nd G O i s t ha t S W h as a g ro up o f c on tr ol v er bsw h ic h t a ke att - i nfi ni t ive c om ple m e nt s ( opt iona l ly, a c c or di ng t o P l a tz a c k 1986: 1 2 7 ) :
S im il ar ly , i n O E, a cc or di ng t o Q ui rk a nd W re nn (1955: 8 6) , b ar e i nf in it iv es w er e
s t i l l u s u a l a f t e r m o d a l s a n d a s c o m p l e m e n t s o f v e r b s o f c a u s a t i o n , i n t e n t i o n , i n c e p t i o n
a nd m ot io n. To w as t he n or m w it h s ub je ct i nf in it iv es ( 5. 80 a) , i nf in it iv al p ur po se
c la us es ( 5. 80 b) , i nf in it iv al c au se c la us es a nd i nf in it iv al m od if ie rs o f n ou ns ( 5. 80 c)
a nd a dj ec ti ve s ( 5. 80 d). S om et hi ng l ike t hi s t hu s m ay w ell h av e b ee n t he o ri gi na l
distribution12 (see Miller 2002 f or e xt ens ive di sc us s i on of O E i nfi nit i ve c onst r uc t ions) .
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T h e m a in d e vi a ti o n f r om t h is d i st r ib u ti o n e l se wh e re i n G M C i n vo l ve s t h e e x te n si o no f th e p re po si ti on al i nf in it iv e ( at t he e xp en se o f t he b ar e i nf in it iv e) i n s om e l an gu ag es ,
f or e xa mp le , DA , GE a nd E N, t o a w id er r an ge o f in fi ni ti va l o bj ec t c om pl em en ts .
T h us , f o r e x am p le , ma n y o f th e G E co u nt e rp a rt s t o t h e S W v e rb s i n ( 5 .7 7 d) a ls o to o k
b ar e i nf in it iv es in MH G, bu t r eq ui re zu- i nfi ni t ive s in Moder n GE . T hes e i nc l ude
pflegen ‘ to u su al ly d o’ , beginnen ‘to begin’, wænen ‘to hope’, biten ‘to ask’, gern
‘ t o des i r e’ ( s ee P a ul 1962: 319 for dis c us si on) . ( O n t he ot he r ha nd, G E doe s not r e quir e
zu w i t h ( unext r a pos e d) s ubj ec t c om ple m e nt s . )
M a ny o f t h e S W v e rb s l i st e d i n ( 5 .7 7 d) as ta k in g b a re i n fi n it i ve s h a ve c o un t er p ar t s
in DA wh ic h ta ke at -infinitives (Allan et al. 1995: 277):
According to Platzack, whereas att i s o pt io na l w it h S W c on tr ol i nf in it iv e c on st ru c-
tions, at i s o b li g at o ry i n t h e c o rr es p on d in g D A c o ns t ru c ti o ns :
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( F or a di s c us s i on of othe r si gni fi c a nt di f fe r e nc e s bet w e en at and att , s ee S e ct i on 6.4.2.)
I n I C , p r ep o si t io n al i n fi n it i ve s e v en o c cu r w i th s o me a p pa r en t m o da l v e rb s :
In GE helfen ‘help’, lehren ‘teach’, lernen ‘ le ar n’ a nd a f ew o th er v er bs t ak e b ar ei n fi n it i ve s o r n o t, d e pe n di n g l a rg e ly o n t h e w ei g ht o f t h e i n fi n it i ve p h ra s e.
O t h e r a l t e r n a t i o n s a r e m o r e c o m p l e x . T h u s , i n E N , t h e v e r b see t a k e s a b a r e i n f i n i t i v e
c o mp l em e nt i n a ct i ve v o ic e, b u t a p r ep o si t io n al i n fi n it i ve i n p a ss i ve :
T h er e a r e a l so d i al e ct a l d i ff e re n ce s . W h il e c au s at i ve have t a ke s b ar e i nf in it iv es i n
S t an d ar d E N , i n A p pa l ac h ia n E N i t c a n a p pe ar w i th p r ep o si t io n al i n fi n it i ve s :
(5.82) i. He had the blacksmith to make him a pair of forceps
( A ppa l a chi a n E N , W ol fr a m a nd C hr is t i a n 1976: 9 8 )
5.5.1.2.1 S p l i t i n f i ni t i v es T he n at ur e o f t he s yn ta ct ic r el at io ns hi p b et we en t he
p r ep o si t io n a n d t h e i n fi n it i ve i n p r ep o si t io n al i n fi n it i ve c o ns t ru c ti o ns a l so a p pe ar s t o
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p p p p p p
v ar y a cr os s t he G MC l an gu ag es . I n s om e, i nc lu di ng G E a nd O E, t he p re po si ti on i s
a l w a y s i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e v e r b , a n d n o t h i n g – n o t e v e n v e r b a l p a r t i c l e s – c a n
intervene:
A m or e c om pl ex s it ua ti on i n W F a nd N F i s r ep or te d a nd a na ly ze d b y H oe ks tr a(1997: 1 0 3f f .) . H o ek s tr a d i st i ng u is h es b e tw e en t w o t y pe s o f i n fi n it i ve c o ns t ru c ti o ns
w i t h t he i nf i ni t i ve m a r ke r tu – “ ve r ba l tu- i nf i ni t i ve s ” a nd “ s e nt e nt i a l tu- i nf ini t i ve s . ” I n
t h e f o r m e r , a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n ( 5 . 8 3 f ) f r o m t h e F e r i n g d i a l e c t o f N F , t h e i n f i n i t i v e m a r k e r
i s i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e v e r b , a s i t i s i n D U a n d G E . N o t e v e n v e r b a l p a r t i c l e s
c an i n te rv e ne . I n t h e s e nt e nt i al tu- i nf i ni t iv e c o ns t ru c ti o ns o f ( 5 .8 3 g) a n d ( 5 .8 3 h) , o nt he o th er h an d, t he tu i s s ep ar at ed f ro m t he i nf in it iv e b y b ot h p ar ti cl es a nd o th er
c on st it ue nt s, s uc h a s o bj ec t n om in al s. T hi s i s i mp os si bl e i n D U a nd G E.
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T h e s e p r e t e r i t e i n f i n i t i v e s a r e n o r m a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e 3 P l p r e t e r i t e o f t h e v e r b , j u s t
a s t h e p r e s e n t i n f i n i t i v e i s i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e 3 P l p r e s e n t , a n d H a u g e n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s
wa s t he a nal og ic al b as is fo r t he ir d ev el op men t. T he f orm was r es tr ic ted i n ONp ri ma ri ly t o A cI c on st ru ct io ns . I t p er si st s i n M od er n I C ( bu t n ot e ls ew he re i n N or th
G M C ) , w h e r e i t i s l i m i t e d t o t h e t w o m o d a l f o r m s mundu and skuldu.
(5.84) b. Hann sagðist það gera skuldu
h e s a id - hi m se l f t h at t o -d o t o -w o ul d
‘ He s ai d t ha t h e w ou ld d ef in it el y d o t ha t’
( I C , K r e s s 1 9 8 2 : 1 6 4 )
T o t h es e , t h ou g h, s ho u ld b e c om pa r ed t h e u n us u al s u bs t it ut i on o f t he p as t p a rt i ci p le
f or t he i nf in it iv e i n F A a ft er p as t t en se v er bs , a s d is cu ss ed i n B an dl e e t al . ( 2005:
1582).
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5.5.1.4 Y i d d is h t au t o l o gi ca l in f i n it i ves
Y I h a s a c o n s t r u c t i o n i n w h i c h a n i n f i n i t i v e - l i k e f o r m i s u s e d a s a c l a u s e - i n i t i a l t o p i c ,
a n d i s r e s u m e d b y a f i n i t e f o r m o f t h e s a m e v e r b l a t e r i n t h e c l a u s e :
5.5.2 The present participle and the English gerund
T he p re se nt p ar ti ci pl e i n GM C i s ba se d on a n I E su ff ix * -o-nt , a d de d to t h e p r es e nt
stem; GO bairands ‘ b ea ri n g ( No m . S g. ) ’ ¬*bher-o-nt-os. I t i nf l ec t s as a n a dj ec t i ve
a n d h as a d i st r ib u ti o n l ik e t h at o f a d je c ti v es o c c ur r in g i n a t tr i bu t iv e , p re d ic a ti v e a n d
s ubs ta nt ivi z e d r ol es .
W he n f unc t i oni ng a s nom i na l s , t hes e pa r ti c i ple s a r e ge ner a l l y i nte r pre t e d a s a gent
nouns. A s dis c us se d i n Se c t ion 4.2, it is necessary to distinguish between participles
f u nc t io n in g a s n o un s , w h ic h r e ta i n a d je c ti v al i n fl e ct i on s ( 5 .8 6 d) , a n d n o un s d e ri v ed
f ro m p a rt i ci p le s ( 5 .8 6 e) , w h ic h i n fl e ct a s n o un s :
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I n t h es e u s es , G E g r am m ar s r e fe r t o “ s at z we rt i ge ” ( ro u gh l y, ‘ s en t en c e- e qu i va l en t ’)
p ar ti ci pl es , a nd i t i s c le ar t ha t t he y i n s om e s en se s ta nd i n f or f in it e v er bs h er e. W it ht h e e x ce p ti o n o f E N , h o we v er , p a rt i ci p le s h a ve t h is s e nt e nc e- e qu i va l en t f u nc t io n o n ly i n
m o di f yi n g ( ad j ec t iv a l o r a d ve r bi a l) p h ra s es . O n ly i n E N a r e t h ey f u ll y i n te g ra t ed i n to
t h e v e r b a l s y s t e m o f t h e l a n g u a g e , p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f v e r b a l a s p e c t s ( e . g . ,
pr ogr e s s i ve s ) a nd r e pr e s e nt i ng t he ve r b i n nonf i ni t e s ubj e c t or c om pl e m e nt c l a us e s .
5.5.2.1 T h e E n gl i sh g er u nd
T he p a r ti ci pl e o f M i dd le a n d M od er n E N h as p a r te d c om pa ny f r o m t he r e s t o f G MC w it h
r e s p e c t t o b o t h i t s f o r m a n d i t s s y n t a x . O n t h e f o r m a l s i d e , t h e G M C p a r t i c i p l e i n - nd has
b ee n r ep la ce d b y a d is ti nc t a ff ix , -ung /-ing (see Denison 1993: 4 03 , L as s 1992: 144f f.
a nd e s pe c ia l ly Mi l le r 2002: 3 15 f f. f or d is cu ss io n o f t he d ev e lo pm en t o f t hi s c o ns tr uc -
t i o n ) . O n t h e s y n t a c t i c s i d e , t h e n e w - ing f or m s w e r e i nc or por a t e d i nt o t he ve r ba l s ys t e m
i n t wo d if fe re nt w ay s. T he y c am e t o b e u se d, t og et he r w it h ‘ be’ , i n t he p ro gr es si ve
c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h i c h i n t h i s f o r m i s u n i q u e t o E N ( s e e S e c t i o n 5.3.5) . M i t c h e l l (1985: I,
2 8 0 ) r e p o r t s a p r o p o s a l b y N i c k e l ( 1 9 6 7 ) t h a t t h e p r o g r e s s i v e i n O E d e r i v e s i n p a r t f r o m
a g e n t n o u n s e n d i n g i n -end . T hus , ( 5. 87a ) be c om e s ( 5. 87b) , w he r e i t ha ppe ns t ha t ehtentakes genitive objects
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takes genitive objects.
i n a dj e c t i va l us e s , a nd i n pr ogr e s s i ve c ons t r uc t i ons ( s e e , e . g. , L a s s 1992: 1 4 4 ) . I n c a s e sw h er e t h ey c o nt r as t , t h e d i ff e re n ce s i n m e an i ng b e tw e en i n fi n it i ve s a n d g e ru n ds a re
s o me t im e s q u it e s h ar p . T h us , ( 5 .8 8 e) p r es u pp o se s t h at t h e b o ok h a s b e en r e ad , w h il e
( 5 .8 8 f) d o es n o t. I n o t he r c a se s , h o we v er , t h e d i ff e re n ce s a r e v e ry s u bt l e, i n vo l vi n g a t
m os t s l i ght a s pec t ua l di f fe r e nc e s :
T he re a re , o n t he o th er h an d, c on te xt s i n w hi ch o nl y g er un ds , n ot i nf in it iv es , c an
a p p e a r . S o , f o r e x a m p l e , w h i l e ‘ b e g i n ’ , ‘ s t a r t ’ a n d ‘ c e a s e ’ c a n t a k e e i t h e r i n f i n i t i v e o r
g e ru n d c o mp l em e nt s , ‘ s to p ’ a n d ‘ f in i sh ’ c a n o n ly t a ke g e ru n di v e c o mp l em e nt s .
Mor eover , E N i nf ini ti ve phra s es c a nnot a ppe a r a s c ompl em e nt s of pr epos it i ons , w hil e
ge rund phra s es c a n:
(5 .8 9) a . He le ft wi th ou t s ay in g g oo db ye /* wi th ou t to say go od by e
b . H e w a s w o r r i e d a b o u t f a l l i n g d o w n / * a b o u t t o f a l l d o w n
T hi s m a y s ugge s t t ha t , i n E N , ge r unds a r e m or e “ noun- l i ke ” t ha n i nf i ni t i ve s ( a s doe s t he
f ac t t h at t h ey a ll o w g e ni ti ve “ s ub je ct s ,” a s i n ( 5 .8 8 g) ). I n te r es t in g i n t h is c o nn e ct io n
i s t he f ac t t ha t, i n E N, n om in al iz at io ns o f v er bs w hi ch o ccu r w it h t he d ef in it e a rt ic le
t ak e t h e s h ap e o f g e ru nd s, w h il e o t he r l a ng u ag es e m pl o y i nf i ni t iv e s i n t h is c o nt ex t.
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( 5.9 1) b . ( His /* th e) r ep eat edl y read in g (* -s ) b oo ksT he s it ua ti on i s f ur th er c om pl ic at ed b y t he f ac t t ha t e ve n t he “ ve rb al ” g er un d c an
a p p e a r v a r i o u s l y w i t h a g e n i t i v e o r a n a c c u s a t i v e s u b j e c t , a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s .
(5.91) c. I hate his/him loudly singing bawdy ballads
d . H is / hi m l o ud l y s i ng i ng b a wd y b a ll a ds a n no y s m e
T he r em ai ni ng G MC l an gu ag es , l ac ki ng a g er un d, e mp lo y t he i nf in it iv e i n a w id er
r an ge o f c on te xt s. T hu s, f or e xa mp le , i n S W a nd D A t he i nf in it iv e d oe s a pp ea r a s
c o mp l em e nt o f a p r ep o si t io n , a s i n t h e f o ll o wi n g e x am p le s :
S im il ar ly , i nf in it iv e c om pl em en ts a re p os si bl e i n t he se l an gu ag es a ft er v er bs l ik e‘stop’:
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T he s yn ta x o f t he E N g er un d a nd i ts h is to ri ca l d ev el op me nt a re d is cu ss ed i n g re atd e ta i l i n M i ll e r 2002.
5 .5 .3 T he p as t pa rt ic ip le a nd t he s up in e
T he G MC “ pa st / pa ss i ve ” pa r ti c i ple s ( or “ s e cond pa r ti c i ple s ” ( Mi tc he ll 1985: I , 4 1 3 ) )
a re , h is to ri ca ll y, v er ba l a dj ec ti ve s, f or me d b y a dd in g e it he r o f t wo I E a dj ec ti ve
s u ff i xe s , * -no- o r * -to, to the (zero-grade of the) verbal root. These came to be
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s t r o n g v e r b s a n d w e a k v e r b s r e s p e c t i v e l y ( broken, cried ) , pr e s um a bl y
d u e t o t h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n * -to a n d t h e d e n t a l p r e t e r i t e s u f f i x o f w e a k v e r b s . N o t a l l
v e rb s o r ig i na l ly h a d p a st p a rt i ci p le f o rm s . I n G O, i n tr a ns i ti v e d u ra t iv e v e rb s s u ch a s
‘ s ta n d’ a n d ‘ b e’ l a ck e d P Ps ( S tr e it b er g 1920: 2 1 5 ) .
I n c o n t i n e n t a l W e s t G M C ( G E , D U , Y I a n d A F ) , t h e o r i g i n a l l y p e r f e c t i v i z i n g p r e f i x
ge- h as b ee n g ra mm at ic iz ed a s a s ec on da ry p as t p ar ti ci pl e m ar ke r, a tt ac he d t o v er bs
w i t h s t r e s s e d i ni t i a l s yl l a bl e s ( G E ge-se $hen ‘ s e e n’ but er i $nnert ‘remembered’, spazi $ert
‘walked’). This may have been general West GMC. It is often missing in OE,
b u t a p pa re n tl y t h e c i rc u ms t an c es o f i t s ( n on ) oc c ur re n ce a r e a t l e as t p a rt i al l y p r ed i ct -
a bl e ( D eni s on 1993: 4 14 ). In AF an d s ome v ar ie ti es o f DU, t he p refi x i s ex ten de d
e ve n t o v er bs w it h a to ni c i ni ti al s yl la bl es ( Po ne li s 1993: 421). AF has lost the
p ar ti ci pl e s uf fi xe s, a nd t he p re fi x t hu s r em ai ns a s t he s ol e m or ph ol og ic al m ar ke r o f
t he pa r ti c i ple .
A s a dj ec ti ve s, p as t/ pa ss iv e p ar ti ci pl es o cc ur i n b ot h p re di ca te a nd a tt ri bu ti vep o si t io n s, i n fl e ct i ng f or a g re e me n t o r n o t a c co r di n g t o t h e r u le s d e te r mi n in g a d je c -
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p , g g g g j
t i v e a g r e e m e n t i n g e n e r a l . A s w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e p r e s e n t p a r t i c i p l e , t h e y c a n a l s o
ap pe ar as t he m ai n p re di ca te o f ab sol ute pa rt ici pi al co ns tr uct ion s i n G O, for
e xa m pl e
a nd H i nchc l i ff e 1994: 8 6f f. ), a nd s o d o p ar ti ci pl es i n a ct io na l ( as w el l a s s ta ti ve )passives:
On the other hand, there is no longer agreement between the object and a past
p ar ti ci pl e i n p er fe ct c on st ru ct io ns , a s i n O ld S W a nd O N. R at he r, i n M od er n S W t hen o n f i n i t e v e r b i n p e r f e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n s a p p e a r s i n a n i n v a r i a n t f o r m b a s e d o n t h e n e u t e r
s i ng u la r, r e ga rd l es s o f t h e g e nd e r a n d n u mb e r o f t h e o b je c t.
M o d e r n S W h a s i n f a c t d e v e l o p e d t h i s c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n a g r e e i n g a n d n o n - a g r e e i n gp ar ti ci pi al f or ms y et f ur th er , b y d ev el op in g a f or ma l d is ti nc ti on i n s om e p ar ad ig ms
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p p y y p g p g
( pr im ar il y C la ss I V, w hi ch i nc lu de s m os t h is to ri ca ll y s tr on g v er bs ) b et we en ( no n-
a g re e in g ) s u pi n e f o rm s , w h ic h o c cu r i n p e rf ec t c o ns t ru c ti o ns , a n d ( a gr ee i ng ) p a rt i ci -
pi a l f or m s w hi c h oc c ur i n pe r i phr a s t i c pa s s i ve c ons t r uc t i ons ( bot h a c t i ona l a nd s t a t a l )
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I n st e ad , i n s u ch c a se s , t h es e l a ng u ag e s o f te n e n co d e s u ch a r gu m en t s a s p r ep o si t io n al
p h ra s es . C o mp a re ( 5 .9 7 a) w i th ( 5 .9 7 g) , f o r e x am p le .
An ot her p he no men on of t hi s s ort – th e m ost wi del y d is cu ss ed o ne – i nv olv ese x pe ri e nc e r s u bj e ct s i n E N , w h ic h o f te n c o rr e sp o nd t o d a ti v e o b je c ts i n G E .
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(5.98) a. I feel sick
m i r i s t s c hl e ch t
i b d
B o t h t h e s e a n d t h e s u b j e c t c a s e s , a c c o r d i n g t o v a n V o o r s t , c a n b e a n a l y z e d a s r e s u l t s
o f a g e n e r a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n E N a n d D U : t h e u s e o f t h e t r a n s i t i v e f r a m e N P V N P i nD U i s r e s e r v e d f o r s t r o n g l y t r a n s i t i v e e v e n t s , i n w h i c h a n a g e n t p e r f o r m s a n a c t i o n o n
a n o b j e c t w h i c h i s w h o l l y a f f e c t e d b y t h a t a c t i o n . W h e r e t h e a c t i o n d e s c r i b e d d o e s n o t
m e e t t h i s t h r e s h h o l d , a l t e r n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e u s e d . T h i s i s t h e c a s e , f o r e x a m p l e ,
w h e n t h e a c t o r i s n o t a n a g e n t , a s i n t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l s u b j e c t c a s e s , o r w h e n t h e o b j e c t
i s n o t f u l l y a f f e c t e d b y t h e a c t i o n , a s w i t h p r e d i c a t e s o f e x p e r i e n c e , o r , i n t h e c a s e s j u s ti ll us tr at ed , w he n t he a ct io n d oe s n ot r es ul t i n t he c on su mp ti on o f t he o bj ec t: o ne c an
c he w m ea t i n D U, b ut n ot g um . F or a d is cu ss io n o f v al en cy d if fe re nc es b et we en E N
a nd G E, s ee F re ns e a nd B en ne tt 1996. H aw ki ns ( 19 86 ) o ff er s a n a lt er na ti ve g en er al
i nt e r pr e t a t i on of f a c t s l i ke t hos e unde r di s c us s i on a s a r e f l e c t i on of a ge ne r a l t ypol ogi c a l
di f f e r e nc e ; s ubj e c t s a nd obj e c t s i n E N a r e m or e s e m a nt i c a l l y di ve r s e t ha n i n G E , w hi c h
o b se rv es a m or e r es tr ic te d m ap pi ng f ro m s em an ti c r ol es t o g ra mm at ic al r ol es , a nd i s
therefore more semantically transparent (see Fischer 1997: c h . 5 , f o r d i s c u s s i o n ) .
5.7 H ea d, c om pl em e nt a nd a dj un ct p la ce m en t i n t he v e rb p hr as e
V er b p os it io n h as a lw ay s b ee n w it ho ut d ou bt t he m os t e xt en si ve ly d is cu ss ed a nd
d eb at ed i ss ue i n G MC s yn ta x, a nd v ar ia ti on i n t he p os it io ns o f v er bs , b ot h b et we en
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y , p ,
l an gu ag es a nd w it hi n l an gu ag es , i s a mo ng t he m or e s tr ik in g f ea tu re s o f t he f am il y.
M u ch e a rl y d i sc u ss i on o f t h e c r os s li n gu i st i c d i ff e re n ce s w as f ra m ed w i th i n t h e r u br i c
T hi s p os es a t yp ol og ic al d il em ma . G iv en t ha t G E h as ( at l ea st ) t wo d if fe re nt v er b
p o s i t i o n s – o n e f o r d e c l a r a t i v e m a i n c l a u s e s a n d o n e f o r s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s – c a n o n e
o f t he m b e s in gl ed o ut a s t he b as ic v er b p os it io n, a nd , i f s o, w hi ch o ne a nd o n w ha t
g r o u n d s ? I s G E “ b a s i c a l l y ” a n O V l a n g u a g e , o r a V O l a n g u a g e , f o r e x a m p l e ? I n s o m e
t y po l og i ca l s t ud i es , t h e q u es t io n h a s b e en d e ci d ed o n f u nc t io n al / st a ti s ti c al c o ns i de r -
a ti on s; d ec la ra ti ve m ai n c la us es a re t ak en a s b as ic b ec au se t he y a re u sa bl e i n a w id er
r an ge o f c on te xt s/ le ss m ar ke d a nd p er ha ps m or e f re qu en t t ha n o th er s en te nc e t yp es
( s u c h a s q u e s t i o n s o r t o p i c s e n t e n c e s ) . T h i s w a s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e p r o c e d u r e f o l l o w e d
b y G re en be rg (1963) i n h is s em in al t yp ol og ic al s tu dy o f c on st it ue nt o rd er . B ut t he seco ns id erat io ns a re n ot b as ed o n gr am ma tic al s tru ct ure i n a ny wa y, an d f ro m a
s tr uc tu ra l p oi nt o f v ie w, t he re i s n o s pe ci al r ea so n w hy d ec la ra ti ve s en te nc es s ho ul d
a p r i o r i b e m o r e b a s i c t h a n o t h e r s ; i n f a c t , t h e r e t u r n o u t t o b e a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s f o r
t a k i n g t h e v e r b - f i n a l o r d e r o f e m b e d d e d c l a u s e s t o b e m o r e b a s i c . A s i m p l e o n e i s t h e
f a c t t h a t i n t h a t o r d e r , t h e v e r b s a r e t y p i c a l l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e i r c o m p l e m e n t s – t h e t h i n g st h e y a r e u n d e r s t o o d t o g o t o g e t h e r w i t h s e m a n t i c a l l y – w h i l e i n t h e v e r b - s e c o n d o r d e r
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o f m ai n c la us es , t he y a re o ft en s ep ar at ed f ro m t he ir c om pl em en ts b y o ne o r m or e
i n te r ve n in g c o ns t it u en t s, a s t h e e x am p le s i n ( 5 .1 0 0) s h ow .
In fact there is evidence in at least some of these cases that the verb and the
t h es e i s , o f te n a t l e as t , th a t t h is i d ea h a rm o ni z es w i th o u r e xp e ct a ti o n th a t t h in g s wh i ch
go t oge the r s e m ant i c al l y s hould go t oge t her s t r uct ur al l y. S o, f or e xa m pl e , i n a pi on-
e e ri n g s t ud y wh i ch l a id t he f o un d at i on fo r m a ny o f t h es e a rg u me n ts , K o st e r ( 1975)
b e ga n w i th wh a t w e h a ve b e en ca l li n g p h ra s al v e rb s , s u ch as GE aufho ren ‘to stop’, or
DU afmaaken ‘finish’. As noted in Section 2.4, th es e f or m, in so me s en se , a s in gl e
l ex ic al i te m, b ut d if fe r f ro m o rd in ar y l ex ic al i te ms i n t ha t t he v er b a nd t he a ss oc ia te d
p a r t i c l e c a n , u n d e r s o m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r . K o s t e r d e m o n -
s tr at ed t ha t t he p os it io n o f t he p ar ti cl e i n V -2 s en te nc es m ir ro rs e xa ct ly t ha t o f f in al
( f in i te o r n o nf i ni t e) v e rb s i n n o n- V -2 s e nt e nc e s. T h e s i mp l es t i n it i al a s su m pt i on f o r
a cc ou nt in g f or t hi s s ta te o f a ff ai rs , h e a rg ue s, i s t ha t v er bs ( in cl ud in g t ho se w it h
a s so c ia t ed p a rt i cl e s) a re i n tr o du c ed a s a u n it i n t h ei r r i gh t mo s t p o si t io n , a n d t h at t h ey
r em ai n i n t hat p os iti on as f in it e v erb s i n s ub ord in at e cl au ses , o r wh en t hey are
d ep en de nt n on fi ni te v er bs . I n m ai n c la us es , f in it e v er bs a re m ov ed o ut o f t ha t f in al
p o si t io n t o t h e V - 2 p o si t io n , s t ra n di n g t h e a s so c ia t ed p a rt i cl e . T h is a n al y si s s a ti s fi e s
o ur e xp ec ta ti on t ha t t he t wo c om po ne nt s o f p ar ti cl e v er bs s ho ul d f or m a u ni t, a nd i t
a ls o a cc ou nt s i n a s tr ai gh tf or wa rd w ay f or t he p ar al le ls i n t he p os si bl e p os it io ns o f
i nf le ct ed v er bs i n s ub or di na te c la us es o n t he o ne h an d a nd p ar ti cl es a nd n on fi ni ted ep en de nt v er bs o n t he o th er . T hu s, G E ( an d D U) a re b as ic al ly O V l an gu ag es , s in ce
t hat i s t he p os it io n o f t he v erb wi th in t he v erb p hra se , wh en i t h as n ot u nd erg on e
leftward displacement.
K o st e r’ s i n it i al p r op o sa l h a s u n de r go n e e x te n si v e e l ab o ra t io n i n t h e i n te r ve n in g
d ec ad es , a nd s om e o f i t ( in cl ud in g t he c la im t ha t s ub or di na te c la us e v er bs a ndn o n f i n i t e v e r b s c a n b e r e l i e d o n t o r e f l e c t t h e “ b a s i c ” p o s i t i o n o f t h e v e r b ) h a s b e e n
l l d i t t i I t i t h l i b l f k f d i i
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c a l l e d i n t o q u e s t i o n . I t i s n o n e t h e l e s s s e r v i c e a b l e a s a f r a m e w o r k f o r o u r d i s c u s s i o n
o f v a ri a ti o n ( c ro s sl i ng u is t ic a n d g r am m ar -i n te rn a l) i n v e rb p o si t io n i n G MC . G iv e n
s uc h an an al ysi s w e h av e se en t ha t t he p ro bl em o f ve rb p os it ion i n t he GM C
5 .7 .1 T he r el at iv e o r de r o f t he v er b a n d i t s c om pl em en ts w it hi n t h e V P
T he m od er n G MC l an gu ag es f al l i nt o t wo m ai n g ro up s w it h r es pe ct t o t he r el at iv e
p os it io ns o f n on fi ni te v er bs a nd t he ir c om pl em en ts /m od if ie rs . I n o ne g ro up , r ep re -
s e nt e d b y L o w G E , n o nf i ni t e v e rb f o rm s f o ll o w t h ei r d e pe n de n ts :
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T o t hi s “OV” g ro up o f l an gu ag es b el on g m os t o f t he c on ti nen tal Wes t GM C
l an gu ag es ( GE , D U, A F a nd F R) . I n t he “ VO ” g ro up o f l an gu ag es , c on si st in g o f
l a n g u a g e s v e r b s f o l l o w t h e i r c o m p l e m e n t s a n d m o d i f i e r s . T h a t i s , f o r e x a m p l e , i n f i n i -
t iv es d ep en de nt o n f in it e v er bs w il l p re ce de t ho se f in it e v er bs , a nd n on fi ni te v er b
f o rm s d e pe n de n t o n o t he r n o nf i ni t e v e rb f o rm s w i ll p r ec e de t h e l a tt e r. T h es e e x pe c t-
a t i o n s a r e b o r n e o u t i n s o m e c a s e s , a s i n t h e L o w G E s e n t e n c e s c i t e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g
s ec ti on a nd i n t he f ol lo wi ng F R e xa mp le , f ro m d en B es te n a nd E dm on ds on (1981).
H e r e , t h e i n f i n i t i v e ‘ r e a d ’ i s d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m o d a l ‘ b e a b l e ’ , w h i c h t a k e s d e p e n d e n t
i nf in it iv es , a nd t he m od al i n t ur n i s a p as t p ar ti ci pl e d ep en de nt o n t he t en se /a sp ec ta u xi l ia r y, w h ic h t a ke s p a st p a rt i ci p le s a s i t s c o mp l em e nt s . T h is h i er ar c hy o f d e pe n d-
e n c y i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e o r d e r o f t h e v e r b f o r m s .
H o w e v e r , t h i s i s n o t a l w a y s t h e c a s e . I n t h e G E e x a m p l e i n ( 5 . 1 0 5 b ) , t h e f i n i t e v e r b
i s n o t l a s t , b u t p r e c e d e s b o t h o f t h e n o n f i n i t e v e r b s .13
Since Evers 1975, c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f t h i s t y p e , i n w h i c h a g o v e r n i n g v e r b p r e c e d e s o n e o r
m or e d ep en de nt f or ms r at he r t ha n a pp ea ri ng i n t he e xp ec te d f in al p os it io n i n a s ub or di na te
c la us e, h av e b een r ef er re d t o a s “ ve rb -ra is in g” c on st ru cti on s, r ef le ct in g a w id el y
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a ss um ed a na ly si s o f t he m u nd er w hi ch t he f in al v er b c lu st er u nd er go es a r ea na ly si s
i nt o a s in gl e c om pl ex v er b, b y w ay o f “ ra is in g” t he e mb ed de d n on fi ni te v er bs a nd
dj i i h i l h h i h b i h i T h
F or t he c as e i n w hi ch a f in it e p er fe ct a ux il ia ry t ak es a m od al v er b a s i ts c om pl em en t
a nd t he m od al v er b i n t ur n s el ec ts a d ep en de nt i nf in it iv e o f a l ex ic al v er b, B ro ek ma n
(1993: 1 2 0 ) n o t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g p a t t e r n s : i n L o w G E a n d i n W F , t h e o r d e r i s L e x i c a lVerb–Modal (Participle)–Perfect Auxiliary.
I n H ig h G E, o n t he o th er h an d, t he o rd er i s P er fe ct A ux il ia ry –L ex ic al V er b– Mo da l
( I nf i ni t iv e ), a n d i n S t an d ar d D U i t i s P e rf ec t A u xi l ia ry – Mo d al ( In f in i ti v e) – Le x ic al
V e r b . I n b o t h o f t h e s e l a n g u a g e s , t h e m o d a l a p p e a r s a s a n i n f i n i t i v e , r a t h e r t h a n i n t h e
p a st p a rt i ci p le f o rm e x pe c te d o f d e pe n de n ts o f p e rf e ct a u xi l ia r ie s – a n i n st a nc e o f t h e
D o ub l e I n fi n it i ve C o ns t ru c ti o n d i sc u ss e d i n n o te 1 3 . A F e x hi b it s y e t a n ot h er p o ss i bi -l it y, a cc or di ng t o B ro ek ma n (1993: 2 9 ): M o da l V er b –M a in V er b –P e rf e ct A u xi l ia ry ,
w h il e P G e x hi b it s t h e f i xe d o r de r L e xi c al V e rb – Pe r fe c t A u xi l ia r y– M od a l V er b :
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T h us , t h e a t te s te d o r de rs c o me c l os e t o e x ha u st i ng t h e l o gi c al l y p o ss i bl e p e rm u ta -
t i o n s . T h e r e l a t i v e o r d e r o f v e r b s a l s o d e p e n d s o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e v e r b ( m o d a l v e r s u s
i n t he p re se nt c as e) , a nd w he th er t he v er b i nv er ti ng w it h i ts c om pl em en t m us t b e a
m o d a l o r a u x i l i a r y o r n o t . T h e s e p a r a m e t e r s i n t e r a c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r . S o , f o r e x a m p l e ,
m o d a l s m a y o p t i o n a l l y i n v e r t i n G E i f t h e y h a v e a d e p e n d e n t i n f i n i t i v e a n d a r e i n t u r n
e m be d de d u n de r a n a s pe c tu a l a u xi l ia r y, r e su l ti n g i n v a ri a ti o n l i ke t h at i n ( 5 .1 0 5g , h ) .
I n ( 5 .1 0 5h ) , t h e m o da l ko nnen i s i n ve rt e d r e la t iv e t o i t s c o mp l em e nt :
A m ong t he a na lyt i c al c ont rove rs i e s i nvolvi ng ve r b- r a is i ng c ons tr uc t ions , be gi nni ng
w i t h E v e r s (1975) , i s w h e t h e r t h e y a r e m o n o c l a u s a l o r b i c l a u s a l c o n s t r u c t i o n s – t h a t i s ,r o u g h l y , w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e t h e s y n t a x o f s i m p l e o r c o m p l e x s e n t e n c e s . T h e c o n s i d e r -
a t io n s t h at a r is e a r e d i sc u ss e d i n d e ta i l i n H ae g em a n 1992.
H a e g e m a n a n d v a n R i e m s d i j k (1986) , a m o n g o t h e r s , o b s e r v e d t h a t i n m a n y c o n t i n -
e nt al W es t G MC l an gu ag es , i nc lu di ng S wi ss G E a nd W es t F le mi sh , i t i s p os si bl e f or
a n o b j e c t N P t o a p p e a r i n t e r s p e r s e d a m o n g t h e v e r b s i n t h e f i n a l v e r b c l u s t e r .
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o f s c r a m b l i n g o f t h e o b j e c t t o t h e l e f t o f t h e v e r b . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , o n e c o u l d a s s u m e
O V a nd a cc ou nt f or V O o rd er s t hr ou gh r ig ht wa rd e xt ra po si ti on o f t he o bj ec t. B ot h
p os it io ns h av e b ee n a rg ue d f or . F or a r ev ie w o f t he l it er at ur e, s ee S an to ri ni 1993.
S a n t o r i n i ’ s c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n i s n o t d e c i d a b l e o n t h e b a s i s o f g r a m m a t i c a l
a r gum e nt a t i on. I ns t e a d, s he of f e r s a s t a t i s t i c a l a ppr oa c h, de m ons t r a t i ng t ha t , on t he one
h a n d , O V o r d e r s o c c u r m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n w o u l d b e p r e d i c t e d u n d e r t h e s c r a m b l i n g
h yp ot he si s, g iv en t he r at e o f o cc ur re nc e o f s cr am bl in g g en er al ly i n Y I, a nd t ha t,
c on ve rs el y, V O o rd er s o cc ur m or e f re qu en tl y t ha n w ou ld b e p re di ct ed u nd er t he
e x tr ap o si t io n h y po t he s is , g i ve n t h e g e ne r al r a te o f e x tr a po s it i on i n Y I. S h e c o nc l ud e s
t h a t i t i s u n l i k e l y t h a t e i t h e r o r d e r i s d e r i v e d , p r o p o s i n g i n s t e a d t h a t Y I s i m p l y h a s t w o
d i s t i n c t b a s e o r d e r s , c o m p e t i n g w i t h e a c h o t h e r i n t h e s y n c h r o n i c g r a m m a r ( a c o n c l u -
s i o n w h i c h s e e m s t o b e a n t i c i p a t e d b y d e n B e s t e n a n d M o e d - v a n W a l r a v e n 1986: 1 2 6 ) .
P in tz uk (1993) m ak es a p ar ti al ly , t ho ug h n ot e nt ir el y, s im il ar c la im f or O E. O E
e xh ib it s b ot h v er b- fi na l a nd n on -v er b- fi na l o rd er s i n e mb ed de d c la us es . I t h as b ee n
c l a i m e d b y v a n K e m e n a d e (1987) a n d o t h e r s t h a t O E w a s a n O V l a n g u a g e i n s u b o r d i n -
a te c la us es , a nd t ha t a pp ar en t f ai lu re o f f in it e v er bs i n s ub or di na te c la us es t o a pp ea r
c la us e- fi na ll y a re d ue t o t he o bs cu ri ng e ff ec t o f v er b r ai si ng a nd e xt ra po si ti on .Assuming OV order, for example, the order VO in the subordinate clause in
( 5. 10 9h ) w ou ld h av e t o r es ul t f ro m e xt ra po si ti on ( ne ce ss ar il y, e xt ra po si ti on o f t he
l i b e r a l s o r t a l s o f o u n d i n O H G a n d M i d d l e D U , w h i c h a l l o w s e v e n d i r e c t o b j e c t s t o b e
m o ve d r i gh t wa r d a c ro s s t h e n o un s ):
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P i n t z u k , h o w e v e r , a r g u e s t h a t n o t a l l i n s t a n c e s o f n o n f i n a l v e r b s i n s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e s
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H a wk i ns ( 1 98 6 : 4 4 ) m a ke s t h e m e th o do l og i ca l p o in t t h at “ b as i cn e ss i s e s ta b li s he d b y
s h ow i ng t h at o n e o r de r i s f re e f r om g r am m at i ca l r e st r ic t io n s w h ic h a ff e ct t h e o t he r .”
S i mi l ar l y, d e n B e st e n a n d M o ed - va n W al r av e n (1986: 1 26 ) p oi nt o ut t ha t, w hi le o ne
o b j e c t c a n p r e c e d e t h e v e r b i n a Y I b i t r a n s i t i v e s e n t e n c e w h i l e t h e o t h e r f o l l o w s i t , i t i s
d i s t i n c t l y o d d f o r t h e D O t o p r e c e d e t h e v e r b w h i l e t h e I O f o l l o w s i t .
K i pa r sk y (1995b, 1 99 7) c la im s t ha t t he re i s a u ni di re ct io na l c or re la ti on b et we en
r ic hn es s o f m or ph ol og ic al c as e a mo ng t he G MC l an gu ag es a nd t he p os si bi li ty o f
r e or d er i ng n o mi n al a r gu m en t s b y s c ra m bl i ng ; i n l a ng u ag e s w h ic h a r e c as e p o or ( DU ,
F l em i sh , F R , c o nt i ne n ta l S c an d in a vi a n, E N a n d A fr i ka a ns ) , t h e d i re ct n o mi n al a rg u -
m e n t s o f t h e c l a u s e m u s t o c c u r i n a f i x e d o r d e r , w h i c h c a n n o t b e a l t e r e d b y s c r a m b l i n g
( s ee a l so W ee r ma n 1997: 4 33 ). S cr am bl in g i s n ot e xc lu de d i n c as e- po or l an gu ag es ;
a cc or di ng t o W ee rm an (1997: 4 30 ), al l o f t he OV Wes t GM C la ng uag es a ll ow i t,
wh eth er th ey h av e m orp ho lo gi cal c as e o r n ot ( to wh ich l ist we ca n ad d o ne VO
l a ng u ag e , Y I – s e e K ip a rs k y 1 9 97 : 4 6 2) . I n D U s e nt e nc e s l i ke ( 5 .1 1 2d ) , f o r e x a m pl e ,
t he a dve r bs waarschijnlijk ‘ pr oba bl y’ a nd vaak ‘ o f t e n ’ c a n a p p e a r i n a n y o r d e r , r e l a t i v e
t o e ac h o th er o r e it he r o f t he o bj ec ts . T ha t i s, D U, a c as e- po or l an gu ag e, h as s cr am -
b l i n g , b u t u n l i k e G E t h e t w o o b j e c t s c a n n o t b e r e o r d e r e d r e l a t i v e t o e a c h o t h e r :
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I n t h e V O l a n g u a g e s o t h e r t h a n Y I ( t h a t i s , E N a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n ) , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
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T h us , i n a t l e as t s o me o f t h e O V l a ng u ag e s, th e n o rm a l o r de r o f p r on o un ob j ec t s i s t h e
o p po s it e o f t h at f o un d w i th NP o b je c ts . A b ra h am a n d W i eg e l (1993: 38) re f e r t o t his a s
“ th e p uz zl e o f i nv er se c li ti c- or de r. ”15
I n so m e o f th e se l a ng u ag e s, t he o p po s it e o r de r is p os s ib l e a s w e ll . In W es t F l em i sh ,
f o r e x a mp l e ( Ha e ge m an 1992: 6 3; 1 99 3: 1 46 ), cl it ic o bj ec t p ro no un s m ay ap pe ar in
e i t her orde r r e l at i ve t o ea c h ot he r ( t hough t he y m us t a l w ays fol l ow s ubj ec t c l i ti c s , a s in
t he f ol lo wi ng ex am pl e, wh er e t he s ub je ct c li ti c i s d ou bl ed by a f ul l p ro no un ).
5.8 P hr a sa l v er bs
H ig hl y c ha ra ct er is ti c o f t he G MC l an gu ag es ar e “ pa rt ic le v er bs ,” o r “ ph ra sa l v er bs ,”
that is, verbs which co-occur with morphemes, often homophonous with adverbs or
l o ca t iv e p r ep o si t io n s, f o rm i ng w i th t h em a s e ma n ti c u n it . T h e l e xi c al a s pe c ts o f t h es e
w e r e di s c us s e d i n S e c ti on 2.4. Exa m ple s inc l ude E N lo ok o ut , G E annehmen ‘accept’,
SW r es a a v ‘ depa r t’ , F R stilstien ‘ s ta n d s t il l ’, G O innatgaggan ‘ go i n’ , A F aantrek
‘ pu t o n’. As n ot ed , t he m ea nin g o f a p hras al v er b i s s ome ti mes co mp os it io nal –
c om pu ta bl e f ro m t he m ea ni ng s o f i ts c on st it ue nt p ar ts – b ut v er y o ft en n ot , a s i n t he
case of EN c o me a ro un d ‘ re vi ve ’ v er su s A F omkom ‘ to d ie ’ ( li te ra ll y, ‘ to c om e
a r ou n d’ ), a n d s o me p a rt i cl e s m a ke m o re o r l e ss c o ns i st e nt s e ma n ti c c o nt r ib u ti o ns t o
t he p hr as al v er bs i n w hi ch t he y p ar ti ci pa te w hi ch a re n ot o bv io us ly r el at ed t o t he ir
366 5 T he V e rb al S ys te ms o f G e rm an ic
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t he p hr as al v er bs i n w hi ch t he y p ar ti ci pa te w hi ch a re n ot o bv io us ly r el at ed t o t he ir
m e an i ng s a s i n de p en d en t w o rd s . S y nt a ct i ca l ly , w h at s t an d s o u t a b ou t t h em i s t h at t h e
T hi s p at te rn , q ui te r ob us t i n t he m od er n O V l an gu ag es , i s s ee n a s a t l ea st i nc ip ie nt ly
p r e s e n t i n e a r l y G M C b y E y t h or s s o n (1995: 3 9 ) .
I n g e n e r a l , v e r b a l p a r t i c l e s c o n s i s t e n t l y f o l l o w t h e v e r b i n V O l a n g u a g e s , e v e n w h e n
t h e v e r b i s a n o n f i n i t e f o r m , t h o u g h , a s J a c o b s ( 2005: 2 3 8 ) n o t e s , Y I i s a n e x c e p t i o n i n
t hi s r e gar d:
5.8 Phrasal verbs 367
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ne ga ti ve de t er m i ner geen as o ne n or ma ll y w ou ld i n a s en te nc e w it h a n i nd ef in it e
obj e ct . R a t her , t he s e nte nt i al ne gat or niet i s u s e d :
T he f ac t t ha t v er ba l p ar ti cl es b eh av e n ei th er l ik e b ou nd m or ph em es n or l ik e o th er
p h ra s al a cc o mp a ni m en t s o f v e rb s ( s uc h a s a d ve r bs , o b je c ts o r p r ep o si t io n s) t h us a l so
r e qu i re s e x pl a na t io n . R e ce n t a p pr o ac h es t o t h is c o mp l ex o f p r ob l em s a r e r ep r es e nt e d
i n D eh e et al. 2002. A cc or di ng t o o ne r ec en t a na ly si s ( Fa rr el l 2005), they do not
c o ns t it u te a u n it a ry s y nt a ct i c p h en o me n on e v en w i th i n i n di v id u al l a ng u ag e s.
I n t h e V O l a n g u a g e s , H o l m b e r g a n d R i j k h o f f (1998) n o t e i n t e r e s t i n g v a r i a t i o n w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e r e l a t i v e o r d e r o f t h e p a r t i c l e a n d v a r i o u s o b j e c t s . I n o n e g r o u p – E N , N O ,
I C a n d F A – l e x i c a l n o u n o b j e c t s m a y p r e c e d e o r f o l l o w t h e p a r t i c l e , w h i l e p r o n o m i n a l
o b je c ts m u st p r ec e de t h e p a rt i cl e , i n te rv e ni n g b e tw ee n i t a n d t h e v e rb .
I n D A , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , o b j e c t s o f a l l s o r t s p r e c e d e t h e p a r t i c l e ( 5 . 1 1 8 c ) , w h i l e i n S W
o b je c ts o f a l l s o rt s f o ll o w i t ( 5 1 1 8d )
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o b je c ts o f a l l s o rt s f o ll o w i t ( 5 .1 1 8d ) .
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6
T h e s y n t a x o f t h e c l a u s e
In this chapter we will examine those aspects of the grammar (morphology and syntax) of
the clause which are not readily subsumed under the (internal and external) syntax of noun
p hr as es o r v er b p hr as es . M uc h o f t he d is cu ss io n w il l r el at e t o t he v er y d yn am ic s yn ta x o f t heleft periphery of the clause in GMC – such things as the syntax of auxiliaries, complemen-
tizers, verb-second word order, subject-verb inversion, clausal negation, topicalization,
r el at ive c la us e f or ma ti on, i nt er roga ti on a nd l ef t- di sl oc at ion. A l ar ge par t of t he r ec ent
l i t e r a t ur e on t he s ynt a x of t he c l a us e i n t he G MC l a ngua ge s – pe r ha ps t he m a j or i t y of t ha t
wo rk – i s f ra me d i n t er ms o f w ha t i s s om et im es r ef er re d t o a s “ ex te nd ed X- ba r t he or y, ” a ndI w il l a dopt a bar e- bone s ver si on of t ha t a pproac h her e. I w il l a ss um e t hr oughout t he c ha pt er
that sentences may be represented by syntactic trees of the following general form.
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T hi s t re e a nd t he a ss oc ia te d e xa mp le s r ef le ct t he c la im t ha t s en te nc es i n t he G MC
l an gu ag es c on si st m in im al ly o f a v er b p hr as e, c on ta in in g t he l ex ic al v er b a nd i ts
m o d i f i e r s a n d a r g u m e n t s , a p o s i t i o n f o r a t e n s e d e l e m e n t , s u c h a s a m o d a l o r a u x i l i a r y ,
w hi ch i s o ut si de t he v er b p hr as e, a nd a S ub je ct p os it io n. I t a ls o m ak es t he c la im t ha t
t he p os iti on oc cu pi ed b y t he te nse d el em en t i s th e h ead o f th e c la use ( an d t hat
t h er e fo r e, t h e c l au s e i s a “ T en s e P h ra s e” ) . T h e s u bj e ct o c cu r s i m me d ia t el y t o t h e l e ft
o f t hi s h ea d, i n t he “ Sp ec if ie r” p os it io n o f t he T P. C om pl em en ti ze rs , s uc h a s t he
s e nt ent i al s ubordi na ti ng e l e me nt that , w h e n t h e y o c c u r , a r e h e l d t o b e t h e h e a d s o f y e t
a n o t h e r l a y e r o f c l a u s a l s t r u c t u r e , t h e “ C o m p l e m e n t i z e r P h r a s e ” ( C P ) . A s i n t h e c a s e o f
t h e T P , t h e a r c h i t e c t u r e o f t h i s p h r a s e m a k e s a v a i l a b l e e x a c t l y o n e s l o t t o t h e l e f t o f i t s
h ea d – t he S pe ci fi er o f t he C P p os it io n – a nd t hi s i s h el d t o b e t he p os it io n o cc up ie d
b y c l au s e- i ni t ia l q u es t io n p h ra s es , f o r e x am p le . M u ch o f t h e v a ri a ti o n i n c o ns t it u en to r d e r w i t h i n t h e c l a u s e i n G M C c a n b e a c c o u n t e d f o r s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d l y b y s t a t e m e n t s
r e f e r r i n g t o a t r e e o f t h i s s h a p e , w h i c h s p e c i f y w h i c h e l e m e n t s c a n / m u s t o c c u p y w h i c h
of t he s e pos i t i ons unde r va r i ous c i r c um s t a nc e s . F or e xa m pl e , t he ve r b- s e c ond/ s ubj e c t -
a ux i nve r s i on phe nom e non c ha r a c t e r i s t i c of W H - Q ue s t i ons i n t he G MC l a ngua ge s c a n
b e c a p t u r e d b y a s s u m i n g t h a t w h e n t h e r e i s a q u e s t i o n p h r a s e i n t h e S p e c C P p o s i t i o n ,t he h ea d o f t he n ex t p hras e d own – th e T el em en t – m us t b e mo ve d in to t he h ead
p o s i t i o n o f t h e C P ( t h e c o m p l e m e n t i z e r p o s i t i o n ) , t h e r e b y o c c u r r i n g j u s t t o t h e r i g h t o f
t h e q u e s t i o n p h r a s e , a n d i n f r o n t o f t h e c l a u s a l s u b j e c t . M o r e e l a b o r a t e v a r i a n t s o f t h e
t r ee r e pr es e nt a ti o n o f c l au s al s t ru c tu r e h a ve b e en a d vo c at e d i n r e ce n t l i te ra t ur e , b u t
t he b as ic s tr uc tu ra l a ss um pt io ns i mp li ci t i n ( 6. 1) w il l b e s uf fi ci en t t o f ac il it at e m yd e s c r i p t i o n o f s u c h t h i n g s a s c o - o c c u r r e n c e a n d r e l a t i v e o r d e r o f c o n s t i t u e n t s , s c o p e o f
a d v e r b s a n d o p e r a t o r s , a n d v a r i a t i o n i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e f i n i t e v e r b w i t h i n a n d a c r o s s
t h e G M C l a ng u ag e s.
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t h e G M C l a ng u ag e s.
a d v e r b . I n l a n g u a g e s i n w h i c h p r e d i c a t e a d j e c t i v e s t a k e i n f l e c t i o n a l e n d i n g s , t h e s a m e
f or ms i n a dv er bi al u se t ak e a n i nv ar ia nt n eu te r a dj ec ti ve e nd in g, a s i n ( 6. 2a ). T he se
l a ng u ag e s d o , h o we v er , h a ve s u ff i xe s f o r d e ri v in g a d ve r bs f ro m o t he r c at e go r ie s . F o r
e x a m p l e , D A -mæssig i s u s e d p r o d u c t i v e l y t o d e r i v e a d v e r b s f r o m n o u n s : regelmæssig
‘regularly’.
S yn ta ct ic al ly , a dv er bs a re d is ti ng ui sh ed b y v ir tu e o f b ei ng t he o ne l ex ic al c at eg or y
w hi ch d oe s n ot t ak e c om pl em en ts o f i ts o wn :
A dv er bs a re o ft en t re at ed a s m em be rs o f a m or e i nc lu si ve c la ss o f “ ad ve rb ia ls ,”
w h i c h w e m a y d e f i n e a s ‘ a d v e r b s a n d p h r a s e s o f o t h e r c a t e g o r y t y p e s , s u c h a s n o u n
p h ra s es a n d p r ep o si t io n al p h ra s es u s ed i n s i mi l ar a d ju n ct f u nc t io n s’ . F o r e x am p le ,
n ou n p hr as es a re u se d f re qu en tl y a s t im e p hr as es , a pp ea ri ng i n t he p ar ti cu la r c as e
r eq ui re d b y t hi s “ ad ve rb ia l” r ol e. T he c as e i n q ue st io n v ar ie s f ro m l an gu ag e t o
l a ng u ag e , a n d s o me t im e s e v en w it h in l a ng u ag e s ( GO h i m ma d a ga ‘ t o da y ’ ( l it . ‘ t hi s
day-DSg’), g i s t r a d a g i s ‘ t o mo r ro w -G Sg ’ ). S i mi l ar l y, p r ep o si t io n al p h ra s es a r e f r e-
q ue nt ly u se d a s t im e p hr as es a nd l oc at io n p hr as es , i n w hi ch u se s t he y a ls o o ve rl ap
6 . 1 S e nt e nc e a d v e rb s 371
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f u n c t i o n a l l y w i t h a d v e r b s . I w i l l n o t e m p l o y t h e l a b e l “ a d v e r b i a l ” h e r e , t h o u g h , s i n c e
I t i s c us t om a r y t o dis t i ngui s h br oa dl y be t we e n t w o t ype s of a dve r bs – V P - a dve r bs
a nd s en te nc e a dv er bs . Th is d is ti nc ti on e mb od ie s a s yn ta ct ic a nd a s em an ti c c la im .
V P - adve rbs a re s ynt ac t i c c ons ti t ue nt s of t he V P , and t hey a r e unde rs t ood t o ha ve scope
o v er (o n ly ) th e V P – t ha t i s , t h ei r me a ni n gs c om b in e w it h th a t o f th e V P, an d th e y a re
u n de r st o od t o qu a li f y t h e a c ti o n d e sc r ib e d b y th a t V P. M an n er ad v er b s, f or ex a mp l e,
a re a t yp e o f V P- ad ve rb . S en te nc e a dv er bs , o n t he o th er h an d, a re s yn ta ct ic al ly
c o ns t it u en t s o f t h e c l au s e, an d o u ts i de o f th e v e rb p hr as e . S e ma n ti c al l y, t he y h a ve
s co pe o ve r th e c la us e – t h ei r me an in gs c om bi ne w it h t he m ea ni ng o f t he p ro po si ti on
a sse rt ed b y th at cl aus e. (T he no ti on o f s co pe wil l al so b e of im po rt an ce i n the next
section, o n t he s yn ta x of n eg at io n. ) Th e d if fe re nt s yn ta ct ic p os it io ns o f th e t wo t yp es
o f a d v e r b s c a n b e d e m o n s t r a t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n E N , V P - a d v e r b s
b ut n ot s en te nt ia l a dv er bs c an i nt er ve ne b et we en t he v er b a nd i ts c om pl em en t, a s i n( 6. 4a ), a nd V P- ad ve rb s b ut n ot s en te nt ia l a dv er bs c an b e m ov ed t o t he f ro nt o f t he
c l a u s e a l o n g w i t h t h e r e s t o f t h e V P , a s i n ( 6 . 5 a ) .
T he p ar ti ti on in g o f a dv er bs i nt o t he t wo g ro up s “ se nt en ce a dv er bs ” a nd “ VP -a dv er bs ”
i s pr oba bl y not s uf f i c i e nt l y f i ne - gr a i ne d, how e ve r . I n s e m a nt i c t e r m s , a t l e a s t , s e nt e nc e
a d v e r b s a r e o f a h e t e r o g e n e o u s s o r t , a n d h a v e b e e n s u b j e c t e d t o a v a r i e t y o f c l a s s i f i c a -
h K ( 1986 1 ) b j d i i i b d b
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t o r y s c h e m e s . K o t o v a ( 1986: 1 ) o b s e r v e s a m a j o r d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n s e n t e n c e a d v e r b s
r es tr ic ti on s o n r el at iv e o rd er in g o f a dv er bs o f d if fe re nt t yp es s ho w s om e c on st an cy
a cr o ss l a ng u ag e s. S o me i n ve s ti g at o rs ( e .g . , T r av i s 1988; C in qu e 1999; N i ls e n 2000),
h a v e p r o p o s e d t h a t t h i s f i x i t y o f r e l a t i v e o r d e r r e f l e c t s h i e r a r c h i c a l s y n t a c t i c s t r u c t u r e :
c l au s es a re c o mp o se d o f s e ve ra l d i sc r et e p h ra s al l a ye rs ( m or e t h an t h e t h re e a s su m ed
h er e) , e ac h o f w hi ch i s h om e t o a d if fe re nt s ub se t o f “ se nt en ce a dv er bs ” ( se e N il se n
2000: 21 f. f or a c ri ti ca l d is cu ss io n o f t he o rd er in g d if fe re nc es o n w hi ch s uc h c la im s
a re b as ed ). S o, f or e xa mp le , t he f ol lo wi ng N O s en te nc e s ho ws t he o nl y a dm is si bl e
o r d e r o f t h e a d v e r b s i t c o n t a i n s . A l l o t h e r p e r m u t a t i o n s a r e d i s a l l o w e d .
I n s pi te o f p ar al le ls i n a dv er b o rd er f ro m o ne l an gu ag e t o t he n ex t, t ho ug h, t he re i s
a t l e a s t s o m e c r o s s l i n g u i s t i c v a r i a t i o n i n a d v e r b p o s i t i o n i n G M C . I n S W a n d D A , f o r
e xa mp le , t he o rd er i s ( ma nn er a dv er b – p la ce a dv er b – t im e a dv er b) :
G E a nd D U, o n t he o th er h an d, p er ha ps b ec au se t he y a re O V l an gu ag es , p re fe r t he
o p po s it e r e la t iv e o r de r : t i me a d ve rb – ( m an n er a d ve r b) – pl a ce a d ve r b:
6 . 1 S e nt e nc e a d v e rb s 373
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e xc l us i ve l y t o de r i ve s e nt e nc e a dve r bs . I n G E , w he r e i t i s m os t pr oduc t i ve l y e m pl oye d,
f o r e x am p le , t h er e a r e c o nt r as t s l i ke t h e f o ll o wi n g:
O t he r l e xi c al d e vi c es a r e a l so u s ed t o s i gn a l t h e d i ff er e nc e b e tw e en s e nt e nc e a d ve r bs
a nd VP ad ve rb s. I n SW , NO, IC an d DA, t he m od ify in g p ar ti cl e nog / nok occurs
o b li g at o ri l y w h en o n e o f t h es e ‘ t wo - wa y ’ a d v e rb s i s u s ed a s a s e nt e nc e a d ve r b.
R a m a t a n d R i c c a (1998: 2 1 0 ) p r o p o s e t h a t t h i s p a r t i c l e i s o n i t s w a y t o w a r d g r a m m a -
t i ca l iz a ti o n a s a d e ri v at i on a l m o rp h em e f o r s e nt e nc e a d ve rb s .
D A a l so e xhi bi ts a s t ri king i nf le c ti ona l di ff e re nce be tw e en s e nte nce a dve r bs a nd V P
a dv er b s. I n g e ne ra l, s e nt en c e- le ve l a dv er b s e nd in g i n -lig, s u c h a s f lgelig ‘consequently’,
navnlig ‘namely’, rettelig ‘rightfully’, sandelig ‘indeed’, visselig ‘ a s s ur e dl y’ , do not t a ket he ‘ n eu te r’ -t s uf fi x, w hi l e -lig a dv e rb s u se d a s m an ne r a d ve rb s ( th e c an o ni ca l V P a dv e rb )
do, of t e n w i t h s ha r p m e a ni ng c ont r a s t s ( A l l a n e t a l. 1995: 336, 348f f . ) :
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s y n t a c t i c t r e e t h a n t h e p o l a r i t y i t e m , i n o r d e r t o l i c e n s e i t . A n i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n o f
t h i s i n E N i s f o u n d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n t r a s t : p o l a r i t y i t e m s i n s u b j e c t p h r a s e s o r t o p i c
p h r a s e s i n E N m a i n c l a u s e s c a n n o t b e l i c e n s e d b y t h e s e n t e n t i a l n e g a t o r , w h i l e p o l a r i t y
i te ms c on ta in ed i n o bj ec t N Ps c an . T he s am e f ac ts h ol d e ls ew he re i n G MC , t ho ug h,
a s w e w i l l s e e , n o t a l l G M C l a n g u a g e s e x h i b i t t h i s a s y m m e t r y .
T he re a re r ea so ns f or t hi nk in g t ha t t hi s i s b ec au se t he s ub je ct n ou n p hr as e ( as t he
s p e c i f i e r o f T P ) , a n d t h e t o p i c p h r a s e ( a s t h e s p e c i f i e r o f C P ) i n E N a r e h i g h e r u p i n t h e
s yn ta ct ic t re e t ha n t he n eg at iv e e le me nt n’t , a nd t he re fo re c an no t b e l ic en se d b y i t.O bs er ve , f ir st o f a ll , t ha t w he n a c la us e l ik e ( 6. 17 b) i s e mb ed de d i n t ur n i n a l ar ge r
c la us e w hi ch c on ta in s s en te nt ia l n eg at io n, t he s ub je ct o f t he e mb ed de d c la us e c an
c o nt a in a p o la ri t y i t em .
S imi larl y, i n d ial ec ts o f E N wh ich al low t he fr on ti ng o f th e a ux il iary þ n’t in
d e cl a ra t iv e s e nt e nc e s ( p re s um a bl y t o t h e C ( OM P ) p o si t io n i n t r ee ( 6 .1 ) ), p o la ri t y any
c an a ga in a pp ea r i n t he s ub je ct p hr as e.
I n t he se c as es , b ut n ot i n ( 6. 17 b) , t he s en te nt ia l n eg at or i s h ig h e no ug h i n t he c la us al
s t ru c tu r e t o l i ce n se t h e n e ga t iv e p o la r it y i t em .
I nt er es ti ng ly t he o bs er ve d e xc lu si on o f n eg at iv e p ol ar it y i te ms f ro m t he s ub je ct
378 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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I nt er es ti ng ly , t he o bs er ve d e xc lu si on o f n eg at iv e p ol ar it y i te ms f ro m t he s ub je ct
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( In t he se l an gu ag es , o f c ou rs e, p ol ar it y i te ms c an a ls o a pp ea r i n o bj ec t p hr as es i n
ne ga t i ve s e nt e nc e s . ) J e s pe r s e n (1917: 5 8 ) a n d T r a u g o t t ( 1992: 2 6 9 ) r e p o r t c a s e s i n O E
6 .2 T he s yn ta x o f n eg at io n 379
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g ) p ( ) g ( ) p
a ff ir ma ti ve p ro po si ti on . T he d iff er en ce i s m ad e c le ar i n a n i nt er es ti ng w ay b y t he
f ol l ow i ng c ont r as t i n I C ( T hr ainsson 1994: 187) : I C ha s t w o di f fe r ent “ negat i ve ” i nde f in-
ite determiners, neinn ‘ a ny’ a nd enginn ‘no’. Neinn ( th e o n ly o ne w it h a n o ri gi na l n eg at iv e
e t ym ol ogy, i nvol vi ng t he G MC ne) i s a n N - p o l a r i t y i t e m . I t h a s n o n e g a t i v e f o r c e o f i t s
ow n, a nd c a n onl y oc c ur w i t h a r e a l ne ga t i ve e l e m e nt . Enginn ( w hi c h w a s not or i gi na l l y
a ne ga t i ve w or d – s e e be l ow ) ha s i nde pe nde nt ne ga t i ve f or c e , a s i n ( 6. 25c ) – a n i ns t a nc e
of t r ue “ doubl e ne ga t i on. ”
S om e r ec en t i nv es ti ga to rs h av e c on cl ud ed t ha t w ha t I h av e l ab el ed n eg at iv e-
i nc or po ra ti ng p ol ar it y i te ms a re n ot s im pl y a no th er t yp e o f n eg at iv e p ol ar it y i te m.
R a t h e r , t h e y a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e c l a u s a l n e g a t o r b y a d i s t i n c t r e l a t i o n s h i p , t h a t o f n e g a t i v e
c on co rd , t hr ou gh w hi ch t he ir n eg at iv e f or m “ sp re ad s” t o t he m f ro m t he c la us aln eg at or , u nd er c on di ti on s w hi ch c an d if fe r f ro m t ho se i n w hi ch a p ol ar it y i te m i s
l ic en se d b y a c la us al n eg at or . Anyone and no o ne i n ( 6.2 6) are t hu s rel at ed t o t he
s e nte nt i al ne gat i on by di f f er e nt pr oce s s es .
6 .2 T he s yn ta x o f n eg at io n 381
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F or d is cu ss io n o f t he s ynt ax o f ne gat iv e co nco rd i n GM C, a nd sp eci fi ca ll y f or
a rg um en ts t ha t n eg at iv e p ol ar it y i te ms a nd e le me nt s i nv ol ve d i n n eg at iv e c on co rd
h a ve d i ff e re n t d i st r ib u ti o ns , t h e r e ad e r i s r e fe r re d t o H ae g em a n a n d Z a nu t ti n i 1996,
H o r n a n d K a t o 2000: 6 a n d v a n d e r W o u d e n 1997: p a r t 2 .
6 .2 .4 N eg at iv e c o m pl em en ti ze rs a nd p le on as ti c n e g at io n
T h e f o l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e w o u l d s e e m t o i n d i c a t e t h a t p o l a r i t y i t e m s n e e d n o t d e p e n d o n
a c l a u s a l n e g a t o r , b u t m a y d e p e n d i n s t e a d o n a n i m p l i e d n e g a t i o n w h i c h i s a p a r t o f t h em ea ni ng o f a l ex ic al v er b; anything h e r e s e e m s t o d e p e n d o n doubt .
A s L a k a (1990) p o i n t s o u t , t h o u g h , t h i s i s n o t t h e c o r r e c t a n a l y s i s o f s u c h e x a m p l e s .
Doubt c an no t l ic en se p ol ar it y i te ms i n i ts o wn c la us e ( 6. 27 b) . I t c an a pp ar en tl y o nl yl i ce n se p o la r it y i t em s i n a c l au s al c o mp l em e nt .
382 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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6 .2 .5 C on st it ue nt n e ga ti on w i th s e nt en ti al s c op e
A s e s ta b li s he d i n S e ct i on 6.2.3, t he s co pe o f a n eg at or i s n or ma ll y d et er mi ne d b y i ts
s y n t a c t i c p o s i t i o n , a n d p o l a r i t y i t e m s h a v e t o b e i n t h e s c o p e o f t h e n e g a t i v e e l e m e n t o n
w h i c h t h e y a r e d e p e n d e n t – h e n c e , l o w e r t h a n t h e n e g a t i v e e l e m e n t i n t h e s y n t a c t i c t r e e .
H o we v er , b o th t h e g e ne ra l iz a ti o n t h at p o la ri t y i t em s h a ve t o b e l i ce n se d b y n e ga t iv e
e l e m e nt s oc c ur r i ng hi ghe r up i n t he s ynt a c t i c t r e e a nd t he di s t i nc t i on be t w e e n s e nt e nt i a ln e g a t i o n a n d c o n s t i t u e n t n e g a t i o n i n t e r m s o f s c o p e a r e c l o u d e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t , u n d e r
s o me c i rc u ms t an c es , n e ga t iv e e l em e nt s w h ic h w e w o ul d i d en t if y a s c o ns t it u en t n e ga t io n
( b ec a us e t h ey a r e s y nt a ct i ca l ly p a rt s o f n o un p h ra s es , p r ep o si t io n al p h ra s es o r o t he r
6 .2 T he s yn ta x o f n eg at io n 383
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I n t h e s ub j ec t p h ra se e x am p le i n ( 6 .3 0a ) , h o we ve r, o n ly t h e C NS S o p ti o n i s a v ai la bl e .
T he s en te nt ia l n eg at io n o pt io n i s u na va il ab le h er e, a s w e n ot ed a bo ve , b ec au se t he
p ol ari ty i tem i n t he s ub jec t p os it io n i s t oo h ig h u p t o b e i n t he s cop e o f t he c la us al n ega tor .
E ve n i f w e u se a n i nd ef in it e a rt ic le , r at he r t ha n a p ol ar it y i te m, t he s en te nc e r em ai ns
odd.
(6.30) b. A salesperson will not bother you at any timec. No s al es per so n w il l b oth er y ou a t a ny t ime
C NS S i s a pp ar en tl y p re fe rr ed o ve r t he u se o f c la us al n eg at io n h er e, t oo , w he re t he
a l te r na t iv e s e nt e nc e ( 6 .3 0 a) w o ul d c o nt a in a N P w it h a n o n- n eg a ti v e i n de f in i te d e te r-
m in er o ut si de o f t he s co pe o f t he c la us al n eg at or .
T h er e i s c ro s sl i ng u is t ic v a ri a ti o n a m on g t h e G M C l a ng u ag e s i n vo l vi n g t h e c h oi c e
b et we en o rd in ar y s en te nt ia l n eg at io n a nd C NS S n eg at io n. G E d if fe rs f ro m E N w it h
r e s p e c t t o s e n t e n c e s l i k e ( 6 . 2 9 a , b ) ; i n G E , o n l y t h e C N S S o p t i o n i s p o s s i b l e . O r d i n a r y
s e nt e nt i a l ne ga t i on i s r ul e d out w i t h i nde f i ni t e obj e c t s ( 6. 31c ) , a nd c ons t i t ue nt ne ga t i on
o f t h e N P h a s t o b e u s e d i n s t e a d , a s i n ( 6 . 3 1 b ) .
384 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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C or re sp on di ng ly , D U r eq ui re s t ha t s en te nc es c on ta in in g a n i nd ef in it e o bj ec t b e
n eg at ed t hr ou gh C NS S – t ha t i s, b y m ea ns o f a n eg at iv e a rt ic le , w hi ch h as t he f or ce
o f s en te nt ia l n eg at io n. T he c or re sp on di ng A F s en te nc es , o n t he o th er h an d, h av es e nt e nt i al n e ga t io n t o ge t he r w i th a n o b je c t N P w i th a n i n de fi n it e a r ti c le .
O t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s s u p p l y s o m e f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e f o r s u c h a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
o b je c t p o si t io n a n d t h e p o ss i bi l it i es f o r e x pr es s in g s e nt e nt i al n e ga t io n . H o lm e s a n dH i nchc l if f e (1994: 5 24 ) p oi nt o ut c on tr as ts i n S W l ik e t ho se i n ( 6. 33 a) a nd ( 6. 33 b) ;
s en te nt ia l n eg at io n w it h a n i nd ef in it e o bj ec t i s e xp re ss ed i n e it he r o f t wo w ay s. I n
( 6. 33 a) , w e f in d a ‘ no t. . . an y’ c on st ru ct io n. T he o rd in ar y s en te nt ia l n eg at or (inte) is
d h i j t i i t h h h d t i i l i t i t ( °
6 .2 T he s yn ta x o f n eg at io n 385
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( T h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e s e t w o p o s s i b i l i t i e s a l s o d e p e n d s o n r e g i s t e r , a n d o n w h e t h e r t h e
c lau se h as a le xic al v er b al on e o r a l ex ica l v erb p lu s au xi lia ry . Se e Ho lme s a nd
Hinchcliffe 1994: 1 8 9 f f , 5 2 3 f f . f o r d i s c u s s i o n . ) U n l i k e G E , S W d o e s n o t h a v e o r d i n a r y
o b je c t s h if t , e x ce p t f o r u n st r es s ed p r on o un s ( s ee B o ba l ji k a n d J o na s 1996a: 2 0 6 ) , s o
o bj ec ts n or ma ll y f ol lo w t he ir v er bs . H ow ev er , n eg at iv e o bj ec t N Ps c an b e m ov ed t o
t he l ef t o f t he v er b, a s i n ( 6. 33 b) , y ie ld in g e xc ep ti on al O V o rd er ( se e B an dl e 2005:
1 15 5) . W he n t he o bj ec ts a re s hi ft ed t o t he l ef t i n t hi s w ay , t he s en te nt ia l n eg at iv e
m ar ke r i s s up pr es se d, a nd t he c on st it ue nt n eg at io n o f t he s hi ft ed o bj ec t a cq ui re s
s e nt e nt i al f o rc e. S i mi l ar f ac t s a re f o un d i n D A ( Al l an e t a l. 1995: 5 1 6 ) :
S im il ar f ac ts a re a ls o r ep or te d f or G E a nd W es t F le mi sh ( Ha eg em an 1995: 1 6 7f f )
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a n d L a t e M E . T h e o b s e r v e d a s y m m e t r i e s f i n d a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d e x p l a n a t i o n u n d e r t h e
N eg P h y po t he s is o f H ae g em a n (1995) , t o w h ic h t h e i n te re s te d r e ad e r i s r ef e rr e d.
A r at he r d if fe re nt s ta te o f a ff ai rs i s r ef le ct ed i n t he o ld er G MC l an gu ag es ( se e
Harbert 2002 f o r d e t a i l e d i l l u s t r a t i o n s a n d d i s c u s s i o n ) . I n a l l o f t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s ,
as we h av e se en , a n eg at ed i nd ef in it e o bj ect NP can co nv ey th e fo rce o f cl au sal
n eg at io n ( th e C NS S p he no me no n) . I n s om e o f t he se l an gu ag es , C NS S i s t he o nl y
p os si bi li ty f or n eg at in g a c la us e w hi ch c on ta in s a n i nd ef in it e o bj ec t. I n G O, O Ea n d a t l e a s t s o m e d i a l e c t s o f O H G , t h o u g h , C N S S w a s a p p a r e n t l y p o s s i b l e o n l y u n d e r
m o r e l i m i t e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a n i n t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s . I n G O , f o r e x a m p l e , w h e r e
t he G re ek B ib le h as s en te nc es w it h C NS S, t he G O t ra ns la ti on s ys te ma ti ca ll y a dd s
a s en te nt ia l n eg at or ni w he ne ve r t he n eg at ed i nd ef in it e o bj ec t o r s ub je ct f ol lo ws
the finite verb, as in (6.35). This suggests that GO did not allow CNSSw he n t he n eg at ed c on st it ue nt w as p os tv er ba l ( th ou gh a c ou nt er ex am pl e i s f ou nd i n
J ohn 10: 41) .
6 .2 T he s yn ta x o f n eg at io n 387
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I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e , i n f a c t , t h e G O w o r d o r d e r i s c h a n g e d , r e l a t i v e t o t h e G r e e k ,
i n o r de r t o p l ac e t h e n e ga t ed c o ns t it u en t p r ev e rb a ll y .
A s i m i l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n i s f o u n d i n O E . W h e n a n e g a t i v e n o u n p h r a s e o r a d v e r b p h r a s e
p re ce de s t he m ai n v er b ( pr im ar il y i n s ub or di na te c la us es ) i t c an n eg at e t he c la us e b y
i t s e l f , w i t h o u t t h e n e e d f o r a c l a u s a l n e g a t o r , a s i n ( 6 . 3 7 ) . H o w e v e r , w h e r e t h e n e g a t i v e
p h r a s e f o l l o w s t h e f i n i t e v e r b ( p r i m a r i l y i n m a i n c l a u s e s ) , a s i n ( 6 . 3 8 ) , t h e r e i s c l a u s a l
n e ga t io n , r at h er t h an C N SS .
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A n d t h e s a m e i s t r u e o f a t l e a s t s o m e v a r i e t i e s o f O H G . I n t h e O H G Tatian, t h e r e i s a
s tr on g t en de nc y t o u se t he c la us al n eg at or ni n ot o nl y w he n t he n eg at ed i nd ef in it ep h r a s e i s p o s t v e r b a l , a s i n ( 6 . 3 9 a ) , b u t e v e n w h e n t h e i n d e f i n i t e p h r a s e i s p r e v e r b a l , a s
in (6 .3 9b ). Ho wev er, th ere are at l eas t a few ex am pl es s ho win g t hat it c ou ld b e
d is pe ns ed w it h i n t he l at te r c as e, a s i n ( 6. 39 c, d ). S om e o f t he se a re p oi nt ed o ut b y
B eh ag he l ( 19 24 : I I, 7 7) , w ho a ls o o bs er ve s a c on ne ct io n w it h v er b p os it io n. T hu s,
C NS S w as a g ai n a p pa re n tl y p o ss i bl e j u st i n c a se t h e n e ga t iv e i n de fi n it e p r ec ed e d t h ef i ni t e v e rb ( t ho u gh i t w as a p pa r en t ly n o t p r ef er r ed e v en t h en ) .
6 .2 T he s yn ta x o f n eg at io n 389
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F o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e o l d e r d i a l e c t s , t h o u g h , t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s e e m s t o h o l d t h a t
a n eg at iv e i nd ef in it e c on st it ue nt c an c ar ry t he f or ce o f c la us al n eg at io n b y i ts el f,
w it ho ut t he n ee d f or a c la us al n eg at or , o nl y i n p re ve rb al , n ot i n p os tv er ba l p os it io n.
I n t h is l a tt e r r e st r ic t io n t h ey a r e d i ff er e nt f ro m t h e m o de rn G M C l a ng u ag e s. T h ey a rea l s o d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s i n a n o t h e r , a n d p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d , w a y ; a l l o f
t he e ar ly G MC l an gu ag es e xp re ss c la us al n eg at io n b y m ea ns o f a p re ve rb al n eg at iv e
pa r t i c l e (ni, ne) , r a t h e r t h a n b y a “ m e d i a l ” ( p o s t v e r b a l ) n e g a t o r l i k e G E nicht , IC ekki .
o r E N not .
T he c on ne ct io n b et we en t he p os si bi li ty o f C NS S a nd t he p os it io n o f t he c la us aln eg at or w as p oi nt ed o ut i n H ae ge ma n a nd Z an ut ti ni 1996, o n t he b as is o f mo de rn
R om an ce a nd G MC l an gu ag es . T he y c la im ( 19 96 : 1 20 ) t ha t i n l an gu ag es w he re t he
c l au s al n e ga t or p r ec e de s t h e v e rb , c o ns t it u en t n e ga t io n c an t a ke c l au s al s c op e o n ly i f
t h e n e g a t e d c o n s i t u e n t i s “ i n a p o s i t i o n c - c o m m a n d i n g I N F L ” ( t h a t i s , f o r o u r p u r p o s e s ,
i n a p os it io n i n f ro nt o f t he i nf le ct ed v er b) , w hi le l an gu ag es i n w hi ch t he c la us al
n eg at or i s n ot p re ve rb al a re n ot r es tr ic te d i n t hi s w ay . T hu s, f or e xa mp le , Z an ut ti ni
(1997: 8 f . ) p o i n t s o u t f o r t h e R o m a n c e l a n g u a g e s t h a t t h e k i n d o f a s y m m e t r y w e h a v e
o bs er ve d i n o ld er G MC ( CN SS o nl y w he n t he n eg at ed c on st it ue nt i s p re ve rb al ) i s
c ha r a c t e r i s t i c of t hos e R om a nc e l a ngua ge s w hi c h e xpr e s s c l a us a l ne ga t i on by m e a ns of
a p r e v e r b a l p a r t i c l e , s u c h a s I t a l i a n , b u t n o t l a n g u a g e s w h i c h h a v e m e d i a l ( p o s t v e r b a l )
c la us al n eg at or s, s uc h a s P ie dm on te se . I n P ie dm on te se , C NS S c an b e c on tr ol le d b y
p o st v er b al n e ga t iv e i n de f in i te p h ra s es a s w el l , j u st a s i n m o de r n G M C ( 6 .4 1 d) .
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F u r t h e r s u p p o r t f o r s u c h a t y p o l o g i c a l c o n n e c t i o n i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e f a c t s o f O N . O N
g a v e u p t h e G M C c l a u s a l n e g a t o r ni e a r l y o n , i n f a v o r o f p o s t v e r b a l n e g a t i v e m a r k e r s( th ro ug h a p ro ce ss t o b e d is cu ss ed i n a s ub se qu en t s ec ti on ). I n f ac t, i t d ev el op ed t wo
p o st v er b al n e ga t or s i n s u cc es s io n : a n e ga t iv e s u ff i x, -a(t), r es tr ic te d f or t he m os t p ar t
t o t he a rc ha ic p oe tr y o f t he p oe ti c Edda, a nd a m or e m od er n o ne , t he f re e- st an di ng
ne gat i ve a dver b ekki ( id en ti ca l t o t he c la us al n eg at or o f M od er n I C) . T he f or me r i s
i l l ust r a te d i n ( 6. 42) :
( T h e o r i g i n s o f t h e s e w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n a l a t e r s e c t i o n . S e e a l s o E y t h orsson 1995 for m o re d e ta i le d t r ea t me n t. ) S i gn i fi c an t ly , i n b o th o f t h es e s t ag e s o f O N, c o nt r ar y t o t h e
o t h e r o l d e r l a n g u a g e s , b u t l i k e t h e m o d e r n o n e s , a n e g a t i v e i n d e f i n i t e o b j e c t i n e i t h e r a
p r ev e rb a l o r a p o st v er b al p o si t io n c o ul d c o nv e y t h e f o rc e o f c l au s al n e ga t io n .
6 .2 T he s yn ta x o f n eg at io n 391
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T hu s, O N p at te rn s w it h m od er n G MC i n b ot h r es pe ct s p re di ct ed b y H ae ge ma n’ s a nd
Z a n u t t i n i ’ s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n : i t h a s p o s t v e r b a l c l a u s a l n e g a t o r s , a n d i t a l l o w s C N S S w i t hne ga ti ve i nde fi ni t e phr as e s i n pos t ve r bal pos i ti on.
6 .2 .6 O n f o rm al d if fe re nc es b et we en s en te nt ia l n e ga to rs a nd
c ons ti t uent ne gat or s
T he re i s e xt en si ve o ve rl ap i n t he G MC l an gu ag es i n t he f or ms u se d f or s en te nt ia l
n e g a t i o n a n d c o n s t i t u e n t n e g a t i o n . G O w a s t h e m o s t u n i f o r m o f t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s i n
t h is r e sp e ct , u s in g t h e s a me m o rp h em e , ni, f o r a l l t y p e s o f n e g a t i o n .
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T ha t i s, a si de f ro m n eg at iv e d et er mi ne rs a nd o th er p ro du ct s o f n eg at iv e- in de fi ni te
i nc or po ra ti on , t he f or ms u se d f or c on st it ue nt n eg at io n a re t he s am e a s t ho se u se d f or s en te nt ia l n eg at io n. T he re a re s om e s en te nt ia l n eg at or s, t ho ug h, w hi ch a re n ot a ls o
f ou nd a s c on st it ue nt n eg at or s, i nc lu di ng O E ne, MHG en , W es t F le mi sh en and
M o de r n E N n’t . T he se a re a ll c li ti c- li ke f or ms w hi ch r eq ui re a f in it e v er b a s a h os t,
a n d i t i s m o s t l i k e l y o n t h a t a c c o u n t t h a t t h e y a r e l i m i t e d t o s e n t e n t i a l n e g a t i o n .
6 .2 .7 O n t h e t y po lo gy o f s en te nt ia l n e ga ti on i n G e rm an ic
6.2.7.1 T he “ c yc le o f n e ga ti on ”
As we ha ve n ot ed , i n GO , an d i n o the r ear ly GMC la ng uag es , a s en te nce co ul d
b e n e g a t e d s o l e l y b y a n u n s t r e s s a b l e n e g a t i v e p a r t i c l e ( G O ni, OE ne, O H G ni, M i d d l eD U a n d M H G en) . T h e s e p a r t i c l e s t y p i c a l l y a p p e a r e d i m m e d i a t e l y i n f r o n t o f t h e v e r b .
I n s o m e o f t h e s e l a n g u a g e s t h e n e g a t i v e p a r t i c l e s e e m s t o “ a t t r a c t ” t h e v e r b , c a u s i n g i t
t o a p p e a r f a r t h e r t o t h e l e f t i n s e n t e n t i a l s t r u c t u r e t h a n i t w o u l d o t h e r w i s e ( s e e S e c t i o n
6.3.2 b el ow ). T hi s s ho ws u p v er y c le ar ly i n O E, f or e xa mp le , w he re a p ro no mi na l
s u bj e ct , w h ic h p r ec ed e s t h e f i ni t e v e rb i n m a in c l au s es , f o ll o ws b o th t h e n e ga t iv e a n d
t he v er b i n a n eg at iv e s en te nc e, a s i n ( 6. 47 c. ).
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A nd i n O N p oe tr y, w hi le s ub je ct s n or ma ll y p re ce de t he v er b i n a ff ir ma ti ve m ai n
c l au s es , t h ey i n va r ia b ly f o ll o w V þ ne gat i ve m or phe m e a(t) i n m a i n c l a u s e s .
I n G O, t h e c l au s e- i ni t ia l ni a pp ea rs t o b e c lo se ly a ff il ia te d w it h o th er e le me nt s o f
t he l ef t p er ip he ry , h os ti ng c li ti c c on ju nc ti on s a nd q ue st io n m ar ke rs , f or e xa mp le
(nih¬ni þ uh ‘and’, ni-u¬ni þ -u ‘ ? ’) . I n o th er l an gu ag es , h ow ev er , i t o ft en f or ms
a p h on o lo g ic al u n it w i th t h e v e rb .4
6 .2 T he s yn ta x o f n eg at io n 395
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A si de f ro m t he se , t he n eg at iv e p ar ti cl e w as t he o nl y e xp on en t o f n eg at io n i n o ld er
G MC . H ow e ve r , s om e of t he s e l a ngua ge s de ve l ope d a n a ddi t i ona l m a r ke r of s e nt e nt i a ln e ga t io n , w h ic h e v en t ua l ly s u pp l an t ed t h e u n st r es s ed p r ev e rb a l n e ga t iv e p a rt i cl e i n
s om e o f t he m. T he se s ec on da ry n eg at iv e m ar ke rs a ro se b y w ay o f a p ro ce ss w hi ch i s
s ta nd ar dl y h el d t o h av e p ro ce ed ed i n t hr ee s te ps . T hr ou gh a p ro ce ss o f s em an ti c
b le ac hi ng , t he p ol ar it y f or m o f a n on sp ec if ic n om in al l os t i ts l ex ic al m ea ni ng , a nd
c a m e t o b e a b l e t o a p p e a r e v e n i n c l a u s e s w h e r e t h e r e w e r e n o a r g u m e n t p o s i t i o n s f o r i tt o r ep res ent , as a si mp le r ei nfo rce r o f t he n eg ati ve p art icl e ( fo r th e p urp ose o f
e xp re ss in g e mp ha ti c n eg at io n) i n s en te nc es c on ta in in g n o o th er s tr es sa bl e p ol ar it y
i te m w hi ch c ou ld b e e mp ha si ze d. W e m ay t hi nk o f t he se a s “ du mm y” p ol ar it y i te ms :
t he y d id n ot c on tr ib ut e t he ma ti c m ea ni ng t o t he s en te nc e. T hi s i s i ll us tr at ed i n t he
f o ll o wi n g G O e x am p le , w h er e waiht h a s n o c ou nt er pa rt i n t he G re ek t ex t.
E ve nt ua ll y, i n p re cu rs or s o f a ll o f t he m od er n G MC l an gu ag es , t he se i n t ur n l os t
t he i r e m pha t i c c ha r a c t e r , a nd be c a m e s i m pl y a s t r uc t ur a l l y ne c e s s a r y pa r t of s e nt e nt i a l
n eg at io n, c o- oc cu rr in g w it h t he p re ve rb al p ar ti cl e e ve n w he n n o e mp ha si s w as
i nt en de d. A t t hi s p oi nt , t he e xp re ss io n o f s en te nt ia l n eg at io n w as d is co nt in uo us ,
i n vo l vi n g a n e ga t iv e p a rt i cl e w h ic h p r ec ed e d t h e i n fl e ct e d v e rb i m me d ia t el y a n d t h e
phonol ogi c a l l y he a vi e r f or m e r pol a r i t y i t e m , w hi c h t ypi c a l l y f ol l ow e d t he ve r b i n m a i n
c l au s e w o rd o r de rs . S o me e x am p le s a r e g i v e n i n ( 6 .4 9 c, d ) .
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N o t e t h a t i n t h e G E e x a m p l e s i n ( 6 . 5 2 c , d ) , t h e v e r b a p p e a r s i n t h e V - 2 p o s i t i o n i n
t he m ai n c la us e, w he re t he re i s n o c om pl em en ti ze r, a nd a pp ea rs f in al ly i n t he s ub or -d in at e c la us e, w he re t he re i s a c om pl em en ti ze r. S im il ar ly , i n ( 6. 51 a) i n E N, t he
a ux il ia ry p re ce de s t he s ub je ct i n t he m ai n c la us e y es /n o q ue st io n, w he re t he re i s n o
c o m p l e m e n t i z e r , b u t i t f o l l o w s t h e s u b j e c t i n t h e e m b e d d e d c l a u s e q u e s t i o n i n ( 6 . 5 1 c ) ,
w he re t he c la us e i s i nt ro du ce d b y t he c om pl em en ti ze r if . T he f ol lo wi ng e xa mp le s
i l lu s tr a te t h e s a me k i nd o f c o mp l em e nt a ri t y f o r c o nd i ti o na l c l au s es i n G E a n d E N :
T h is c o mp l em e nt a ri t y b e tw ee n l e ft w ar d o c cu r re n ce o f t h e v e rb a n d t h e p r es e nc e o f ac o m p l e m e n t i z e r i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e s t a n d a r d a n a l y s i s o f s u c h c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n t h e
g e n e r a t i v e f r a m e w o r k , u n d e r w h i c h t h e V - 2 p o s i t i o n o f t h e v e r b i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e
C ( O M P ) p o s i t i o n . I n q u e s t i o n s , t h e v e r b m u s t m o v e t o t h a t p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e T p o s i t i o n
w h e n t h e C ( O M P ) p o s i t i o n i s n o t a l r e a d y o c c u p i e d b y a c o m p l e m e n t i z e r . W h e n i t d o e s
s o , i t c o m e s t o p r e c e d e t h e s u b j e c t . T h e t r e e i n ( 6 . 1 ) p r o v i d e s f o r o n l y o n e p o s i t i o n s t i l lf u r t h e r t o t h e l e f t i n c l a u s a l s t r u c t u r e : t h e S p e c i f i e r p o s i t i o n o f C P . T h e r e f o r e , t h e v e r b ,
w h e n i n C O M P , c a n o c c u r n o l a t e r t h a n i n s e c o n d p o s i t i o n . I n c a s e s w h e r e t h e v e r b i s
c l a u s e - i n i t i a l , a s i n y e s / n o q u e s t i o n s o r c o n d i t i o n a l s e n t e n c e s , w e m a y a s s u m e t h a t t h e
6 .3 T he s yn ta x o f t h e l ef t p er ip he ry 401
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a s m ai n c la us e q ue st io ns , a s E yt hor ss on (1995: 4 9) n ot es . T he f ol lo wi ng e xa mp le
s h o w s t h e v e r b i n i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n i n t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e , i n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e G r e e ko rd er , e ve n t ho ug h -u, t h e t r an s la t io n al e q ui v al e nt o f if , i s p r e s e n t .
H ow ev er , t hi s d oe s n ot n ec es sa ri ly c on tr ad ic t t he a cc ou nt o f V -2 o ff er ed h er e. W e
n e e d o n l y a s s u m e t h a t , b e c a u s e o f i t s c l i t i c s t a t u s , t h e c o m p l e m e n t i z e r - u ‘ i f ’ , unl i ke i t s
E N c o u n t e r p a r t , d o e s n o t “ f i l l ” t h e C O M P s l o t , b u t , l i k e o t h e r c l i t i c s , c o - o c c u p i e s t h a t
s l o t w i t h t h e v e r b w h i c h p r e c e d e s i t ( a n d i n f a c t d e p e n d s o n t h e v e r b t o s u p p o r t i t ) .A s ec on d c la ss o f r es tr ic te d e xc ep ti on s t o t he m ai n c la us e/ su bo rd in at e c la us e
a sy mm et ry i n V -2 i nv ol ve s t he p he no me no n o f “ em be dd ed r oo t c la us es .” C om pa re
t h e f o ll o wi n g e x am p le s f r om D A, f o r i n st a nc e :
I n t he f ir st o f t he se e xa mp le s, t he re h as b ee n t op ic f ro nt in g i n t he s ub or di na te c la us e,
a nd t he i nf le ct ed v er b p re ce de s t he s ub je ct , a s w el l a s t he n eg at iv e a dv er b. I n t he se
r e sp e ct s , t h is s u bo r di n at e c l au s e r e se m bl e s a m a in c l au s e. T h e l a be l “ r oo t c l au s e” h a s
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O E a l so e x hi b it s t h is “ r es t ri c te d e m be d de d V - 2” ( Ki p ar s ky 1995a: 1 6 4n . ).
C o n t i n e n t a l W e s t G M C f o r m s a s t i l l m o r e r e s t r i c t i v e s u b g r o u p , i n w h i c h e m b e d d e d
r o o t b e h a v i o r i s f o u n d o n l y i n ‘ t h a t ’ - t y p e c o m p l e m e n t s f r o m w h i c h t h e c o m p l e m e n t i -
z er h as b ee n o mi tt ed . I n G E, o nl y w he n a n e mb ed de d ‘ th at ’ c la us e l ac ks a c om pl e-
m e nt i ze r d o es i t b e ha v e l i ke a m a in c l au s e, w i th v e rb f r on t in g a n d t o pi c al i za t io n .
(6.57) Er sagt, morgen fahre sie ab
h e s a ys t om or ro w g o es s he a wa y
(GE)
T he s ub se t o f m ai n v er bs w hi ch a dm it e mb ed de d r oo t c la us es i n S W o ve rl ap se xt en si ve ly w it h t he v er bs t ha t a ll ow ‘ th at ’ c om pl em en ti ze r d ro p ( an d t he re fo re
e m be d de d r o ot b e ha v io r ) i n G E .5
B y c on tr as t w it h t he se l an gu ag es , t wo o f t he m od er n G MC l an gu ag es , Y I a nd I C,
e xh ib it w ha t V ik ne r (1995: 8 0) t er ms “ ge ne ra l e mb ed de d V -2 ” b eh av io r. I n t he se
l a n g u a g e s , t o p i c a l i z a t i o n a n d s u b j e c t - v e r b i n v e r s i o n a r e n o t l i m i t e d t o c e r t a i n t y p e s o f ‘ th at ’- cl au se s, b ut c an o cc ur g en er al ly i n e mb ed de d c la us es . S o, f or i ns ta nc e, i n t he
f ol lo wi ng Y I e xa mp le s, t he s ub je ct i s p re ce de d b y b ot h a f ro nt ed t op ic a nd a f ro nt ed
v er b, e ve n i n t he c om pl em en t o f a m ai n c la us e v er b ‘ re gr et ’ ( 6. 58 a) , a nd e ve n i n
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B e ca use t he w or d-or de r poss i bi l it i es i n Y I a nd I C s ubor di nat e c l aus es m ore c l os e ly
r es em bl e t ho s e o f m ai n c la us es , t he y a re s om et im es r ef er re d t o a s “ sy mm et ri ca l” V -2
l a nguage s, a s oppos ed t o “ a sym me t ri c al ” V -2 l a nguage s l i ke G E , i n w hic h t he m a in c l aus e/
s ubor di na t e c l a us e di f f e r e nc e s a r e gr e a t e r . Y I a nd I C a r e t he t w o l a ngua ge s w hi c h a l l ow
e xpl e t i ve s of t he c l a us e - i ni t i a l t ype t o a ppe a r i n e m be dde d c l a us e s ( V i kne r 1995: 7 0 a n d
Section 4.9.2 of t he pr e s e nt vol um e ) . A m ong t he a ppr oa c he s t o e xpl a i ni ng t he di f f e r e nc e
between symmetrical and asymmetrical languages has been one of roughly the following
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A c om pa ri so n o f t he se e xa mp le s w it h q ue st io n s en te nc es l ik e ( 6. 64 c) r ev ea ls a n
a sy mm et ry v er y m uc h l ik e w ha t w e f in d i n M od er n E N: s ub je ct /v er b i nv er si on i n
q ue st io ns , b ut n on e i n t op ic s en te nc es . T he f ac ts a re c om pl ic at ed s om ew ha t b y t he
f ac t t ha t n ot o nl y s ub je ct p ro no un s, b ut a ls o o bj ec t p ro no un s c an p re ce de t he v er b i n
t opi c- i ni ti a l s e nt enc e s , a s i n:
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S e e K r o c h a n d T a y l o r 1997 a n d v a n K e m e n a d e 1997 f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s t i l l
p r ob l em a ti c s t at u s o f O E V - 2.
6.3.2.1 S o me a d di t io n al e n vi r on m en t s f o r v e r b f r o n ti n g
I n a dd it io n t o n eg at iv es , q ue st io ns a nd i mp er at iv es , E yt hors so n l ist s a f ew o th er
e nv ir on me nt s f or v er b f ro nt in g i n G O. W hi le v er bs o rd in ar il y f ol lo w t he ir c om pl e-
m e n t s , a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e y a p p e a r s y s t e m a t i c a l l y i n f r o n t o f t h e i r o b j e c t s w h e n t h o s e
o b je c ts a re p r on o un s , j u st i n c a se t h e p r on o un s a re n o t p r ec e de d b y c o mp l em e nt i ze rs .
I f t he re i s a c om pl em en ti ze r, t he v er b r em ai ns i n t he p os it io n f ol lo wi ng t he p ro no un .
T h e f o ll o wi n g p a ir o f s e nt e nc es i l lu s tr a te t h is c o nt r as t :
G iv en t he g en er al t en de nc y f or p ro no un s t o a pp ea r t o t he l ef t i n G MC c la us es , i t i s
h ig hl y u nl ik el y t ha t t he y a re p os tp os ed h er e. E yt hor s so n p r op o se s r at h er t h at o b je ct
p ro nou ns i n GO ar e cl iti cs , wh ich m ust b e s up po rt ed b y an e le me nt to t hei r l eft ;
f ro nt in g o f t he v er b i s u se d t o s at is fy t hi s r eq ui re me nt , i n c as e t he re a re n o o th er
c an di da te s. S im il ar b eh av io r i s f ou nd i n o th er o ld er G MC l an gu ag es ( as w el l a s
e l s e w h e r e ) ; i n m a n y ( t h o u g h n o t a l l ) O E t e x t s p r o n o u n s d o n o t o c c u r c l a u s e - i n i t i a l l y
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S i m il a r ly, E yt hor s s o n (1995: 1 8 4 ) a c c o u n t s f o r t h e V e r b - S u b j e c t p r o n o u n o r d e r f o u n d
i n s o m e e a r l y r u n i c i n s c r i p t i o n s i n t h e o l d e r futhark a s i n v o l v i n g t h e s a m e s o r t o f v e r b
f ro n ti n g t o s u pp o rt a s u bj e ct c l it i c ( s e e a l so H o pp e r 1975: 3 6 ) :
C om par e G O ( 6. 70a ) :
R o be rt s (1993: 9 6) n ot es t he e xi st en ce o f a s im il ar r es tr ic ti on o n s ub je ct c li ti cs i n
O ld F re n ch a s w e ll a s o t he r R o ma n ce l a ng u ag e s ( t he “ T ob l er -M u ss a fi a L a w” ).
Eythor ss on a ls o p ro po se s t ha t t he v er b i s f ro nt ed i n ( 6. 70 b) , s in ce i t a pp ea rs t o t he
l e f t o f t h e c l i t i c c o n j u n c t i o n - uh. S i n c e -uh i n G O i s o n l y u s e d i n c l a u s a l c o o r d i n a t i o n ,
Eythor s s o n i d e n t i f i e s i t a s a c o m p l e m e n t i z e r e l e m e n t , a n d c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e v e r b t o i t s
l e f t h a s b e e n m o v e d t o C i n t h e s e c a s e s a s w e l l :
6 .3 T he s yn ta x o f t h e l ef t p er ip he ry 411
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o th er c on st it ue nt i n t he c la us e- in it ia l p os it io n ( a q ue st io n p hr as e, a n eg at iv e e le me nt o r a
c l i t i c p r o n o u n , f o r e x a m p l e ) . W e m a y p r e s u m e t h a t t h e p r e p o s i n g o f t h e v e r b i s n e e d e dt o “ li ce ns e” t hi s i ni ti al s en te nc e e le me nt . T hi s a na ly si s c an b e e xt en de d i n a f ai rl y
s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d w a y t o a c l a s s o f o t h e r c a s e s , i n w h i c h t h e r e i s n o o v e r t e l e m e n t , s u c h
a s y es /n o q ue st io ns a nd ‘ if ’- le ss c on di ti on al c la us es . F or t he se , w e m ay p os it a n a bs tr ac t,
n o n- p ho n ol o gi c al e l em e nt ( a n i n te r ro g at i ve o r c o nd i ti o na l o p er at o r) i n c l au s e- i ni t ia l
p os it io n, w ho se p re se nc e i s t he t ri gg er f or v er b f ro nt in g ( an a na ly ti ca l a ss um pt io n w hi chi s d ef en si bl e o n o th er g ro un ds ). A ls o e xp la in ab le i n s uc h t er ms i s t he p he no me no n
o f “ T op i c- d ro p ” ( Hu a ng 1984) i n s om e G MC l an gu ag es . I n c ol lo qu ia l M od er n G E,
f o r e x a m p l e , o b j e c t p r o n o u n s m a y b e o m i t t e d i n c o n v e r s a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h t h e i r
r ef er en t h as b ee n e st ab li sh ed a s t he t op ic o f d is cu ss io n, b ut o nl y w it h i nv er te d w or d
o r d e r , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s l i m i t e d t o t h e t o p i c p o s i t i o n , S p e c C .
H ua ng a rg ue s t ha t t he se a re p os si bl e i n G E ( bu t n ot i n E N, f or e xa mp le ) b ec au se
G E h as a “ ze ro -t op ic ” a va il ab le . I ns ta nc es o f “ sp on ta ne ou s” v er b- fi rs t o rd er i n
d ec la ra ti ve s en te nc es a rg ua bl y g o h er e a s w el l. I n m an y o f t he G MC V -2 l an gu ag es ,
o l d a n d m o d e r n , t h e v e r b c a n a p p e a r i n i t i a l l y i n a d e c l a r a t i v e c l a u s e e v e n t h o u g h n o n e
o f t h e t r i g g e r i n g e l e m e n t s i s p r e s e n t , g i v i n g t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f s p o n t a n e o u s V - 1 o r d e r .
( T he s e k i nd s o f s e nt e nc e s t e nd t o o c cu r m o st f re q ue n tl y i n l i ve l y n a rr at i on . )
6 .3 T he s yn ta x o f t h e l ef t p er ip he ry 413
414 6 Th f h l
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t he pos s i bi l i t y of V - 1 de c l a r a t i ve s i s de t e r m i ne d by s om e pr ope r t y, m a ybe
a l e xi c a l one , w hi c h i s e nt i r e l y unr e l a t e d t o ot he r di f f e r e nc e s be t w e e n V - 2l an gu ag es . I t i s h ar d t o s ee w ha t Y id di sh , I ce la nd ic , c ol lo qu ia l D ut ch ,
c o ll o qu i al G e rm a n, a n d M a lm o S w ed is h w ou ld h av e i n c om mo n t ha t i s n ot
f o un d i n , f o r e x am p le , D an i sh , s t an d ar d G er m an , a n d s t an d ar d S w ed i sh
(Vikner 1995: 9 0 ) .
6.3.2.2 Q u o t at i ve i n ver si o n
G i v e n w h a t h a s b e e n s a i d a b o u t V - 2 i n E N s o f a r , s e n t e n c e s l i k e ( 6 . 7 4 ) a r e u n e x p e c t e d
i n a t l e a s t t h r e e w a y s .
(6.74) “Good luck,” said his father
F irs t, t he v er b wh ich a pp ears i n f ro nt o f t he s ub je ct i s n ot a m od al o r a sp ec tu al a ux ili ar y,
but a l e xi c a l ve r b, e ve n t hough l e xi c a l ve r bs c a nnot i n ge ne r a l pr e c e de t he s ubj e c t i n E N .
S e c ond, i nve r s i oni s a l w a ys opt i ona l i nt he s e c a s e s . T he ve r bc a nf ol l ow t he s ubj e c t a s w e l l a s
pr ec e de i t. F i na ll y, i nve r si on t a ke s pl ac e e ve n t hough t he f ronte d c ons t it ue nt ( t he quot a ti ve
c om pl e m e nt ) i s not t he t ype of e l e m e nt ( e . g. , a que s t i on phr a s e or a ne ga t i ve a dve r b) t ha t
t rig ge rs V -2 i n E N. I t a pp ea rs , r at he r, t o b e a n o rdi nar y f ro nt ed t op ic , o f a s or t wh ich i s n ot
o th er wi se a ss oc ia te d w it h i nv er si on . “ Qu ot at iv e I nv ers io n” t he re fo re s ee ms t o b e a t yp e o f
i nv er si on p ro ce ss d is ti nc t f ro m t ho se i nv ol ve d i n t he V -2 p he no me no n. T he s yn ta x o f s uc h
c on st ru ct io ns h as b ee n a na ly ze d b y C ol li ns a nd B ra ni ga n (1997) a nd i n l ate r w ork b y
C oll ins . E s ta bl i shing t he a nt iqui t y of t his phenom e non pose s s om e dif fi c ul t y. I n s t ri ct V -2
l an gu ag es , w he re a ll c on st it ue nt s a pp ea ri ng a t t he b eg in ni ng o f a m ai n c la us e t ri gg er V -2 o rd er , i t w ou ld n ot s ee m t o b e p os si bl e t o d is ti ng ui sh q uo ta ti ve i nv er si on f ro m t he m or e
g en er al ca se . I t i s p os si bl e t o e st ab li sh t ha t i t e xi st ed a s f ar b ack a s O E, h ow ev er. An
e xh au s ti ve e xa mi na ti on o f t he O E t ra ns la ti on o f B ed e’s Historia ecclesiastica gentis
414 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
6 4 C l t i 415
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6.4 Complementizers
6 .4 .1 T ha t- cl au se s
S o m e v e r b s t a k e c l a u s e s a s s u b j e c t s o r o b j e c t s . I n t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s , c l a u s e s u s e d i n
t he se r ol es a re p re ce de d b y a c om pl em en ti ze r, w hi ch m ar ks t he m a s s yn ta ct ic al lys ub or di na te t o t he c la us e i n w hi ch t he y f un ct io n a s a rg um en ts . T he e mp lo ym en t o f
s y nt a ct i c s u bo r di n at i on a s t h e m e an s f o r e x pr es s in g r e la t io n sh i ps b e tw ee n c l au s es i n
s uc h c as es i s a rg ue d i n K ip ar sk y 1995a t o h av e b ee n a G MC i nn ov at io n a s w as t he
6 . 4 C o m p lem en t iz er s 415
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Mor e f r e que nt ly, how e ve r , ei o c cu r s i n c o mb i na t io n w i th a s e co n d e l em e nt , þat(a) ,
w h i c h o r i g i n a t e s f r o m t h e s a m e s o u r c e a s t h e h o m o p h o n o u s n e u t e r d e m o n s t r a t i v e þata
(¬*tod ) , y i el d in g a n e w, c o mp o un d c o mp l em e nt i ze r þat-ei .
T he p ro no mi na l o ri gi ns o f t he f ir st p ar t o f t hi s c om po un d c om pl em en ti ze r a re
r e fl e ct e d i n t h e f a ct t h at i t o c ca s io n al l y i n fl e ct s f o r c as e w h en t h e s u bo r di n at e c l au s e
i t i nt ro du ce s i s t he c om pl em en t o f a v er b w hi ch a ss ig ns o bl iq ue ( da ti ve o r g en it iv e)
case:7
416 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
6 4 C o m p lem en t iz er s 417
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T he We st GM C la ng uag es s har e wi th GO t he u se o f a n eu ter d em on st ra ti ve
(that , daß, dat , e tc .) a s a c om pl em en ti ze r, t ho ug h n ot i n c om bi na ti on w it h o th er c om pl e m e nt i z e r e l e m e nt s . A l s o a ppa r e nt l y f r om t he s a m e s our c e a r e t he S c a ndi na vi a n
complementizers að, at , att , i n s pi te o f t hei r d iffe ren t a pp ear an ce (Vi gfu sso n
1874: 2 8 ) .
The that c o m p l e m e n t i z e r a p p e a r s t o b e o m i s s i b l e i n t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s f r o m m o s t
o b je c t c l au s es , b u t n o t f r om s u bj e ct c l au s es :
6 .4 .2 I nf in it iv e c om pl em en ts
T h e s h ap e o f i n fi n it i ve c o mp l em e nt s i s m o re v a ri e d t h an t h at o f f i ni t e c o mp l em e nt s .
E N h as t he m os t a rt ic ul at ed s et o f d if fe re nt n on fi ni te c om pl em en t t yp es , a nd w il l
t he re fo re s er ve a s o ur s ta rt in g p oi nt . W e m ay d is ti ng ui sh f ir st o f a ll b et we en b ar e
i nf ini t i ve c om ple m e nt s a nd to- i nf i ni t iv e c o mp l em e nt s , t h e f o rm e r n o w r es t ri c te d t o
6 . 4 C o m p lem en t iz er s 417
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A s d i sc u ss e d i n S e ct i on 5.5.1.2, to- i nf i ni t iv e s h a ve t e nd e d h i st o ri c al l y t o b e g e ne r-
a l iz e d i n c o nt r ol c o ns t ru c ti o ns l i ke ( 6 .7 8 b) a n d ( 6 .7 8 c) i n s o me G M C l a ng u ag e s, E Ni n cl u de d , a t t h e e x pe n se o f b a re i n fi n it i ve s .
T he c on st ru ct io ns i n ( 6. 78 d, e ) a re o f l at e o ri gi n. T he for -NP-to c ons t r uct i on i n
( 6. 78 e) , a cc or di ng t o F is ch er (1990: 2 9) , i s f ir st u na mb ig uo us ly a tt es te d i n t he s ix -
t ee nt h c en tu ry . I n t hi s c on st ru ct io n, t he for ap pe ar s b ef or e a ll c on st it ue nt s o f t he
i n fi n it i va l c l au s e, i n cl u di n g t h e s u bj e ct , j u st a s that d o es , a n d i s s t an d ar d ly a n al y ze d
a s a c om pl e m e nt i z er .8 S o me o t he r G M C l a ng u ag e s h a ve a p pa re n t a n al o gu e s t o t h es e
for -to c o n s t r u c t i o n s . S o , f o r e x a m p l e , W e s t F l e m i s h h a s vu. . .te, a n d D U h a s om. . .te,
w he re i n e ac h c as e t he f ir st e le me nt i s o pt io na l.
T h e e x is t en c e o f s u ch i n fi n it i va l c o ns t ru c ti o ns , w i th b o th a n o v er t c o mp l em e nt i ze r
( for/vu) a n d a n i n f i n i t i v e m a r k e r (to/te) , r a i s e s a q u e s t i o n o f a n a l y s i s i n o t h e r c a s e s , i n
w h i c h o n l y a s i n g l e m a r k e r i s i n v o l v e d . I s att i n ( 6 .7 9 a) , f o r e x am p le , t h e c o un t er p ar t
of to i n E N o r o f for – t h a t i s , a n i n f i n i t i v e m a r k e r o r a p r e p o s i t i o n a l c o m p l e m e n t i z e r ?
H er e, u nl ik e E N, w e c an no t u se i ts p os it io n r el at iv e t o t he s ub je ct t o h el p d ec id e,
be c aus e i nf i ni t i val att c l au se s i n S W n ev er h av e o ve rt s ub je ct s. P la tz ac k (1986: 1 2 3 )
a rg ue s, h ow ev er , t ha t i t i s p os si bl e t o a pp ly o th er t es ts t o m ak e t hi s d et er mi na ti on ,
a nd a rr iv es a t t he s tr ik in g r es ul t t ha t t he “ in fi ni ti ve m ar ke r” h as a d if fe re nt s ta tu s i n
418 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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6 . 4 C o m p lem en t iz er s 419
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d if fe re nt S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es . I n S W, i t i s a c om pl em en ti ze r, a nd a s s uc h c an
n e v e r b e p r e c e d e d b y c o n s t i t u e n t s o f t h e i n f i n i t i v e c l a u s e , s u c h a s a s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s en eg at or , f or e xa mp le . I n D A, o n t he o th er h an d, i t i s a n i nf in it iv e m ar ke r o r t en se
e l e m e n t , a n d t h e r e f o r e c a n b e p r e c e d e d b y n e g a t i o n b e l o n g i n g t o t h e i n f i n i t i v e c l a u s e :
C f. a ls o T hr ai n s s o n (1998: 3 55 ff .) , w ho n ot es t ha t N O a ll ow s e it he r o rd er .
P la tz ac k c la im s t ha t a n um be r o f o th er c on tr as ts i n t he d is tr ib ut io n o f at / att follow
f r om t hi s di f f e r e nc e i n s ynt a c t i c s t a t us . F or e xa m pl e , at a p p e a r s i n D A S u b j e c t R a i s i n g
c ons tr uc t ions , but att m a y n o t a p pe a r i n S W S u bj e ct R a is i ng c o ns t ru c ti o ns .
T h e r e a r e a l s o a p p a r e n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e W e s t G M C l a n g u a g e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
s ta tu s o f t he i nf in it iv e m ar ke r ‘ to ’, a s n ot ed i n S ec ti on 5.5.1.2.1. In some of them,
p
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6.5 R e la t iv e c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t r uc t io n s
A l l o f t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s s h a r e a c l a s s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n w h i c h a c l a u s e c o n t a i n i n g a
g ap o r a p ro no un i s p re ce de d b y a c on st it ue nt w hi ch c om pl et es t he m ea ni ng o f t ha t
c la us e, b y “ su bs ti tu ti ng i n f or ” t he g ap o r p ro no un . S ch em at ic al ly , s uc h F il le r- Ga p
c o ns t ru c ti o ns h a ve t h e f o ll o wi n g s h ap e .
(6.80) XPi [S. . . . . 0i / proni. . . . . ]
T h is c l as s o f c o ns t ru c ti o ns – r el a ti v e c l au s es , W H -w o rd q u es t io n s, t o pi c s e nt e nc e s
a nd v ar io us t yp es o f l ef t d is lo ca te d s en te nc es – w il l b e t he s ub je ct o f t he p re se nt
s ec ti on . T ho ug h t he y d if fe r f ro m e ac h o th er i n v ar io us w ay s, t he y t en d t o e xh ib it
p ar al le ls i n b eh av io r i n i nd iv id ua l l an gu ag es – w it h r es pe ct t o w he th er o r n ot t he y
a dm it p re po si ti on s tr an di ng , t he a mo un t o f s yn ta ct ic d is ta nc e a ll ow ed b et we en t he
f il le r a nd t he g ap a nd s o o n. B y w ay o f a tt em pt in g t o h ig hl ig ht t he se c om mo na li ti es
w hi le a t t he s am e t im e f ol lo wi ng t he c on st ru ct io n- by -c on st ru ct io n a pp ro ac h o f t he
p re se nt v ol um e, I w il l p ro ce ed a s f ol lo ws : I w il l d es cr ib e t he c on st ru ct io ns o ne a t a
t i m e , s t a r t i n g w i t h r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s . H o w e v e r , w h e n s t r a n d i n g a n d o t h e r p h e n o m e n a o f
s im il ar ly g en er al r el ev an ce a re e nc ou nt er ed f or t he f ir st t im e i n t he c ou rs e o f t he se
d i s c u s s i o n s , I w i l l t a k e a s l i g h t d e t o u r i n o r d e r t o s u b j e c t t h e m t o a g e n e r a l t r e a t m e n t .
6 .5 .1 A t y po lo gy o f G e rm an ic r e la ti ve c o ns tr uc ti on s
6.5.1.1 T h e G e rm a ni c t y peR el at iv e c la us es a re c la us al m od if ie rs o f N Ps . T he N P a nd t he c la us e t ak en t og et he r
w i l l b e r e f e r r e d t o a s a r e l a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n , a n d t h e N P ( o r i t s h e a d n o u n ) a s t h e h e a d
o f t he r el at iv e c on st ru ct io n T he e xa mp le s i n ( 6 81 ) i ll us tr at e s om e t yp es o f r el at iv e
y f
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 421
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U nd er s om e c ir cu ms ta nc es t he r el at iv iz ed p os it io n i s n ot r ea li ze d a s a g ap , b ut f il le d w it h
a n ove r t “ r e s um pt i ve ” pr onoun unde r s t ood t o be c or e f e r e nt i a l w i t h t he he a d N P . I n s om ec as es a r el a ti ve pr onoun a ppe ar s be tw ee n t he he ad a nd t he gap, on t he l e ft pe ri phe ry of t he
r el a ti ve c la us e . T his pronoun t ypi ca ll y ( wi t h s ome e xc e pt ions, t o be dis cus se d bel ow)
e xhibit s t he c a se m ar ki ng e xpec t ed of t he r el a ti viz e d pos it i on, a nd i s t her ef or e a m or e
pla us ibl e c andida te f or “ f il le r ” t ha n t he hea d noun. W e c an i m agine t ha t i t or igina te s i n
t he p os it io n o f t he g ap , wh er e i ts c as e i s d et erm in ed, a nd i s t he n d is pl ac ed f ro m t ha t
relativized position, to the left periphery of the relative clause (“WH-Movement”). Since
t he l an di ng s it e f or t hi s m ov em en t i s t he p os it io n i mm ed ia te ly t o t he r ig ht o f t he h ea d n ou n,
we m ay i mag in e t ha t t hi s m ov em en t i s m ot iv at ed b y t he n ee d t o p lac e t he r ela ti ve p ro no un
i n a pos i t i on s uf f i c i e nt l y l oc a l t o t he he a d t ha t t he t w o c a n be “ l i nke d” or i de nt i f i e d w i t h
each other. Thus, in relative constructions with relative pronouns, at least, the relationship
be twe en t he h ea d a nd t he g ap i s n ot a d ir ec t b u t a m ed ia te d o n e, a nd t he re ar e t wo s ep arat e
r el a ti ons hips t o de al w it h i n t he se c ons tr uc ti ons : t he l oc al r e la ti ons hi p be tw ee n t he he ad
a nd t he r e la ti ve pr onoun, a nd t he r e la ti ons hi p be tw e en t he r el a ti ve pronoun a nd t he pos it i on
relativized.
I n t he u su al c as e i n t he G MC l an gu ag es ( an d i n f ac t i n W es te rn I E l an gu ag es i n
g e n e r a l ) , t h e v e r b o f t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e i s f i n i t e , t h e c l a u s e a n d t h e h e a d n o u n f o r m a
s i n g l e N P c o n s t i t u e n t , t h e n o u n p r e c e d e s t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e , a n d t h e l a t t e r i s i n t r o d u c e d
b y a r e l a t i v e m a r k e r o f s o m e s o r t – i n ( 6 . 8 1 a ) , t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n who. T h i s i s n o t t h e
o n l y f o r m w h i c h r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s t a k e i n t h e I E l a n g u a g e s . T w o o t h e r t y p e s o f r e l a t i v e
c l au s es a re a l so w i de l y a t te s te d : p a rt i ci p ia l r e la t iv e c l au s es a n d c o rr el a ti v e c l au s es . I n
t he f or me r, t he v er b o f t he r el at iv e c la us e i s n ot f in it e b ut a pp ea rs i n a n om in al iz edf o r m , a s i n ( 6 . 8 2 a ) . T h e s e k i n d s o f r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s t y p i c a l l y p r e c e d e t h e h e a d n o u n a n d
a re n o t i n tr o du c ed b y r e la t iv e p r on o un s o r p a rt i cl e s.
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T he re la tiv e o rd er o f t he he ad a nd t he p art ici pia l re la ti ve ph ras e v ari es f ro m
l an gu ag e t o l an gu ag e. I n G E, a p ar ti ci pi al r el at iv e o f t hi s t yp e p re ce de s t he h ea d,w hi le i n E N i t f ol lo ws t he h ea d. T hi s d if fe re nc e c an b e d er iv ed f ro m t he g en er al
p r ef e re n ce m e nt i on e d i n S e ct i on 4.2.3.2.1 t ha t h ea ds a nd m od if ie rs w it hi n N Ps b e
o r d e r e d i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e h e a d o f t h e m o d i f e r o c c u r s o n t h e p e r i p h e r y o f i t s o w n
p h r a s e w h i c h i s c l o s e s t t o t h e m o d i f i e d h e a d .
T h e p a rt i ci p ia l “ re l at i vi z at i on s t ra t eg y ” i s m o re r e st r ic t ed t h an t h e f i ni t e r e la t iv e
s t r a t e g y i n G M C i n o n e i m p o r t a n t w a y : t h e h e a d n o u n c a n o n l y b e u n d e r s t o o d t o s t a n d
i n a s ub je ct r el at io n t o t he p ar ti ci pi al v er b. T hu s, r el at iv iz at io n o f t he d ir ec t o bj ec t
p o si t io n c a nn o t b e e f fe c te d b y t h is s t ra t eg y ( ex c ep t i n di r ec t ly , b y r e pl a ci n g t h e a c ti v e
p a rt i ci p le w i th a p a ss i ve p a rt i ci p le ) . I n t h e r e ma i nd e r o f t h is c h ap t er , t h es e p a rt i ci p ia l
r e la t iv e c o ns t ru c ti o ns w i ll b e l e ft o u t o f c o ns i de r at i on .
I n t he r em ai ni ng t yp e o f I E r el at iv e c on st ru ct io n, t he c or re la ti ve t yp e, t he r el at iv e
c la us e i s a n i nd ep en de nt c la us e, r at he r t ha n a s ub or di na te c la us e, w hi ch o cc ur s
a d j o i n e d t o t h e l e f t o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e , a s i n ( 6 . 8 3 a ) .
N o t e a l s o t h a t t h e “ h e a d ” i s n o t e x t e r n a l t o t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e , b u t c o n t a i n e d i n i t – a s
s h o w n b y t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s p r e c e d e d b y a r e l a t i v e p a r t i c l e . W e m a y t h e r e f o r e s p e a k o f
t hi s a s a n “ in te rn al ly h ea de d” r el at iv e c on st ru ct io n. T he h ea d i s l in ke d t o t he m ai n c la us eb y m ea ns o f a c or ef er en ti al d em on st ra ti ve p ro no un i n t he l at te r. F or a d is cu ss io n o f
t h e s e ma n ti c i n te rp r et a ti o n o f c o rr el a ti v es ( a nd i n p a rt i cu l ar , f o r a d e mo n st r at i on t h at
t he y a re v er y d if fe re nt s em an ti ca ll y f ro m e mb ed de d r el at iv es , a nd d o n ot a ct ua ll y
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 423
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T hu s, t he se O E c on st ru ct io ns e xh ib it a ll o f t he c ha ra ct er is ti c p ro pe rt ie s o f t he H in di
c o r r e l a t i v e , a n d m a y t h e r e f o r e b e r e g a r d e d a s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h a t t y p e i n G M C . S u c hco ns tr uc tio ns are n ot l im it ed t o t he me die val l an gu ag es. Dal (1966: 205) cites
e x am p le s f ro m E a rl y M o de r n G E .
K i pa r sk y (1995a: 1 55 ) s ug ge st s a s w el l t ha t t hi s c or re la ti ve s yn ta x u nd er li es t he
p he no me no n k no wn i n c la ss ic al p hi lo lo gy a s “ In ve rs e A tt ra ct io n” f ou nd i n s om e
m e d i e v a l G M C l a n g u a g e s ( a s w e l l a s e l s e w h e r e – s e e G r i m m 1866; H a h n 1964) . T h i s
p h en o me n on i s i l lu s tr at e d i n ( 6 .8 3 c) .
H er e, w e s ee t ha t t he h ea d o f t he r el at iv e c la us e (d e n s c ha z) a ga in b eh av es i n o ne
r e s p e c t a s i f i t b e l o n g s t o t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e , r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e m a i n c l a u s e ; i t a p p e a r s
i n a c c u s a t i v e c a s e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e r o l e o f t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n i n t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e .
A g a i n , t h i s s e e m s t o b e r e s t r i c t e d t o c a s e s i n w h i c h t h e r e l a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n o c c u r s o n
t he l ef t p er ip he ry o f t he m ai n c la us e, a nd t he l at te r c on ta in s a r es um pt iv e p ro no un –
t ha t i s, i n a s tr uc tu re w hi ch r es em bl es t he c or re la ti ve t yp e. “ In ve rs e a tt ra ct io n” i s
n ot w id es pr ea d, e ve n i n m ed ie va l G MC . I t o cc ur s i n n at iv e c om po si ti on s i n M HG
( s ee e s pe ci a ll y G r im m 1866) b ut is a vo id ed i n GO , ev en wh en it o cc urs i n Gree k
( e. g. , L uk e 2 0: 17 ) a nd i s f ou nd i n O E a pp ar en tl y o nl y i n l it er al t ra ns la ti on s f ro m t he
Latin.T he d om in an t r el at iv e c on st ru ct io n t yp e i n G MC , h ow ev er , h as a lw ay s b ee n o ne
w h i c h i n v o l v e s a n “ e x t e r n a l ” h e a d , n o t c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e . T h i s h e a d
i s m od if ie d b y a n e mb ed de d c la us e w hi ch h as a f in it e v er b a nd w hi ch i s i nt ro du ce d
424 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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I nd iv id ua l l an gu ag es i n t he G MC f am il y m ak e u se o f o ne o r b ot h o f t he se d ev ic es ,
a lo ne o r i n c om bi na ti on . T he d is ti nc ti on b et we en t he se t wo i s i n s om e i ns ta nc es am at te r o f o ng oi ng c on tr ov er sy . I n t he f ol lo wi ng , I w il l t ak e a p ar ti cu la r p os it io n, n ot
u ni ve rs al ly a gr ee d u po n, a bo ut w ay s i n w hi ch t he t wo c an b e t ol d a pa rt , a nd I w il l
d is cu ss t he d is tr ib ut io n o f t he se t wo t yp es o f m ar ke rs i n G MC . I w il l a ls o a rg ue ,
t h o u g h , t h a t t h e i s s u e i s c l o u d e d b y t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a t h i r d v a r i e t y o f r e l a t i v e m a r k e r ,
a n i n fl e ct e d c o mp l em e nt i ze r , w h ic h s h ar es f e at u re s o f b o th o f t h e o t he r t w o t y pe s .
As a wo rk in g p ri nci ple I wi ll a do pt th e p os it io n t hat a re la ti ve m ark er ca n b e
i den ti fi ed as a p ro no un i f i t s ho ws a s ub se t o f th e c harac teri sti c in fle ct io na l o r
d is tr ib ut io na l p ro pe rt ie s o f p ro no un s. S o, f or e xa mp le , r el at iv e p ro no un s c an b e
i de nt if ie d a s p ro no un s f ir st o f a ll b y v ir tu e o f t he f ac t t ha t t he y i nf le ct a s p ro no un s
d o , a t l e a s t f o r c a s e , a n d i n s o m e o f t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s f o r n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r a s w e l l .
T hi s i s i ll us tr at ed b y ( 6. 85 ) f ro m G E.
I n s o me c a se s , t h e i n fl e ct i on a l c h ar ac t er i st i cs a r e h i gh l y r e du c ed . S o , f o r e x am p le , i n
l a ng u ag e s s u ch a s E N , w h er e t h e r e la t iv e p r on o un s a r e b a se d o n i n te rr o ga t iv e f o rm s ,
t h ey d o n o t r e fl e ct n u mb e r d i st i nc t io n s, j u st a s i n te rr o ga t iv e p r on o un s d o n o t. Who is
b ot h s in gu la r a nd p lu ra l. M or eo ve r, i n a ll b ut f or ma l r eg is te rs o f E N, t he c on tr as t
b e t w e e n o b j e c t i v e c a s e a n d n o m i n a t i v e c a s e h a s b e e n l e v e l e d , l e a v i n g o n l y a m i n i m a l
c a se c o nt r as t b e tw ee n g e ni t iv e (whose) a n d n o n - g e n i t i v e ( who) . N o ne t he l es s , t h e f a ct
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 425
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s om e c ir cu ms ta nc es . T hu s, a s i ll us tr at ed i n ( 6. 86 ) f ro m D A, f or e xa mp le , r el at iv e
p ro no un s o f t he hv- p ar a di g m c a n o c cu r a s p r en o mi n al g e ni t iv e s w i th i n n o un p h ra s esa n d a s o b je c ts o f p r ep o si t io n s w i th i n p r ep o si t io n al p h ra s es , j u st a s o r di n ar y p r on o un s
c a n . ( P i e d - p i p i n g o f t h e p r e p o s i t i o n i s o p t i o n a l a n d l i t e r a r y i n D A . S e e b e l o w f o r f u r t h e r
d is cu ss io n. ) T he f ac t t ha t t he y o cc ur i n p os it io ns c ha ra ct er is ti c o f p ro no un s h er e
( p o s s e s s i v e m o d i f i e r , o b j e c t o f p r e p o s i t i o n ) a l l o w s u s t o i d e n t i f y t h e m a s p r o n o u n s .
M a n y G M C l a n g u a g e s a l s o a l l o w r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s t o b e i n t r o d u c e d b y w h a t a r e s o m e -
t i me s t e rm e d “ r el a ti v e p a rt i cl e s, ” o r “ r el a ti v e c o mp l em e nt i ze rs ” – n o n- p ro n om i na l
m ar ke rs o f s ub or di na ti on w hi ch o cc ur i ns te ad o f o r i n c om bi na ti on w it h r el at iv e
p ro no un s. T he d is ti nc ti on b et we en t he se a nd r el at iv e p ro no un s h as b ee n t he s ub je cto f c on fu si on a nd c on tr ov er sy i n t he l it er at ur e. I w il l s ta rt w it h t he m os t c le ar -c ut
i ns ta nc es , b y w ay o f e st ab li sh in g t he c ri te ri a f or d is ti ng ui sh in g t he m f ro m r el at iv e
p r o n o u n s , a n d t h e n p r o c e e d t o s o m e i n s t a n c e s w h i c h a r e m o r e c o n t r o v e r s i a l . G O ei and
þei a re p a rt i cu l ar l y c l ea r c as e s o f e l em e nt s i n tr o du c in g r el a ti v e c l au s es w h ic h a r e n o t
r el a ti v e p r on o un s . T h es e e l em e nt s c a n i n tr o du c e r e la t iv e c l au s es b y t h em s el v es u n de r
r es tr ic te d c on di ti on s, a s i n ( 6. 87 a, b ). O ne o f t he m (ei) a l s o c o- oc c urs s ys t em a t ic a l ly
w it h t h e o v er t r el a ti v e p r on o un s o f G O, a l wa y s f o ll o wi n g t h e p r on o un s ( 6 .8 7 c) .
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n ot r es em bl e a ny o f t he u nc on tr ov er si al p ro no un s i n G O. R at he r, t he y a re i de nt ic al
i n s h ap e w it h e l em e nt s w h ic h i n tr o du c e n o nr el a ti v e s u bo r di n at e c l au s es , a s i n ( 6 .8 7 d)
( c f . S e c ti on 6.4).
F ur th er mo re , t he y a re n ot i n c om pl em en ta ry d is tr ib ut io n w it h u nc on tr ov er si al
r el at iv e p ro no un s, b ut s om et im es c o- oc cu r w it h t he m, a s i n ( 6. 87 c) . T hu s, t he G O
c as e p ro vi de s u s w it h e vi de nc e t ha t G MC i nt ro du ce d r el at iv e c la us es i n a t l ea st t wo
d i ff e re n t w ay s : w i th a r el a ti v e p r on o un ( P -r e la t iv e s) o r w i th a c o mp l em e nt i ze r -l i ke
e le me nt ( C- re la ti ve s) . M or eo ve r, t he G O e xa mp le s p ro vi de u s w it h a c lu st er o f
p ro pe rt ie s b y r ef er en ce t o w hi ch w e c an a t l ea st p ro vi si on al ly b eg in t o d is ti ng ui sh
t he t wo . R el at iv e c om pl em en ti ze rs d o n ot h av e t he i nf le ct io na l o r d is tr ib ut io na l
p r o p e r t i e s g e n e r a l l y e x h i b i t e d b y p r o n o u n s . T h e y d o n o t i n f l e c t f o r c a s e , f o r e x a m p l e ,
o r p ie d- pi pe d p re po si ti on s. S in ce t he y d o n ot o cc up y t he s am e p os it io ns a s r el at iv e
p ro no un s, t he y m ay u nd er s om e c ir cu ms ta nc es c o- oc cu r w it h r el at iv e p ro no un s.
M or eo ve r, i n t he G O c as es d is cu ss ed s o f ar , a t l ea st , t he y a re i de nt ic al w it h e le me nt s
t ha t i nt ro du ce n on re la ti ve s ub or di na te c la us es , a nd t he y s ho w n o r es em bl an ce t o
p r on o un s o c cu r ri n g e l se w he re i n t h e l a ng u ag e ( u nl i ke t h e þo o f e x am p le ( 6 .8 7 c) , f o r
e x am p le , w h ic h i s h o mo p ho n ou s w i th t h e d e mo n st r at i ve p r on o un ) .
C ons ide r t he S c a ndi na vi a n sem / som a nd i t s pr e de c e ss or , er :
428 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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T he d is ti nc ti on s ti ll b ec om es s om ew ha t m or e p ro bl em at ic i n t he c as e o f r el at iv e
p a rt i cl e s w h ic h a r e e t ym o lo g ic a ll y r e la t ed t o ( an d t h er e fo r e r es e mb l e) p r on o un s i n a
g iv en l an gu ag e, s in ce t he f or ma l s im il ar it y c an p re di sp os e o ne t o t hi nk o f t he m a s
p ro no un s. O f t hi s t yp e a re Y I vos a nd B a va ri a n wo, b o th d e ri v in g f r om i n te r ro g at i ve
f o rm s , a n d, p e rh a ps m o st c o nt r ov e rs i al l y, E N that , w hi ch i s h om op ho no us w it h t he
de m ons t r at i ve pr onoun.
s ta tu s i n c as es l ik e ( 6. 88 e) , w he re i t i nt ro du ce s t he r el at iv e c la us e b y i ts el f. I n t he se c as es ,a c c o r d i n g t o S e p p anen, þe i s i t s e l f a r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n . I r e j e c t t h i s v i e w i n t h e p r e s e n t t r e a t m e n t ,i n f a v o r o f t h e v i e w t h a t þe i s a c o m p l e m e n t i z e r i n a l l o f i t s u s e s , t h o u g h i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e i n t h e
p r e s e n t c o n t e x t t o j u s t i f y t h a t c h o i c e i n d e t a i l . S e p p a n e n ’ s v i e w r e q u i r e s u s t o s u p p o s e t h a t O Eh ad a r e la t iv e p r on ou n þe w hi ch h ap p en ed t o b e h om op ho n ou s w it h a c om p le m en ti ze r a nd( u n l i k e t h e o t h e r r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s o f O E ) n o t h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h a n y o f t h e o t h e r p r o n o u n s i nt h e l an gu ag e . F ur t he r, u nl i ke a ny o f t h e o t he r r e la t iv e p r on ou ns o f t h e l a ng ua ge , t h e p r op os edp r on ou n h ad n on e o f t h e i nf l ec t io na l o r d i st r ib ut i on al p r op er t ie s w hi ch a l lo w u s t o i d en ti f yp r o n o u n s o f o t h e r t y p e s a s b e l o n g i n g t o t h a t c a t e g o r y , s u c h a s m a r k i n g f o r c a s e a n d t h e a b i l i t yt o p i ed - p ip e p r ep o si t i on s . S e pp an en p o in t s o ut c or r ec t ly t ha t t h er e a r e o t he r i t em s g en er al l y
c on s id er e d p ro n ou ns w hi c h l a ck o ne o r a n ot he r o f t he se c ha ra c te ri st i cs . H ow ev e r, þe, i n i t su s u a l u s e s , l a c k s all o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n f l e c t i o n a n d p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f o c c u r r e n c e w h i c h w o u l dl e ad u s a wa y f r om t he d ef au l t a s su m pt i on t h at i t i s a lw ay s a c om p le m en t iz er , a n d t o wa r d t h ea l t e r n a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i t i s s o m e t i m e s a ( h i g h l y d e f e c t i v e ) p r o n o m i n a l . U n d e r t h e v i e w t h a t
þe i s s o m et i m es a p r on o un , i t s s y st e ma t i c u n -p r o no u n- l i ke b e ha v i or i n i n f le c t io n a n d d i s tr i b u-t i on w ou l d a p pa re nt l y h av e t o b e s t ip ul at e d, w hi l e t he y f ol l ow w it h ou t s t ip u la ti o n f ro m t h ed e f a u l t v i e w t h a t þe i s a c o m p l e m e n t i z e r , n o t a p r o n o u n , i n a l l o f i t s u s e s . T h i s i s a n e s p e c i a l l yi m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n v i e w o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s c l u s t e r o f “ m i n o r i d i o s y n c r a t i c p r o p e r t i e s ”(Seppanen 2004: 7 5 ) i s n o t u n i q u e t o þe, b u t i s s h a r e d b y a w h o l e c l a s s o f r e l a t i v e m a r k e r s i n t h eG M C l a n g u a g e s , i n c l u d i n g G O ei, þei a n d S c a n d i n a v i a n som/sem. T h es e t o o a r e i n f le c t io n al l yi n v ar i a nt , d o n o t p i ed - p ip e a n d a r e i d e nt i c al w i t h c o m p l e me n t iz e r s o c cu r r in g e l s ew h er e i n t h el a n g u a g e , t h o u g h n o t w i t h p r o n o u n s . I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s a s b e l o n g i n g t o a u n i t a r yc la ss o f ( re la ti ve ) c om pl em en ti ze rs a ll ow s f or a n at ur al a cc ou nt o f t he se p ro pe rt ie s S ee
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6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 429
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L ow e ns t a m m (1977) a r g u e s t h a t vos i s a r e l a t i ve pa r t i c l e / c om pl e m e nt i z e r i n ( 6. 88h) ,
a s d o e s J a c o b s ( 2005: 2 3 6 f f . ) , w h i l e L o c k w o o d (1995: 1 2 4 ) c a l l s i t a r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n .
T he a rg um en t t ha t vos i s a r el at iv e c om pl em en ti ze r, a nd n ot a r el at iv e p ro no un , i s
c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t a h o m o p h o n o u s f o r m d o e s s t i l l s e r v e a s a r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n
i n t h e l a n g u a g e , a s i n ( 6 . 8 8 i ) . W e k n o w t h a t vos i s a r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n i n t h i s e x a m p l e
b e c a u s e , l i k e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s e l s e w h e r e , i t c a n a p p e a r i n c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a p r e p o s -
i ti on , w hi ch i t h as p ie d- pi pe d t o t he f ro nt o f t he r el at iv e c la us e. T he a bi li ty t o b e
p r ec e de d b y a p r ep o si t io n i s d i st i nc t ly a ( p ro ) no m in a l p r op e rt y .
H o w e v e r , L o w e n s t a m m p o i n t s o u t t h a t w h e n t h e a n t e c e d e n t o f t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e i sa n i m a t e , a s i n ( 6 . 8 8 h ) , vos i s i n fl e ct i on a ll y i n va r ia n t, a l wa y s o n t h e c l au s al p e ri p he ry ,
a nd c an no t a pp ea r i ns id e o f p ie d- pi pe d P Ps o r N Ps . W he n t he r el at iv iz ed p os it io n i s
c o n t a i n e d i n a P P o r a n N P , vos o c c u r s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c l a u s e a n d t h e P P o r N P
i s l e f t i n s i t u ( w it h a r e su m pt i ve p r on o un m a rk i ng t h e r e la t iv i ze d p o si t io n ).
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F in al ly , L owe ns ta mm s up ple me nts t he se a rg ume nt s w it h o th er s b ase d on c o-
o cc ur re nc e. F ir st o f a ll , n ot e t ha t i n ( 6. 88 j) a nd ( 6. 88 k ), t he re i s n o g ap i n t he r el at iv e
clause. Rather, the relativized position is occupied by a resumptive pronoun. Resumptive
pr onouns a r e nor m a l l y f ound onl y i n r e l a t i ve c ons t r uc t i ons w i t h pa r t i c l e s , not t hos e w i t hr e la t ive pr onouns . T he e xpla nat i on f or t hi s i s s t ra ight for wa rd. I n r e la t ive c ons t ruc ti ons
w i th r el a ti ve pr onouns , t he r el a ti ve pr onoun i s i t s el f t he r el a ti vi ze d a r gum ent , w hic h i s
m ov ed to t he f ro nt o f t he c la us e, l ea vi ng b ehi nd a ga p. Th er e i s t hu s n o p lac e f or a
r e s um pt i ve pr onoun. R e l a t i ve pa r t i c l e s , on t he ot he r ha nd, do not or i gi na t e i n t he r e l a t i v-
i z ed posi t ion, but a r e ge ner at e d i n c l aus e- i ni t i al posi t i ons . I n s uch c a se s, t he r e la t ivi ze d
pos i t i on c a n be r e a l i z e d i nde pe nde nt l y a s a pr onoun i n s i t u.
T h e c a t e g o r i a l s t a t u s o f E N that h a s b e e n a m a t t e r o f p r o l o n g e d d e b a t e e v e n a m o n g
l in gu is ts . M uc h o f t he l it er at ur e o n b ot h s id es o f t hi s i ss ue i s s um ma ri ze d i n v an
de r A uw er a 1985, a n d t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t h e r e f o r t h e a r g u m e n t a t i o n . T h e c a s e f o r
that a s a c om pl em en ti ze r, r at he r t ha n a r el at iv e p ro no un , i s a ga in a c um ul at iv e o ne ;
i t f ai ls t o b eh av e i n a p ro no un -l ik e w ay i n a ny r es pe ct . N ot o nl y d oe s i t n ot f ol lo w
p r ep o si t io n s o r o c cu r w i th g e ni t iv e /p o ss e ss i ve m a rk i ng – i n s t an d ar d E N , a t l e as t , b u t
s ee n ot e 9 – ( ne it he r o f w hi ch i s p ro ba ti ve i n i ts el f, a s v an d er A uw er a n ot es ), b ut i t
d oe s n ot e nc od e a ni ma cy a nd n um be r, u nl ik e t he c or re sp on di ng d em on st ra ti ve p ro -
n o u n . I n s h o r t , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e n o c o n v i n c i n g e v i d e n c e f o r t r e a t i n g i t a s a p r o n o u n ,
a s i d e f r o m i t s h o m o p h o n y w i t h t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e , t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r f a c t i s m i t i g a t e d b y
t h e f a ct t h at i t i s a l so h o mo p ho n ou s w it h t h e d e cl a ra t iv e c o mp l em e nt i ze r .
F in al ly , a s w e w il l s ee i n S ec ti on 6.5.1.3, t he r el at iv e that o f ME, like many of
h l i i l l i d b ( GO i OE þ NO ) ll
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O n f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e r e a r e a t l e a s t a c o u p l e o f r e a s o n s f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s e f o r m s
a s r e la t iv e p r on o un s . F i rs t o f a l l, u n li ke t h e r el at iv e p a rt i cl e s c o ns i de re d s o f ar , t h ey
a r e s e n s i t i v e t o s o m e o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e h e a d o f t h e r e l a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n ; izei appears
o nl y i n r e la t iv e c l au s es m o di fy in g m as c ul in e n o un s , a n d sei o nl y i n r e la t iv e c l au se s
di f i f i i S h i i i d i h k i d f b h i h
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a t t e s t e d i n ( 6 . 8 9 ) a n d ( 6 . 9 0 ) . T h i s i s t h e p r e v a i l i n g o p i n i o n o f t h e e t y m o l o g i e s o f t h e s e
f o r m s – e s p o u s e d b y E c k h a r d t ( 1875) , D e l br uck (1900) , F e i s t ( 1923: 2 2 3 ) a n d K r a u s e
(1968) – t h o u g h t h e r e i s a s e c o n d v i e w , h e l d b y S t r e i t b e r g (1920: 2 2 8 ) a n d K l i n g h a r d t
( 1 87 7 ), a c co r di n g t o w h ic h t h ey c o me f ro m i n de cl i na b le c o mp l em e nt i ze r s, a n d t h ei r
a s so c ia t io n w i th p r on o mi n al g e nd e r f e at u re s i s a s e co n da r y d e ve l op m en t .
E v e n i f izei and sei a r e e t ym o lo g ic a ll y r e la t iv e p r on o un s , t h ou g h, t h er e a r e s e ve ra l
r ea so ns f or s us pe ct in g t ha t t he y a re a t l ea st n ot t o b e s o a na ly ze d i n t he s yn ch ro ni c
g r a m m a r o f G O . I n p a r t i c u l a r , a s n o t e d b y S t r e i t b e r g , u n l i k e t h e c l e a r r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s
o f G O, t h ey a re i n de cl i na b le . U n li k e t h e d e mo n st r at i ve -b a se d t h ir d p e rs o n f o rm s , o r
f o r t h at m a tt e r t h e p e rs o na l -p r on o un - ba s ed f i rs t a n d s e co n d p e rs o n r e la t iv e p r on o un s ,
izei and sei h av e n o o bl iq ue f or ms . T he y a re u se d o nl y i n s ub je ct r el at iv iz at io n.
P er ha ps m or e r ev ea li ng , t he y h av e n o d is ti nc t p lu ra l f or ms , e ve n w he n u se d w it h a
p l u r a l h e a d , a s i n t h e e x a m p l e s i n ( 6 . 9 2 ) . H e r e , w e d o n o t f i n d t h e f o r m * eiz-ei (from
eis (3PlNom) þ ei) , w hi ch w e w ou ld e xp ec t w er e iz-ei i n f ac t a p ro du ct iv e r el at iv e
p r on o un . S i mi l ar l y, t h er e i s n o c o rr e sp o nd i ng n e ut e r, *itei. T he se g ap s w ou ld a ll b e
s ur pri s i ng i f izei w er e i n f a ct a p r od u ct i ve r el a ti v e p r on o un .
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I t he re fo re c on cl ud e, a s K li ng ha rd t, S tr ei tb er g a nd v on d er G ab el en tz d id , t ha t
izei is i n fa ct a rel at iv e p art icl e – a co mp lem en ti zer o f s ome so rt, rat he r t han a
r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n – p o s s i b l y a r i s i n g , a s d i d t h e r e l a t i v e c o m p l e m e n t i z e r o f Y I , t h r o u g h
f os si li za ti on o f a n o ri gi na l r el at iv e p ro no un . I t i s l es s f ar a lo ng o n t hi s t ra je ct or y
t h a n i t s Y I c o u n t e r p a r t , s i n c e i t s t i l l p r e s e r v e s o n e v e s t i g i a l p r o n o u n - l i k e f e a t u r e , i n i t s
s en si ti vi ty t o t he g en de r o f t he h ea d. W e m ay r eg ar d i t, t he re fo re , a s a n “ ag re ei ng
c om pl e m e nt i z er . ” A gr ee i ng c om ple m e nt i z er s – c om ple m e nt i z er s w hi ch pa r ti c i pat e i n
fo rm al al tern ati on s c on dit io ned b y c o- occu rri ng NPs – h av e b ee n po si ted f or
o th er l an gu ag es a s w el l. T hi s h as b ec om e a m or e o r l es s s ta nd ar d a na ly si s f or t he
well-known que/qui a l t er n at i on i n F r en c h, i l lu s tr at e d i n ( 6 .9 3 a) .
Qui is cl ear ly n ot a rel at iv e p ro no un , s inc e i t d oes n ot h av e t o ap pea r o n t he
pe ri ph ery o f t he r el at iv e c la use , a dja cen t t o t he h ead , a s s ee ms to b e re qu ir ed o f
r el at iv e p ro no un s c ro ss li ng ui st ic al ly . I n ( 6. 93 a) i t a pp ea rs i n w ha t s ee ms t o b e t he
c o mp l em e nt i ze r p o si t io n o f a m o re d e ep l y e m be d de d c l au s e, a d ja ce n t t o t h e s u bj e ct“ g ap . ” N o ne t he l es s , i t m a ni f es t s a t l e as t o n e p r on o un - li k e p r op e rt y , i n i t s s e ns i ti v it y
t o t h e g r am m at i ca l r o le o f t h e r el a ti v iz ed a r gu m en t . Qui a p pe ar s o nl y i n i ns ta nc es o f
s u bj e ct r e la t iv i za t io n ( a r es t ri c ti o n w h ic h , i n te re s ti n gl y , i t s h ar e s w it h G O izei).
A n e ss en ti al ly p ar al le l c as e i s f ou nd i n W es t F le mi sh , a s r ep or te d i n B en ni s a nd
H ae ge ma n ( 19 84 ). T he g en er al s tr at eg y f or r el at iv iz at io n i n W es t F le mi sh i s ac o mp l em e nt i ze r -i n it i al s t ra t eg y , u s in g t h e i n va r ia n t c o mp l em e nt i ze r da, which is
h o m o p h o n o u s w i t h t h e ‘ t h a t ’ c o m p l e m e n t i z e r o f t h e l a n g u a g e . T h i s i s i n f a c t t h e o n l y
p o ss i bi l it y i f t h e o b je c t i s b e in g r e la t iv i ze d H o we v er w h en s u bj e ct s a r e r el a ti v iz ed
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I n s um ma ry , t he re fo re , i n a dd it io n t o r el at iv e p ro no un s a nd i nv ar ia nt r el at iv e
p ar ti cl es , t he c la ss o f r el at iv e m ar ke rs a pp ea rs t o i nc lu de a “ hy br id ” c at eg or y o f
a g re e in g c o mp l em e nt i ze rs . T h e a s su m pt i on o f s u ch a c at e go r y e n ab l es u s t o a cc o m-
m od at e t he e xi st en ce o f r el at iv e m ar ke rs l ik e izei, w hi ch e xh ib it a c er ta in a mo un to f s e n s i t i v i t y t o n o m i n a l f e a t u r e s b u t n o t t h e f u l l p a r a d i g m s o f t h e t r u e p r o n o u n s o f t h e
l a ng u ag e , a n d w h ic h l a ck e n ti r el y t h e d i st r ib u ti o na l p r op e rt i es o f r e la t iv e p r on o un s .
O ne s ig ni fi ca nt d is tr ib ut io na l c ha ra ct er is ti c s ha re d b y a ll o f t he c an di da te s f or t hi s
s ta tu s w hi ch w e h av e d is cu ss ed ( th e i nf le ct ed c om pl em en ti ze rs o f F re nc h a nd W es t
F le mi sh , a s w el l a s G O izei and sei) i s t he fa ct th at th ey are o nl y d ep lo yed i n th ec a se o f s u bj e ct r e la t iv i za t io n . G iv e n t h is c h ar ac t er i st i c, t h e der w hi ch o cc ur s i n D A
s ubj ec t r e l at i ve c l a us e s ( S e ct i on 6.5.1.9) a l so c o me s u n de r c o ns i de ra t io n .
6.5.1.3 C o -o c cu r re n ce o f r e la t iv e p r on o un s a n d r e la t iv e p a rt i cl e s
S om e o f t he G MC l an gu ag es a ll ow ( or r eq ui re ) b ot h r el at iv e p ro no un s a nd r el at iv e
p ar ti cl es /c om pl em en ti ze rs t o c o- oc cu r a t t he b eg in ni ng s o f r el at iv e c la us es . S uc h
c o - o c c u r r e n c e i s f o u n d i n G O , O S , e a r l y O H G , M i d d l e D U , F R , O E a n d M E . T h e l a s t
t w o h a v e t o b e t r e a t e d a s t w o i n d e p e n d e n t c a s e s , s i n c e t h e r e i s n o c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n
them; ME uses different lexical items than OE for both the relative pronoun
(se vs. who) a nd t he p ar ti cl e ( þe vs. that ) , a nd a cc or di ng t o A ll en (1980a: 2 04 ), t he
O E c on st ru ct io n d ie d o ut b ef or e t he M E o ne a ro se , i nd ic at in g t ha t t he l at te r i s n ot as im pl e r el ex if ic at io n o f t he f or me r. N ot e a ls o t ha t t he p ar ti cl e u se d i n G O (ei) i s n o t
e t y m o l o g i c a l l y c o n n e c t e d t o t h e o n e s f o u n d i n W e s t G M C ( þe / (da)t ) , s ugge s t i ng a ga i n
t h at t h e c o mm o n i n he ri t an c e i s n o t t h e p a rt i cu l ar c o ns t ru c ti o n b u t t h e t e mp l at e
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A m o n g t h e m o d e r n G M C l a n g u a g e s , t h i s p o s s i b i l i t y s e e m s t o b e f o u n d o n l y i n F R
( w her e t he c om ple m e nt i z er (da)t a pp ea rs t o b e r eq ui re d) a nd B av ar ia n. S om e o f t hem e di e va l l a ng u ag e s w h ic h a l lo w ed t h e c o ns t ru c ti o n ( e. g ., M E a n d M i dd l e D U) h a ve
l o st i t . I t i s u n re p re s en t ed i n S ca n di n av i an r el a ti v e c l au s es , b u t c o mp l em e nt i ze r s d o
c o -o c cu r w it h q u es t io n p r on o un s i n M o de rn S W ( 6 .9 5 a) a n d B e lf as t E N ( 6 .9 5 b) .
I n G O, t he r el at iv e p ro no un c an no t o cc ur w it ho ut t he c om pl em en ti ze r ei (though
t he c on ve rs e i s p os si bl e) . T he c om pl em en ti ze r a ls o s ee ms t o b e r eq ui re d i n F R.
E l se wh e re , t h e p r on o un c an o c cu r b y i t se l f. W h en b o th o c cu r , p r on o un s a n d c o mp l e-
i i h d W f hi b i h f l l i
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A l th o ug h t h is a s su m pt i on a b ou t p h ra s al a r ch i te c tu r e a l lo w s f o r a s t ra i gh t fo r wa r d
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f d o u b l y i n t r o d u c e d r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s , i t d o e s n o t e x p l a i n
w hy s om e l an gu ag es a ll ow b ot h p os it io ns t o b e f il le d w hi le o th er s d o n ot , a nd I a m
u na wa re o f a ny f ul ly s at is fy in g a ns we r t o t hi s q ue st io n. W he n o nl y t he r el at iv e
p ro no un p hr as e i s p re se nt t he c on st ru ct io n w il l b e c al le d a P -r el at iv e. T hi s c as e w il l
b e f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o D - r e l a t i v e s a n d W - r e l a t i v e s , d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e r e l a t i v e
p r on o un i s e t ym o lo g ic a ll y c o nn e ct e d t o t h e d e mo n st r at i ve p r on o un p a ra d ig m o r t h e
i n te rr o ga t iv e p r on o un p a ra d ig m ( s ee b e lo w ). W h en o n ly a r e la t iv e c o mp l em e nt i ze r
o r p a rt i cl e a p pe a rs , t h e c o ns t ru c ti o n w i ll b e c a ll e d a C -r e la t iv e . W h er e b o th p o si t io n s
a re f il le d, i t w il l b e t er me d a P /C -r el at iv e. W he re n ei th er i s f il le d, i t w il l b e t er me d
a 0- r el a t i ve .
6.5.1.4 T y pe s o f r e la t iv e p r on o un s : d e m o ns t ra t iv e s a n d i n t e r ro g at i ve sP a u l (1962: 3 5 8 ) a n d D a l (1966: 1 9 8 ) c l a i m t h a t “ a s y n d e t i c ” ( 0 - r e l a t i v e ) c l a u s e s , s u c h
a s t he O HG ( 6. 97 ), r ep re se nt t he o ld es t t yp e i n G MC , b ut t he re s ee ms i n f ac t t o b e
l it tl e b as is f or t hi s c la im . T he se a re i n f ac t s pa rs el y a tt es te d i n t he e ar ly d ia le ct s.
GO and OE do not admit them. It is only in OHG that they are found with
f re qu en cy a mo ng t he e ar ly d ia le ct s. T he re i s a ls o n o e vi de nc e f or D al ’s c la im ( 19 66 :
1 98 ) t ha t t he r el at iv e p ro no un s w er e a l at e d ev el op me nt , a nd t ha t C -r el at iv e c la us esp re ce de d t he m h is to ri ca ll y. I n G O a ga in , t he o ve rw he lm in g m aj or it y o f r el at iv e
c l au s es a re i n tr o du c ed b y r e la t iv e p r on o un s ; t h e C - re l at i ve s a re r e st r ic t ed t o c er t ai n
s p e c i a l c a s e s a s w i l l b e s e e n b e l o w i n S e c t i o n 6 5 1 5 1 M o r e o v e r t h e p a r t i c u l a r f o r m
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I n a dd it io n t o t he se D -r el at iv es , s om e o f t he G MC l an gu ag es h av e d ev el op ed
r el at iv e p ro no un s b as ed o n t he i nt er ro ga ti ve p ar ad ig m, a t d if fe re nt t im es a nd i n
d if fe re nt d is tr ib ut io ns . T he re i s g en er al a gr ee me nt a mo ng t he m od er n l an gu ag es i n
t he u se o f W -r el at iv e p ro no un s w he n t he p hr as e m od if ie d b y t he ( no nr es tr ic ti ve )
r e l a t i v e c l a u s e i s n o t a N P b u t a c l a u s e .
This seems to be a late usage, however. The OED lists 1390 as the earliest
o cc ur re nc e i n E N. B eh ag he l (1928: III , 7 57 f. ) c ite s o nl y o ne ex amp le f ro m L ate
O H G a n d a t t r i b u t e s i t s e x i s t e n c e t o L a t i n a n d F r e n c h m o d e l s . I t t h u s r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r
i n st a nc e o f s i mi l ar i ty b y c o nv e rg e nc e, r at h er t h an b y i n he r it a nc e.
W -fo rm s h av e a ls o co me to b e u sed ev en i n l an gu ag es wh ich u se D -rel at iv eso r C -r el at iv es i n t he u su al c as e, i n r el at iv e c la us es o n q ua nt if ic at io na l h ea ds l ik e
‘ ev e ry t hi n g’ , ‘ s om e th i ng ’ a n d ‘ n ot h in g ’, a s w el l a s o n d e mo n st r at i ve h e ad s .
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In ad dit io n t o t hes e u se s, so me o f t he GM C la ng ua ges hav e al so com e t o u se
W - fo r ms a s r e l at i ve p r on o un s i n r e la t iv e c o ns t ru c ti o ns h e a de d b y l e x ic al n o un s . T h is
u s ag e i s no t o r ig i na l , a p pa r en t ly – i t i s m i ss i ng i n GO , O HG a n d O E , f o r e x am p le – bu t
i t h as de ve lo pe d t o a t l ea st s om e d eg re e i n t he g re at m aj or it y o f t he m od er n l an gu ag es .
I n m a ny o f t h em , t h is h as r em a in e d a r es t ri c te d s t ra t eg y , l i mi t ed to c er t ai n sy n ta ct i c
c ont ext s , or s t yl is t i ca l l y c ons tr a i ne d. S o, f or e xa m pl e, K r e s s ( 1982: 252) c ha ra c t er i z es
i ts us e i n I C a s g en er al ly ar ch ai c:
I n s om e l a ngua ge s, t hough ( YI , A F a nd E N ), W - r e la t i ves ha ve c om ple t e ly di s pl a ce d
D -r el at iv es . In Y I, o ne o f th es e W -f or ms h as i n t ur n go ne o n to b ec om e a n in va ri an t
particle, vos. I n a dd it io n t o vos, YI also has two sets of inflected W-relative pronouns:
ver/vemen/vemens (human only) and velkh – the latter belonging to the written
l ang ua ge, ac co rd in g t o L ock wo od (1995: 126). AF will be discussed in the next
section.
6.5.1.5 T h e d i s t ri b ut i on o f D - re l at i ve s , W - r e la t iv e s a n d C - re l at i ve s i n G e r m a ni c
I n t he fo ll owi ng s ec ti on s, I wil l d is cu ss t he v ar io us p at ter ns of d is tri bu ti on o f
C - re l at i ve s , D - re l at i ve s a n d W - re l at i ve s . T h e p a rt i cu l ar i n te r es t o f t h e c o ex i st e nc e o f
C l i i d i ll h ( i h h l
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 439
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C - re l at i ve s a re r es t ri c te d e s se n ti a ll y t o t w o c a se s : t h ey o c cu r ( wi t h t h e c o mp l em e n-
tizer ei) i n m od if yin g ti me o r m an ner h ea ds , as i n (6 .1 02 ), a nd t hey o ccu r (wi th
t he c om ple m e nti z e r þei) i n r el at iv e c la us es m od if yi ng g en er al iz in g p ro no un h ea ds
( t he ‘ w hoe ve r ’ t ype ) ( 6. 103) . Ei and þei c a n b e s h o w n t o b e c o m p l e m e n t i z e r s b e c a u s e
t h ey a re a l so u s ed t o i n tr o du c e n o n- re l at i ve c l au s es , i n cl u di n g o b je c t c l au s es .
N on e o f t he o th er G MC l an gu ag es r es tr ic ts t he d is tr ib ut io n o f C -r el at iv es i n t hi s
w ay , b ut i t i s i nt er es ti ng t o n ot e t ha t e ve n i n s om e o th er G MC l an gu ag es w hi ch d o
n ot m ak e g en er al u se o f a C -r el at iv e s tr at eg y, i t i s s ti ll p os si bl e t o u se a C -r el at iv ep r e c i s e l y i n t h e c a s e o f r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s o n h e a d s w h i c h a r e t i m e w o r d s . S o , w h i l e O H G
d oe s n ot g en er al ly i nt ro du ce r el at iv e c la us es w it h t he c om pl em en ti ze r thaz/daz,
i t d i ( 6 10 4 ) ( W k t h t t h th h h t b l ti t
‘ t h t ’ l t i f A F) i t d T h t i tl C l t i l l d i
440 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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‘ t ha t ’ c o mp l em e nt i ze r o f A F) i n st e ad . T h at i s , a p pa re n tl y , C - re l at i ve s a r e a l lo w ed i n
A F t o o , j u s t i n c a s e t h e h e a d i s a n o u n d e n o t i n g t i m e .10
A n d v a n d e r A u w e r a (1985: 1 6 2 ) c i t e s t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e f r o m D U :
S i m i l a r l y, i n O E , w hi l e t he s pe c i f i c a l l y r e l a t i ve c om pl e m e nt i z e r þe w a s w i d e l y u s e d
i n r el a ti v e c o ns t ru c ti o ns o f a l l t y pe s , t h e “ g en e ra l p u rp o se ” t h at - co m pl e me n ti z er þæt ,
a s rep ort ed b y All en (1980a: 1 02 ff .) , i nt ro du ce s r el at iv e c la us es w he n t he h ea d i s
a t im e p hr as e, o r w he n i t w as t he u ni ve rs al ly q ua nt if ie d p ro no un eall ‘all’ – an
i n te re s ti n g p o in t o f c o mp a ri s on w it h t h e G O e x am p le s i n ( 6 .1 0 2) a n d ( 6 .1 0 3) .
6.5.1.5.2 T h e Ge r m an p a tt e r n M o de rn G E l a ck s C -r e la t iv e s; r e la t iv e c o ns t ru c -
t io ns a re a lw ay s i nt ro du ce d b y r el at iv e p ro no un s. T he r el at iv e p ro no un s a re o f t heW -t yp e w he n ( a) t he m od if ie d h ea d i s a c la us e ( cf . S ec ti on 6.5.1.4 a bo ve ), o r ( b)
w he n t he m od if ie d h ea d i s a n i na ni ma te q ua nt if ic at io na l p ro no un o r d em on st ra ti ve
( ll ‘ thi ’ i ht ‘ thi ’ t ‘ thi ’ d ‘ t h t ’ ) I l t i
t ti l i l h d D l t i d i t l l l i l
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 441
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c o ns t ru c ti o ns o n l e xi c al h e ad s , D - re l at i ve p r on o un s a re u s ed v i rt u al l y e x cl u si v el y , a s
i n ( 6. 105) :
T he re i s o ne s ys te ma ti c e xc ep ti on t o t hi s, i nv ol vi ng t he r el at iv iz at io n o f o bj ec ts
o f p re po si ti on s. W he n t he o bj ec t o f t he p re po si ti on i s i na ni ma te , t he D -r el at iv e
c o ns t ru c ti o n a l te rn a te s w i th a W - re l at i ve c o ns t ru c ti o n, i n vo l vi n g a ‘wo-compound’,
i n w hi ch , d es cr ip ti ve ly s pe ak in g, t he o bj ec t o f t he p re po si ti on i s r ep la ce d b y a n
e t ymol ogi ca l l y i nt e rr oga ti ve f or m, wo, w hi ch i s p re fi xe d t o t he p re po si ti on , w it h a
l i n k i n g c o n s o n a n t - r - i n c a s e t h e p r e p o s i t i o n b e g i n s w i t h a v o w e l . B e c a u s e o f t h e l a t t e r
pr ope r t y, t he r e s ul t a nt f or m s a r e of t e n c a l l e d “ R - c om pounds . ” T he t w o pos s i bi l i t i e s a r e
i l lu s tr a te d i n ( 6 .1 0 6a , b ) .
W e s ee h er e a v er y m od es t e nc ro ac hm en t o f W -f or ms o n t he r el at iv e f un ct io ns o f
t h e D - f o r m s . I t m a y b e i m p o r t a n t a s a s o r t o f “ f o o t i n t h e d o o r ” – a s p e c i a l c o n t e x t o f
o cc ur re nc e f ro m w hi ch W -f or ms m ig ht s ub se qu en tl y h av e b ee n g en er al iz ed a t t he
e xp en se o f D -f or ms i n s om e G MC l an gu ag es ( e. g. , D U) ( cf . P on el is 1993: 1 90 f. f or
d i sc u ss i on o f s t ag i ng i n t h e s p re ad o f W - re l at i ve f o rm s ).
F R r e pr es en t s t h e m ir r or -i ma g e o f G E h e re . W h en r e la ti v iz i ng o b je ct s o f p r ep o si -
ti on s, F R u ses a W-fo rm following t he p re po si ti on , b ut u se s a D -f or m p re ce di ng
R om an ce i nf lu en ce I n S ta nd ar d D U o nl y D f or ms c an b e u se d t o r el at iv iz e d ir ec t
442 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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R om an ce i nf lu en ce . I n S ta nd ar d D U, o nl y D -f or ms c an b e u se d t o r el at iv iz e d ir ec t
a rg um en ts ( NP s w ho se r ol e i n t he r el at iv e c la us e i s t ha t o f s ub je ct o r o bj ec t) , w hi le
o n ly W -f o rm s c a n b e u s ed t o r e la t iv i ze p r ep o si t io n al o b je ct s a n d p o ss e ss i ve s .
B u r r i d g e ( 1 9 9 3 : 2 4 3 ) d e s c r i b e s a s y s t e m a p p a r e n t l y l i k e t h i s f o r M i d d l e D U a s w e l l ,
n o ti n g, t h ou g h, t h at s o me t im e s t h e D -f o rm u s ed i n d i re c t c a se r e la t iv i za t io n f a il e d t oi nf le ct , a nd o bs er vi ng t ha t i n t hi s r eg ar d i t s ee ms t o h av e b eh av ed l ik e t he i nv ar ia nt
r e l at i ve m a r ke r þe i n O E – t h a t i s , a s a C - r e l a t i v e p a r t i c l e .
F r o m t h i s f o o t h o l d i n o b l i q u e c a s e c o n t e x t s t h e r e h a s b e e n a h i s t o r i c a l t e n d e n c y f o r
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 443
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N o t e t h a t i n t h e r e l a t i v i z a t i o n o f p r e p o s i t i o n a l o b j e c t s , w e f i n d a n a l t e r n a t i o n b a s e d
o n a ni ma cy w hi ch i s v er y m uc h l ik e t he o ne w e o bs er ve d i n t he G E e xa mp le s i n ( 6. 10 6) .
C o ns i de r n o w t h e s y nt a ct i c s t at u s o f wat i n ( 6 .1 0 9a ). I f w e a n al y ze t h e d i re c t r e la t iv e
wat a s a r el at iv e p ro no un , a s s ug ge st ed b y P on el is a nd D on al ds on , w e h av e t o a sk w hy i t
s ho ul d f ai l t o h av e s pe ci al f or ms f or u se w he n t he r el at iv iz ed s ub je ct o r o bj ec t i s
a ni ma te , a s W -r el at iv e p ro no un s i n E N d o, f or e xa mp le . I n A F, t he r el at iv e f or m
i n tr o du c in g d i re ct r e la t iv e c l au s es i s a n i n va ri a nt wat , r eg ar dl es s n ot o nl y o f w he th er
t h e h e a d n o u n i s s i n g l a r o r p l u r a l , b u t a l s o o f w h e t h e r i t i s a n i m a t e o r i n a n i m a t e .
W e c an , o f c ou rs e, s im pl y s ta te t ha t t he a ni ma cy c on tr as t i s n eu tr al iz ed i n d ir ec t
c a s e f o r m s o f t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n , b u t t h i s b e g s t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h y j u s t t h e r e .11 For
o ne t hi ng , t he d is ti nc ti on b et we en a ni ma te a nd i na ni ma te i s s ti ll s ig na le d i n t he
I f t he a ni ma cy c on tr as t i s l ev el ed o ut i n t he c as e o f t he i nv ar ia nt “ di re ct ” r el at iv e
444 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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I f t he a ni ma cy c on tr as t i s l ev el ed o ut i n t he c as e o f t he i nv ar ia nt di re ct r el at iv e
p ro nou n – as a c on se qu en ce o f c reo li zat io n, le t u s s ay – we mi gh t as k wh y i t wa s
n o t l e v e l e d o u t h e r e , t o o . T h e a n s w e r , o f c o u r s e , i s t h a t a n i m a c y c o n t r a s t s o n i n t e r r o g a -
t iv e p ro no un s a re s em an ti ca ll y c on te nt fu l, w he re as i n r el at iv e p ro no un s t he y a re
r e du n da n t a n d d i sp e ns a bl e , s i nc e t h ei r s e ma n ti c c o nt e nt i s r ec o ve r ab l e f ro m t h e h e ad .
S ti ll , f or ma l c or re sp on de nc e b et we en W -r el at iv e p ro no un s a nd W -i nt er ro ga ti ve
p ro no un s i s u su al i n l an gu ag es t ha t h av e b ot h, a nd g ra tu it ou s d iv er ge nc e f ro m t hi s
p a t t e r n i n A F w o u l d a t l e a s t b e a p u z z l e . A n d t h e p u z z l e w o u l d b e c o m p o u n d e d b y t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e p u t a t i v e W - r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n o f A F d o e s n o t l a c k a n a n i m a c y c o n t r a s t i n a l l
p o s i t i o n s i n i t s p a r a d i g m , b u t o n l y i n t h e d i r e c t c a s e . T h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n d o e s h a v e a
s p ec i al a n im a te f o rm , wie, c o nt r as t in g w i th i n an i ma t e wat , w he n i t o cc ur s a s o bj ec t
o f a p re pos it io n, a nd as a g en it iv e m odi fi er o f a NP, as s ho wn i n t he ex amp les i n
( 6. 111) - (6. 112) ( t hough P onel i s not e s (1993: 1 8 9 ) t h a t i n c o l l o q u i a l A F , t h e i n v a r i a n twat s tr at e gy i s t e nd i ng t o e n cr o ac h o n t h es e p o si t io n s, t o o) :
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 445
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W h e n o b j e c t s o f p r e p o s i t i o n s a r e r e l a t i v i z e d i n A F t h e p r e p o s i t i o n c a n b e p i e d - p i p e d
o r s t ra n de d . S t ra n di n g o f t h e s o rt r e fl e ct e d i n ( 6 .1 1 3b ) ( “p l ai n ” p r ep o si t io n s t ra n di n g,
a s o pp os ed t o R -s tr an di ng ) i s v er y f re qu en t i n A F r el at iv e c la us es , a cc or di ng t o
P on el is . N ot e, h ow ev er , t ha t i f w e c on st ru e wat i n ( 6. 11 3b ) a s a r el at iv e p ro no un
w hi ch h as b ee n f ro nt ed o ut o f i ts p re po si ti on al p hr as e, w e m us t a ls o r ec ko n w it h t he
m ys te ri ou s c ha ng e i n f or m w hi ch t hi s m ov em en t i mp os es o n i t. W hy s ho ul d wie
become wat j us t i n c as e i t i s m ov ed ? W hy s ho ul d t he f ro nt in g o f a r el at iv e p ro no un
b e a cc om pa ni ed b y a f or ma l c ha ng e, r es ul ti ng i n t he l os s o f i ts s pe ci fi ca ti on f or
animacy?
T he se p ro bl em s d is ap pear i f we t ak e t he wat of direct relatives in AF to be
s om et hi ng o th er t ha n a f ro nt ed p ro no un – a r el at iv e c om pl em en ti ze r, f or e xa mp le ,
l i k e t h e izei o f G O o r t h e som o f D A o r ( t o c i t e s o m e e t y m o l o g i c a l l y c l o s e r e x a m p l e s )
t he c ogna t e vos i n Y I o r t h e qui of F r e nc h. A s a c om pl e m e nt i z e r , i t s f or m a l i nva r i a nc e ,
a n d i t s r e du c ed s e ns i ti v it y t o f ea t ur e s o f t h e h e ad , a r e e x pe c te d .
A s f ur th er c or ro bo ra ti ve e vi de nc e, w e m ay n ot e t ha t wat a p pe a rs a s a c o mp l em e nt i ze r e v e n o u t s i d e r e l a t i v e c o n t e x t s , a s i n t h e c l e f t c o n s t r u c t i o n i n ( 6 . 1 1 4 ) :
T he a rg um en ts f or r el at iv e p ar ti cl e s ta tu s a re v er y m uc h l ik e t ho se i nt ro du ce d b y
L o we n st a mm (1977) f or Y I. I c on cl ud e, t he re fo re , t ha t t he m os t p la us ib le a na ly si s
of t he AF fa ct s is t hat th e re la ti ve p ro no un (wie) i s r es tr ic te d t o r el at iv iz at io n o f
446 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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A t t h e e n d o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , h o w e v e r – p e r h a p s e v e n e a r l i e r i n s o m e d i a l e c t s –
t wo c ha ng es t oo k p la ce q ui te a br up tl y, a nd f ro m a ll a pp ea ra nc es , s im ul ta ne ou sl y.
W - re l at i ve p r on o un s w e re i n tr o du c ed , b u t a p pa r en t ly o n ly i n t h e p o si t io n o f p r ep o s-
i ti on al o bj ec ts . A nd t he D -p ro no un s o f O E d is ap pe ar ed . I n t he T r in i t y H o m i l ies of
c . 1 2 0 0 , f o r e x a m p l e , a l l o f t h e d i r e c t r e l a t i v e s a r e i n t r o d u c e d b y b a r e c o m p l e m e n t i z e r s
( þe or þat ) , w h il e W - pr o no u ns a p pe ar i n o b li q ue o b je c t p o si t io n . T h e c o nt e mp o ra r y
V i c e s a n d V i r t u e s e x h i b i t s a t m o s t t w o p o s s i b l e i n s t a n c e s o f a n o l d D - r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n
i n d i re c t c a se s , a s o p po s ed t o m a ny o t he rs w i th b a re c o mp l em e nt i ze rs :
C -r el at iv es c on ti nu ed t o b e p os si bl e i n r el at iv iz in g o bj ec ts o f p re po si ti on s, a nd
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 447
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p g j p p
w he n t he y w er e u se d, t he p re po si ti on w as s tr an de d. T hu s, t wo p os si bi li ti es e xi st ed
f or r el at iv iz in g t he se p os it io ns : p ie d- pi pi ng , w it h a W -p ro no un , a s i n ( 6. 11 6b ), a nd
s t ra n di n g i n C - re l at i ve s . T h e s t ra n di n g p o ss i bi l it y i s i l lu s tr at e d i n ( 6 .1 1 8) .
T hi s E ME p at te rn w as r el at iv el y s ho rt l iv ed , b ut r ob us t w hi le i t l as te d. I t i s, i n t he
ma in , th e s ame p at tern as at te st ed in AF, t ho ug h a rri ved at i n y et an ot her way –
t h ro u gh t h e v i rt u al l y s i mu l ta n eo u s a d op t io n o f W H -r el a ti v e p r on o un s , e x cl u si v el y i n
o bl iq ue c on te xt s, a nd t he e li mi na ti on o f t he i nh er it ed r el at iv e p ro no un s a cr os s t he
b o ar d , l e av i ng t h e C -s t ra t eg y a s t h e o n ly o n e a v ai l ab l e f o r d i re ct c a se r e la t iv i za t io n .T he E ME p at te rn i s o f c ou rs e a ls o t he s am e p at te rn f ou nd i n F re nc h, a nd m an y
i nve s t i ga t or s ( e . g. , T r a ugot t 1972: 1 5 4 ) a t t r i b u t e t h e r i s e o f W - r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s i n E N
t o F re nc h i nf lu en ce . I f t hi s i s c or re ct , o ne i s l ed t o w on de r w ha t l an gu ag e- in te rn al
f ac to rs m ig ht h av e m ad e t hi s p ar ti cu la r b it o f F re nc h m or ph os yn ta x s uf fi ci en tl y
a tt ra ct iv e t o p ro mp t i ts r ep ea te d b or ro wi ng i nt o G MC . A c om pa ra bl e p at te rn i s a ls of ound i n S c ot t i s h G a e l i c , w he r e r e l a t i ve pr onouns e xi s t ( unl i ke I r i s h) , but a r e r e s t r i c t e d
t o r e la t iv i za t io n o f p r ep o si t io n al o b je c ts , a C - re l at i vi z at i on s t ra t eg y w i th a n i n va r ia n t
particle a b e in g u s ed i n r e la t iv i za t io n o n d i re c t c a se p o si t io n s.
W e s ee , t he re fo re , t ha t w ha t a pp ea rs t o b e a n ew p at te rn – C -r el at iv es f or d ir ec t
c as es a nd P -r el at iv es f or o bj ec ts o f p re po si ti on s – h as a ri se n a t o pp os it e e nd s o f t heG M C w o r l d , a n d a p p a r e n t l y f r o m o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s , s t r u c t u r a l l y s p e a k i n g : i n t h e o n e
c as e, b y s up pl em en ti ng a n o ri gi na l C -r el at iv e s tr at eg y w it h a P -s tr at eg y, j us t i n t he
o bl iq ue c as es a nd i n t he o th er b y r ea na ly zi ng d ir ec t r el at iv e p ro no un s a s r el at iv e
448 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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S im il ar ly , i n S W, G ra nb er ry (1991) c la im s t ha t w he re as r el at iv iz at io n o f d ir ec t
a rg um en t p os it io ns i nv ol ve s t he i nv ar ia nt p ar ti cl e som, W-forms can be used in
r e l at i vi zi ng pos s es s or a nd pr e pos i t i ona l obj e ct pos i ti ons :
H ow ev er , t he s it ua ti on h er e i s r at he r m ur ky , a nd d if fe re nt d es cr ip ti on s s ee m t o
c o nt r ad i ct e a ch o t he r A nw a rd (1982: 5 8) g iv es e xa mp le s o f W r el at iv es i n S W e ve n
d i ff er e nt l y. T h e m o st s t ra i gh t fo r wa r d r es o lu ti o n o f t h is c o nf li ct i s o f fe r ed b y G O, i n
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 449
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w hic h t he a pp ro pr ia te p er so na l p ro no un i s u se d a s a r el at iv e p ro no un o n n on -t hi rd p ers on
he a ds ( i nde pe nde nt of t he G r e e k, w hi c h us e s a t hi r d pe r s on r e l a t i ve pr onoun he r e ) .
A m o r e u s u a l t r e a t m e n t h a s b e e n t o i n t r o d u c e t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e i n t h e u s u a l w a y –
e it he r w it h a D -p ro no un o r a r el at iv e c om pl em en ti ze r – b ut t o i nf le ct t he v er b o f t he
r el a ti v e c l au s e f o r f i rs t o r s e co n d p e rs o n a g re e me n t:
450 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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N o t c l e a r i s w h e t h e r t h i s p r o n o u n i s a r e s u m p t i v e p r o n o u n i n s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n w i t h i n
t he r el at iv e c la us e, o r w he th er t he der a nd t he ich f o rm a s in gl e, c om pl ex r el at iv e
pronoun.
6.5.1.7 C o rr e la t es a n d n o n- c or r el a te s o f t h e P - re l at i ve / C- r el a ti v e d i st i nc t io n
I t h as b ee n n ot ed i n i nd iv id ua l l an gu ag es i n w hi ch b ot h c on st ru ct io ns c o- oc cu r t ha t
p a rt i cl e r el a ti v es a n d p r on o un r e la t iv e s a r e s u bj e ct t o d i ff e re n t s y nt a ct i c r es t ri c ti o ns .
T hi s s ec ti on w il l p re se nt a c at al og ue o f t he d if fe re nc es w hi ch h av e b ee n p oi nt ed o ut ,
w i t h a vi e w t ow a r d a t t e m pt i ng t o de t e r m i ne w ha t c r os s l i ngui s t i c ge ne r a l i z a t i ons c a n be
made.
6.5.1.7.1 D i st r ib u ti o n i n r e st r i ct i ve a n d n o n- r e st r ic t iv e c l au s es First of all, it
h a s b e e n c l a i m e d f o r M o d e r n E N t h a t P - r e l a t i v e s a n d C - r e l a t i v e s d i f f e r i n t h e i r a b i l i t y
t o i nt r oduc e nonr es t r i ct i ve r e l at i ve c l a us e s ( N R RE L s ) . N onre s t ri c t i ve r e l at i ve c l a use s
a r e r el a ti v e c l au s es w h ic h p r ov i de i n ci d en t al i n fo r ma t io n a b ou t a N P w h os e r ef e re n t
i s a lr ea dy a ss um ed t o b e s uf fi ci en tl y e st ab li sh ed . T he y c on tr as t w it h r es tr ic ti ver el at iv es ( RR EL s) , i n w hi ch t he r el at iv e c la us e p la ys a r ol e i n t he i de nt if ic at io n o f
t he r ef er en t o f t he n ou n p hr as e – p re di ca ti ng i nf or ma ti on a bo ut i t w hi ch h el ps t he
h e a r e r t o n a r r o w d o w n t h e p o s s i b l e r e f e r e n t s . R e l a t i v e c l a u s e s m o d i f y i n g h e a d s w h i c h
a r e u n iq u e- r ef e re n t n o un s o r p r op e r n a me s a r e t h us n o rm a ll y n o nr e st r ic t iv e .
6.5.1.7.2 S t ra nd i n g di f f erences I n M od er n E N, w he n t he c on st it ue nt b ei ng q ue s-
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 451
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t io ne d i s t he o bj ec t o f a p re po si ti on , t he p re po si ti on m ay b e t re at ed i n e it he r o f t wo
way s. It m ay b e ca rrri ed a lo ng t o t he l eft p eri ph ery o f t he cl au se , al ong wi th th e
l e ft w ar d -d i sp l ac e d q u es t io n p h ra s e o r r el a ti v e p h ra s e ( t he p i ed - pi p in g c as e ), o r i t m a y
b e l ef t i n i ts n or ma l p os it io n w it hi n t he c la us e, w hi le t he r el at iv e p ro no un a pp ea rs
b y i t se l f a t t h e f r on t o f t h e r e la t iv e c l au s e ( t he “ p re p os i ti o n- s tr a nd i ng ” c a se ).
(6.123) a. the man to whom I spoke
b. the m an w ho/that I s poke t o
T h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e p i e d - p i p i n g a n d s t r a n d i n g o p t i o n s i s c o n n e c t e d i n p a r t w i t h t h e
t y p e o f r e l a t i v e c l a u s e . T h i s i s t r u e a t l e a s t i n t h e o b v i o u s s e n s e t h a t i n C - r e l a t i v e s t h e r e
i s n o r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n t o c a r r y t h e P P a l o n g t o t h e c l a u s a l p e r i p h e r y , s o t h a t s t r a n d i n g i s
t h e o n l y o p t i o n . I n t h i s s e c t i o n , w e e x a m i n e t h e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s e t w oo p t i o n s a c r o s s G M C , b y w a y o f s e e i n g w h e t h e r a c l o s e r c o n n e c t i o n c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d
b e t w e e n t h e t y p e o f r e l a t i v e c l a u s e a n d t h e c h o i c e o f p i e d - p i p i n g o r s t r a n d i n g .
I n O E, a t l ea st , t he c on ne ct io n a pp ea rs t o h av e w or ke d i n b ot h d ir ec ti on s. A ll en
(1980a) o bs er ve d t ha t i n O E, C -r el at iv es w it h þe a l lo w ed ( a nd r eq u ir e d) s t ra n di n g o f
t h e p r e p o s i t i o n w h e n a p r e p o s i t i o n a l o b j e c t w a s r e l a t i v i z e d , b u t t h a t , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,i n D -r e la t iv e s s t ra n di n g w a s n o t p o ss i bl e ; r a th e r, t h e p r ep o si t io n h a d t o b e p i ed - pi p ed
t o t h e f r o n t o f t h e c l a u s e , a l o n g w i t h t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n .
I t i s o n l y i n t h e c a s e o f C - r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s a n d s i m i l a r c o n s t r u c t i o n s ( s e e A l l e n 1980a)
452 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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w h er e t h er e i s n o ( o ve r t) l e ft wa r d- d is p la c ed c o ns t it u en t , s u ch a s a r e la t iv e p r on o un ,
q ue st io n p hr as e o r t op ic p hr as e, t ha t s tr an di ng i s p os si bl e i n O E. A ll en ’s a cc ou nt f or
t hi s i s t ha t t wo f un da me nt al ly d if fe re nt s yn t ac ti c p ro ce ss es a re i nv ol ve d. P -r el at iv es i n O E
i nv ol ve m ov em en t o f t he r el at iv e p ro no un , b ut C -r el at iv es , w it h n o o ve rt r el at iv e p ro -
nouns , i nvol ve de le t ion of t he r e la t ivi ze d a rgume nt i n pl ac e . Move m ent out of pr epos-
itional phrases, stranding the preposition, is not allowed, but deletion of the prepositional
o b je ct i s. T hi s a cc ou nt s f or t he a sy mm et ri es o bs er ve d. K ip ar sk y (1995a: 1 50 ) t ake s u p t hi snon- m ove me nt a nal ysi s of C - re l at i ve s a s w e ll , a nd c l ai m s t hat a numbe r of di ff e re nce s
b et we en C -r el at iv es a nd P -r el at iv es i n O E, w it h r es pe ct t o p re po s it io n s tr an di ng , t he
poss i bi l it y of r e sum pt i ve pr onouns , di ff e re nce s i n t he s i ze of t he s ynt a ct i c doma i n over
w hi c h t he y c a n ope r a t e , a nd ot he r s , s uppor t s uc h a n a na l ys i s .
L e t t i n g t h e O E a s y m m e t r y g u i d e o u r e x p e c t a t i o n s , w e m i g h t e x p e c t t h a t P - r e l a t i v e se ls ew he re i n G MC w il l d is al lo w s tr an di ng , a nd t ha t C -r el at iv es , o n t he o th er h an d,
wi ll al low i t. T hes e ex pec ta tio ns a re o nly p art ial ly b orn e o ut, f ai li ng , i n s om e
l a ng u ag e s, i n b o th d i re c ti o ns ( s ee A l le n 1980b: 3 13 ). O n t he o ne h an d, i t d oe s s ee m
t o b e t h e c a s e t h a t o t h e r l a n g u a g e s s h a r i n g w i t h O E a s e t o f r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s d e r i v e d
f ro m d em on st ra ti ve s ( th e D -r el at iv e l an gu ag es ) d o n ot a ll ow s tr an di ng , b ut r eq ui rep i e d - p i p i n g . T h i s w a s t r u e o f G O , f o r e x a m p l e , a n d s t i l l a p p e a r s t o b e t r u e o f M o d e r n
GE an d M od ern DU. On t he o th er ha nd , a s we s hal l s ee, i t is n ot t ru e in g en era l o f
t h os e l a ng u ag e s i n w h ic h D -r e la t iv e s h a ve b e en s u pp l an t ed b y W - re l at i ve s .
C o rr e sp o nd i ng l y, s t ra n di n g i n C - re l at i ve s , w h ic h w as q u it e g e ne ra l ly p o ss i bl e i n
O E , a l so a p pe a rs i n s o me o t he r l a ng u ag e s w it h C - re l at i ve s .
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 453
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I n t h i s r e s p e c t , Y I i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m A F . T h e wat - r e l a t i ve s of A F , w hi c h w e r e a r gue d,
l i k e Y I vos r e l a t i ve s , t o i nvol ve a c om pl e m e nt i z e r de r i ve d f r om a W - r e l a t i ve pr onoun,
d o a l lo w s t ra n di n g.
C on ve rs el y, a n i nn ov at iv e g ro up o f m od er n G MC l an gu ag es h as c om e t o a ll ow
s tr an di ng a s a g en er al o pt io n n ot o nl y i n C -r el at iv es , b ut a ls o i n P -r el at iv es , a s w el l
a s o th er “ fr on ti ng ” c on st ru ct io ns , s uc h a s q ue st io ns a nd t op ic s en te nc es . T hi s g ro upc o ns i st s o f E N , A F a n d t h e S ca n di n av i an l a ng u ag e s.
T hi s, a s A ll en n ot es (1980a: 5 3 ff . ), c o rr el a te s w i th a n ot h er d i ff e re n ce b e tw ee n t h es e
t k i d f i ti l bj t f l l h i bj t f
454 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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t wo k in ds o f p re po si ti on al o bj ec ts ; f ul l n ou n p hr as es o cc ur ri ng a s o bj ec ts o f p re po s-
i ti on s o bl ig at or il y f ol lo w t he ir p re po si ti on s. O n t he o th er h an d, p er so na l p ro no un s
o c c u r r i n g a s o b j e c t s o f p r e p o s i t i o n s a r e a l l o w e d t o p r e c e d e t h o s e p r e p o s i t i o n s . B o t h o f
t he se c as es a re i ll us tr at ed i n ( 6. 12 7b ). A ll en c on cl ud es t ha t s tr an di ng i s p os si bl e f or
just those prepositional objects which can precede their prepositions.
O E i s n ot a lo ne i n a dm it ti ng s tr an di ng u nd er t he se c ir cu ms ta nc es . O th er W es t G MC
l a n g u a g e s l i k e D U , G E a n d F R , w h i l e n o t a l l o w i n g p r e p o s i t i o n s t r a n d i n g a s a g e n e r a lpos s i bi l i t y, do a l l ow i t i n t he c a s e of pr e pos i t i ona l obj e c t s w hi c h pr e c e de t he pr e pos i t i on.
S o, f or e xa m pl e , i n D U , que s t i on pr onouns of a t ype w hi c h f ol l ow t he i r pr e pos i t i ons , a s
i n ( 6. 127d), a re not s e pa r at e d f rom t hos e pr epos i ti ons , w hil e t hos e w hi c h pr ec e de t hei r
pr e pos i t i ons i n “ R - c om pounds , ” a s i n ( 6. 127c ) , c a n be s e pa r a t e d f r om t he i r pr e pos i t i ons
(Vat 1978).12
S e e a l s o t h e F R e x a m p l e i n ( 6 . 1 0 7 b ) .
12 F R , u n l i k e D U a n d G E , a p p e a r s t o a l l o w s t r a n d i n g n o t j u s t i n t h e R - s t r a n d i n g c a s e , a s i n ( i i ) ,b u t e v e n w h e n t h e f r o n t e d p r o n o u n i s n o t o f t h e s o r t w h i c h f o l l o w s t h e a s s o c i a t e d p r e p o s i t i o n
a cc or di ng t o Z ae ne n a nd M al in g, t he r es um pt iv e p ro no un c an no t b e c lo se r t ha n t wo
c l au s es a wa y f r om i t s a n te ce d en t
458 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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c l au s es a wa y f r om i t s a n te ce d en t .
I n S W , m o r e ov e r, t h e p o s s ib i li t y o f a r e su m pt i ve p r on o un d o es n o t c o rr e la t e w i t h t h e
a b se n ce o f p r on o un f ro n ti n g, s i nc e i t i s p o ss i bl e t o g e t r e su m pt i ve s i n W -q u es t io n s:
T hi s s ug ge st s t ha t t he re a re t wo d if fe re nt t yp es o f r es um pt iv e p ro no un i n G MC : t hes ha ll ow t yp e, f ou nd i n Y I a nd i n O E, w hi ch a pp ea rs t o b e f re el y a va il ab le e ve n i n
s i m p l e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s , a n d t h e d e e p t y p e f o u n d i n S W , w h i c h i s r e s t r i c t e d t o c o m p l e x
c on st ru ct io ns – p ar ti cu la rl y i n t ho se w he re t he p os it io n r el at iv iz ed o r q ue st io ne d i s
f ou nd i n a “ sy nt ac ti c i sl an d, ” s uc h a s t he e mb ed de d q ue st io n i n ( 6. 12 9d ). I n t he se
c as es , t he p ro no un h as b ee n c la im ed t o s er ve a s pe ci fi c f un ct io n: f ac il it at in g t hep r oc es s in g o f c o mp l ex s t ru c tu r es ( c f. Z a en e n a n d M a li n g 1982).
T h e s i t u a t i o n o f M o d e r n E N d i f f e r s f r o m t h a t o f S W e s s e n t i a l l y o n l y i n d e g r e e . A s
i n S W, r es um pt iv e p ro no un s i n s ha ll ow p os it io ns , a s i n ( 6. 12 9d ), a re e nt ir el y i ll
f or me d, w hi le t he d ee p k in d a re n ot i nf re qu en tl y h ea rd , t ho ug h g en er al ly j ud ge d a s
m a r g i n a l . A g a i n , t h e j u d g m e n t s s e e m t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t o f w h e t h e r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s
a P -r el at iv e o r a C -r el at iv e. B ot h a re e qu al ly w el l ( or i ll ) f or me d.
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( th e a bs en ce o f ) i sl an d c on st ra in ts i n S ca nd in av ia n, s ee t he p ap er s i n E ng da hl a nd
Ejerhed 1982.
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 459
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j
I n a t l e a s t o n e c a s e , i t h a s b e e n c l a i m e d t h a t s e n s i t i v i t y t o s y n t a c t i c i s l a n d s d e p e n d s o n
t he P - r el a t ive / C -r e l at i ve di f fe r e nc e ; K i pa rs ky (1995a: 1 5 0 ) h a s c l a i m e d t h a t i n O E i t
w as p o ss i bl e t o r el a ti v iz e p o si t io n s w it h in s y nt a ct i c i s la n ds , s u ch a s r e la t iv e c l au s es ,
b u t o n ly i n C -r e la t iv e s.
A nd , i n f ac t, i t s ee ms t ha t t he c or re la ti on h ol ds u p i n c er ta in c as es ; i n l an g ua ge s w it h
only P-relatives, relativization is constrained by island constraints. However, the correl-
a t i on br e a ks dow n i n Mode r n E N , w he r e C - r e l a t i ve s , a s w e l l a s P - r e l a t i ve s , a r e s e ns i t i ve
t o i s la nd c ons t ra i nt s . T hus , r e pl a ci ng t he pr onoun which i n ( 6. 13 0 a) w it h t he c om pl e-
pi e d- pi pi ng va r i e s a c r os s l a ngua ge s a nd a c r os s s ynt a c t i c c a t e gor i e s . S t r a ndi ng a ppe a r s
t o b e t he mo re u su al p os sib il ity . So , fo r ex am pl e, wh en th e re la ti ve p ro no un i s
460 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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p y , p , p
u nd er st oo d t o b e t he c om pl em en t o f a n a dj ec ti ve , t he a dj ec ti ve p hr as e i s a lw ay s
s t r a nde d, not pi e d-pi pe d.
B es id es t he c as e o f p re po si ti on al o bj ec ts d is cu ss ed a bo ve , i n f ac t t he re a re o nl y t wo
o t h e r c a s e s i n w h i c h p i e d - p i p i n g i s f o u n d , a n d i n w h i c h , t h e r e f o r e , t h e p r o n o u n a p p e a r s
a t t he l ef t p er ip he ry o f t he c la us e n ot b y i ts el f, b ut c on ta in ed w it hi n a l ar ge r p hr as e.
V a n R i e m s d i j k (1982) o b s e r v e s t h a t G E i n f i n i t i v a l c l a u s e s c a n a p p e a r a l o n g w i t h t h e i r o b je c ts a t t h e f r on t o f t h e c l au s e i n ( n on - re s tr i ct i ve ) r e la t iv e c l au s es o f t h e f o ll o wi n g
s o r t ( c f . a l s o R o s s 1968: 1 1 3) . P i ed - pi p in g h e re i s o p ti o na l .
T h e o n l y o t h e r i n s t a n c e s o f p i e d - p i p i n g i n v o l v e c a s e s w h e r e t h e c o n t a i n i n g p h r a s e i s a
N P . T h e b e h a v i o r o f N P s w i t h r e s p e c t t o s t r a n d i n g o r p i e d - p i p i n g i s q u i t e c o m p l i c a t e d ,
a n d d e p e n d s o n b o t h t h e p o s i t i o n i n t h e N P t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n o r q u e s t i o n w o r d
H ow ev er , n at iv e t ex ts i n o th er e ar ly G MC l an gu ag es s ee m t o c on fi rm t ha t p os se ss or s
w e r e m o r e r e a d i l y s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e n o u n s t h e y m o d i f i e d t h a n t h e y a r e i n t h e m o d e r n
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 461
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l a nguage s. T hey a r e of te n s e pa ra te d f rom t he a s soc ia t ed N P i n O E , f or e xam pl e :
S tr an di ng o f N Ps i n r el at iv e c la us es i s m or e g en er al ly p os si bl e w he n t he r el at iv e
p r on o un i s a s so c ia t ed w i th a c o mp l em e nt p o si t io n i n si d e t h e N P:
I n t he se c as es , p ie d- pi pi ng o f t he c on ta in in g N P i s a ls o p os si bl e, a nd i n t he c as e o f
c o ns t ru c ti o ns l i ke ( 6 .1 3 4d ) , w h er e t h e r e la t iv e p r on o un i s c o nt a in e d i n m u lt i pl e N P s,
a ny o f t he c on ta in in g N Ps c an b e p ie d- pi pe d.
c as e, a nd s tr an di ng i s d is al lo we d. T he re i s, h ow ev er , o ne u nu su al b ut r at he r w id e-
s p r e a d p h e n o m e n o n i n G M C i n w h i c h m o v e m e n t o f a q u e s t i o n e l e m e n t i n t h e p r e - h e a d
462 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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p os it io n i n a N P r es ul ts i n s tr an di ng o f t ha t N P. F ol lo wi ng d en B es te n (1985), we
c an c al l t hi s p he no me no n wat -voor - s pl i t. G E a n d D U e x hi b it c o mp l ex i n te r ro g at i ve
s pe ci fi er s c on si st in g o f a n i nt er ro ga ti ve p ro no un (wat/was) a nd an et ym olo gi ca l
pr e pos i t i on (voor/fu r ) , t h e l a t t e r h a v i n g a p p a r e n t l y l o s t i t s s t a t u s a s a p r e p o s i t i o n , s i n c e
i t n o l o n g e r d e t e r m i n e s t h e c a s e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g N P . T h e t w o e l e m e n t s t o g e t h e r m e a n
‘ w ha t k i nd o f ’.
A s ( 6. 13 6a ) s ho ws , t hi s i nt er ro ga ti ve s pe ci fi er c an p ie d- pi pe i ts N P, b ut , i n c on tr as tw it h t he g en er al i mp os si bi li ty o f e xt ra ct in g a n e le me nt f ro m a p re no mi na l p os it io n
w i t h i n a N P , t h e wat/was c a n a ls o b e e xt ra ct ed h er e, s tr an di ng t he N P:
(6.136) b. [Wat] heeft hij [voor romans] geschreven?
( D u , d e n B e s t e n 1 9 8 5 : 3 4 )
I n a d d i t i o n t o D U a n d G E , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s a l s o f o u n d i n Y I ( J a c o b s e t a l. 1994:
4 13 ) a nd L ow G E ( Li nd ow e t a l. 1998: 2 96 ). A s im il ar c on st ru ct io n i s a ls o f ou nd i n
S W ( An w ar d 1982: 5 3 ) a n d N O ( L i e 1982: 1 95 ). L ie c ha ra ct er iz es i t a s a l oa n f ro m
M i dd l e L o w G E , s t il l d i al e ct i ca l ly r es t ri c te d i n N O.
a ppar e nt c ounte r par t s , W e s t F l e mi s h die a nd F r e nc h qui) . P o s s i b l y a l s o t o b e i n c l u d e d
here is the DA der ‘ t h er e’ , h o mo p ho n ou s w i th t h e p r es e nt a ti o na l s u bj e ct e x pl e ti v e,
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 463
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w h i c h c a n a p p e a r o n l y w h e n t h e s u b j e c t i s b e i n g r e l a t i v i z e d . I t i s o p t i o n a l , b u t w h e n i t
i s u s ed , t h e r el a ti v e c o mp l em e nt i ze r som i s n o t u s e d :
T he t em pt at io n h er e i s t o t ak e der t o b e e it he r a r el at iv e p ro no un o r a r es um pt iv e
p r on o un i n t h e s u bj e ct p o si t io n ( u nd e r a n o n- m ov e me n t a n al y si s ). H o we v er , b o th o f
t he se a re c ou nt er in di ca te d b y t he f ac t t ha t i t a ls o s ho ws u p i n e mb ed de d q ue st io ns ,
w he re i t c o- oc cu rs w it h a f ro nt ed q ue st io n p ro no un ( ag ai n, j us t i n t he c as e o f q ue s-
t i oning t he s ubj ec t ) .
T h e f a c t t h a t i t c a n c o - o c c u r w i t h a p r o n o u n f r o n t e d f r o m s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n , b u t c a n n o t
c o- oc c ur w i t h t he c om pl e m e nt i z e r som, s u g g e s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t i t t o o i s a m e m b e r
o f t h e c l as s o f a g re e in g c o mp l em e nt i ze r s, d e pl o ye d j u st i n c a se o f s u bj e ct g a ps .
O n t he o th er h an d, t he re a re n um er ou s i ns ta nc es o f o pt io ns w hi ch e xi st f or t he
r e l a t i v i z a t i o n o f a l l n o n s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n s , b u t w h i c h a r e d i s a l l o w e d e x a c t l y i n t h e c a s e
o f s ub je ct r el at iv iz at io n. O ne s uc h c as e i s f ou nd , f or e xa mp le , i n G O, i n r el at iv e
c la us es m od if yi ng u ni ve rs al p ro no un s o f t he ‘ wh oe ve r/ wh at ev er /w he re ve r’ t yp e.W h en n o ns u bj e ct p o si t io n s a r e r el a ti v iz e d i n t h es e , t h e r el a ti v iz ed c l au s e i s n o rm a ll y
i nt roduc ed by t he i nva ri a nt c om pl e m e nt i z er þei :
T h e n a t i v e n e s s o f t h i s p a t t e r n i s s u p p o r t e d b y i t s i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m t h e G r e e k m o d e l
f or t ra ns la ti on . T hu s, i t a pp ea rs t ha t i n G O, s ub je ct r el at iv iz at io n r eq ui re d e it he r a
464 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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r e la t iv e p r on o un o r a n a g re e in g c o mp l em e nt i ze r, a s izei h as b ee n ar gu ed to b e. An
o r di n ar y c o mp l em e nt i ze r c o ul d n o t a p pe a r a d ja c en t t o t h e p o si t io n o f t h e r el a ti v iz e d
s u bj e ct . A p pl y in g t h e l a be l b y w h ic h t h is p h en o me n on h a s b e en k n ow n d e sc ri p ti v el y
f o r m a n y y e a r s , w e m a y s a y t h a t G O e x h i b i t s ( a v e r s i o n o f ) t h e “ that - t r a c e e f f e c t . ” T he
p h e n o m e n o n i s s o c a l l e d b e c a u s e o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t i n m a n y l a n g u a g e s , t h e g a p ( a
“ t r a c e ” o f m o v e m e n t , i n s o m e a n a l y s e s ) i n a r e l a t i v e o r t o p i c o r q u e s t i o n c o n s t r u c t i o nc a n n o t b e a d j a c e n t t o ( c e r t a i n k i n d s o f ) c o m p l e m e n t i z e r s . T h e p h e n o m e n o n i s e v i d e n t
i n E N i n a s ym m et r ie s l i ke t h e f o ll o wi n g, f o r e x am p le .
D e s c r i p t i v e l y , t h e g a p i n t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e c a n n o t b e i n t h e s u b j e c t p o s i t i o n , a d j a c e n t
to a that c o m pl e me n ti z er . ( O mi s si o n o f t h e that m a ke s t he s en te nc e w el l f or me d. )
W hi l e s ha r i ng s om e t hi ng i n c om m on, t he s e s pe c i a l r e qui r e m e nt s f or s ubj e c t r e l a t i vi z a -
t i on d e mo n st r at e i n tr i gu i ng v a ri a ti o n a c ro s s l a ng u ag e s. F o r e x am p le , t h e E N f ac t s a re
n o t q u i t e p a r a l l e l t o t h o s e o f G O . I n E N , t h e e f f e c t d i s a p p e a r s i f t h e c o m p l e m e n t i z e r i si n t ur n a dj ac en t t o t he h ea d o f t he r el at iv e c on st ru ct io n. T hu s, t he re i s n o that -trace
e f fe c t i n ( 6 .1 3 8g ) .
(6.138) g. The man that [] saw him was your father
I n G O, o n t he o th er h an d, a b ar e c om pl em en ti ze r a pp ar en tl y c ou ld n ot i nt ro du ce a
r e la t iv e c l au s e w i th s u bj e ct r e la t iv i za t io n e v en w h en i t w o ul d b e a d ja ce n t t o t h e h e ad
o f t he c on st ru ct io n. O ve rt r el at iv e p ro no un s w er e a pp ar en tl y r eq ui re d e ve n i n t ha t
p os it io n a s i n (6 1 38 c d ) M oreo ve r i n t he E N ca se t he i ll fo rm ed ne ss c an b e
H ow e ve r , t he som c a n n o t b e l e f t o u t i n t h e c a s e o f s u b j e c t r e l a t i v i z a t i o n , a s i n ( 6 . 1 3 8 i ) .
S i m i l a r f a c t s obt a i n i n ot he r c ont i ne nt a l S c a ndi na vi a n l a ngua ge s , a nd, a s t he f ol l ow i ng
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 465
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e x am p le s s h ow , t h e p a tt e rn h o ld s t r ue o f q u es t io n s a s w el l a s r el a ti v e c l au s es :
F A, b y c o nt r as t , a l lo w s d e le t io n e v en i n t h e c a se o f s u bj e ct r el a ti v iz at i on :
T h e c o nt i ne n ta l S ca n di n av i an r e st r ic t io n o n som d ele ti on n ex t t o a s ub ject g ap i n a
r el at iv e c la us e s ee ms t o f in d a c lo se p ar al le l i n M od er n S ta nd ar d E N, t ho ug h o ne o f
r at h er r ec e nt o r ig i n; r el a ti v e that (the that i nt ro du ci ng t he r el at iv e c la us e) c an b e
d el et ed f re el y i n i ns ta nc es o f n on su bj ec t r el at iv iz at io n, a s i n ( 6. 13 9d ), b ut i t c an no t
b e d e le t ed i n i n st a nc e s o f s u bj e ct r e la t iv i za t io n :
(6.139) d. The man (that) you saw is his father
e . T he m an * (t ha t) s aw y ou i s h i s f at he r
That d ro p w as p os si bl e h er e i n M E a nd i nt o t he M od er n E N p er io d ( 6. 13 9f , g ). I t i sn ow i mp os si bl e f or m os t s pe ak er s o f S ta nd ar d E N, h ow ev er , t ho ug h s ti ll p os si bl e i n
v a r i o u s E N d i a l e c t s ( 6 . 1 3 9 h ) . ( S e e B e v e r a n d L a n g e n d o e n 1972 f or f ur t he r di s c us s i on
s u b j e c t s w e r e t h e o n l y a r g u m e n t s w h i c h c o u l d n o t b e r e l a t i v i z e d b y m e a n s o f r e l a t i v e
pronouns.
466 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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I n s um ma ry , w e s ee t he f ol lo wi ng s pe ci al t re at me nt s o f s ub je ct r el at iv es i n G MC :s om e l an gu ag es h av e f or ms w hi ch c an o nl y b e u se d f or s ub je ct r el at iv iz at io n. T he se
i n cl u de G O izei/sei, W es t F l em i sh die, a n d D A der . I n s o me , s u bj e ct r el a ti v iz at i on i s
pr ohibi t e d f r om pos i t ions a dj ac e nt t o ( non-r e l at i ve ) c om pl e m e nt i z e rs . T hi s that -trace
e f f e c t s h o w s u p , t h o u g h i n r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t w a y s , i n G O a n d i n E N . F i n a l l y , t h e M o d e r n
S ca nd in av ia n l an gu ag es , a s w el l a s M od er n E N, p ro hi bi t t he o mi ss io n o f ( re la ti ve )c om ple m e nt i z e rs i n c a s es of s ubj ec t r e l at i vi za t i on.
6.5.1.10 F r ee r e l a ti v es a n d a t tr a ct i on
A s w e h av e s ee n, r el at iv e c on st ru ct io ns u su al ly h av e N P h ea ds , w hi ch t he r el at iv e
c l a u s e i s u n d e r s t o o d t o m o d i f y . D e m o n s t r a t i v e p r o n o u n s , l i k e o t h e r N P s , c a n s e r v e a st h e h e ad s o f r e la t iv e c o ns t ru c ti o ns . I n c a se t h e l a ng u ag e i n q u es t io n h a s D - re l at i ve s ,
d e mo n st r at i ve h e ad s w il l b e h o mo p ho n ou s w i th t h e r el a ti v e p r on o un , a s i n :
A l l o f t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s , h o w e v e r , a l s o e x h i b i t c o n s t r u c t i o n s i n w h i c h o n e o f t h e t w o
p r on o un s i s u n ex p re s se d , a s i n :
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 467
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O n t he o th er ha nd , i n O E, th e p iv ot i n f re e r el at iv es do es no t a pp ea r i n t he c as e
a pp ro pr ia te t o th e r ol e o f t he r el at iv e p ro no un in t he r el at iv e c la us e, bu t a lw ay s in t he
c as e a p pr o pr i at e t o a d e mo n st r at i ve h e ad o f t h e r e la t iv e c o ns t ru c ti o n, as d et e rm i ne d b y
the role of the NP which it heads in the main clause (see Allen 1980a:108).14
T hus , i t ap pe ars t hat th e p iv ot i n f ree re la tiv es i n GO is a rel at iv e p ro no un , a nd n ot a
de m ons t r at i ve he a d ( for f ur t he r a r gum e nt s, s e e H a r be r t 1992) , wh il e i n OE , it a pp ea rs
t o b e t he d em on st ra ti ve h ea d of t he r el at iv e c on st ru ct io n.
T h e s t at u s o f t h e p i vo t i n G O a s a r e la t iv e p r on o un , h o we v er , i s o b sc u re d s o me w ha t
by th e p hen ome no n o f a ttr act io n; wh ile t he p iv ot d oe s o ft en ap pear in th e cas e
a p pr o pr i at e t o t h e l o we r c l au s e, as in (6 . 14 0 d) , i t c a n, un d er sp e ci f ic c i rc u ms t an c es ,
a pp ea r i ns te ad i n t he c as e a pp ro pr ia te t o t he r ol e o f t he w ho le N P i n t he m ai n c la us e, a s
in (6.141a).
W h i c h o f t h e t w o c o m p e t i n g c a s e s a p p e a r s o n t h e p i v o t i s d e t e r m i n e d a s f o l l o w s : w h e n
t h e c a s e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e w h o l e N P , a s d e t e r m i n e d b y i t s r o l e i n t h e m a i n c l a u s e , a n d
468 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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t h e c a s e e x p e c t e d o f t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n , b y v i r t u e o f i t s r o l e i n t h e s u b o r d i n a t e c l a u s e ,a r e d i f f e r e n t , t h e p i v o t i n G O f r e e r e l a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s a p p e a r s i n w h i c h e v e r o f t h o s e
t wo c as es i s ri gh tmo st o n a Cas e Hi era rch y o f t he fo rm No m<Acc<D a t/ Ge n . I n
( 6. 14 0d ), t he s ub or di na te c la us e v er b r eq ui re s d at iv e c as e a nd t he m at ri x c la us e
r eq ui re s n om in at iv e c as e, s in ce t he w ho le r el at iv e c on st ru ct io n i s t he s ub je ct o f t he
m ai n cl au se. Da ti ve c as e, t he mo re o bl iq ue o f t he t wo , ap pe ars o n t he p iv ot . In( 6 .1 4 1a ) , t h e s u bo r di n at e c l au s e r e qu i re s n o mi n at i ve c a se , s i nc e t h e r e la t iv i ze d p o s-
i t i o n i s t h a t o f s u b j e c t o f t h e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e , w h i l e t h e m a i n c l a u s e r e q u i r e s d a t i v e c a s e ,
s in ce t he r el at iv e c on st ru ct io n i s t he o bj ec t o f t he m ai n c la us e v er b, fraþjan , w hi ch
a s s i g n s d a t i v e c a s e . I n H a r b e r t 1992, a r g u m e n t s a r e p r e s e n t e d s h o w i n g t h a t t h e p i v o t i s
s ti ll a r el at iv e p ro no un e ve n w he n i t a pp ea rs i n a m at ri x- cl au se -d et er mi ne d c as e,i nd ic at in g t he n ee d f or a r ul e w hi ch a ss ig ns t he m at ri x c as e “ do wn i nt o” t he r el at iv e
c l aus e w he n t he C a s e H i er a chy c ondi ti on r e qui re s i t . T he e xi st e nc e of s uch a pr oc es s i s
c on fi rm ed b y t he f ac t t ha t i t a pp li es i n h ea de d r el at iv e c la us es e ls ew he re i n G MC , f or
e x a m p l e , i n M H G , a s i n ( 6 . 1 4 1 b ) , w h e r e b o t h t h e h e a d N P a n d t h e r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n a r e
s e pa r a t e l y r e pr e s e nt e d, a nd t he c ons t i t ue nc y of t he a f f e c t e d r e l a t i ve pr onoun i s t he r e f or e
n ot i n d ou bt . H er e, b ot h t he h ea d N P a nd t he r el at iv e p ro no un s ho w u p i n t he g en it iv e
a ppr opr i a t e t o t he r ol e of t he he a d N P . ( I n G O , a t t r a c t i on i s f ound onl y i n f r e e r e l a t i ve s . )
A t t r a c t i o n o f t h e s o r t i l l u s t r a t e d i s p r i m a r i l y a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e a r l y G M C ( t h o u g h n o t
f o u n d i n O E ) , b u t i t h a s a f u n c t i o n a l e q u i v a l e n t a m o n g t h e m o d e r n G M C l a n g u a g e s i n
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 469
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W he n t he r e l a t i vi z e d a r gum e nt i n t he e m be dde d c l a us e i s a pr e pos i t i ona l phr a s e but t he
r el at iv e c on st ru ct io n i s t he o bj ec t o f a t ra ns it iv e m ai n c la us e v er b, w hi ch r eq u ir es N P
o bj ec ts , t he s en te nc e i s a ls o b ad . T he p hr as e c on ta in in g t he p iv ot m us t s at is fy t he c at eg or y
r eq ui re me nt s o f b ot h t he l ow er v er b a nd t he h ig he r c la us e. T hu s, ( 6. 14 2c ), t he l it er al
t r a ns l a t i on of G O ( 6. 140c ) i s ungr a m m a t i c a l i n G E ( or E N ) . N ot e t ha t ( 6. 142d) , i n w hi c h
t he p re po si ti on h a s b ee n s tr an d ed a n d o n ly t he r e la ti ve p ro n ou n h as b ee n f ro nt ed , i s g o od .
T he pi vot t hus a ppe a r s t o ha ve t o s a t i s f y bot h t he r e qui r e m e nt s of t he m a i n c l a us e ( a s i f i t
w er e t he h ea d o f t he r el at iv e c on st ru ct io n) a nd t he e mb ed de d c la us e ( as i f i t w ere t he
relative pronoun). This apparent split allegiance of course contributes to the difficulty of
de te rm i ni ng w hic h c l aus e i t bel ongs t o s ynt ac ti c al ly, a nd a r gum ent s ha ve be en m ount edf or b ot h a na ly s es . T he s yn tax o f t he se m at ch in g c on st ra in ts i s d is cu sse d i n d et ai l i n B re sn an
and Grimshaw 1978, G ro os a nd v an R ie ms di jk 1981, H ar ber t 1982, S u ner 1984, G ros u
470 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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I n at l ea st s ome o f t he l at ter, t he W-f or ms ap pe ar t o h av e ari sen h is to ri ca ll y b y
s u cc e ss i ve r e du c ti o n o f g e ne ra l iz i ng ( ‘w h at e ve r ’) t y pe r e la t iv e c o ns t ru c ti o ns o f t h e
f o r m ‘ s o w h a t s o ’ , w h i c h a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n c o m m o n t o t h e W e s t G M C l a n g u a g e s :
(6.143) h. Who(ever) steals my purse steals trash
i . I t ake wh at (e ver) I c an g et
j I lik h t i
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 471
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j. I like what you are wearing
6.5.1.11 I n f i n it i va l r el at i ve a n d i n t er ro g a t i ve co n s t r u cti o n s
M o de r n E N a d mi t s r e la t iv e c l au s es w i th i n fi n it i ve v e rb s :
(6.144) a. I found a topic about which to write
T h e s e M o d e r n E N i n f i n i t i v a l r e l a t i v e s a d m i t o v e r t r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s o n l y i n t h e c a s e o f
r el a ti v iz a ti o n o f a p r ep o si t io n al o b je c t, a n d o n ly w h en t h e p r ep o si t io n i s p i ed - pi p ed ,
r at h er t h an s t ra n de d . I n fi n it i va l r e la t iv e s i n vo l vi n g t h e r el a ti v iz a ti o n o f “ d ir e ct - ca s e”
p os it io ns – s ub je ct s, d ir ec t o bj ec ts a nd p re po si ti on al o bj ec ts w it h s tr an di ng – d o n ot
a l l o w r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s i n t h e s e i s t h u s r e m i n i s -
c e n t o f t h e p a t t e r n f o u n d i n E M E f i n i t e r e l a t i v e c l a u s e s ( 6 . 5 . 1 . 5 . 3 ) – r e l a t i v e p r o n o u n s
i n p re po si ti on al o bj ec t p os it io ns , b ut n ot i n d ir ec t c as e p os it io ns . R el at iv iz at io n o f
p o ss e ss o rs d o es n o t a p pe a r t o b e p o ss i bl e a t a l l i n i n fi n it i va l r el a ti v es ( 6 .1 4 4e ).
(6.144) b. I found a man (*who) to fix the sink
c. I f ound a m an ( *who) t o h ire
d. I f ound a man ( *who) t o talk t o
e. *I f ound a man w hose c ar t o borrow
T he se c on tr as t w it h i nf in it iv al q ue st io ns , w hi ch a re a ls o f ou nd i n M od er n E N, i n a
v a ri e ty o f w ay s . W h en t h e d i re c t o b je ct i s b e in g q u es t io n ed i n a n i n fi n it i va l q u es t io n ,t h e i n te r ro g at i ve p r on o un , u n li k e t h e r el a ti v e p r on o un , a p pe ar s o b li g at o ri l y ( 6 .1 4 5a ).
I n i nf i ni t i va l que s t i ons , m or e ove r , unl i ke i nf i ni t i va l r e l a t i ve s , t he pr onoun m a y oc c upy
472 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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H o w e v e r , s h e a r g u e s t h a t t h e s e a r e i n f a c t n o t i n f i n i t i v a l r e l a t i v e s b u t p u r p o s e p h r a s e s .
F ir st o f a ll , t he y a re n ot a dm is si bl e i n c on te xt s w he re i nt er pr et in g t he m a s a p ur po sec l au s e m o di f yi n g t h e a ct i on o f t h e m a in c l au s e i s u n av a il a bl e .
S e c ond, t he til- p h r a s e i n ( 6 . 1 4 6 a ) i s i n f a c t a c o n s t i t u e n t o f t h e V P , n o t o f t h e N P , a s
e v id e nc ed b y i t s d i st r ib u ti o n i n s e nt e nc e s l i ke t h e f o ll o wi n g:
j. Etwas zu trinken ist im Kuhlschrank
s om et hi ng t o d ri nk i s i n- th e re fr ig er at or
( GE T a pp e 1 9 84 : 2 3 0)
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 473
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( GE , T a pp e 1 9 84 : 2 3 0)
O E , t oo, e xhi bi t s a ppa r e nt i nf i ni t i va l r e l a t i ve s ( A l l e n 1980a: 1 0 5 ; K a g e y a m a 1992).
T he O E c on st ru ct io ns d if fe re d f ro m t ho se o f M od er n E N i n t wo w ay s. F ir st , r el at iv e
p r on o un s w e re n e ve r a l lo w ed i n t h em . T h us , w h en t h e r el a ti v iz ed p o si t io n w as o b je c t
o f a p re po si ti on , t he p re po si ti on w as a lw ay s s tr an de d ( Al le n 1980a: 1 05 ). S ec on d,
a cc o rd i ng t o K ag e ya m a (1992: 1 21 ), c it in g V is se r (1963: 9 79 ), t he re w er e n o i nf in i-
t i v a l r e l a t i v e s w i t h s u b j e c t r e l a t i v i z a t i o n i n O E . M i l l e r ( 2002: 2 2 1 f f . ) a r g u e s t h a t t h e s ea p p a r e n t i n f i n i t i v a l r e l a t i v e s i n O E , t o o , a r e i n f a c t i n f i n i t i v a l p u r p o s e c l a u s e s , a n d t h a t
t r ue i n fi n it i va l r e la t iv e s e m er g ed o n ly i n M E .
I nf in it iv al q ue st io ns a re a bs en t i n b ot h G E a nd t he c on ti ne nt al S ca nd in av ia n
l a n g u a g e s , b u t t h e y o c c u r i n E N a n d i n A F .
E xc ep ti on al i n t hi s r eg ar d a re m ul ti pl e W H- qu es ti on s i n Y I, w he re m or e t ha n o ne
s u c h p h r a s e m a y b e f r o n t e d t o t h e s a m e c l a u s a l p e r i p h e r y . J a c o b s e t a l. (1994) n o t e t h a t
t h i s f e a t u r e i s s h a r e d w i t h m a n y l a n g u a g e s o f e a s t e r n E u r o p e a n d s o m a y b e a n a r e a l
476 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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t h i s f e a t u r e i s s h a r e d w i t h m a n y l a n g u a g e s o f e a s t e r n E u r o p e , a n d s o m a y b e a n a r e a lf e a t u r e . T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s n o t f o u n d i n a l l d i a l e c t s o f Y I . T h o s e t h a t d o a l l o w i t d i f f e r
w it h r es pe ct t o w he th er i t i s a ll ow ed i n b ot h d ir ec t a nd i nd ir ec t q ue st io ns , o r o nl y i n
i ndi re c t que s ti ons ( J a cobs 2005: 2 3 1 ; s e e a l s o D i e s i n g 2003).
A r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t i n s t a n c e o f m u l t i p l e q u e s t i o n p h r a s e s i s t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f “ p a r t i a l
W H- mo ve me nt ” i n F R a nd s om e d ia le ct s o f G E, i n w hi ch , i n a q ue st io n c on ta in in g
m ul tip le em bed ded cl au ses , ea ch o f t he cl au ses b eg in s wi th a WH-p hra se . T he
o ne b eg in ni ng t he m os t d ee pl y e mb ed de d c la us e i s t he “ re al ” q ue st io n p hr as e –
t h e o n e w h o s e f o r m i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e g a p i n t h a t c l a u s e . E a c h o f t h e h i g h e r c l a u s e s
i n t u r n b e g i n s w i t h a d u m m y o r p l a c e h o l d e r W H - f o r m , w h i c h i s t y p i c a l l y t h e i n v a r i a n t
que s ti on w or d ‘ w hat ’ .
e mb ed de d p os it io ns i n t he n or th er n d ia le ct s o f G E, i n w hi ch t he d ir ec t f ro nt in g o f
a rg u me n t q u es t io n p h ra s es o u t o f f i ni t e c l au s es i s p r oh i bi t ed .
I n a d d i t i o n t o a l t e r n a t i v e q u e s t i o n s a n d s p e c i f i c a t i o n q u e s t i o n s t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 477
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I n a d d i t i o n t o a l t e r n a t i v e q u e s t i o n s a n d s p e c i f i c a t i o n q u e s t i o n s , t h e G M C l a n g u a g e sa l s o e x h i b i t w h a t w e m a y t e r m “ c o n f i r m a t i o n ” q u e s t i o n s o r “ t a g ” q u e s t i o n s , i n w h i c h a
d e cl a ra t iv e s t at e me n t i s m a de , f o ll o we d b y a n i n te rr o ga t iv e c o di c il , o r “ t ag , ” w hi c h
i n vi t es t h e h e ar e r t o c o nf i rm t h e c o rr e ct n es s o f t h e p r op o si t io n . T a g q u es t io n s h a ve a
d i f f e r e n t s h a p e i n E N t h a n e l s e w h e r e i n G M C . I n E N , t h e t a g c o n s i s t s o f a c o p y o f t h e
a u xi l ia r y o f t h e m a in c l au s e ( a d u mm y a u xi l ia r y do b e i n g s u p p l i e d i f t h e m a i n c l a u s el a c k s a n a u x i l i a r y ) a n d a p r o n o m i n a l c o p y o f t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e m a i n c l a u s e . A c l a u s a l
n eg at or m ay b e i nc lu de d o r n ot , d ep en di ng o n t he d eg re e o f t he s pe ak er ’s c er ta in ty
a b ou t t h e t r ut h o f t h e p r op o si t io n :
(6.154) a. You saw him, didn’t you? / (So) you saw him, did you?
T h e s e “ c o p y t a g s ” a r e n o t s h a r e d b y t h e o t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s , a n d , i n d e e d , s e e m t o
b e r es tr ic te d t o E N a nd t he C el ti c l an gu ag es . O th er G MC l an gu ag es u se t he m or e
c om mo n d ev ic e o f a n i nv ar ia nt t ag e le me nt . S om e l an gu ag es h av e t ag s o f d if fe re nt
p o la r it y , d e pe n di n g o n t h e e x pe c te d a n sw er ( 6 .1 5 4e , f ) .
478 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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6 .5 .3 T op ic c on st ru ct io ns a nd l ef t d i s lo ca ti on c on st ru ct io ns
T h e G M C l a ng u ag e s e x hi b it t w o o t he r c o ns t ru c ti o n t y pe s b e si d es r el a ti v e c l au s es a n dW H- Qu es ti on s o f t he f or m X Pi [S] i n w hi ch a p hr as e ( ty pi ca ll y b ut n ot n ec es sa ri ly a
N P ) i s f o l l o w e d b y a c l a u s e . T h e s e a r e T o p i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d L e f t - D i s l o c a t i o n ( L D )
c o n s t r u c t i o n s . I n b o t h o f t h e s e , t h e l e f t w a r d X P i s u n d e r s t o o d t o e s t a b l i s h t h e t o p i c o f
t he f ol lo wi ng c la us e, w hi ch i n t ur n i s a s ta te me nt a bo ut t ha t t op ic . T he m os t o bv io us
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o i s t h a t t h e r e i s a g a p i n t h e t o p i c c o n s t r u c t i o n b u t n o t i n t h e
l e f t - di s l oc a t i on c ons t r uc t i on, w hi c h i ns t e a d c ont a i ns a r e s um pt i ve pr onoun unde r s t ood
t o r ef e r b a ck t o t h e l e ft w ar d c o ns t it u en t .
(6.155) a. Those books I refuse to read
b . T h o s e b o o k s , I r e f u s e t o r e a d t h e m
I n ( 6 .1 5 5b ) , t h e r es u mp t iv e p r on o un i s i t se l f n o t d i sp l ac e d l e ft wa r d, b u t a p pe ar s i n
t h e p o si t io n i n t h e c l au s e a p pr o pr i at e t o i t s g r am m at i ca l r o le . T h is t y pe ( t he ‘ Ha n gi n g
T o p i c ’ L D - c o n s t r u c t i o n ( H T L D ) ) i s t h e o n l y t y p e t h a t e x i s t s i n E N , b u t w e w i l l s h o r t l y
b e c o n t r a s t i n g i t w i t h a n o t h e r t y p e w h i c h p r e v a i l s i n o t h e r G M C l a n g u a g e s . T h e r e a r e
o th er w el l- kn ow n d if fe re nc es b et we en T op ic c on st ru ct io ns a nd L D c on st ru ct io ns .
S e e Z a en e n 1994 f or s om e d is cu ss io n o f t he se . A mo ng o th er t hi ng s, t op ic p hr as es
a nd l ef t- di sl oc at ed p hr as es s ee m t o b e i n d if fe re nt p os it io ns . T he f or me r, b ut n ot t he
l a t t er , a r e i nc ompa t i bl e w i t h que s ti on phr as e s .
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S u ch d i ff er e nc es h a ve l e d s o me i n ve s ti g at o rs t o a n a n al y si s u n de r w h ic h t h e l e ft w ar d
p h r a s e s i n L D c o n s t r u c t i o n s a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t h a t p o s i t i o n , w h e r e a s T o p i c p h r a s e s a r e
m ov ed t o t he ir p os it io n b y t he s am e s or t o f o pe ra ti on w hi ch f ro nt s Q ue st io n p hr as es .
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 479
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C on so na nt w it h t hi s c la im ed d if fe re nc e i n d er iv at io n a re a n um be r o f o th er d if fe r-
en ces b et wee n t he two wh ic h h av e b ee n d isc uss ed g en eral ly u nde r t he la bel o f
“ co n ne c te d ne s s p h en o me n a. ” T o pi c p h ra s es b e ha v e i n a n u mb e r o f r e sp e ct s i n w ay s
ap pro pri at e t o t he p os it io n o f t he g ap – t he t wo p os it io ns a re t hu s “ co nn ec te d,”
w he re as ( Ha ng in g T op ic ) L D c on st ru ct io ns d o n ot e xh ib it s uc h c on ne ct ed ne ssb et we en t he l ef tw ar d N P a nd t he r es um pt iv e p ro no un . S o, f or e xa mp le , i n l an gu ag es
w i t h m o r p h o l o g i c a l c a s e , N P T o p i c s e x h i b i t t h e c a s e a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e
g ap , w he re as H an gi ng T op ic s i n H TL D c on st ru ct io ns a pp ea r i n n om in at iv e c as e
r eg ar dl es s o f t he c as e o f t he r es um pt iv e p ro no un , a s i n ( 6. 15 7b ). S im il ar c on ne ct ed -
n e ss e ff e ct s , i n vo l vi n g p r on o un i n te rp r et a ti o n, i d io m c h un k s a n d q u an t if i er s c op e , a re
d is cu ss ed i n Z ae ne n 1985, 1994, Vat 1994 a nd van Riemsdijk (1994) and the
r e fe r e nc e s c i t ed t he r e.
H o w e v e r , t h e G M C l a n g u a g e s o t h e r t h a n E N e x h i b i t a s e c o n d t y p e o f L D c o n s t r u c -
t io n, f ir st l ab el ed b y Z ae ne n “ Co nt ra st iv e L ef t D is lo ca ti on ( CL D) ,” w hi ch h as a n
i nt er es ti ng t en de nc y t o p at te rn w it h T op ic c on st ru ct io ns , r at he r t ha n H TL D c on -
s tr uc ti on s, w it h r es pe ct t o c on ne ct ed ne ss p ro pe rt ie s. I n t he C LD c on st ru ct io n, t he
r es um pt iv e p ro no un d oe s n ot a pp ea r i n i ts u su al p os it io n i n t he c la us e, b ut a t t he l ef t
e d ge o f t h e c l au s e, a d ja c en t t o t h e L D c o ns t it u en t . S o me t im e s t h e f r on t ed r es u mp t iv e
e l em e nt a s su m es t h e s a me f o rm a s a r e la t iv e p r on o un .
S u ch c o nt r as t s i n c a se c o nn e ct e dn e ss a re s u pp o rt e d b y p a ra l le l c o nt r as t s i n vo l vi n g
r ef le xi ve s a nd r ec ip ro ca ls , f or e xa mp le ( th ou gh t he c on tr as ts a re o ft en n ot s ha rp
( c f. v a n R i em s di j k 1994: 7 )). T hu s, th e L D p hras e i n t he I C CL D in (6 .1 58 b) c ani fl i h i d d d i h bj f h f ll i l
480 6 Th e s yn ta x o f t he c la us e
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c o nt a in a r e fl e xi v e, w h os e i n te n de d a n te ce d en t i s t h e s u bj e ct o f t h e f o ll o wi n g c l au s e.
O n t he o th er h an d, t he L D p hr as e i n t he H TL D c on st ru ct io n c an no t ( 6. 15 8c ). S im il ar
c o nt r as t s a r e f o un d i n o t he r l a ng u ag e s ( s ee V at 1994 f o r D U a n d G E ) .
T h e H T L D t y p e o f L D c o n s t r u c t i o n a p p e a r s t o b e d i s t r i b u t e d w i d e l y a c r o s s l a n g u a g e s .
T he CL D co ns tru ct io n, o n t he o th er h an d, i s m ore res tri ct ed . Am on g We ste rn
E ur op ea n l an gu ag es , i t s ee ms t o b e l im it ed t o G MC , t ho ug h i t h as b ee n n ot ed t ha tw i th r e sp e ct t o c o nn e ct e dn e ss p h en o me n a i t r es e mb l es a n ot h er t y pe o f L D , t h e C l it i c
L D c on st ru ct io n, f ou nd i n o th er E ur op ea n l an gu ag es . S ee t he p ap er s i n A na gn os to -
poulou e t a l. 1994 f o r d et ai ls . B ot h H TL D a nd C LD c on st ru ct io ns a re f ou nd i n e ar ly
G M C l a ng u ag e s, a s t h e f o ll o wi n g e x am p le s f ro m O E i l lu s tr a te :
a t t r a c t i o n w h e n i t a p p e a r s i n t h e G r e e k m o d e l f o r t r a n s l a t i o n ( G r i m m 1857: 4 1 2 ) . T h e
f o ll o wi n g e x am p le i s r e pr es e nt a ti v e. I n t h e G re e k v e rs i on , ‘ s to n e’ i s a cc u sa t iv e .
6 . 5 R e l at i ve c l au s es , q u es t io n s a n d o t he r f r on t in g c o ns t ru c ti o ns 481
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R E F E R E N C E S
296631
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A b ra h a m, W e r ne r . 1 9 89 . F u tu r - Ty p ol o gi e i n d e n g e r ma n i sc h en S p ra c he n . I n W e rn e r A b ra h a m
a n d T h eo J a n ss e n, e d s ., T e m p u s -A s p e k t- M o d u s: D i e l e x i ka l i s ch e n u n d g r a m ma t i s ch e n
Formen in den germanischen Sprachen. Tub i n ge n : M a x N i em e y er . 3 4 5– 3 9 0.
1991. D i s c o u r s e P a r t ic l e s. A m st e r da m : J o hn B e nj a m in s .1 9 95 . A d je k t iv r ek t i on . I n W e r ne r A b ra h am , e d ., D e u ts c h e S y n t a x i m S p r a c he n v e r gl e i c h.
Tub i n ge n : G u nt e r N a rr . 2 4 1– 2 8 0.
1 9 97 . T h e I n te r d ep e nd e nc e o f C a se , A s pe c t a n d R e fe r e nt i a li t y i n t h e H i st o r y o f G e rm a n : T h e
C a s e o f t h e V e r b a l G e n i t i v e . I n A n s v a n K e m e n a d e a n d N i g e l V i n c e n t , e d s . , P a r a me t e r s o f
Morphosyntactic Change. C a mb r i dg e : C a mb r i dg e U n in v er s it y P r es s . 2 9 –6 1 .
2 0 00 . M o da l P a rt i c le s i n G e rm a n: W o rd C l a ss i f ic a t io n a n d L e ga c y b e y on d
G r a m m a t i c a l i z a t i o n . I n P e t r a V o g e l a n d B e r n a r d C o m r i e , e d s . , A p p ro a ch e s t o t h e T y po l og yo f W o rd C l as s es. B e rl i n : M o u t o n d e G r uy t er . 3 2 1– 3 5 0.
2 0 01 a . P e cu l i ar i t ie s o f V e rb a l C l as s e s i n G e rm a n, P a rt i c ul a r ly i n R e la t i on t o E n gl i s h a n d
D u t c h . I n S h e i l a W a t t s e t a l. , e d s . , Z u r V e r b m o r p h o l o g i e g e r m a n i s c h e r S p r a c h e n . Tubingen:
M a x N i em e y er . 8 3 –1 1 6.
2 00 1b . H ow F ar D oe s S em a nt i c B le ac h in g G o? I n J an T er j e F aa rl u nd , e d. , Grammatical
Relations in Change. A m st e r da m : J o hn B e nj a m in s . 1 5 –6 4 .
A b ra h a m, W e r ne r a n d T h eo J a n ss e n, e d s. 1 9 89 . T e m p u s- A s p ek t - M o du s : D i e l e x i ka l i s ch e n u n d
g r am m at i sc h en F o rm e n i n d e n g e r ma n is c he n S p ra c h en. Tub i ng e n : M a x N i em e y er .
A b ra h a m, W e r ne r a n d A n ko W i e ge l . 1 9 93 . R e du k ti o n sf o r me n u n d K a su s s yn k re t i sm u s b e i
A n ag n os t o po u l ou , E l en a , H e nk v a n R i e ms d ij k a n d F r a ns Z w ar t s , e d s . 1 9 94 . M a te r ia l s o n L e ft
Dislocation. A m s te r d am : J o hn B e nj a m in s .
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