the evolution of an emblem: the arm & hammer by kim munson

8/13/2019 The Evolution of an Emblem: the Arm & Hammer By Kim Munson

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DraftPleasedonotciteorreproduceanythingfromthispaperwithoutpermissionfromtheauthor.TheEvolutionofanEmblem:theArm&Hammer

ByKimMunson,presentedattheSWTXPCA/ACAconference2010.

Thearm&hammer,adynamicsymbolcomprisedofamuscularmalearmgraspingahammer,implying

theactionofstrikingananvil,hasbeenarecognizedemblemoflabor,skillandthebenefitsthatcome

fromhonesthardworkforcenturies. Itwassuchaubiquitousemblemoflaborthatitwasincorporated

intotheWisconsinstateflagin1848.In1904,itbecametheofficialemblemoftheSocialistPartyof

America,andforthisandotherreasons,itsubsequentlyfelloutofgeneraluseinUSunionlabels.Itis

nowbestknownasChurch&DwightscommercialtrademarkforArm&Hammerbakingsoda.

Manyculturesaroundtheworldhadmythsandcustomsrelatedto

fire,hammersorhammergods. Asweareinvestigatingasymbol

predominatelyusedinEuropeandtheUnitedStates,Iwillconfinethis

mythologicalexploration

to

Western

legends

and

symbolism,

beginningwiththehammeritself,whichhasmanysymbolic

meanings.Traditionally,itrepresentsstrengthandmalecreative

destructivepower. Oneofthebestknownwieldersofthispowerwas

theNorsegodThorwithhisgreatstonehammer,whowasnotonly

equatedwiththedestructiveforceoflightningandthunder,buthe

wasalsoconsideredtheguardianofMidgard(Earth)andagodof

fertility. IntheGrecoRomanworldthehammergodwascalled

Hephaestus(Greek,meaningfire)orVulcan(Roman,meaning

volcano),thegodoffire,theforgeandskilledcrafts. Becauseofthis,

Vulcan,unlike

Thor,

was

often

portrayed

in

the

visual

arts

as

a

blacksmithstrikingananvilwithahammer.i Vulcanandhiscreations

haveplayedanimportantroleinmanyclassicalepictales,likethis

scenefromTheIliadillustratedbytheItalianpainterandarchitect

GiulioRomano(figure2),whichfeaturesVulcanforgingthearmorof

theGreekheroAchilles,asAchillesmotherThetislookson(noticethe

positionofVulcansarm). AsimilarscenefromTheAeneid,depicting

VulcanforgingthearmoroftheTrojan/RomanheroAeneasasthe

herosmotherVenuslooksonwasalsoapopularartistictheme,as

wellasotherscenessetinVulcansforgeandworkshop.Figures1&2Engravingofthearm&

hammer

emblem

from

amid

1800'stypefoundersspecimen

book,asreproducedinHornung's

HandbookofEarlyAmerican

AdvertisingArt(top).VulcanForging

ArmourforAchillesbyGiulioRomano

(14921546/Italian),PalazzoDucale,

Mantua.

Firealsohasasymbolictraditionofitsown. Likethehammer,itis

consideredamalecreativedestructiveforce. Oftenthoughtofasa

godlikelivingelementinitsownright,firecansignifyrenewal(the

Phoenix),theHolySpirit(thefireofGod)orpurification(trialbyfire).

Firecanbeaprotectiveelement,forexamplefireisoneofthe

attributesoftheArchangelMichael,thegreatwarriorwhodefeated


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Satanandisalsobelievedtobeaprotectiveguardianagainstevil. TheRomansbelievedthatsacrificing

smallanimalstoVulcanwouldhelpprotectthemfromvolcaniceruptions. Aswewillexploreinthenext

section,thediscoveryandnurturingoffirewasoneofearlyhumankindsmostimportant

breakthroughs,andthedivineskillofVulcan,asthepersonificationoffire,iscreditedwithinstigating

manyoftheinnovationsthatdevelopedfromthatevent.

ThegraphicsignthatgraduallycametosymbolizethebeneficentconnotationsoftheVulcanmythand

theattributesoffire,thearm&hammer,hasalongandcomplexhistory.Beginningwithitsrootsin

Greek/Romanmythology,theVulcanmythwasfurtherdefinedbytheartandliteratureofRenaissance

Italy,referencedintheheraldryofthetradeguildsofLondon,andlaterservedasaninspirationforthe

emblemsofthelabororganizationsthatsprangupinthenewlyindependentUnitedStates. Thestoryof

thisemblemincludestheMasons,theSocialistLaborParty,andtheuseweseemostcommonlytoday,

theArm&Hammerbakingsodatrademark. ThisisthetrailIwillfollow,asIattempttotracethe

meaningsandoriginofthissymbol,andthesocialandpoliticalconnotationsthatultimatelyhavelimited

itsuseasasymboloflaborunity.

LaborBuildsCivilizationtheVulcanMyth

SingofHephaistos,famedforhisskill,clearvoicedmuse,ofhimwhowithbrighteyedAthene

taughtgloriouscraftstomenonearth,whoaforetimelivedincaveslikewildbeasts.

Homer(Panovsky193738,18)

Asdiscussedearlier,thestoryofthearm&

hammeremblembeginswiththeGrecoRoman

mythofHephaestus(Greek,meaningfire)or

Vulcan(Roman,

meaning

volcano),

the

god

of

fire,theforgeandskilledcrafts. Vulcan,an

unwantedchild,iscastoutofOlympusbyhis

mother,Hera.Hefallsthroughtheskyand

breakshislegashecrashesontheislandof

Lemnos. Thedazedchildisfoundbythe

nymphs,whoadopthim,treathimwithgreat

kindness,andraisehimastheirown.ii Ashe

matures,hiscreativevigorhelpshumansto

tamefire(muchliketheGreektitan

Prometheus),teaches

them

skilled

crafts

like

smithingandcarpentry,todomesticateanimals,

andtodeveloplanguage.Asistrueofmostof

thesemyths,therearemanyvariationstothe

story,butthegistofitisfairlyconsistent.No

Figure2 PierodiCosimo(14561522),VulcanandAeolus

c.1490,oilandtemperaoncanvas,155.5x166.5cm

NationalGalleryofCanada,Ottawa.


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matterthedetails,heisalwaysexiledfromOlympus,raisedwellinthemortalworld,andbecomesa

zealousworkerdivinelyinspiredtomakethingsthathelphumanity. Essentially,thismythdescribesthe

dawnofcivilization,builtonthefoundationofskilledlaborandhardwork.

ArthistorianEdwinPanofsky(18921968),inhis1937/8articleTheEarlyHistoryofManinaSeriesof

Paintingsby

Piero

di

Cosimo

explores

the

meaning

and

dissemination

of

the

this

myth

as

the

basis

for

his

interpretationofdiCosimospaintingVulcanandAeolusorVulcanasTeacherofMankind (c.1490,

figure3). Inthispainting,Vulcanisshownworkingattheanvilintherightcorner,inventinghorseshoes

(noticethepositionofhisarm). VulcanisoftenassistedbyAeolus,godofthe4winds,depictedinthis

paintingasthemanwiththebellowssittingnexttoVulcan,creatingabreezetokeepthefirehot.

WewillsoonreturntoalltheotherallegoricalfiguresindiCosimospainting,butfirstitshelpfulto

understandthecontexttheartistmighthavebeenworkingwith. Inanefforttoidentifywhichversions

ofthemythwereavailabletotheartistasareference,Panofsky,ascholarwhohadwrittenextensively

onthemesofclassicalmythologyinmedievalart,pointsoutthatmanyRenaissancescholarsbasedtheir

writingsnotonprimarysourcetextsbyGreekandRomanauthors,butonmorecontemporary

encyclopedias,inwhichthemythswereoftenreinterpretedwithamoreChristianslant. Inthiscontext,

theVulcanmyth,whichdeviatesfromtheBiblicalstoryofAdamsaccomplishmentsintheGardenof

Eden(namingallthings,etc),wassomewhatcontroversial. Panofskydiscussesmanydifferent

accountsoftheVulcanstorybeforesettlingontheversionincludedinGiovanniBoccaccios(1313

1375)GenealogiaDeorum(OntheGenealogyoftheGodsoftheGentiles,firstpublishedinVenicein

1472)thathefeltreallyexpressedthemeaningbehinddiCosimospainting,andIbelieve,theversion

thathelpedestablishthedeeperconnotationsofthelaterarmandhammersymbol. Attemptingto

explaintherealitybehindthemyth,BoccaccioequatesthebringingupofVulcan,thegodoffireandhis

subsequentaccomplishmentswiththediscoveryandnurturingoffireandeverythingthatdeveloped

from

it.

To

help

build

his

case,

Boccaccio

further

breaks

away

from

his

contemporaries

by

including

a

longpassagefromVitruvius:

Intheoldendaysmenwerebornlikewildbeastsinwoodsandcavesandgroves,andkeptalive

byeatingrawfood. Somewhere,meanwhile,theclosegrowntrees,tossedbystormsand

winds,andrubbingtheirbranchestogether,caughtfire. Terrifiedbytheflames,thosewho

werenearthespotfled. Whenthestormsubsided,theydrewnear,and,sincetheynoticedhow

pleasanttotheirbodieswasthewarmthofthefire,theylaidonwood;andthuskeepingitalive,

theybroughtupsomeoftheirfellows,and,indicatingthefirewithgestures,theyshowedthem

theusewhichtheymightmakeofit. Wheninthismeetingofmensoundswerebreathedforth

withdifferingintensity,theymadecustomarybydailyusethesechancesyllables. Then,giving

namestothingsmorefrequentlyused,theybegantospeakbecauseofthisfortuitousevent,

andsotheyheldconversationamongthemselves. Since,thereforefromthediscoveryoffirea

beginningofhumanassociationwasmade,andofunionandintercourse,andsincemanynow

cametogetherinoneplace,beingendowedbynaturewithagiftbeyondthatoftheother

animals,sothattheywalked,notlookingdown,buterect,andsawthemagnificenceofthe

universeandthestars,and,moreover,dideasilywiththeirfingerswhatevertheywished,some

inthatsocietybegantomakeroofsofleaves,othertodigoutcavesunderthehills;some,


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imitatingthenestsandconstructionsoftheswallows,madeplacesintowhichtheymightgoout

ofmudandtwigs. Findingthen,othersheltersandinventingnewthingsbytheirpowerof

thought,theybuiltintimebetterdwellings.(Panovsky193738,16) iii

ByincludingthisvisualizationofearlylifefromoneofRomesgreatarchitects,BoccaccioandPanofsky

tietogether

the

imagined

but

logical

innovations

that

arose

in

the

real

world

from

the

discovery

of

fire

withthemyththatsurroundedthepersonificationoffire(Vulcan)andhiscreations. Inbothstories,the

useoffire/divineskillofVulcanbringaboutinventionswethinkofaskeystonesofcivilization;language,

theformationofsocialunits,andskilledlabor(constructionofbuildings,metalworking).

Withthisconceptinmind,letsreturntothepainting. Compositionally,theviewerseyeis

drawndiagonallyacrossthepaintingfromVulcansarmwiththehammerinthelowerlefthandcorner,

pasttheyouthonhorsebackcuriousaboutthehorseshoes(domesticationofanimals)toabuilderwitha

hammerintheupperright,whosegestureechoesthatofVulcans. Thisestablishesadirect,if

unconscious,linkbetweenVulcan,themaster,andthebuilderinthebackground,afollower. Inthe

myth,Vulcanisdescribedasaobsessiveworker,beginninghislaborbeforedawnandfinishinglatein

theevening. Thesleepingmanintheforegroundofthepaintingcouldbeareferencetothis;Vulcanis

alreadyatworkwhileotherssleep,aswellasthefamilygroupwhoarealreadyawakeandinteracting.

Thegroupcouldsymbolizesocializationandthefamilyingeneral,asthefamilywasthemostimportant

socialunitinRenaissancesociety. Theyaredressedincontemporaryfabrics,andtheyarerepeatedin

frontofasmallhouseinthemidgroundofthepainting,signofpeaceandsafetyinthehome.The

inclusionofalltheanimalsandbirds,bothuntamedanddomesticated,couldbemeanttoshowthatthis

isanearly,Edenlikeera,whentheanimalshavenotyetlearnedtofearhumans.iv

AccordingtotheNationalGalleryofCanadaswebsite(thepresentownersofthepainting),the

profileofVulcanmayhavebeenaportraitofthepatron,FrancescodelPugliese,awealthywool

merchant.vAside

from

the

obvious

interpretation

that

the

fruits

of

Vulcans

labor

brought

about

the

manybenefitsofcivilization,themorepersonalmeaningmayhavebeenthatPuglieseshardwork

buildinghisbusinesswouldnurtureandsupporthisownfamilyforgenerationstocome.

TheVulcanmyth,asexplainedbyBoccaccioandtheotherwrittenresourcesavailableinthisperiod

werewidelyreadanddisseminatedthroughoutEurope. ItismybeliefthatwhilemuchoftheVulcan

storymayhavebeenforgotteninthepresentday,theunderlyingthemeofthebenefitsofskillandhard

workbecameembeddedinthearmandhammersymbolandonsomelevelpeoplestillsubconsciously

understandthisconnotation.

The

Blacksmiths

and

the

Farriers

ArtisansocietiesbegantoforminEnglandasearlyastheeleventhcentury. Thesewerereligious

fraternitiesthatrevolvedaroundworshipofthecraftspatronsaint,providingdeathbenefitsandother

servicestotheirconstituents. Formsofheraldrythatwereoriginallyreservedforfamiliesoftheruling

classbegantobegrantedtotradeguildsinthe1400s,thefirstofwhichwastheDrapersCompany,

whosepatentwasgrantedin1438/9.Theearliestcoatsofarmscontainedmanysymbolsthatreflected

theguildsoriginalreligiousorientation,butbythe1600ssymbolsliketheVirginandtheLambofGod


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hadbeenreplacedbymoresecularemblemscelebratingtheguildsproducts,toolsandgoals. Inthe

artisanmaster/journeyman/apprenticeguildsystem,therewasgreatprideinthetradeandthegroups

selfimageisoftenreflectedinthetoolsandsymbolschosentorepresentthem. Bythistimetheguilds,

especiallythosecenteredinLondon,hadagreatdealofpower. Throughroyalincorporationand

municipalordinance,theywereabletocontrolwagesandpriceswithintheircraftandtoenforce

productstandards.

They

worked

not

only

for

the

benefit

of

their

trade

and

membership,

but

they

also

builtelaboratemeetinghallsandlibraries,andcontributedtocharitableorganizations.

Thearmsusedbytwoguildshelptoshedlightontheevolutionofthearmandhammersymbol:The

WorshipfulCompanyofBlacksmithsandTheWorshipfulCompanyofFarriers.vi Theterminologyofthe

periodissomewhatconfusing,astheFarrierswerethecraftsmenwewouldconsiderblacksmiths,

forginghorseshoesandfunctioningashorsedoctors,andthemembersoftheBlacksmithsGuildwere

artisansthatworkedwithiron,suchasgunsmithsandclockmakers.

Figures3&4 Heraldryofthe

Britishtradeguilds. Thearmsof

TheWorshipful

Company

of

Blacksmiths,1610(left)andThe

WorshipfulCompanyofFarriers,

1591.(Bromley1960,14,19)

Thearmrisingfromthemiddleofthecrestholdingatool,asseenaboveintheFarriersarmswasa

commonmotif;ofthefiftysixcoatsofarmsreproducedinBromley&ChildsTheArmorialBearingsof

theGuildsofLondon,twentytwouseasimilardevicetoshowoffthetoolsoftheirtrade. Although

Bromelyfoundsomeevidenceofearlieruse,thefirstestablisheduseoftheFarriersarmswiththe

descriptiononawreathofthecoloursanarmembowedissuingfromcloudsonthesinistersideall

proper,holdinginthehandahammerazurehandledandcrownedorwasfoundinadocumentfrom

1591intheBritishMuseum.(Bromley1960,867)

TheBlacksmithshadbeenanactiveguildsince1299andwereofficiallyincorporatedin1571. They

were

first

granted

arms

in

1490,

but

the

patent

is

no

longer

extant;

Heather

Childs

illustration

(above)

oftheBlacksmithsarms,featuring threhamoryscrounedorandaphoenixabouttoexplodeinto

flames,isbasedontheirrenewedpatentfrom1610.(Bromley1960,224)TheBlacksmithsmottoBy

HammerandHandAllArtsDoStand,doesseemlikealiteralallusiontotheVulcanmyth,andto

incorporatetheessenceofitsmessageofskilledlaborasafoundationofcivilization.

Thereisnoconfirmedoriginforthismotto. Anecdotally,Ivereadorbeentoldthatthisphraseisa

quotefromtheoldtestamentoraproverbalthoughIvefoundnoevidenceofthis. Onthewebsiteof


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theChokeCherryForge,anactiveartisanblacksmithsshopinCanada,Ifoundafolktaletellingofaking

(unspecified)whonoticesvariouscraftsmenthroughouthisdayandasksthemwheretheygottheir

tools. Oh,wejustgetthemfromtheblacksmith,theyallsaid. FinallytheKingvisitstheblacksmith

andaskshimwhomakeshistools.Theblacksmith,surprisedbythequestionsays,Imadethemall

myself,sire. TheKingobservesthatallartsaredependentontheblacksmithshammer,calling

blacksmithsThe

Kings

of

Craftsmen,

hence

the

motto.

WhiletheideathatthearmandhammerintheFarriersarmsaremeanttoembodythemythofVulcan

creatingcivilizationwithhislaborhasasatisfyingemotionalresonance,butitsprobablethatthiswasa

commonconventionandwassimplytheeasiestwayfortheguildtoidentifytheircraft. Ontheother

hand,wecantignorethevisualsimilarity. Theseguilds,recognizedbythecrown,didfeelthattheir

tradeswerethelifebloodofLondonandthebackboneofcivilsociety.

MechanicsSocietiesintheUnitedStates

Figures5,6&7 TheemblemoftheGeneralSocietyofMechanics&Tradesmen,whichisstillinuse(left). Thesculpted

arm&hammersign,center,thathungoverthedooroftheMechanicsBankonWallStreet,whichopenedin1810,itis

nowondisplayattheGeneralSocietyslibraryat20West44th

Street(photobyStephenAmiaga). Ontheleftisthesealof

theMassachusettsCharitableMechanicAssociation,1865.

ThemechanicssocietiesthatappearedintheUnitedStatesimmediatelyfollowingtherevolutionarywar

carriedontheindependentspiritoftheyoungdemocracy.TheGeneralSocietyofMechanics&

TradesmenoftheCityofNewYorkwasformedin1785,asaresponsetothedisastrousbusinessclimate

causedbyacatastrophicfireandtheendoftheBritishoccupationtwoyearsearlier. MarthaJ.Lamb,

writingon

the

occasion

of

the

Societys

104th

anniversary

in

1889,

described

the

first

meeting

of

the

originalcommitteeoftwentytwotradesmen,whorepresentedawiderangeofskillsincludingasail

maker,ablacksmith,apotter,ashoecrimper,asilversmith,andabellhanger.

Theobjectinviewwasasocietyformutualaidandencouragement,itspecialmission

beingtoassistmembersincaseofsicknessoraccident,andtocareforthewidowsand

orphansofthosewhoshoulddiewithoutproperty. Aconstitutionwasconsidered,


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adopted,andsigned,andTheGereralSocietyofMechanicsandTradesmenoftheCity

of NewYorkstarted inlife.Thiswasacontinuationinamodifiedformofthekindof

institutionthatgrewupwiththedevelopmentofthemechanicartsinthevarious

countriesofEurope,knownbythegeneralnameofguild.(Lamb,1889.90)

Fortheir

emblem,

they

chose

arepresentation

of

the

arm

&

hammer,

similar

to

the

British

Farriers,

but

morerealisticandmuscular,whichtheypairedwiththeBritishBlacksmithsmottoByHammerand

Hand,AllArtsDoStand.Brimmingwithstrengthandvigor,andsurroundedbythelaurelwreath

(victory,achievement),theemblemcombinedthemembersfeelingsofunity,prideandambitionwith

theconnotationsoftheVulcanmyth;skilledlaborandhardworkbuildingcivilization. Quicklygrowing

inmembershipandinfluence,andtheSocietyreceivedacharterofincorporationfromthecityofNew

Yorkin1792.By1803,theGeneralSociety,nowanelitefraternityofwealthymerchantartisans,had

enoughcapitaltoerecttheirownbuildingatBroadwayandParkPlace. In1819,accordingtothe

GeneralSocietyswebsite,theSocietysleadershipsawanimportantsocialneed,andembarkedona

newventure:

InNewYorkatthattimetherewasnopublicschoolsystem. Onlytwofreeschoolsweretobe

foundinthewholecityoneinthealmshouse,andotheropenonlytothechildrenoffreed

slaves. ThustheSocietysawaneedforaschoolforthechildrenofitsmembers,andestablished

theMechanicsInstituteSchool. Itopenedwith70students.Childrenofmemberswere

admittedfreeofcharge,andasmallfeewasrequiredfromallothers. Laterthatsameyearthe

Societyaddedaseparateschoolforgirls,andtheApprenticeslibrary(GeneralSocietywebsite.

aboutus/history).

ThisexperimentputtheSocietywellaheadofthecurve,aspubliceducationwasnotyetanissuethat

attractedacommitmentandresourcesfromthecity. TheSocietyslibrary,intendedtoprovide

meaningfulreading

material

for

young

workers

that

had

no

access

to

books,

was

one

of

the

first

public

librariesinNewYork. TheSocietycontinuedtoinnovate,addinglecturesandothertypesoftraining.

Between1898and1903,SteelbaronAndrewCarnegie(18351919),amemberoftheSociety,financed

anexpansionandotherprojects. Presently,theSocietystillmaintainstheirlibrary,aschoolandan

activeculturalseriesat20West44thStreet,whichhasbeentheirheadquarterssince1899. Thearm&

hammeremblemwasproudlydisplayedattheentrancetotheircemeteryandinalltheSocietys

buildings,andthe44thStreetheadquartersstillhasthesculptedarm(figure6),aflagwiththeemblem

andmottofromtheformationoftheSocietyin1785,andalargearm&hammeronthewalloverthe

mainreadingroomofthelibrary. TheGeneralSocietyepitomizestheessenceoftheVulcanmyth,

helpingpeopletobetterthemselvesthroughtheircraftandeducation,andlayingastrongfoundation

fortheculturalgrowthofthecity.

In1795,shortlyafterintheincorporationoftheGeneralSocietyinNewYork,theMassachusetts

CharitableMechanicsAssociationformedinBoston,withPaulRevereastheirfirstpresident. Theyalso

chosethearm&hammerastheiremblem. Theirversion,whichappearsinthecenterofasunburst

withthemottoBeJustandFearNot,seemssomewhatstylizedcomparedtheGeneralSocietysarm&

hammer.TheaimsoftheMechanicsAssociationweresimilartothoseoftheGeneralSocietys:they


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functionedasabenevolentsocietyandpromotedtrade,theyopenedanApprenticesLibraryin1820

andaschoolformechanicalartsin1829. Althoughthelibraryandschoolclosedin1892and1917,The

MechanicsAssociationmovedtoQuincy,Massachusettsin1988andstillexistsasaculturalinstitution.vii

Other

Mechanics

organizations

sprung

up

around

the

country,

until

the

movement

made

its

way

across

theUStoSanFranciscowiththeestablishmentoftheMechanicsInstitutein1854. Theyalsochosethe

arm&hammerastheiremblem,althoughtheylaterchangedtoalogofeaturingabookopenona

bookstandtoemphasizetheirlibrary,whichisstillvibrantlyactiveinSanFrancisco. Icantsayfor

certainthatallthemechanicsorganizationsthatflourishedintheUSbeforetheCivilWarusedthearm

&hammerastheiremblem,althoughIsuspectmostofthemdid.

Commentingonthistransitoryera,HarryRubinsteinoftheNationalMuseumofAmericanHistory

writes:Muchofthesymbolismusedbytheseearlyorganizationsisrelativelyconservative,reflecting

theirgeneraloutlook. Forthemostpartthesocietiesdidnotmeantochangetheexistingsystem,but

topreserveitagainstthechallengesofadevelopingcapitalisteconomywhichpromisedtotransform

mastersandjourneymenintoemployersandemployees.Insteadofcallingfordramaticchanges,the

graphicsemphasizethetraditionsandcontributionsofartisans.Thesocietiesadoptedsymbolsof

nationalism,industryandcommercetosuggesttheirgoalsandprinciples. Theraisedarmholdinga

hammer,animagewhichconveysthepowerandimportanceofproductivelabor,becamethemost

identifiablesinglesymboltorepresenttheartisanclass,andeventuallytheentireworkingclass.

(Rubenstien.1989.42)viii

TheIconofLabor

Figure8Thetophalfofpage182

ofHorningsHandbookofEarly

Advertising,featuring

5different

versionsofthearm&hammerfor

generalusebyprinters,#14and

7. #3bearsaresemblancetothe

emblemoftheMassachusetts

CharitableMechanicsAssociation

(fig.7)andversion#4hasmany

similaritiestotheoneusedbythe

GeneralSocietyofMechanics&

Tradesmen. Atthebottomofthis

pageweremorecommonlyknown

emblemrepresentingtheElks,

Masons,KnightsofColumbusand

others.


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Inthepostcivilwarperiod,workerswerereelingfromthechangeswroughtbyimmigration,

industrializationandurbanization. Theshiftfromtheartisanworkshoptothefactoryfloorwasnearly

complete,withmostAmericansearningwagesfromamoredistantemployer.TheUSlabormovement,

hopingto

gain

fair

pay,

dignity

and

an

equal

place

at

the

table,

gained

momentum

as

craft

unionism

florished,whiletheinfluentialwritingsofauthorslikeJohnRuskin,WilliamMorrisandGustavStickley,

fathersoftheartsandcraftsmovement,extolledthenoblecraftsmanideal.Alreadywellknownasa

symbolofskilledcraftsmanshipandthebenefitsoflaborthoughitsubiquitoususebytheMechanics

Societies,thearm&hammerquicklybecameasymbolthatcametorepresentthewholeworkingclass.

Thequickadoptionofthesymbolwasaidedbytheinclusionofmyriaddifferentversionsofthearm&

hammerincludedintypefoundersspecimenbookscommonlyusedbyprintersthroughoutthecountry.

ReproducedinClarenceP.HorningsHandbookofEarlyAdvertising (firstpublishedin1947)arefive

differentversionsofthearm&hammer(figure8)whichwerecollectedtogetherwiththeemblemsof

otherorganizationsliketheElks,MasonsandtheKnightsofColumbus.(Hornung1956,182)The

specimenbookswereessentiallytheclipartofthe19thcentury;catalogsoftypefaces,decorative

bordersandwoodengravingsoneverythemeimaginable. Thesewoodcutswouldbeprocessedbya

stereotypewhowouldcastthemintypemetalsotheycouldbereproducedinquantity. Thesewere

soldtoprintersforeverydayuseincitydirectories,advertisingandprivateorders. Idontknowexactly

whenthearm&hammermadeitsfirstappearanceinthespecimenbooks,butusingtheplatesordered

throughthesebookswasacommonpracticeby1820. Itislikelythatthiswidespreaduseoftheseor

similarstockplatesbyprinterscontributedtotheprevalentuseofthearm&hammerasiconoflaborin

general,andtoavisualstandardizationofthedifferentversionsoftheemblem.

Wecansee,forexample,thattheemblemofDistrictAssembly49oftheKnightsofLaborsversionof

thearm

&

hammer

looks

is

very

similar

to

the

one

surrounded

by

the

wreath

commonly

used

by

Socialistorganizations(figure8)reproducedinHorning. AlsoreproducedinHorningisanemblemthat

placesthearmandhammerinthecenterofthesquareandcompasses(figure10). Thisconfigurationof

thesquareandcompasses,usuallyidentifiedwithFreemasonry,belongedtoagroupunaffiliatedwith

theMasons,theJuniorOrderUnitedAmericanMechanics,whoadoptedtheiremblemin1868.ix


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Figures9,10&11TheemblemofDistrictAssembly49,KnightsofLabor(n.d.,left),theemblemoftheJuniorOrderUnited

AmericanMechanics,adopted1868(center),andcentralsealoftheWisconsinstateflag,adopted1848(right).

Perhapsoneoftheclearestsignsanemblemhasachievediconicstatusiswhenitbeginstobe

commonlyused

to

represent

aconstituency

or

class

by

state

and

federal

government.

The

Wisconsin

stateflag(seal,figure11),includedthearm&hammerasasymbolofmanufacturingwhenitwas

adoptedin1848.TheMarchexworldflagdatabaseinterpretstheflagsiconographyasfollows:

Startingatthetopofashieldonadarkbluefieldisthestatemotto"Forward".Belowit

isabadgerthestateanimal.Asailorandminershowthatthepeopleworkonwaterand

land.TheshieldinthecentershowsWisconsin'ssupportfortheUnitedStates.Infour

sectionssurroundingtheshieldarerepresentationsofthestatesmainindustries:

Agriculture,mining,manufacturing(arm&hammer)andnavigation.Thecornucopiaand

pileofleadrepresentfarmproductsandminerals.Theflaglawwasamendedin1979to

includethe

name

of

the

state

and

the

date

of

statehood.

TheWisconsinarm&hammerdoesstronglyresembletheemblemsreproducedinHornung(figure8). I

thinkitsinterestingthatinthiscasethearm&hammerseemstospecificallyrepresentindustrial

production,differentiatedfromotherformsoflabor,suchasmaritimeworkandmining.

Figure12 NationalEight

HourLawproclamation,1869,

fromtheLibraryofCongress,

AmericanMemorycollection.

Anotherprominentuseofthearm&hammerasasymboloftheUSworkingclasswastheEightHour

DayProclamation,issuedbythefederalgovernmentin1869(figure12).Withtheratificationofthisact,

federalemployeeswontheeighthourdaywithoutareductioninpay,signedintolawbythe18th


11/20

munsonpage11

President,UlyssesS.Grant(18081885)andHamiltonFish(18081893),SecretaryofState. Thetextof

theproclamation,withinthecentralstarreads:

I,U.S.Grant,PresidentoftheUnitedStates,doherebydirectthatfromthisdateno

reductionshallbemadeinthewagespaidbythegovernmentbytheday,tosuch

laborers,workers,

&

mechanics

on

account

of

such

reduction

of

the

hours

of

labor.

In

testimonywhereof,&c.,doneattheCityofWashington,this19thDayofMay,theyear

ofourLord,1869&oftheIndependenceoftheUnitedStates.

Thisdocumentisrichwithallegoricalfiguresandiconographydepictedintheeffusive,almostbaroque

styleoftheperiod. Thisversionofthearm&hammerisvisuallyverysimilartotheexampleprovidedby

Horning(figure8). Thearm&hammericonisprominentlypositionedatthebottomcenter

incorporatedintothebaseofawideframe,whereitseemstosupportandbalancetheweightofthe

entirecomposition. Itisbelow,yetonanequalplanewiththeeagleclutchingashieldandlaurel

branchesperchedatthetopcenteroftheproclamation,representingthefederalgovernment.

Containedintheframeimmediatelyabovethearm&hammerisanidealized,almostArcadian

agriculturalscenewiththesea(shipping)andacity(industry)inthedistance. Aroundthearm&

hammer,theframeisinscribedEast;Maryland;California;West,presumablymeaningthatthislabor

utopiaisspreadfromcoasttocoast. Continuingupthecenterofthedocument,theromannumerals

VIIIareshownbetweenaplumbsquare(goodfaith,balance)andabeehive(industry,diligence). Above

thisisthekeytextofthedocument,inthecenterofastar,surroundedbyawreathofolivebranches

(victory,plentyandpeace)and12starsonacircularbackground. Countingthestarinthecenter,there

are13onthecircularfield;reminiscentoftherevolutionaryflagofthe13colonies.

Fillingoutthesidesaretwoallegoricalfigures. ThepersonificationofLabor,themalefigureonthe

right,sitsatrestonananvilwiththehammerathisside,athisfeetarethenamesofallthecontinents

ofthe

world

(the

helmeted

female

figure

on

the

shield

could

be

Minerva),

behind

him

is

an

industrial

scene. TheanchorandthegearnearhimarereminiscentofothergraphicsusedbytheMechanics

SocietiesandthesymbolsusedontheWisconsinstateflag.Betweenthisfigureandthecentralgrouping

arenumeroussymbolsoftheartsandsciences. Thefemalefigureontheleftsideisanallegoryof

Americanabundanceandjustice. Sheweighsthecontributionoflaborandfindshimdeservingof

reward(the8hourday). Behindherisanidealizedlandscape,andbetweenherandthecentral

groupingarepatrioticsymbolsofAmericandemocracy,suchasthelibertybell.

Onthewhole,IthinkthisengravingwasmeanttoexpresstheideathatAmerica,asademocraticlandof

fairnessandbounty,couldaffordtorecognizeLaborsearnedrighttorest. Unfortunately,aperiodof

violencefollowed

as

organized

labor

attempted

to

get

other

US

employers

to

recognize

this

ideal.x

Church&Dwightandthebakingsodaking

Anotheruseofthearm&hammeremblem,whichstartedinthepostcivilwareraandcontinuestothe

present,istheuseoftheemblemasacommercialtrademark. Thistrendcanbeseenonitemssuchas

thisundatedHonestLaborCutPlugtobaccotinusedbytheR.A.PattersonTobaccoCompanyof


12/20

munsonpage12

Richmond,Virginia(figure13),andoneofthemostfamousandenduringtrademarksofthiskind,Arm&

HammerBakingSoda,whichhasbeenfeaturedonChurch&Dwightspackagessince1867(figure14).

Figures13,14&15HonestLaborCutPlugtobaccotin(left,collectionoftheLaborArchivesandResearchCenter,SFSU).The

texton

the

side

reads

you

know

its

good

because

its

manufactured

by

R.A.

Patterson

Tobacco

Company

Richmond,

VA.

Church&CosSoda,1878(center)andJohnDwight&CosCowBrandSoda,1876(right). Thecowimagemayhavealsobeen

anallusiontothecommoncombinationofmilkandsodausedinbaking.(HalMorgan,SymbolsofAmerica,1986.)

Inabrochurepublishedin1996celebratingthe150thanniversaryoftheChurchandDwightCompany,

ChairmanoftheBoardDwightChurchMintontellsthestoryoftheestablishingofthecompanybyhis

familyandtheoriginoftheArm&Hammertrademark:

Dr.AustinChurchwasmygreatgreatgrandfatherwho,in1846,abandonedtwo

decades

of

successful

medical

practice

in

Rochester,

New

York,

to

pursue

a

risky

businesscareerintheroaringhubofNewYorkCity. TherehebuiltthefirstAmerican

factoryforthemanufactureofsodiumbicarbonate,usingaprocesshehadperfectedin

hishobbyofexperimentalchemistry. Untilthen,bakingsoda,alsoknownassaleratus,

wasimportedfromEuropeandwasalreadyagrocerystapleinhighdemand. Joining

himashismarketingpartnerwashisbrotherinlaw,JohnDwight,aMassachusetts

farmer20yearshisjunior.

TheenterprisewasnamedJohnDwight&Company,andtheambitiousfarmerturned

salesmansoldtheproductwithsuchconvictionthathesoonwontheconfidenceofthe

citysgrocerytradeandthebusinessthrived.WhenDr.Churchretired,histwosons

startedtheirownfirm,Church&Co.,in1867,withasodafactorylocatedatGreenpoint,

Brooklyn,NewYork. JamesA.Churchbroughtwithhim,fromhisdefunctVulcanSpice

Mills,theArm&HammerlogodepictingVulcan,themythicalhammerwieldinggodof

fire,andappliedittopackagesofbakingsoda. Meantime,JohnDwight&Company

continuedasaseparatebusiness,andin1876introducedCowBrandBakingSoda,

namedforLadyMaud,aprizewinningJerseycowatthePhiladelphiaCentennial

Exposition. Bothbrandsrepresentedthefinestqualityproductandwereequally


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munsonpage13

popularwithhomemakers.WhenthecompaniesofChurchandDwightwerefinally

mergedin1896toformChurch&DwightCo.,Inc.,thetwologoswerebothfeaturedin

consumeradvertising. Arm&Hammereventuallyedgedahead,anddistributionofCow

Brandwasdiscontinuedin1960.(Church&DwightCo.,Inc.1996,24)

Asweve

seen

in

the

proceeding

chapter,

the

arm

&

hammer

was

already

awidely

known

icon

of

labor

bythetimeitappearedonChurch&Cospackagesin1867.WecanonlyhypothesizewhyChurch,

Patterson,oranyoneelsedecidedtousethearm&hammeremblemasacommerciallogoatthistime.

First,itwasanestablishediconthatwouldbeeasilyremembered. Asasymbolofthenationallabor

movement,thearm&hammerstillretainedthepositiveconnotationsofintegrityandstrengthderived

fromtheVulcanmyth. Thisisalsotheexacttimethattheseedsoftheunionlabelmovementwere

beingplantedacrossthecountryinSanFrancisco,startingwiththeCarpenters8Hourlumberstamp

(1869)andtheCigarMakerswhitemenlabel(1874).Theselabelsweremeantgiveconsumersan

economicwaytosupportlabor,andtoawaytodifferentiatehigherqualityunionmadegoodsfrom

thoseproducedinsweatshopsandotherunsanitaryconditions. Itmaybepossiblethatconsumers

wereprepared

for

the

concept

of

the

union

label

because

they

had

already

started

to

see

and

trust

productsthatusedhonestlabor,thearm&hammeremblemorothervariationsonthisthemeasa

sellingpoint.

Asidefromallthis,ChurchandDwightspecificallyhadanotherlogicalreasontocontinuetousea

representationofthegodoffireastheirlogo;firehastraditionallybeenunderstoodasasymbolof

purification.xi Obviously,purityisimportantwhenyourproductisafinewhitepowder,butthiswasalso

thebirthofanewmarketingtrend,ashistorianThomasJ.Schlerethpointsout:

Theconceptoftheconvenient,sanitary,novelpackagetincan,glassbottle,sealed

cardboardboxtransformedmarketingstrategiesbyprovingthatrawgoodscouldbe

profitablyturned

into

standardized

products

with

national

brand

names.

Advertisers

trumpetedthepurityofcannedfoodstuffs.NohumanhandtouchedStaceysWorkdipt

Chocolates,Schlitzcooleditsbeerinfilteredair,andBostonhousewivescouldbuy

HuckinsHermeticallySealedSoups. (Schlereth,1992.163)

PurityandcleanlinesshavealwaysbeenkeyconceptsinthemarketingoftheArm&Hammerbrand.

ConsumerscouldpurchaseasealedboxofArm&Hammerbakingsodaandassumeitwascleanand

manufacturedinasanitaryenvironment. InlateryearsChurchandDwightaddedthemottothe

standardofpuritytotheirtrademark.

Whatever

the

reasons

for

the

initial

popularity

of

the

Arm

&

Hammer

packaging,

Church

&

Dwight

were

inventiveandpersistentmarketers;theyofferedthepublicawidearrayofposters,cookbooks,

calendars,andtheenormouslypopularconservationthemedbirdcards(themottoonthecardswas

For the good of all, do not destroy the birds.) Collecting these, according to the Church & Dwight

anniversary booklet, was a national fad.xii Alloftheseitems,ofcourse,prominentlydisplayedthe

Arm&Hammerlogo.AsproductsbearingtheArm&Hammertrademarkproliferatedoverthedecades,


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munsonpage14

Church&Dwightsubiquitousmarketingbuiltthebrandintooneofthemostrecognizedcommercial

logosintheUnitedStates.

OnepersonwhodevelopedalifelonginterestinC&Dsarm&hammertrademarkwasArmand

Hammer(18981990),themultimillionaireindustrialistandartcollector,whohadbeenquestioned

abouthis

relationship

to

Arm

&

Hammer

baking

soda

so

often

that

he

felt

compelled

to

devote

several

pagesofhisautobiographytothestory,beginningwithhisnameitself:

MyfathernamedmeArmandafterArmandDuval,theromanticheroinDumassLa

DameauxCamlias,orsohesaid. Itisfairlyobviousthathemustalsohavehadinmind

thesymboloftheSocialistLaborPartyanarmandahammer.Ihavehadmorefunout

oftheconstantconfusionofmynamewiththebakingsodawhichissoldallover

AmericaAsajoke,Ihaddesignedanensignwithanarmandahammerformyyacht.

WhenevertheyachtwouldappearinAmericanwaters,peoplewouldcomeuptome

saying,Ah,youmustbethebakingsodaking.(Hammer1987,503)

Eventhough

Church

&

Co.

began

using

the

Arm

&

Hammer

trademark

30

years

before

he

was

born,

beingonthereceivingendofquestionslikeisArm&Hammerbakingsodanamedafteryou?year

afteryearwassuchasourceofamusementforHammerthathedecidedtoinvestigatebuyingthe

companyinthe1950s(wewillreturntotheSocialistPartysuseoftheembleminthenextsection).

ChurchandDwightwasstillprivatelyownedbythefamilyatthistimeandtheysharplytoldHammer

andhisbrotherthattheircompanywasnotforsale. PursuingChurch&Dwightonawhim,thefamilys

obviousdismayattheideaoftheproposedsaleandthepotentialfortymilliondollarpricetagcooled

Hammersenthusiasm,butperiodicallyhewouldrenewhisattemptstotrytoacquirethecompany.Carl

Blumay,authorofTheDarkSideofPower:TheRealArmandHammer,(writtenin1992afterHammers

death)explainsthatovertheyearsthefirm(Church&Dwight)hadfoughthimoffandmadepublic

declarationsthat

it

had

nothing

to

do

with

him,

especially

because

of

his

involvement

with

the

Soviet

UnionandhiscriminalactivitiesinconjunctionwiththeNixonreelectioncampaignfund.(Blumay1992,

429)xiii

In1985,Hammerwasfinallyabletofulfillhisdreamofbeingthebakingsodaking.Occidental

PetroleumexchangedahalfinterestinanOccidentalpotassiumcarbonateplantinAlabamafor1.1

millionsharesofChurch&Dwightstockand$5.5millionincash,givingOccidental5%ofChurch&

Dwightsstock. Thetwocompaniesalsoenteredintoa50/50jointventure,calledArmandProducts

Company(stillactive),whichallowedHammertobenamedtotheChurch&Dwightboardofdirectors,

allowinghimtosay,Yes,Iamthebakingsodaking.In1991,shortlyafterHammersdeath,Occidental

restructuredtheir

finances,

and

sold

their

holdings

of

Church

&

Dwight

stock

for

$19

million.

(Blumay

1992,465)

TheSocialists

FoundedinNewYorkin1876,TheSocialistLaborPartyofAmerica(SLP)adoptedtheupliftedArm&

Hammerastheiremblemandratifieditintotheirconstitutionattheeleventhnationalconventionin

NewYork,1904(figure17). Itwasandstillisprominentlyfeaturedinallrelatedpublications.


15/20

munsonpage15

LawyerDanielDeLeon(18521914),aColumbiaLawSchoollecturerwhobecametheSLPsleaderand

mainarchitectin1890,definedtheSocialismasthatsocialsystemunderwhichthenecessariesof

productionareowned,controlledandadministeredbythepeople,forthepeople,andunderwhich,

accordingly,thecourseofpoliticalandeconomicdespotismhavingbeenabolished,classruleisatan

endThatissocialism,nothingshortofthat.(DeLeon1906).TheSocialists,whosegoalwasnolessthan

asocial

revolution

ending

the

class

and

wage

system

in

the

US,

always

supported

Labors

struggle

for

fairtreatment,butweregenerallydisapprovingoftheAFLs,inclusivecraftunioniststanceofthe

AmericanFederationofLaboranditsaffiliates.

Figures16&17emblemofthe

SocialistTrade&LaborAlliance,

1869(right).Currentemblemof

theSocialistLaborPartyof

America.

TheSocialistTrade&LaborAlliance,anoffshootoftheSLPfoundedbyDeLeonandformermembersof

theKnightsofLabor,heldtheirfirstconventioninNewYorkinJuneof1896. Thisgroupformedin

responsetotheirfeelingthattheAFLandotherlabororganizationshadgottentooclosetoorganized

capitaltobeeffective. TheST&LAwasincorporatedintotheIndustrialWorkersoftheWorldwhenit

formedin1905. Seemingtoeruptfromtheearth,thehandintheST&LAsemblem(figure16)holdsits

hammerverymuchthetorchofenlightenmentheldbytheStatueofLiberty(thetorchitselfwasoften

usedasasymbolinSocialistpostersandpublications).

ThebroadsheetTotheArmandHammer:aSongforMayDay,1898(figure18),writtenbyJosephC.

BordenJr.ofSouthNorwalk,Connecticuthintsatanotherchapterinthestoryofthearm&hammer

emblem. Thelyricsofthesongaresurroundedbyanornateborderinarts&craftsstylefeaturingmale

andfemaleallegoricalfigures,allwearingPhrygiancaps(symbolizingrevolution)andholdingbanners

withsuchphrasesasSocialandEconomicFreedomLeisure,Peace&AbundanceforAll;TheCo

OperativeCommonWealthOneforAll,AllforOne;InternationalSolidarityand,heldbytheangel

betweenthetwoarm&hammeremblemsinthetopcenter,HumanEmancipation. Thesongasks

whentheworkerswillheedthemessageofstrengthandunityembodiedinthearm&hammer,and

encouragesthem

not

to

wait

too

long

to

celebrate

gaily

the

Future

of

Man.

The

year,

1898,

and

the

phraseCoOperativeCommonwealth,mayprovideuswithacluetothedeepermeaningofthissong.

Beginningaroundthe1880s,severalorganizationsformedwiththegoalofestablishingutopian

colonies,buildingontheideasindifferingliteraryworkslikeJohnRuskinsForsClavirera(1870s),

LaurenceGronlundsTheCooperativeCommonwealthinitsOutines:AnExpositionofModernSocialism

(1884),EdwardBellamysLookingBackward20001887(abestsellingtimetravelstorypublishedin


16/20

munsonpage16

1887)andWilliamMorrisNewsfromNowhere(1891).Thesecolonieswerevisualizedasidealrural

communities,whereeveryonehadsatisfyingandcreativework,allcompetitionandconflictsufferedby

peopleunderthecapitalistsystemwouldbeoverthrown,andeveryonewouldliveinpeaceand

economicstability.

Figure18TotheArmandHammer:ASongforMayDay.JosephC.Borden,Jr.(1898).Broadsheet,29x

36cm.

OneoftheorganizationsthattriedtomakethesedreamsrealitywasTheSocialDemocracyinAmerica,

whichwasfoundedbyEugeneV.DebsfromsegmentsoftheAmericanRailwayUnionandthe

BrotherhoodoftheCooperativeCommonwealthonJune15,1897.Theleadershipofthisgroupwas

interestedin

establishing

acolony

to

seed

the

future

Cooperative

Commonwealth

in

the

Cumberland

PlateauofTennessee,andpossiblyinprovidingalaborforcetobuildarailroadinNashville. Therewas

muchdisagreementaboutthisgoalwithinthegroup,however,withalargecontingentmoreinfavor

tryingtoadvancetheirSocialistaspirationsthoughpoliticalorganizationandtheelectoralprocess. They

wereunabletofulfilltheirgoal,butothergroupshadmoresuccess,andafewshortlivedcommunes

wereactuallyformed.Forexample,theBrotherhoodoftheCooperativeCommonwealthfoundedthe

colonyofEqualityonPugetSoundinWashingtonStatein1897,whichlasteduntil1907.xiv


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munsonpage17

BordenssongTotheArmandHammercouldhavebeenwrittenfororinspiredbyTheSocial

Democracyssecondconventionin1898.Atitscore,thisattemptatcolonizationistheepitomeofthe

Vulcanmythcraftsmengoingintonaturetobuildanidealisticnewcivilizationoftheirownonthe

strengthoftheirownskillsandlabor.Bytheearly1900sitbecameraretoseethearm&hammer

symbolusedinanycapacityotherthantheChurchandDwightbakingsodatrademarkorbyorgansof

theSocialist

party.

Organized

labor,

embracing

the

ideas

of

pure

&

simple

trade

unionism,

moved

awayfromtheimageoflaborunityformerlyembodiedinthearm&hammeremblem,fracturinginto

myriadindividualunionemblemsandlabels. NoneofthisseemedtoeffectChurch&Dwight,whoby

theearly1900swerewildlysuccessfulandhadoneofthebestknowntrademarksintheUnitedStates.

iKimMunson(MAarthistory,SanFranciscoStateUniversity)isanindependentscholar

researchingandwritingonaspectsofAmericanCultureandworksonpaper,suchaslabor

graphicsandcomicart.Thisstudyofthearm&hammeremblemispartofalargerwork,Signs

ofUnity:StoriesandSymbolsoftheAmericanUnionLabelMovement.Shecanbereachedat

[email protected].

Kim

would

like

to

thank

Marc

H.

Greenberg,

Catherine

Powell

of

the

LaborArchivesandResearchCenteratSFSU,andmostofall,thelatelaborfolkloristArchie

Green,whosuggestedthearm&hammerasatopic.

Atthebeginningofmyresearch,Ididexplorethepossibilitythatthisemblemgrewfromthe

mythologyofotherhelpergodslikePrometheusorThor,buttheiriconologywasvery

different. Prometheusisalmostalwaysseenwithatorch(orthetorchalone),whichwasbriefly

usedbytheSocialistLaborPartyandwasfrequentlyusedasasymbolofinventionandprogress

inlogosofthe1930s1950s(discussedatlengthinMendenhallsSymbolsofPowerand

Progress).Thorshammerisusuallyseenasaseparatesymbol,withnoarmattached(orasa

fullbodyportrayal),E.R.EllisDavidsonsarticleThorsHammerisanexcellentintroductionto

thisfolklore. Thereisalsoaversionwithanarm&hammerdescendingfromacloudsmashing

arock,

accompanied

by

agod

like

head

breathing

fire;

this

stems

from

the

biblical

motto

Is

not

myWordlikefire,saystheLord,andlikeahammerthatbreaksarockinpieces?(Jeremiah

23:29). Therestofthispassageisgenerallyinterpretedtobeaboutfalseprophets. Asthisis

visuallyandconceptuallyverydifferent,itdidntseemtobeagoodfiteither.Thebestknown

representationofthisisthecolophonoftheGermanprinterHeinrichPetriwhichadornsthe

titlepageofthe15662nd

editionofNicolausCopernicus(14731543)Derevolutionibusorbium

coelestium(OntheRevolutionsoftheHeavenlySpheres),andotherpublications.iiInanotherpopularversionofthemyth,Vulcanfallsintotheseaandisraisedbythesea

nymphThetis.PanofskydiscussesaversionthattellsofVulcanbeingraisedbyapes(he

suspectsthisisduetoaproblemintheGreektoItaliantranslation). Inhisarticle,Panofsky

specificallyfocuses

on

the

nymphs

of

Lemnos

version

because

he

is

exploring

acycle

of

five

paintingsbydiCosimothatincludesadepictionofthediscoveryofyoungVulcanbythe

nymphs(whichhadbeenmisinterpreteduptothattime),aswellasVulcan&Aeolus,which

concludesthecycle.iiiPanovskycitesBoccacciosuseofVitruviusDeArchitecturaLibridecemII.

ivThegiraffearrivedattheFlorenceZooin1487.Itwasasourceoffascinationformany

Florentineartists,appearinginmanypaintingsaroundthistime.


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munsonpage18

vMuchhasbeenwrittenabouttheimportanceofthefamilyunitinRenaissanceFlorence.I

recommendbookthreeofAlbertisILibriDellaFamiglia(1434).Thereisalsoatheorythatit

wasacommonbeliefintheRenaissancethatifyoulookedatanimagelongenough,itsgood

qualitieswouldruboffontheviewer. PerhapsPugliesemeanttoinspirehisfamilytoworkas

hardat

his

business

as

he

did.

Who

knows,

maybe

the

young

family

man

in

this

painting

is

his

son.viWorshipfulwasanhonorarytitle,usedbyalltheguilds.

viiAccordingtoKingsHandbookofBoston(1878),theMassachusettsMechanicsAssociations

buildinginBostononChauncyStreetalsohadtheirversionofthearm&hammerembleminan

archwaynearthedoor. Theirmottobejustandfearnot,strikesmeasmorereminiscentof

thebiblicalhammerstoryIvediscussedinthefirstendnote.viii

ThisarticlewasoneofapairbyRubensteinthataccompaniedanexhibitionattheNational

MuseumofAmericanHistoryin1989,SymbolsandImagesofAmericanLabor.ixOnthewebsiteoftheMonticelloCouncilNo.63,JuniorOrderofUnitedAmericanMechanics,

ThomasRuecitesahistoryoftheJOUAMbyDeemer,Shanor&Deily,publishedinBostonin

1896bytheFraternalPublishingCompanydescribingtheadoptionoftheJOUAMsseal:OnOctober12,1868,TheStateCouncilorofPennsylvania,Bro.Jno.O.Montanye,submitteda

designasabadgeoftheOrderashield,withthearmandhammer,compassandsquareinthe

center;whenitwasresolvedthatthedesignsubmittedbemadethebadgeoftheOrder.The

Masonsdouseadifferenthammer,thegavelorhiram,asanattributeoftheLodgeMaster(but

notasagraphic).xForexample,theHaymarketriotandtrialinthatrockedChicagoin18867.xiForexample,itwasbelievedthatthesoulsofwitcheswerepurifiedwhentheirbodieswere

burnedatthestake.xii

ChurchandDwightproducedtheBeautifulBirdsofAmericaandothernaturethemedcards

forfive

decades,

from

1888

to

1966.

xiiiOnecouldwriteabookaboutHammersbusinessandpolitics,andmanyauthorshave.Aside

fromHammersownautobiographyHammerand BlumayandEdwardsTheDarkSideof

Power:TheRealArmandHammer,IrecommendtwoshortarticlesfromtheNewYorkTimes,

WilliamSmithsBusinessmanofManyFacets:ArmandHammer(1972)andArmandHammers

MazeofSkulduggerybyRalphBlumenthal(1996).xiv

ThereisanexcellentshortarticlebyWayneD.Sneathonthecolonizationmovementandthe

Equalitycolony(withpictures)ontheBowlingGreenStateUniversityAmericanCulturalStudies

website. AnothergoodsourceonRuskin,Morris,andtheirinfluenceontheSocialistParty

(andonBritishandAmericanarts,culture&politics),canbefoundinEileenBorisexcellent

book

Art

and

Labor:

Ruskin,

Morris,

and

the

Craftsman

Ideal

in

America.


19/20

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