the gender revolution: uneven and stalled€¦ · the gender revolution: uneven and stalled paula...
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The Gender Revolution:
Uneven and Stalled
Paula England
New York University
Examine trends with an eye to
• Whether women change more than men
• Whether change is continuous or stalling
• What the trends mean
Asymmetric Gender Change
• Women enter “men’s” domains more than men enter “women’s” domains
– Both $ rewards and cultural approval discourage men’s change (men’s domains rewarded more)
– $ Rewards encourage women to change (although there is some cultural backlash)
% of Men and Women Employed, 1962-2007
Source: Cotter et al. http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/endofgr/default.html using CPS data, age 25-54
% of Men and Women Who Majored in Business, 1971-2006
Source: Author’s calculations from National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Denominator is all men or all women getting Bachelors degrees in the year.
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Women
Men
Pe
rce
nt o
f M
en
or
Wo
me
n
% of Men and Women Who Majored in English, 1971-2006
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Men
Women
Pe
rce
nt o
f M
en
or
Wo
me
n
Source: Author’s calculations from National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Denominator is all men or all women getting Bachelors degrees in the year.
% of Men and Women Who Majored in Elementary Education, 1971-2006
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Women
Men
Pe
rce
nt o
f M
en
or
Wo
me
n
Source: Author’s calculations from National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). Denominator is all men or all women getting Bachelors degrees in the year.
Is Change Stalling? (Yes)
• On many indicators, change has slowed down
% of Men and Women Employed, 1962-2007
Source: Cotter et al. http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/endofgr/default.html using CPS data, age 25-54
Women’s Share of Degrees, 1950-2007
Source: Author’s calculations from Digest of Education Statistics, 2008. Table 268.--Earned degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by level of degree and sex of student: 1869-70 to 2017-18, Digest of Education Statistics, 2001. Table 247.--Earned degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by level of degree and sex of student: 1869-70 to 2010-11. First professional degrees include M.D., J.D., M.B.A., DD.S.
Pe
rce
nt F
em
ale
0%
50%
100%
1950 1965 1971 1977 1983 1989 1995 2001 2007
Bachelors
Masters
1st Professional
Doctorate
Perc
ent of degre
es g
oin
g to w
om
en
Segregation of Fields of Bachelor’s Degrees, 1971 - 2006
Ind
ex o
f D
issi
mila
rity
(D
)
Source: Author’s calculations from National Center for Education Statistics (http://nces.ed.gov/). D (index of dissimilarity) calculated on >400 fields.
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Segregation of Fields of Doctoral Degrees, 1971 - 2006
Ind
ex o
f D
issi
mila
rity
(D
)
Source: Author’s calculations from National Center for Education Statistics (http://nces.ed.gov/). D (index of dissimilarity) calculated on >400 fields.
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
% of All Doctoral Degree Recipients Who Were Women in Selected Large Fields, 1971-2006
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006
Perc
ent
Fem
ale
Psychology
Education
Sociology
Biology
All fields combined
History
Pol. Science
Economics
Math
Physics
Elec. Engineering
Occupational Segregation, 1972-2009
Source: IWPR Briefing Paper #C377, 2010. Civilian labor force.
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
1972 1976 1980 1984 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 2008
Ind
ex o
f D
issi
mila
rity
(D
)
Source: IWPR Fact Sheet #C350, April 2011. Data for full-year workers.
Gender Earnings Gap, 1955-2009
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
1955 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Wo
men
's /
Men
's M
edia
n A
nn
ual
Ear
nin
gs
1960 1970 2009
Source: IWPR Fact Sheet #C350, April 2011. Data for full-year workers.
Gender Earnings Gap, 1955-2009
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
1955 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Wo
men
's /
Men
's M
edia
n A
nn
ual
Ear
nin
gs
1960 1970 2009
Egalitarian Gender Attitudes, 1974-2006
Source: Cotter et al. http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/endofgr/default.html, using General Social Survey, age 16+
What does it all mean?
More Change in Some Things Than Others
• More women employed and in “men’s” jobs
• Few men moved to homemaking or “women’s” jobs
• Little change in the relatively low pay of female jobs; that’s not why pay gap changed
• Less change in gendering of heterosexual matters (e.g. who proposes, changes name)
• Parts of the gender system somewhat “loosely coupled”
Nothing inexorable about change
• Women’s employment plateaued ~1990
• Integration of college majors stopped ~1985
• Desegregation of occupations and closing of sex gap in pay have slowed
• Egalitarian attitudes go up and down
• Trends don’t follow who is in political power
• Low hanging fruit has been picked
Thanks for your attention
-2.00
-1.80
-1.60
-1.40
-1.20
-1.00
-0.80
-0.601
96
8
197
1
197
4
197
7
198
0
198
3
198
6
198
9
199
2
199
5
199
8
200
1
200
4
200
7
Employment
Labor Force Participation
Fulltime Employment
Source: Cotter et al. http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/endofgr/default.html using CPS, married parents age 25-54
Gender Gaps in Employment-Related Measures for Married Parents, 1968-2007
Gender
diffe
rence
in log o
dds
% of Women in Labor Force, as a % of % of Men in Labor Force, by Education, 1950-2000
Wo
me
n’s
% /
Me
n’s
%
Source: Cotter et al. http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/endofgr/default.html using 2000 Census PUMS 5%, ages 25-54.
-1.75
-1.50
-1.25
-1.00
-0.75
-0.50
-0.25
0.00
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
College Grad
Some College
HS grad
HS dropout
Gender Gap in Employment by Education, 1964-2007
Source: Cotter et al. http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/endofgr/default.html using CPS, age 25-54
Diffe
ren
ce
in
lo
g o
dd
s o
f e
mp
loym
en
t
-2.25
-2.00
-1.75
-1.50
-1.25
-1.00
-0.75
-0.50
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
College Grad
Some College
HS grad
HS dropout
Gender Gap in Employment by Education for Married Parents, 1968-2007
Source: Cotter et al. http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/endofgr/default.html using CPS, married parents age 25-54
Diffe
ren
ce
in
lo
g o
dd
s o
f e
mp
loym
en
t
Gender Gap in Employment, 1962-2007
-1.4
-1.2
-1.0
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Diffe
ren
ce in log
od
ds o
f em
plo
ym
en
t
Source: Cotter et al. http://www.bsos.umd.edu/socy/vanneman/endofgr/default.html using CPS, age 25-54