The Gender Regime of the US

The Gender Regime of the US Definition of Gender Regime:

the beliefs, customs, social structures, laws and institutions that structure women (and men’s) participation in civil society, the economy, and the state (Brunell, Lecture Notes, “Intro to Gender Regimes”).

The Gender Regime of the US This presentation will discuss women’s status and roles in

each of the three spheres comprising a Gender Regime: Civil Society the Economy the State (Politics)

The Gender Regime of the USCivil Society Civil Society comprises the individual, family, groups (both formal and informal) Women play important and often under recognized roles in US Civil Society They are engines of social capital formation through their work in informal social

networks They are social activists and political entrepreneurs And, they are central figures in American families; in fact, nearly one-fourth of

American children grow up in mother-only households (http://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/famsoc1.asp)

The Gender Regime of the USCivil Society: Religion

American women’s roles in family and society have been significantly shaped by beliefs and values of America’s predominant

religion: Christianity

Religion in US 2001

Christian77%

Other4%

No Religion14%

Refused5%

The Gender Regime of the USReligion: Christianity

The first settlers of the US were Protestant Christians seeking freedom to practice their version of Christianity

The Founders of the American Republic were Christians who espoused their belief in god and saw him as the source of “man’s inalienable rights”

Thus, while American society has in some ways grown more secularized over time, the American Republic has been profoundly shaped by Christian beliefs and practices

The Gender Regime of the USReligion: Christianity

Christianity posits that the world was created by an omnipotent, omniscient god

While most theologians describe the Christian god as being “genderless” or “beyond gender,” most Christians refer to god as “He” and “God, the Father”

The Gender Regime of the USReligion: Christianity

Most Christian denominations also deny women full participation in the church by refusing to ordain them or allow them to play pastoral or sacramental roles

For these and many other theological reasons, many feminists refer to Christianity as a patriarchal religion

The Gender Regime of the USPatriarchy Patriarchy is defined as:

1: social organization marked by the supremacy of the father in the clan or family, the legal dependence of wives and children, and the reckoning of descent and inheritance in the male line; broadly : control by men of a disproportionately large share of power (Merriam-Webster On-line, http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/patriarchy).

The US qualifies as a patriarchal society in that Property, inheritance and family name were exclusively male rights until the latter part of the 20th Century. Even today, the male-headed family is the cultural ideal and legal norm. Female-headed families are pathologized; in fact, socially, they do not exist except in the case where there is no male

present in the home.

The Gender Regime of the USEconomy One reason female headed households are of concern is that they are disproportionately

poor.

This is partially explained by the fact that these households are surviving on one income.

However, it also reflects the undervaluing of women’s labor, the concentration of women in the lowest paying jobs and professions, and the ways that women’s responsibility for child rearing disadvantage their work force participation.

The Gender Regime of the USMotherhood

Before going any further, we need to address an issue that has been raised by the presentation thus far.

That is: the apparent conflation of women with motherhood.

The Gender Regime of the USMotherhood I am not arguing that to be a mother is to be quintessentially female, or that all women become mothers. It is true, however, that at least 80% of all American women DO become mothers during their lifetimes (

http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/fertility.html). And that motherhood has a significant negative impact on their lifetime earnings (Crittenden, The Price of

Motherhood, pp.88-93). It is also a fact that women are often viewed as “potential mothers” affecting the way they are perceived

by employers (“We shouldn’t hire her; she’s just going to go off and get pregnant and leave us holding the bag.”) and many people in society (“Women shouldn’t be in combat because they are somebody’s mother.”)

The Gender Regime of the USEconomy

In 2006, American women earned 81% of men’s wages. They worked an average of 36 hours/wk (compared to

men’s 42). Among married heterosexual couples, women

contributed only 35 percent of the family income in 2005.

Yet, 25.5% of women in two earner heterosexual couples earned more than the men (2005).

Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics. Women in the Labor Force: A Databook (2007 Edition). Available at: http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook2007.htm

The Gender Regime of the USPolitics

Women are under-represented in US politics The US ranks below the OECD average for the percentage of

women in its national parliamentPercentage of parliamentary seats held by women

2005 or latest year availablePourcentage de sièges parlementaires détenus par des

femmes

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

TURJPNHUNITAFRAGRCIRLKORUSASVKCZEGBRPOLCANPRTLUXOECDMEXAUSCHEDEUNZLISLAUTBELESPNLDDNKFINNORSWE

The Gender Regime of the USPolitics Women comprise a higher percentage

of state and local officials in the US. In 2008, women comprised 23.8% of

all statewide elective executive offices across the country (still below the 30% goal set by the UN and found be “critical mass” for having an impact.)

In State Legislature in 2008, women comprised 23.7% of state legislators in the United States.

Since 1971, the number of women serving in state legislatures has more than quintupled.

Source: Center for American Women and Politics, Eagleton Institute, Rutgers University. http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/Facts.html#elective

The Gender Regime of the USSummary

Regime Type Ideals Dominant Religion(s) Ideals for Women Description of the Gender Regime

Christian Individualist Regime

Individual Freedom (from government) The Legal Protection of Private Property (the pursuit of happiness, the fruits of one’s labors) Strong separation between Public and Private Spheres Equal Opportunity Choice Belief in god Self-Reliance “The Lord helps those who help themselves”

Christianity Protestants more numerous overall, but Catholics single largest Christian denomination Women are excluded from Catholic and most Protestant church hierarchies, but are ordained in some faiths/sects (Presbyterian, Reform Judaism, e.g.) Many women are active in other forms of spirituality, e.g. New Age, paganism, Native American spiritual practices.

Women and girls are encouraged to develop stereotypically feminine traits and talents (e.g., passivity, being good listeners, working cooperatively, putting others’ interest ahead of their own). Competitive, assertive and successful women are often pathologized and criticized for not being feminine enough. Women must always maintain a youthful appearance. Motherhood is seen as “women’s most important job.”

Few formal/legal barriers to gender equality exist. Yet, “the glass ceiling” is still in effect as women’s dual roles as mothers and workers makes it less likely to have the freedom to work long and irregular hours demanded in high status jobs. Women are significantly underrepresented in the upper echelons of corporate governance and in national politics and policy-making. Women are concentrated in few occupations and these are the most poorly paid. Market mechanisms are preferred; gender inequalities are seen as the result of "private" or individual choices;

Reproductive labor not recognized as contribution to society/economy - merely a personal choice, lifestyle.

The Gender Regime of the USSources

Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2007. Women in the Labor Force: A Databook (2007 Edition). Available at: http://www.bls.gov/cps/wlf-databook2007.htm

Center for American Women and Politics. 2008. “Women in Elective Office 2008.” Center for American Women and Politics. Eagleton Institute. Rutgers University. Available at: http://www.cawp.rutgers.edu/Facts.html#elective

Crittenden, Ann. 2001. The Price of Motherhood: Why the Most Important Job in the World Is Still the Least Valued. New York: Henry Holt & Co.

The Gender Regime of the USSources

Dye Lawler, Jane. 2005. Fertility of American Women: June 2004. Current Population Reports. US Department of Commerce. Department of Labor. US Census Bureau. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. Available at: http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/fertility.html

Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. 2007. America's Children: Key National Indicators of Well-Being, 2007. Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Available at: http://www.childstats.gov/americaschildren/index.asp

Merriam-Webster On-line. 2008. Entry for Patriarchy. Accessed June 10, 2008. Available at: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/patriarchy

The Gender Regime of the USSources

U.S. Census Bureau. 2008. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2008. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office. Available at: http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2008edition.html