THE ETHICS OF ART - an exploration of the role and significance of art/artists in health care settings. Elizabeth Jean Deshon Smith Woodhams, Bachelor of Theology. School of Humanities Applied Ethics and Human Change Research Concentration Faculty of Arts Master of Arts ( Research ) 1995.

KEY WORDS FOR CATALOGUING: Applied Ethics, Art, Artists, Experience, Flourishing, Health, Healing, Health Care Settings, Illness, Spirituality, Suffering. ABSTRACT: The presence of art and artists in health care settings raise many questions of an ethical nature. The presence of art in such milieux challenges the manner in which notions of art, persons, health, healing, community, ethics and aesthetics are presently conceptualized. This thesis will argue that art ought properly be considered an essential human need - integral to the health, flourishing and well-being of all persons - particularly those who are sick and suffering. An ethical care of sick persons would demand that both artistic practice and health care practice be revisioned in the light of this different understanding.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter 1.Introduction - sketching the landscape.1. Chapter 2.A Bio-evolutionary Understanding of Art34. in What it means to be Human. Chapter 3.The Modern Period - some decisive56. influences on humans and art. Chapter 4.The Nature of Experience and The Nature 100. of Artistic Experience. Chapter 5.Medicine, Art, Health and Healing. 129. Chapter 6.Art, Health and The Good - Flourishing.165. References.197. Bibliography.206.

In memory of Keith Robinson and For those who grace my landscape

"The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or

diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signed:.......................... Date:............................"

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. There is a Light in this world, a Healing Spirit more powerful than any darkness we may

encounter. Sometimes we lose sight of this force when there is suffering, too much pain. Then suddenly, the Spirit will emerge through the lives of ordinary people who hear a call and answer in extraordinary ways.

Mother Teresa of Calcutta. Andrew Carter, the co-founder of the Australian AIDS Memorial Quilt Project, read these words of Mother Teresa at each unfolding of the Quilt. My first debt of gratitude is to him - and to those with whom I have shared the privileged friendship of art in various health care settings. Many of those have died - Keith Robinson and Wardi Hazzaz were among those artists whose manner of living as they died exemplified the hope of Foucault that our lives may be `works of art'. The medical staff who cared for them have personified a Healing Spirit that was `extraordinary' - but which I hope will become the `ordinary' way of caring for those who are sick and suffering. I cannot remove the colours of others from the works that I produce. This thesis is my creation - yet it is `not' - it is shaped and given form by the colours and textures of so many who have, not only given impetus to its creation, but who have enabled the survival and well-being of its author. I gratefully - and humbly - acknowledge the support I have received from my family, colleagues and many friends during the time of this research. They have provided a paint pot of energy and encouragement into which I have lavishly dipped. I am especially grateful to Tom and Sue Graham for their generosity in lending `the cottage' which encouraged and sustained the quiet solitude necessary for `thinking and reflection'. To my supervisors Dr.Peter Isaacs, Mr.David Massey and Associate Professor David Hawke I owe an inestimable debt of gratitude. My principal supervisor, Peter Isaacs, particularly, has provided a level and quality of supervision that has been inspirational. For their humour, care, trust and patience - as Lloyd Rees has said - I can only `bow my head in thanks'.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1.Palm Valley, N.T. 2.Rock Face - Ormiston Gorge, N.T. 3.Ormiston Gorge, N.T. 4.Mt. Hermansberg, N.T. 5.Ormiston Gorge, N.T.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION - sketching the landscape.

`What strikes me is the fact that in our society, art has become something which is related only to objects and not to individuals, or to life. That art is something which is specialized or done by experts who are artists. But couldn't everyone's life become a work of art? Why should the lamp or house be an art object, but not our life?'

Michel Foucault in Rabinow, 1986,p.350.

The black skeleton ( that was a man with AIDS) lifted itself slightly

from the pillow and said `Libby, I 'd like to paint today'. It was at

the Hospice where I went to teach painting on silk. The man could

no longer sit, even in the cocoon of a water bed chair, so we wheeled

him ( in his bed) through the ward, down the corridor, into the lift,

and down to the `art room'. It required several people to enable him

to paint, one to hold his silk screen, one to hold his palette, and one

to dip and clean his brush when the strength was not in his own

fingers. I used the frame that protected his feet as a `table' for

another painting. When he had finished, the blackness of his face

gave way, for a time, to an incandescence that was almost palpable.

He (in his bed) went back to his ward, basked in the admiration of

his friends and family, gave the silk he had painted as a present to

his mother, and died the next day.

What is art? What role and significance do the arts have in the care

of people who are sick, dislocated and traumatised by accident, or

who, in fact, may be dying? Foucault, in the passage quoted above,

describes how art is commonly understood in contemporary Western

societies ie. as concerned with art objects that are made by special,

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expert people called artists. The presence of the arts and artists in

health care settings radically challenges this understanding. The

experience of people such as the man with AIDS painting the day

before he died opens up the possibility of some very different

understandings of what art is and what significance it has in what it

means to be a person, to be healed, to flourish, to be `healthy', to be

within a community. The arts in health care milieux, in fact,

challenge how the very notion of health is conceived - and,

therefore, what constitutes an ethical and compassionate care of

those who are sick and suffering. The man with AIDS could be seen

to make manifest Foucault's notion that our lives can be works of art

- a work whose creation begins with our birth and continues to be

painted and created until the time of our death. Works of art ( as

persons and as works created) spring from and return to a

community. These experiences and these different understandings,

therefore, raise many questions and challenge some long held

assumptions about the arts, health care, and about what constitutes

community. Some of the assumptions that are challenged by art

practice in health care settings may include those that tend to

disparage the cultural worth of local artistic practices (Arnheim

1986;Binns 1994); that perceive `ordinary' people, especially older

people, as the least creative; that suggest the aged, the handicapped,

the dying do not need to grow (Aldridge 1993a;Sarison 1990); and

that expect art to happen within the parameters and styles as defined

by the establishments of art colleges and art galleries ( Cork 1984).

A further assumption that is undermined by art practices in such

milieux is that a person, as patient, must be passive, divided and

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powerless - whereas, on the contrary, art practice expects them to be

self-defining moral agents (Aldridge 1993a,p.288).

This research has grown out of my experiences whilst working as an

artist in a variety of health care settings - notably a Day Centre for

People Living with AIDS, a Hospice in Sydney, my work as the

National Convenor of the Australian AIDS Memorial Quilt Project

and latterly as Artist In Residence in an Acute Psychiatry Unit at a

large regional hospital. While some of my work has been in

institutional settings such as hospitals and hospices, some has been

in more informal milieux like the Day Centre and the AIDS Quilt.

However, whatever their physical surrounds, health care settings are

characterized by dislocation, trauma, uncertainty, anxiety, pain and

suffering. Illness and accident often bring home with a stark, brutal,

harshness the contingent, chancy, and uncertain nature of a lived

human existence. Seymour (1989), for instance, has explored the

many poignant questions of identity and sense of Self that arise for

people who have become paraplegics and quadriplegics when the

integral unity and cohesion between the various aspects of our

Selves - mind, body, spirit, senses and imagination - has been

shattered.

The person's self no longer relates to the physical body that

houses it, nor to the social world from which it arose. The

relationship between the body, the self and society is rendered

chaotic. (Seymour 1989,p.60)

The issues, therefore, that are of such concern to health care

professionals in rehabilitation units - for example, the intense

concentration on the physical body - paradoxically, intensify and

compound the suffering of the ill person by reinforcing the

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estrangement of the body from the other aspects of their Selves -

and, in fact, creates another and more profound form of alienation

(p.61). The suffering occasioned by dislocation and trauma to the

sense of Self is not confined to such extreme forms of illness and

injury as paraplegia and quadriplegia, but can equally be

experienced in all forms of sickness and ill health, and in all health

care settings - psychiatric units, nursing homes, community health

centers and intensive care wards.

Health care settings, like hospitals and nursing homes, may be seen

as total institutions ( Goffman 1961). Goffman (1961) has described

the demands of institutional settings in a series of studies concerning

asylums, prisons, the monasteries of religious orders and

concentration camps. Total institutions demand nothing less than the

person's `all ' - their lives are regimented and dictated by the routine

of the institution - one rises, eats, sleeps, receives visitors within a

defined space, according to a timetable not of one's choice, and

under constant surveillance by health care professionals; privacy and

personal autonomy is invaded and eroded by a `clinical gaze' that

sees every part of their body and their sense of Self - their every

gesture, word and emotion - all equally available to be interpreted

and written up in the clinical chart and `patients file' without

reference to the person concerned. Even characteristics of

personality, like assertiveness and discretion, that are considered

desirable qualities in `ordinary' life, may make a person a `bad

patient' ( and liable to `punishment' ) in health care settings

(Hastings-Smith 1987,p.15). Added to the pressures of continual

surveillance, manipulation and control, are the alienating

architectural features of many institutional settings - devoid of

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sensory stimulation, and designed, as Brody (1992) suggests, to

intimidate those ` not in the know', and which reinforce the

perception that the sick and the disordered are to be isolated and

separated from the communities to which they belong.

Health care settings may also be places of great humour and fun.

However, this possibility does not change the constant - that they are

generally places where people are troubled and have been thrown out

of the security of their everyday existence by illness or accident and

`where the patient often experiences the treatment of his afflictions

as another, longer affliction '(May 1991,p.8).

What is the role of art in health care settings? Art in such milieux is

almost invariably understood instrumentally ie. as an adjunct to a

medical process of curing. Thus art is understood as `art therapy'

and the artists who work in such settings are therefore `art therapists'

whose function it is to elicit and interpret works produced by

patients to accord with a treatment or therapy program. Another

common understanding is that art is ` a diversion to alleviate

boredom and to keep people occupied'. The artist is then termed a

`diversional therapist' and their work as another form of therapy -

diversional therapy. While there are many approaches to both art

therapy and diversional therapy, both are grounded in a professional

relationship between a therapist and a person who is defined in

relation to that medical relationship as a patient or client.

Frequently the relationship is informed and coloured by the dominant

bio-medical model of health care. Adamson (1984), an artist who

pioneered work in psychiatric hospitals in the 1960's, has challenged

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both these instrumental and reductionist understandings of the role

and significance of art ( and artists) in health care settings.

Adamson speaks of art and the hospital art room as opening up a

space of non-judgmental freedom within an institutional setting - a

space that is free of coercion, surveillance and interpretation. This

notion of art then informs the personal qualities needed by those

working with art in health care settings;

Anyone who wishes to do this type of work should, first and foremost be an artist. (Artists) holds the quiet authority of their vocation and can give a professional welcome to individual expression. The artist is uniquely placed to embrace the enigma of commencing a journey to an unknown destination. The artist is also on familiar terms with the inner self, and is therefore a little closer to those who are obliged to wrestle with its problems. The hospitals artists' main role is to be a catalyst who allows the healing art to emerge (Adamson 1984,p.4).

Art thus understood, can be conceived as a space, a landscape

wherein a journey towards healing, wholeness, freedom, liberation

and well-being can be undertaken. Art understood in these terms is

both subversive and emancipatory and is thus, truly and essentially,

political ie. it concerns not only the personal responsibility that we

each must have for our own `vocation' of Selfhood; what is a just

and appropriate care of those members of a society who are sick and

suffering, but further, what kind of society ought to be sought. By

challenging the monopoly of an established reality - a view which, as

I have described earlier, sees the sick person as alienated,

dislocated, powerless and objectified - art presents the possibility of

a human fulfilment which only a transformed society could offer

(Becker 1994,p.117). By opening up a space wherein freedom can be

experienced art, not only subverts the dominant ideology of a bio-

medical model of health care, but it enables the person to both

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transform and to transcend the debilitating and destructive features

inherent in an institutional existence.

My own experiences of working in various health care settings

would accord with Adamson's understanding ie. that the main role

and function of the arts is to open up a refuge, a space, a space

which enables people to heal and to flourish, to define and create

themselves as they need to, to give and to contribute, to live rather

than to just exist, to be whole and `healthy' - to recreate the integrity

of their Being. Art, then, encompasses both the notion of healing

and wholeness and notions of redemption and transformation and is,

thus, also essentially religious ie. it is has to do with grave and

serious concerns that go to the ends of human existence.

Understanding art in these terms is rendered difficult in health care

settings because of some further common misunderstandings where,

for instance, notions of cure and notions of healing are confused or

collapsed into each other. The man with AIDS, for example, may

have experienced his painting as a part of his journey towards

wholeness and being healed - his mother may have experienced his

silken gift as a moment of grace and as, for a time, transforming her

grief. However, becoming whole and being healed is not directly

related to the state of our physical bodies, nor does it mean an

absence of il lness and disease, nor does it mean that we will not

die.

Two further notions, essential to a proper understanding of the role

and the significance of the arts in health care settings, are often

similarly confused or collapsed into each other - the notion of pain

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and the notion of suffering. The notion of suffering is a thread that

is inextricably woven throughout this research - not only because the

experience of illness often entails personal suffering, but because the

interrelated and independent nature of what it means to be a Person

means that suffering entails a communal dimension as well. Cassell

(1991,p.38) has described the manner in which our sense of Self as

Person is made up of an integration of a number of Selves or modes

of Being, for example we have a social Self - a self that is defined in

relationship with family, friends, work colleagues, and society at

large. We have a secret Self of dreams, fantasies and longings that

we ought not have to reveal to anyone else; we have a sense of

ourselves as a physical body and we have, as Persons, a past, a

history, and we look towards a future, to the achievement of certain

goals, dreams and aspirations. We also have a political Self that has

certain roles, rights and responsibilities within a particular society.

Cassell (1991b,p.24) has described suffering ( as distinct from

illness ) `as the distress brought about by the actual or perceived

impending threat to the integrity or continued existence of the whole

person'. Toombs (1988,p.349), however, has described how

`medicine has, for the most part, adopted a "Cartesian" paradigm of

embodiment (ie. a dualistic notion which separates mind and body

and which conceptualizes the physical body in purely mechanistic

terms)...(and which)...in a very explicit way...omits the person to

whom the body belongs'. As it is the Self, the Person which

experiences suffering, in health care settings suffering is often not

recognised, or is denied, or is confused with pain. Pain is a bodily

phenomenon which often accompanies an injury, malfunction or

disease (Isaacs 1995,p.73) but it is not the same as suffering. Each

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person experiences their Being in the world in their own unique way.

Each person paints differently - even if they are painting the same

`scene' as another, Therefore, no two people will experience the

same illness in the same way - some may experience pain but do not

experience suffering - some may experience no pain but may suffer

acutely (Isaacs 1995,p.74).

In view of all the above, art ( rather than being considered as

instrumental within a bio-medical model of health care ) might be

considered as fulfilling an essential human need - for freedom and

liberation, to enable the construction of a coherent web of meaning,

for hope, for control, for power, for giving voice to a responsible

and responsive expression and creation of Self in relation to the

particular circumstances of a person's life in their relationship with

Others and the Other. Thus, art in health care settings takes on an

ethical and ontological significance and ought properly be

considered an intrinsic Good. The questions that are raised by the

presence of art in health care settings also take on a particular

ethical dimension and significance. The question of the ownership

of works created, for example, is rarely problematic in `ordinary'

life. There is a practice in many health care settings, however, that

see works that are created within the institutional settings as, either

belonging to ( or being available to be appropriated by ) the

institution or by the health care professionals who have charge of a

person's treatment. Questions of the interpretation given to art

works also carry serious implications in health care settings

( particularly psychiatric settings) where they may be used to

reinforce a diagnosis which has profound social repercussions and

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which may also renders a person liable to be `committed' to a mental

health institution.

The Dimensions of Experience.

In the specific context of an exploration of the ethical issues that

surround the presence of art in health care settings how are personal

experiences - the experiences of people who are sick, health care

professionals, and artists - to be viewed? Experience is not a static

phenomenon. As Sacks (1995,p.111) has it,`one does not see, or

sense, or perceive in isolation - perception is always linked to

behaviour and movement, to reaching out and exploring the world.'

Shea (1978,p.16) remarks that experience is never limited, and it is

never complete; it is an immense sensibility, a kind of huge spider

web of the finest silken threads suspended in the chamber of

consciousness, and catching every air-borne particle in its tissue. It

is the very atmosphere of the mind. Personal experiences then, are `

not headless' as McDermott would further phrase it. `(They team)

with relational leads, inferences, implications, comparisons,

retrospections, directions, warnings and so on ' (McDermott

1973,p.xxv). In a certain sense personal experiences could be

likened to works of art that have been painted with the particular

colours of our perception and imagination - and many experiences

may remain in this personal space. The Australian painter John

Brack has suggested, however, that a painting is not finished until it

is exhibited ie. it is brought into the public and the communal

domain. A work of art can then define the artist as a valuable

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member of the community - as contributing to the complex texture of

community life. The art work ( and experience) then functions as a

partner in a conversation, a dialogue, between the work created, the

artist and the viewer - the community.

There are many ways in which an art work ( or an experience) may

be interpreted. Art and experience may be considered as

intrinsically social - there is a fecundity in both which means that

they properly belong to both the personal and the communal.

However, it could be suggested that an aesthetic sense of `rightness'

applies as much to the perceptions of an experience as it does to

perceptions of an art work. Further, if our experiences remain only

personal and within ourselves, it could be described as a denial of

life, a denial of the fact that our identity and our sense of Self is

interdependent and interrelated with Others and the Other. What

seems to be demanded by the imperative to flourish, to live in

community with others - and to create our lives as works of art - is

to move our experiences from the introspective into the

intersubjective - the moral and the communal. This is a movement

which entails taking responsibility, taking risks - and is, therefore,

requiring of courage. It entails opening up our personal experiences

in a dialectical relationship with another - and the Other (

understood in this context as the abstract and the theoretical) where

our perceptions may be challenged, affirmed, added to or shown to

be an illusion - we may have `looked' rather than `seen'.

There is a further dimension in this dialectical relationship - how

does the concrete experience inform, and, be critiqued by, the

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abstract and the theoretical? For example, it is one thing to have a

theoretical understanding of the importance of autonomy in what it

means to be a Person. What is of particular importance, particularly

in health care settings, is to be able to recognise how this abstract

notion takes on texture, shape and colour within a dialectic with the

ordinary, everyday experiences of health care and artistic practice.

Art and Health Care as Ethical Endeavours.

May (1991,p.8), in his work The Patient's Ordeal, describes some of

the more extreme occasions of illness and accident and argues that

the extreme cases illuminate what often happens in the less

`cataclysmic' experiences of illness, and more broadly, what often

happens in non-medical crises. I would agree that experiences of

health care and health care settings can be seen as more intense and

extreme forms of the dislocation, trauma and loss that is experienced

in everyday life. However, I wish to take a different approach. I

wish to highlight the ethical chaallenges - and the pain and the

suffering that may be caused - in the very ordinary and commonplace

occurrences of health care and artistic practice. In taking this

approach I am not in disagreement with that taken by May (1991).

While many people see ethical questions as arising from

problematical cases in health care, for example organ transplants,

euthanasia and so on, few people see an ethical dimension attending

such mundane examples of practice as an artist 's response to the

endemic `I can't draw. Can you do it for me?' Lauritzen (1991,p.10),

in discussing the authority of personal experience in moral

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deliberation, has suggested that one important role for personal

experience is that it can ` draw attention to features ( of the

particular situation ) that would not be readily noticed from outside'.

So it is that in reflecting on my practice with those in health care

settings, I would agree with the authors of Arts Injection Youth Arts

in Hospital (1994) in their assertion that some very different

dynamics attend art practice in health care settings when compared

to that conducted in a studio setting - with consequently different

qualities required of the artist who seeks to work in health care

surrounds. I realise that I work somewhat differently with people

who are `ill ' than I do in giving a more `conventional' art workshop

because many people in health care settings are often very

vulnerable - not only because of their illness, but because of the

demands of the institutional setting in which they find themselves.

Often this vulnerability (from wherever it stems) manifests itself in

loss of a sense of personal power, autonomy, confidence and esteem

- feelings and sentiments that are not conducive to health and

flourishing. The way in which I approach my work, therefore, will

either increase this sense of powerlessness or might help alleviate it.

Powerlessness in health care has many complex layers. Firstly, the

experience of illness itself reveals that the control we have over our

physical and mental health is tenuous or illusory - it is often beyond

our choice and control. Secondly, as I have described earlier, the

integrity of a person's Self is dislocated and traumatised by the

pressures of institutionalisation. Relationships between the person

who is sick and the health care professional are defined in terms of

power and control - power to define the person in terms of a medical

diagnosis, power to limit and constrain freedom of movement, and

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power to control access to information concerning the person as

patient. Thirdly, powerlessness is experienced in relation to bodily

dysfunction and medical treatments - one's eyes cannot focus clearly

because of the effects of medication; one cannot control the tremors

of one's limbs; one's mobility is curtailed by nausea, plaster casts or

dependence upon various drips and tubes. Lastly, many people have

been rendered powerless to express and define themselves by way of

the arts because they have been alienated from any personal

experience of art making since their time in primary school. I

believe, therefore, that art practice, in common with health care

practice, ought to be regarded as an ethical endeavour. A prosaic,

but common, example of the integral mix of ethical practice and

artistic practice is how an artist responds to the commonplace

example `I can't draw. Can you do it for me?' If I automatically and

unquestioningly accede to requests such as these, I may be

contributing to the various forms of powerlessness and reinforcing a

person's belief that they cannot draw - that drawing is something that

only Artists do. My practice is to draw on a piece of paper beside

theirs. Almost invariably the person recognises that, if this is what

drawing is, they can do it, and goes on to draw something of their

own.

There is another form of powerlessness which is deeply embedded

within the practice of art making itself. The healing potential of art

invokes a paradox. At the same time as art practice requires a

precision of `seeing', an exactitude of mark making - it also involves

a surrender to something that is often beyond control and

determination. The nature of art enables a healing, an integration of

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the dislocated parts of our Selves - but this coming to wholeness has

a force - and a direction of its own. This paradoxical dimension is

manifested in several ways. The process of using our hands in the

making of art frequently results in an almost involuntary disclosure

of very deep and intimate aspects of our Selves. These involuntary

disclosures have a different, undemanding quality that distinguishes

them from a cathartic expression - it is as though the very act of

giving voice is sufficient - there is no demand for the disclosures to

be `acted upon'. However, the ethical demands that attend such

disclosures are more acute in health care settings - they are not the

same as the disclosure of personal information that may be made,

say, in a clinical interview - and ethically ought not be regarded as

equally available to be recorded and interpreted. In a sense, then,

such aspects of art making could be seen as evidence of a

powerlessness and vulnerability - but also as evidence of a healing

power that art often engenders in a person.

Art in health care settings can thus be seen to raise many complex

questions as two separate experiences might serve to illustrate. The

Hospice had an art program where a number of artists and

craftspeople would come and teach. I was attending a pottery

session with a great friend of mine ( also my Ankali client).1 As we

were playing with the clay my friend said `This is what friendship is

all about - doing art together. ' In a later incident I was cleaning up

the tiny, cluttered and cramped art room of a Psychiatry Unit when a

1Ankali is an aboriginal word that means "friend". Ankali is a volunteer organization designed to provide emotional support for people living with HIV/AIDS.

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patient wandered in looking lost. After some desultory conversation

I asked;

What are you looking for?

The meaning of life, Libby. Just the meaning of life.

Notions of friendship, the search for meaning - these are some of the

complex contours of the landscape against which this investigation is

conducted. They anchor the research in the `ordinary' lived

experience of an artist working within health care settings. The

exchanges lay bare some of the profound moral and religious

questions which are an inevitable part of human existence - and

especially experiences of illness. The ` everyday ordinariness' of

the exchanges and the settings in which they took place will serve to

critique the language in which the research is described and in which

it is written.

The Ethical Dimensions of Language.

What is the `right' language for a cross disciplinary exploration

which seeks to bring together the domains of art, health and ethics?

McDermott (1973,p.xxvi) says of the language style of the American

philosopher John Dewey ` the gnarled character of some of his

writing traces to a determined effort to articulate the character of our

experiences in a language faithful to our way of having them and in

as rich a descriptive version as possible. ' Furthermore, `this

approach rarely finds ( Dewey) introducing a technical term as a

shortcut for the describing of the ongoing experience.' As

McDermott goes on to say `the use of technical terms often gains

17

clarity but at the price of isolating the language of the discipline

from that of other disciplines and from common recognition by the

larger community of inquiry' (McDermott 1973,p.xxvi). The

separation and isolation of disciplines, with all the attendant

difficulties and questions, is a further strand recurring throughout

this research. With Aldridge (1993b,p.199) I would agree that the

use of language has political and moral significance. Describing art

in health care settings as ` art therapy', for example, immediately

sites the person and their work within a clinical horizon and further

defines those activities according to a pathology rather than to the

broader notions of health, autonomy, justice and flourishing.

Similarly, if art were to be recognised as an integral and essential

part of what it means to be flourishing human Person - that it enables

us to heal, to create and recreate our sense of Selves to take account

of loss and suffering - then it ought be recognised that the need for

art escalates in times of crisis (Spencer in Coles 1983,p.4) and

therefore art ought to be an integral part of health care practice - as

essential as drugs and other treatment programs.

Each particular discipline has its own language, its own jargon and

styles of humour. All these factors are important in establishing a

communal sense of identity. In the medical professions technical

language and categorization are often used as shorthand to convey,

not only a diagnosis, for example `a borderline personality

disorder ', but a particular socio-political way of `seeing' a person

who behaves in a certain manner. However, as Brody (1992,p.x,xi)

says, these common devices frequently set up barriers between health

care professionals and people outside these professions. Further the

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unconscious use of such categorization often means that different

ways of `seeing' are rendered difficult, if not impossible.

If the care of the sick and suffering ought to be seen as a

responsibility of the community - of which health care professionals

and artists are both members - experiences and the critical reflection

on them ought to be described in a language that is accessible to the

`larger community of inquiry' (McDermott 1973,p.xxvi).

The Roles of the Artist in Health Care Settings.

I work as a visual and textile artist. When I work in health care

settings my role switches and changes constantly - at times I am a

teacher of art and crafts ( although I do not draw a distinction

between the two), at times a lecturer, an administrator, a co-

ordinator, a catalyst. However, the mediums with which I have

chosen to work have also influenced the style of my academic

writing. My experiences with painting, drawing and fabric collage

have made me acutely aware of the difficulties in achieving

simplicity, strength, harmony and `life' in my work - I realise, along

with countless other craftspeople, the critical significance of exactly

the ` right' brushstroke, the `right' tone of colour in the `right' place.

What constitutes this notion of `rightness' is another constant thread

woven throughout this research - one that, with Beauty and Truth,

will largely influence the later analysis of notions of the aesthetic

and the ethical.

19

The experiences that I have had working in health care settings have

been some of the most satisfying, challenging and enriching of my

`career'. At the same time, as many `community' artists have

attested ( Binns 1994; Yardley 1995; Kaspari 1995) at times, the

work has not been `comfortable'. Artists working in health care

settings do not fit easily into the `Art establishment model' nor do

they fit into a traditional medicalized model of health care. I,

together with other artists working within health care settings, have

been described as a members of a `multidisciplinary team', without

any real reflection on what responsibilities ( or rights) attend such

membership.

During my times at the Quilt, the Hospice and the Hospital I

frequently observed physical changes in people during and after their

participation in various art practices. Often there would be a

lightness in the face, a sense of exhilaration, freedom, exuberance -

and often surprise and awe at what had been created - a ` Where did

that come from?' response. Sometimes the participation would

unlock distress, discomfort, anger and grief. In health care settings

art has many roles; as teacher; as healer; as diagnostic tool; as a

companion and so on. The roles of art, as with the artist, will

frequently overlap and change according to a variety of factors - the

needs of the particular moment, the relationship between the

participants and so on. However, these various experiences and

observations have sown the seeds for this research and have had a

major influence on the methodology employed.

20

Gadamer (1975) has asserted that our `pre-judgments' and prejudices

are our ontological reality ie. they are our opening to the world and

are the very means by which we learn and grow. Thus, it appears

demanded, as an integral part of exploring the ethical challenges I

have already described, to reflect upon my own prejudgments. Binns

(1994,p.56), a community artist, says she has wondered for years

what motivated her in her work. Difference was one of the things

that endlessly attracted her - `difference, variety and the fascination

with the ways things could differ and be similar at the same time.' I,

too, am fascinated by difference, by how each person paints

differently, tells their stories differently - yet there is a comforting (

and challenging) solidarity in the similarities. I, too, have tried for

years to articulate what it is that drives me. On the one hand I need

to paint, draw and make things myself. At the same time there has

been an increasing attraction to working with others, as Binns says,

to enable them to become more comfortable and confident with their

own modes of expression - to lessen the separation that frequently

exists between art and their lives (Binns 1994,p.56). Increasingly

there is also a need to contribute to an public debate concerning the

role and significance that the arts might play in the health and

flourishing of all.

Fundamentally, I am attracted to and fascinated by what I perceive

( and describe ) to be beauty. When people are creating, their

Beings seem to radiate - their eyes appear to shine with Life. Even

though it may be a momentary glimpse -that trusting, accepting

vulnerability invites a sense of solidarity, of kinship; a sense that

21

much is possible; that the islands of good of which Marcuse (1978)

speaks, where we can `rest for a while, ' can, perhaps, be extended.

The Role of Personal Experience.

Personal exper ience - and a cr i t ical ref lect ion on those

exper iences - plays a large part in this research. The importance I

place on these two aspects comes from my experience of various art

practices. Often the work will reveal that the head betrays the

heart or vice versa, and I find myself surprised ( and therefore able

to be `taught') by what I have painted or what I have written. The

experience of il lness often causes a dislocation in multiple aspects

o f a p e r s o n ' s l i f e - i t f o r c e s u s t o s e e m a n y t h i n g s , m a n y

s i t u a t i o n s , many relationships `differently'. Often, too, as we have

seen, suffering does not stem from physical pain, but from a sense

that the ways in which our maps of meaning are constructed have been

rendered chaotic and unreliable. We have to learn a new sense of

being ourSelves as whole Persons. Some artists working in health

care see that `elements of "art for self-awareness" should be minor

or ignored altogether as this line of research reaffirms the health

worker as the healer and teacher, and this just reinforces the

medical model' (Gerrand 1995,p.13) I would assert the contrary. The

ability to `know' ourselves - in our disintegration as well as in our

wholeness ( as ref lected in our ar t as wel l as in a l l o ther aspects

of our l ived exis tence ) - i s an essent ia l par t of heal ing, of

becoming whole and taking responsibility, as Aldridge (1993a p.290)

says, for answering the questions life asks ( of us). Further, self

awareness is an essential ingredient of both an ethical health care

22

practice and an ethical artistic practice (see Kekes 1990). The

ability to disclose of ourSelves is intimately linked to our capacity

to know ourSelves and has a particular relevance to health care.

Cassell (1991,p.x) has suggested that improvement in medical care in

the nineteenth century was hampered by a reticence about the body,

and that a reticence about revealing ourselves presently retards

learning about persons and, thus, might be hampering changes in

medical care in the twentieth century.

I am not advocating indiscriminate disclosure - which in itself might

be a cause of suffering to oneself and to others. However, the

reciprocal nature of the ethical engagement ( fundamental to notions

of love, care, friendship and community) must inevitably involve

some degree of intimate disclosure. Dissanayake (1988) has

suggested that we have evolved to live together committed to one

another in social groups. Part of this commitment to nurturing and

sustaining communities ( however they are conceived - a point that

will be explored in some depth as critical to this research), might be

the sharing of the motivations which inform our sense of values and

meaning. Again, it could be suggested, that part of the

responsibilities of a communal existence is sharing ( in whatever

manner, and I would argue that art is one of those ways) how we

individually cope with the difficulties and joys inherent in a complex

lived existence. Crimp, an American art historian and AIDS

activist, has pointed out that;

we all of us going to have to continue to cope. This particular horrendous thing (AIDS) that (has) happened to us is something that we have to learn how to continue to cope with (in Clark 1995,p.25).

23

I would suggest that one of the ways by which we learn to cope - or

to cope better - is by sharing of ourselves, sharing the strategies or

mechanisms that we have devised that, somehow, have enabled us to

survive and to live. The importance that I place on appropriate

personal disclosure also stems from my reaction and response to

what the Modernist artist Mies van der Rohe describes as the `trend

of our time towards anonymity - that the individual is losing

significance; his destiny is no longer what interests us; the decisive

achievements in all fields are impersonal and their authors for the

most part unknown' (in Fuller 1986,p.11). It is precisely this trend

towards anonymity that can result in so much suffering in health

care. The experience of the AIDS Quilt demonstrates that one of the

valuable functions of art lies, in part, in how the pain of an isolated

anonymity can be transformed.

In the discussion of what it means to be a Person, begun in chapter

three, I will suggest, however, that anonymity can be understood in

several ways - some forms of which may be completely contrary to what

is required to enable human beings to grow, develop and flourish -

while some forms are an integral part of our transcendent self.

Cri t ical personal ref lect ion is a lso essent ia l for an unders tanding

of the nature of ethics and the importance of moral reasoning ( see

Kekes 1990 and Johnson 1993) . Teaching the `tools' or `skills' of

cr i t ical se l f ref lect ion is an integral par t , I bel ieve, of my work

as an ar t is t . As I have descr ibed ear l ier , on one level the abi l i ty

to critique one's own work - and to learn from it - is an essential

part of making or doing art. On another level, that same ability to

24

stand back from oneself and ones actions and to `see' and imagine

the various implications of actions, ideas and goals is not only

necessary to enable one to change, adapt and grow, but can enhance

a sense of self-esteem, dignity, and autonomy in relationship with

the Other.

Methodology.

If painting subsequently proved the basis for many surprising insights and actions, I still thought of myself as on holiday from my formal research and free of any scholarly agenda. But good ethnographic questions are not always imposed, some may emerge from the fieldwork itself. The difference between Yuendumu and Papunya painting posed a contrast with considerable implications. These desert landscapes looked to me like the oldest in the world. The mountains were worn down to craggy hills, the valleys flat with millennia of settled sands. Everything about the place spoke to me of an indescribable age. But did it? . . .but I recognised that the epistemic problem raised here is precisely the one of such interest to Aboriginal philosophy, and the one the paintings themselves attempt to bridge. These paintings make the claim that the landscape does speak, and that it speaks directly to the initiated, and explains not only its own occurrence, but the order of the world. Perhaps this meditation brings me closer to some appreciation of Aboriginality than all my other efforts ( Michaels 1994,p 60).

These lengthy passages are quoted here for several reasons. In the

same way that Michaels ( an anthropologist ) came to a different

understanding of Aboriginality by participation in the art activities

of the Aboriginal community with which he was working, I believe that

i t may be from par t ic ipat ion in the var ious ar t pract ices within

heal th care settings that a different understanding of the ethical

dimensions of health care and artistic practice may emerge. However,

while some health care professionals have said that ` art activities

25

make cl inical pract ice easier ' - that by a shared par t ic ipat ion in

art they come to know the Person of the patient in ways that were not

open to them before - others have felt guilty - `art is not proper

health care practice' - or have been criticised for `wasting time

playing with paint when they should be doing proper work'. How these

various tensions are resolved will have great impact on the ways in

which art might be made an integral part of health care practice.

Secondly, as I have indicated before, the journey towards healing

and wholeness can be described as taking place within a landscape -

not only the physical landscape of the health care setting - but also a

metaphysical and spiritual landscape which is coloured and shaped

by a person's history and which continues to inform how present

experiences are interpreted and translated. Art works reveal, not

only the physical landscapes which have shaped our sense of Selves,

but also the landscape of illness as it is experienced by a particular

person.

Thirdly, Michaels' questions go to the heart of research methodology.

What is the appropriate methodology for a particular `subject'- in

this instance the ethical significance of artists and art programs in

health care settings? Inevitably, questions and hypotheses do form

the framework of a research agenda, as certain questions have framed

the landscape of mine. The question remains, however, how does the

framing of questions influence the wisdom or truth that is sought?

Michaels here seems to recognise that insights that emerge from `the

bottom up' - and from within art practice - will cri t ically affect

some questions that have been `imposed'. Allowing for something new

26

to emerge, something that might change the entire course of an

endeavour, is precisely what is involved in the process of art making

- and I would further suggest that such an approach ( of allowing a

different `seeing' to emerge ) is also demanded by ethical health care

practice. The quotations also raise the critical point of the status of

the researcher ie. that language ( and insights) are often privileged,

protected, or sanctioned by status. I am conscious of the latitude

that is often accorded some of my pronouncements in health care

settings because I am `an artist '. It is not considered strange for an

artist ( nor presumably for an eminent anthropologist) to speak of

craggy hills `speaking' to us. However, similar assertions made by a

person labelled `mentally ill ' or psychotic may receive a very

different response - they might be taken as evidence of delusion or

paranoia thus legitimising medical control and supporting a

treatment program (see Laing 1969; Foucault 1973; Szasz

1974,1991).

The art practices of many Aboriginal communities raise the further

question: is art essentially a communal activity or an individual

practice, or a combination of both? If so, what is the ethical

relationship between the individual and the communal - and a viewer?

As I have indicated previously in this chapter, I believe that the

dichotomy sometimes perceived to lie between the individual and the

communal is a false one (see Rank 1989). In this connection Michaels

(1994,p.53) refers to a notion of social responsibility of art ie. to the

relationship that exists within Aboriginal philosophy between

knowledge and responsibility - that access to the `meaning' of

paint ings is not ` f ree ' - i t carr ies a corresponding responsibi l i ty

27

to safeguard the welfare of the community. The resolution of these

several questions will have great importance in discussing how art

works produced in health care settings ought be regarded.

I have chosen the landscape of paradox as the way into my research

as it would appear that the issues surrounding the role and

significance of art in health care settings are a minefield of

paradoxes, or, as Mark Taylor (1993) has it, a series of `nots'. The

question is where does one start? The quotations above go to the

heart of epistemology - how we know what we know. Knowledge is

integral to notions of ontology - what is it to Be a knowing person?

Knowing persons are active. The nature of human actions leads to

notions of ethics and aesthetics. Central to all these questions is the

notion of an individual. What does it mean to be human - and

furthermore, what does it mean to be a Person - and what place does

art have in that personhood? On the one hand it would seem that

the basic constituents of our humanity are self evident - as Maritain

(1972) observes we are not skylarks or bears ie. we are not birds and

animals. However, as the various contemporary campaigns for and

against euthanasia, abortion and so forth have amply demonstrated,

modern notions of what constitutes a human person are far from such

simplicity. The notion of human identity is conceived not only as a

matter of biology, but as of requiring a certain quality of life, of

well-being ( see Goodman,M.F.1988, What is a Person?, Humana

Press, Clifton, N.J.).

In accord with all the above the methodology employed in this

exploration will take the form of what I have termed a `weaving'

28

approach. This form starts from `the silken threads' of an experience

and moves reflexively in a dialectic between the linear, the lateral

and the oblique, the abstract and the concrete. It is akin to the

orchestration of a group conversation rather than a linear dialogue -

although elements of this are incorporated as well. I do not think it

is necessary to say that one approach is `better' than another, merely

that they are different while there are many overlapping elements in

both. However, it could be suggested that recent developments in

the cognitive sciences would suggest that the `weaving' pattern of

exploration, research and evaluation mirrors more closely the way in

which human persons reason more so than a purely linear approach (

see Lakoff 1987; Buzan 1993; Johnson 1993).

From a feminist perspective, Nielsen (1990) has argued that there

cannot be just one `right' methodological approach to research and

investigation. Humans perceive, feel, and reflect in a multiplicity of

ways. In using this weaving approach, therefore, some strands

could be called autobiographical, some could be called realist, some

may be termed confessional (Van Maanen 1988) and some may be

termed philosophical and some theological. Lauritzen (1991) has

argued that moral reflection ought to involve a dialectical movement

between theoretical principles and personal experience ie. our

reactions to particular cases (p.9). Thus, the weaving approach

reflects similar concerns and seeks to mirror the way in which

experience gives birth to a number of strands of thought and

description, links up the present with the past and suggests different

ways of seeing the future - that is, personal experience is integrated

into the research.

29

The weaving approach that I have adopted shares some of the elements

of Rawls'(1971) procedure of `reflective equilibrium' but shares

more with Nussbaum's (1990) drawing together of literary theory

and ethical theory in a `perceptive equilibrium in which concrete

perceptions "hang beautifully together", both with one another and

with the agent's general principles; an equilibrium that is always

ready to reconstitute itself in response to the new'(Nussbaum

1990,p.182,183). This procedure would also include a recognition,

as Nussbaum further says;

.. .that procedures ( of perceptive equilibrium) themselves are value-laden, and thus part and parcel of the holistic enterprise they organize; replaceable, like any other part, to the end of deeper and more inclusive attunement. So we must examine them at each stage, asking whether they are capable of doing full justice to everything that our sense of life wants to include (1990,p.186).

In this sense, there is a parallel to be drawn between this research

work and the work of painting. Each `work' is an attempt to find

meaning in a range of personal experiences - and `make visible' those

meanings so that they may be shared with others. As I have said

previously in this chapter, sharing of ourselves is an imperative of

our humanity - it is an essential need that we have as social beings.

The `weaving' approach could then be described as coming within the

methods of Qualitative Research as described by Denzin and Lincon

(eds. 1994,p.417) I have used this approach extensively. For

example, in some health care settings I was, initially, invariably

introduced as `the art therapist ' and my work was described as `art

therapy'. That experience could be described as a personal and

singular experience and my `gut resistance' to such an introduction

30

and description as a personal and idiosyncratic response. I may

perceive the experience in a certain way, for example that it was felt

that only `therapists' should work in health care settings. I may

draw certain other conclusions, for example I may think that in this

particular setting the role and significance of art in the health and

flourishing of Persons was poorly understood or misunderstood. I

may further think that art is only viewed as a diversion, an activity

to keep people occupied and to have, perhaps, some art work to

interpret and use for diagnosis and other therapy regimes. If,

however, other artists working in health care settings report ( either

in the form of personal conversations or in the form of published

work (Hastings-Smith 1987;Kaspari 1995) the same attitudes

expressed towards them, it could be suggested that my personal

experiences and perceptions take on a different hue. These

experiences, responses, and the hypotheses derived from them might

be described as indicating a practice which must be examined and

analysed in the manner I have outlined above.

In researching the fields surrounding my hypotheses, a number of

authors will enter the weaving process, some adding directly to and

confirming the pattern, some suggesting novel motifs or textures that

add a depth and character to the emerging textile of thought. Some,

for example Mark Taylor (1995) in his observation that ` often

opposition finds itself in imitation', will send me back to re-examine

some of my initial resistances to being described as an art therapist.

In so doing, I must also critically re-examine some of my own

practices and pre-judgments.

31

The Structure of Presentation.

Returning to the words of Foucault and to the questions raised by the

experience in the Hospice where the man with AIDS defined himself

as an artist and creator until the time of his death - it could be

possible to structure this exploration in a number of ways. It could

be that the important question `What is Art?' would be the logical

place to begin. The answers to that question would then operate

`upwards' to suggest ways that `art ' might (or should) inform models

of persons, models of health care and models of community.

However, as Art is done and experienced by Persons within

communities (however they are understood), this investigation will

begin with an exploration of what it means to be a Person - starting

from a exploration of Dissanayake's question ie. `If art is present in

all cultures ( which it is to some degree or another) it must have

some evolutionary benefit? What is that benefit? What is art for? '

(1988,1992) What is the purpose of art for a `sick' person or for

someone who may be at the point of death? The results of this

exploration will in turn influence and inform the question `what does

it mean to be a person?' and this in turn will influence, inform and

critique notions of ethics, aesthetics, health, health care practice and

community. This chapter has sought to situate the thesis and to

identify the central issues. The following outline briefly summarises

the structure of the remaining chapters of the thesis;

Chapter two. A bio-evolutionary approach to the question `What is

ar t? ' wi l l suggest that i f ar t i s present in a l l cul tures of the world

it must have some evolutionary benefit. What that evolutionary

32

benefit may be is the question to be explored. However, as

Dissanayake ( 1988,1992) has suggested, an understanding of the

function of art as an essential human need as it appears in many

`traditional' societies, may critique the current Western view of art

which sees it as the province of an elite group of people called

Artists. The ontological and ethical significance of art will also

critique some modern notions of what it means to be a Person.

In Chapter three I will consider the significance of the Modern

Period in shaping contemporary notions of person, art, ethics and

aesthetics. Critical paradigms of health care, for example, the bio-

medical model, owe much to the influence of rationalism begun with

the work of Rene Descartes in the seventeenth century.

Chapter four. The Nature of Experience and the Nature of Artistic

Experience. Persons experience themselves in their embodiness.

Understanding the nature of Persons as imaginative, interpretative,

interrelated and interdependent must mean that the form and function

of art is intrinsically relational. Art can be considered as the visible

form of an experience - a visible form of a person's way of `seeing'.

`Visible form' applies literally to the visual arts. However, I would

suggest that other art forms - drama, music, dance, poetry and

literature - also `make visible' if `seeing' is understood in a multi -

dimensional way. Again, it could be suggested that if art is the

visible expression of interdependence and interrelatedness, then it is

essentially grounded in community. May (1991) has suggested that

experiences of illness illuminate the trauma, suffering and

33

dislocation that is experienced in `ordinary' life. This chapter will

explore the nature of those various experiences.

Chapter five. Medicine, Art, Health and Healing. How does a

person experience illness and suffering within the context of a health

care setting? As art in health care settings is commonly

conceptualized as meaning only art as `therapy', this chapter will

begin with an overview of some approaches to art therapy. The

limitations of such models of art in health care will be discussed and

some different ways of understanding the significance of art - as

essential for flourishing and well-being - will be considered.

Chapter six. The Ethics of Art/ Artists in Health Care Settings.

This chapter will consider some particular ethical concerns which

arise from the conceptualizing of art in health care as an ethical

endeavour. I will suggest that the fields of aesthetics and ethics be

reunited and that both ought inform notions of a just care for those

who are sick and suffering. The implications of this for notions of

community will be explored.

34

C H A P T E R 2 A BIO-EVOLUTIONARY UNDERSTANDING OF ART IN WHAT IT MEANS TO BE HUMAN.

S i n c e a l l h u m a n s o c i e t i e s , p a s t a n d p r e s e n t , s o f a r a s w e k n o w , m a k e a n d r e s p o n d t o a r t , i t m u s t c o n t r i b u t e s o m e t h i n g e s s e n t i a l t o h u m a n l i f e . B u t w h a t ?

E l l e n D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 8 8 , p . x .

L i k e m a n y q u e s t i o n s n o o n e b o t h e r s t o a s k , ` W h a t i s a r t f o r ? ' o n l y s h o w s i t s i n t r i g u i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s w h e n o n e s t a r t s p r o d d i n g i t a b o u t . A n d t h e n o t h e r n u m e r o u s q u e s t i o n s a r e r e v e a l e d n e s t l i n g u n d e r i t s s k i r t s : W h a t i s a r t ? I s a r t n e c e s s a r y ? W h e r e d i d a r t c o m e f r o m ? W h a t e f f e c t s - o n i n d i v i d u a l s a n d o n s o c i e t i e s - d o e s a r t h a v e ?

E l l e n D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 8 8 , p . 3 .

H o w a r e w e t o u n d e r s t a n d a r t ? T h e a r t o f t h e A I D S Q u i l t a n d t h e m a n

w i t h A I D S p a i n t i n g w i s h i n g t o p a i n t t h e d a y b e f o r e h e d i e d s u g g e s t

t h e r e a r e s o m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f a r t t h a t a r e c o n t r a r y t o t h e t h r u s t

o f t h i s t h e s i s . T h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s

c h a l l e n g e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s t h a t w o u l d s e e a r t , f o r e x a m p l e , a s

e x c l u s i v e a n d a s s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e l i v e s o f ` o r d i n a r y ' p e o p l e ; a s

b e i n g c o n c e r n e d w i t h a n i s o l a t e d p r a c t i c e p e r f o r m e d b y ` t e c h n i c a l

e x p e r t s ' c a l l e d A r t i s t s ; a s b e i n g d e f i n e d b y t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f ` a r t

o b j e c t s ' w h o s e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t i s a n a r t g a l l e r y o r , a s a

c l i n i c a l i n s t r u m e n t - a s a ` t h e r a p y ' o r a ` d i v e r s i o n ' . T h e v i e w o f

a r t t h a t I r e t u r n t o i s b a s e d o n a b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y a p p r o a c h . T h i s

p a r t o f t h e r e s e a r c h w i l l s e e k a f u l l a c c o u n t o f a r t u n d e r s t o o d a s

e s s e n t i a l t o h u m a n l i f e a n d w e l l - b e i n g a n d w i l l d e s c r i b e t h e p l a c e i t

h a s i n w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a p e r s o n . T h e c l a i m s b y D i s s a n a y a k e a b o v e

s u g g e s t t h a t i f a r t i s p r e s e n t i n a l l c u l t u r e s ( a s i t i s t o s o m e

d e g r e e o r o t h e r ) i t m u s t h a v e s o m e e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t o t h e r w i s e i t

w o u l d n o t h a v e s u r v i v e d . E v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t s ( o r a d a p t a t i o n s )

35

s p e a k o f e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s f o r s u r v i v a l i e . f l o u r i s h i n g r a t h e r

t h a n j u s t e x i s t i n g . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , i l l n e s s

a n d t h e s u f f e r i n g w h i c h o f t e n a c c o m p a n i e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s ,

f r e q u e n t l y m e a n s t h a t t h e s i c k p e r s o n e x p e r i e n c e t h e m s e l v e s a s

` s u b s i s t i n g ' r a t h e r t h a n ` f l o u r i s h i n g ' . T h e r e f o r e , i t m i g h t b e

a r g u e d t h a t a n y e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s t h a t w e h a v e a s P e r s o n s a r e

i n f o r m e d b y s o m e n e c e s s a r y d i m e n s i o n s o r b e n e f i t s t h a t a r e d i r e c t l y

r e l a t e d t o h o w w e l i v e a n d f l o u r i s h a s ` h e a l t h y ' - a n d a s ` s i c k ' -

p e r s o n s . F u r t h e r , i t w o u l d b e r e a s o n a b l e t o s a y , a s S p e n c e r ( i n

C o l e s 1 9 8 3 , p . 4 ) h a s d o n e , t h a t s u c h e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s w o u l d

e s c a l a t e i n t i m e s o f c r i s i s - s u c h a s w h e n p r o f o u n d c h a n g e s a r e

b r o u g h t a b o u t i n a p e r s o n ' s l i f e d u e t o a c c i d e n t , i l l h e a l t h , l o s s o r

s u f f e r i n g . I t w o u l d f u r t h e r s e e m u n r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s e r t t h a t

e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s a r e n o t s h a r e d b y a l l p e r s o n s t o s o m e d e g r e e o r

o t h e r .

F r o m a b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r s p e c t i v e a r t i s p r o p e r l y t o b e c o n c e i v e d

a s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d a n d i n t e g r a l t o h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g . A r t ,

t h e n , i s e s p e c i a l l y d e m a n d e d a t t h o s e t i m e s w h e n f l o u r i s h i n g i s

t h r e a t e n e d o r h a m p e r e d . A s a r t m a k i n g e n a b l e s t h e s u r v i v a l a n d

w e l l - b e i n g o f b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e g r o u p i t h a s o n t o l o g i c a l

a n d e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w h i c h h a s b o t h p e r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l

d i m e n s i o n s . I n t h i s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a r t i s s e e n a s d i s p l a y i n g f o u r

d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . F i r s t l y , a r t i s e s s e n t i a l l y p r a c t i c a l . I t i s

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l w a y s i n w h i c h p e r s o n s e x p e r i e n c e

t h e m s e l v e s a s i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h o t h e r s a n d t h e i r s u r r o u n d s . I t h a s t o

d o w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n c a p a c i t y t o s t r u c t u r e p e r c e p t i o n - t o

c r e a t e a n d i m p o s e f o r m w h i c h e n a b l e p a t t e r n s o f m e a n i n g s t o b e

36

c o n s t r u c t e d . S e c o n d l y , a r t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h o t h e r e s s e n t i a l a n d

s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n n e e d s i e . t h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e , t o h o p e , t o

o r d e r t h e w e b s o f m e a n i n g b y w h i c h p e r s o n s ` m a k e s e n s e ' o f t h e

v a r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e i r l i v e s . T h e s e v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s w e r e

n o t ( a n d a r e n o t ) f r i v o l o u s n o r u s e l e s s - t h e y h a v e a m o r a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h a t t h e y e n a b l e p e r s o n s t o c r e a t i v e l y r e s p o n d t o

c h a n g e s i n t h e i r s u r r o u n d s b y m e a n s o f w h a t w e n o w c a l l ` t h e a r t s ' -

d r a m a , m u s i c , p a i n t i n g , d a n c e a n d s o o n . T h e a b i l i t y t o t r a n s f o r m

a n d t r a n s c e n d f e e l i n g s o f a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y e v o k e d b y t h e

p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e b y w a y o f a r t m a k i n g b e h a v i o u r s e n a b l e d t h e

s u r v i v a l o f b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e g r o u p t o w h i c h t h e y

b e l o n g e d . T h i r d l y , t h e n , a r t h a s a n e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t w a s

c o n c e r n e d w i t h g r a v e a n d s e r i o u s m a t t e r s - o f t e n o f a r e l i g i o u s o r

s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e - t h a t w e n t t o t h e e n d s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e

g r o u p - t h e i r s u r v i v a l a n d ` f l o u r i s h i n g ' . F o u r t h l y , t h e b e h a v i o u r s o f

a r t m a k i n g d r a w t o g e t h e r t h e e t h i c a l a n d t h e a e s t h e t i c . A r t m a k i n g

i s e x p e r i e n c e d a s a e s t h e t i c a l l y p l e a s i n g a n d s a t i s f y i n g b y a l l

d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e p e r s o n - p h y s i c a l , c o g n i t i v e , i m a g i n a t i v e a n d

s e n s u a l . T h e i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m e v o k e d i n b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d

t h e g r o u p f e e l i n g s o f d e l i g h t a n d p l e a s u r e a n d p r o m o t e d a s e n s e o f

m a s t e r y , c o n t r o l , s e l f a n d c o m m u n a l d i s c i p l i n e . T h e s e v a r i o u s

f a c t o r s e n a b l e d a c o m m u n a l l i f e t o b e l i v e d a n d e n h a n c e d t h e

c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l o f b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e g r o u p .

T h e n e c e s s i t y f o r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e ` p a s t ' t o s e e k s o m e d i f f e r e n t

a p p r e c i a t i o n s o f t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a r t s l i e s , i n p a r t , i n

a p h e n o m e n o n c a l l e d ` p r e s e n t i s m ' . P r e s e n t i s m p r i v i l e g e s t h e p r e s e n t

a n d t e n d s t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e a p e x o f a l l w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e i s

37

t o b e f o u n d i n t h e p r e s e n t , o r , i f n o t i n t h e i m m e d i a t e p r e s e n t , t h e

f u l f i l m e n t o f k n o w l e d g e i s o n l y a m a t t e r o f t i m e - a n d / o r m o n e y .

P a r a d o x i c a l l y , a s R a k a t a n s k y ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 7 4 ) s a y s , h e a l t h c a r e s y s t e m s

o f t e n p r i v i l e g e a p a t i e n t ' s p a s t ;

I t i s o f t e n t h e c a s e i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l c a r e o f o l d e r a d u l t s , t h a t t h e i r p a s t i s p r i v i l e g e d a s t h e n o r m a t i v e t i m e o f t h e i r l i v e s , a g a i n s t t h e p r e s e n t , w h i c h i s a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d a s s o m e t h i n g l e s s .

A c o n c e n t r a t e d f o c u s o n t h e p r e s e n t t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f a l l h i s t o r i c a l

m o v e m e n t s o b s c u r e s t h e f a c t t h a t h u m a n s a r e , n o t o n l y h i s t o r i c a l

c r e a t u r e s b u t , a r e , o f n e c e s s i t y , i n a c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f e v o l u t i o n i e .

t h a t t h e y a r e c o n s t a n t l y f i n d i n g w a y s o f a d a p t i n g - w e l l o r b a d l y - t o

e v e r c h a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s - b e t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t r i v i a l o r

m a j o r . A t r i v i a l e x a m p l e - t h a t I a m w r i t i n g t h i s p a p e r o n a c o m p u t e r

r a t h e r t h a n w r i t i n g i t i n l o n g h a n d w i t h p e n a n d p a p e r - t e s t i f i e s t o t h e

f a c t t h a t I h a v e c h a n g e d a n d a d a p t e d t o s o m e a s p e c t s o f m o d e r n

t e c h n o l o g y . I t m i g h t n o t b e s u c h a t r i v i a l e x a m p l e w h e n o n e

c o n s i d e r s t h e i m p a c t o f c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y o n t h e a r c h i v a l w e a l t h o f

a s o c i e t y , n o r , t h e i m p a c t o f m o d e r n m e d i a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ( l i k e t h e

I n t e r n e t ) o n w h a t a r e p r e s e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f

p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y s u c h o w n e r s h i p a n d a u t h o r s h i p . S o m e o f t h e

c o m m u n a l p a i n t i n g s d o n e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s , f o r e x a m p l e , a n d

s o m e j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s w r i t t e n o n t h e I n t e r n e t , r a i s e s i m i l a r e t h i c a l

q u e s t i o n s o f o w n e r s h i p a n d a u t h o r s h i p a n d c h a l l e n g e t h e s t a t u s w e

c u r r e n t l y a c c o r d b o t h n o t i o n s .

G a b l i k ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 3 ) ( t h e a u t h o r o f T h e R e e n c h a n t m e n t o f A r t ) a s s e r t s

t h a t i t d o e s n o t m a t t e r h o w w e g o t t o w h e r e w e a r e n o w ( d e s c r i b e d a s

38

a s o c i a l l y f r a g m e n t e d a n d d i s e n c h a n t e d e x i s t e n c e ) w h a t m a t t e r s i s

w h a t w e a r e g o i n g t o d o n o w a n d i n t h e f u t u r e . I d i s a g r e e . U n l e s s w e

c a n u n d e r s t a n d s o m e o f t h e d e e p l y r o o t e d c a u s e s o f o u r p r e s e n t

f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d d i s e n c h a n t m e n t ( w i t h w h i c h d e s c r i p t i o n I d o

a g r e e ) t h e r e m e d i e s w e s e e k t o i m p l e m e n t m i g h t h a v e l i t t l e c h a n c e o f

s u c c e s s , o r , m i g h t , i n d e e d , b e t h e w r o n g r e m e d i e s .

T h e c l a i m b y D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 2 ) t h a t a r t h a s a n e v o l u t i o n a r y

b e n e f i t i s o n e t h a t I s e e k t o e s t a b l i s h a s c r i t i c a l a n d c e n t r a l t o t h i s

r e s e a r c h . T h e q u e s t i o n s t o b e a n s w e r e d a r e W h a t i s t h a t b e n e f i t ? a n d

W h y i t i s o f s u c h e v o l u t i o n a r y i m p o r t a n c e ? F u r t h e r m o r e , w h a t e v e r

t h a t e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t m i g h t b e , r e a s o n a b l y , i t m u s t e i t h e r s t i l l b e

o p e r a t i v e , o r t h e r e m u s t b e s t r o n g a n d c o m p e l l i n g e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t

t h a t h u m a n s n o l o n g e r n e e d a r t ( h o w e v e r i t i s d e f i n e d ) . T h e l a t t e r

p o s i t i o n i s , I b e l i e v e , i n c o r r e c t .

A ` T r a d i t i o n a l ' U n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e R o l e a n d S i g n i f i c a n c e o f A r t .

I n w h a t h a v e b e e n t e r m e d ` t r a d i t i o n a l ' o r ` p r e - m o d e r n ' s o c i e t i e s t h e r e

w a s n o s p e c i a l w o r d f o r ` a r t ' o r a r t m a k i n g a c t i v i t i e s . S u c h a n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g m i g h t s t i l l p r e v a i l i n s o m e A u s t r a l i a n A b o r i g i n a l

c o m m u n i t i e s a l t h o u g h i t m a y b e a m i s t a k e t o s u b s u m e a l l

c o n t e m p o r a r y A b o r i g i n a l a r t u n d e r t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n . N i c k o l l s

( 1 9 9 4 , p . 7 9 ) , a c o n t e m p o r a r y A b o r i g i n a l a r t i s t , a s s e r t s t h a t i t i s a m y t h

t h a t A b o r i g i n a l a r t i s t i m e l e s s a n d u n c h a n g i n g . S u c h a v i e w i g n o r e s

t h e i n n o v a t i v e w a y s A b o r i g i n a l a r t i s t s i n c o r p o r a t e n e w i d e a s , d e s i g n s

a n d m a t e r i a l s i n t o t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k . F u r t h e r , a s M i c h a e l s

( 1 9 9 4 ) p o i n t s o u t , t h e t e r m ` A b o r i g i n a l A r t ' o n l y h a s r e l e v a n c e

39

o u t s i d e a n A b o r i g i n a l c o m m u n i t y - i n s i d e t h e c o m m u n i t y t h e a r t

f u n c t i o n s a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f c o m m u n a l l i f e . H o w e v e r , i t m i g h t b e

t r u e t o s a y t h a t w h a t w e i n M o d e r n W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s c a l l a r t -

p a i n t i n g s , d a n c e , m u s i c a n d s o o n - w e r e n o t ` a r t o b j e c t s ' m a d e b y

s e p a r a t e d a n d i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s c a l l e d ` a r t i s t s ' . S u c h a r t w o r k s ,

D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 ) a r g u e s , w e r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f g r o u p a n d

c o m m u n a l l i f e a n d p e r f o r m e d s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s . O f t e n t h e y w e r e a n

e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f c e r e m o n i e s a r t i c u l a t i n g c o m m o n m e a n i n g s a n d

v a l u e s , f r e q u e n t l y o f a s p i r i t u a l o r r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e ( s e e R a n k 1 9 6 8

a n d M i c h a e l s 1 9 9 4 ) . A s s u c h t h e s e a r t a c t i v i t i e s c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s

a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e ` l a n g u a g e o f e x p e r i e n c e ' o f a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p .

S u c h t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s w e r e a l s o ` p r e - l i t e r a t e ' , t h a t i s , c o m m u n a l

b e l i e f s a n d k n o w l e d g e - o r t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e g r o u p ` m a d e s e n s e '

o f t h e i r v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s - w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d o r a l l y b y w a y o f

s t o r i e s a n d w h a t w e w o u l d t e r m ` t h e a r t s ' .

T h e E v o l u t i o n o f C u l t u r a l F o r m s .

O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t w a y s i n w h i c h h u m a n s h a v e e v o l v e d a n d

a d a p t e d t o t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t i s b y w a y o f ` i m p o s i n g c u l t u r e ' o n t h e i r

s u r r o u n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . A m o d e r n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s o m e c r i t i c a l

t e r m s - s u c h a s ` i m p o s i n g ' a n d ` s u r v i v a l ' - m i g h t a l s o b e t e r m e d

m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . F o r e x a m p l e , D a r w i n ' s o f t q u o t e d p h r a s e ` t h e

s u r v i v a l o f t h e f i t t e s t ' i s o f t e n c o n s t r u e d , i n m o d e r n p a r l a n c e , a s t h e

s t r o n g e s t , t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l , w i l l w i n o u t . I t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t

s u c h a t e r m i s o f t e n u s e d t o e x c u s e ` b u l l y b e h a v i o u r ' a n d s o m e

q u e s t i o n a b l e b u s i n e s s a n d m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n

o f t e n b e i n g d r a w n i s t h a t , i f o n e c a n n o t s u r v i v e s u c h u n e t h i c a l

40

p r a c t i c e s , o n e i s w e a k , ` h a s n ' t g o t w h a t i t t a k e s ' a n d t h e r e f o r e

d e s e r v e s t o l o s e . D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s t h a t s u c h a n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g - ` f i t n e s s ' o u g h t m o r e t o b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s ` f i t t i n g ' i e . i n h a r m o n y w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f h u m a n s a n d

w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e . S i m i l a r l y , ` t h e i m p o s i t i o n

o f c u l t u r e ' o u g h t n o t t o b e u n d e r s to o d i n a m o d e r n d e r o g a t o r y s e n s e a s

i n d i c a t i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o r a n

u n c a r i n g d e s t r u c t i o n o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s c u l t u r e . I n D i s s a n a y a k e ' s

u n d e r s t a n d i n g , w h i c h s e e m s m o r e r e a s o n a b l e , t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f

c u l t u r e o u g h t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d m o r e i n t e r m s o f a ` h u m a n i s i n g ' o f

t h e i r s u r r o u n d s - i m p o s i n g f o r m o n n a t u r e . S u c h i m p o s i n g o f f o r m

m u s t a g a i n b e ` f i t t i n g ' a n d h a r m o n i o u s w i t h t h e n e e d s o f b o t h h u m a n s

a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , o t h e r w i s e , a s D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s , t h e

i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m w o u l d n o t b e o f e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t i e . i t w o u l d

d e s t r o y t h e v e r y e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t h u m a n s n e e d e d t o s u r v i v e . S o m e o f

t h e m o d e r n e c o l o g i c a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o v e m e n t s w o u l d a p p e a r t o

b e s e e k i n g t h i s m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h a r m o n y a n d f i t n e s s

o f h u m a n s w i t h t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t - a v i e w s u p p o r t e d b y m a n y w r i t e r s ,

a m o n g t h e m H i l l m a n 1 9 7 5 ; G a b l i k 1 9 9 1 ; M o o r e 1 9 9 2 ; a n d

S k o l i m o w s k i 1 9 9 4 .

T h e C a p a c i t y t o R e a s o n , t o I m a g i n e a n d t o H o p e .

A s h u m a n s e v o l v e d t h e y d e v e l o p e d t h e c a p a c i t y t o r e a s o n , t o i m a g i n e ,

a n d t o h o p e i e . t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e n o t j u s t

i n s t i n c t i v e a s w i t h a n i m a l s b u t w e r e s t r u c t u r e d i n a s p e c i f i c a l l y

h u m a n w a y ( s e e D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 8 8 ; 1 9 9 2 ) . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y

i m p o s e d c u l t u r a l f o r m s o n t h e w a y t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d t h e m s e l v e s a s

41

b e i n g e m b o d i e d i n t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t - t h e y w e r e a b l e t o c o n s t r u c t

c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n i n g w h i c h c o u l d ` c o n t r o l ' o r ` m a k e s e n s e ' o f t h e i r

e x p e r i e n c e s i e . a s e n s e o f m e a n i n g w a s d e v e l o p e d . T h e c a p a c i t y t o

i m a g i n e a n d t o h o p e i s o f g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e t o t h i s s t u d y . T h e

n o t i o n o f a n i m a g i n a t i o n i s a c o m p l e x o n e w h i c h W a r n o c k

( 1 9 7 6 , p . 1 9 6 ) d e s c r i b e s t h u s ;

T h e r e i s a p o w e r i n t h e h u m a n m i n d w h i c h i s a t w o r k i n o u r e v e r y d a y p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d a n d i s a l s o a t w o r k i n o u r t h o u g h t s a b o u t w h a t i s a b s e n t ; w h i c h e n a b l e s u s t o s e e t h e w o r l d , w h e t h e r p r e s e n t o r a b s e n t a s s i g n i f i c a n t a n d a l s o t o p r e s e n t t h i s v i s i o n t o o t h e r s , f o r t h e m t o s h a r e o r r e j e c t . A n d t h i s p o w e r . . . i s n o t o n l y i n t e l l e c t u a l . I t s i m p e t u s c o m e s f r o m t h e e m o t i o n s a s m u c h a s f r o m r e a s o n , f r o m t h e h e a r t a s m u c h a s f r o m t h e h e a d .

T h e i m a g i n a t i o n ( a n d t h e v a r i o u s d e v i c e s o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n s u c h a s

m e t a p h o r ) t h e n d e r i v e s b o t h f r o m t h e ` d e s i r e f o r s e n s o r y c o n c r e t e n e s s '

( A r n h e i m 1 9 8 6 , p . 1 5 3 ) a n d f r o m a d e s i r e t o ` g o b e y o n d w h a t i s

i m m e d i a t e l y i n f r o n t o f o u r n o s e s ' ( W a r n o c k 1 9 7 6 , p . 2 0 1 ) - t o t h e r e b y

c o n s t r u c t a n o t h e r r e a l i t y t h a t ` e x i s t s ' b u t i n a d i f f e r e n t f o r m . T h i s

p r o c e s s c a n b e i l l u s t r a t e d b y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e ` r e a l i t y ' c o n s t r u c t e d b y

a n a r t i s t i n a w o r k o f a r t . T h e r e , t h e a r t i s t ;

c o n s t r u c t s a n e x t e r n a l f o r m w h i c h i s t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s s i g n i f y i n g s o m e t h i n g w h i c h d o e s n o t , i n t h e s a m e s e n s e , e x i s t . B o t h a r t i s t a n d s p e c t a t o r h a v e t o d e t a c h t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e w o r l d i n o r d e r t o t h i n k o f c e r t a i n o b j e c t s i n t h e w o r l d i n a n e w w a y , a s s i g n i f y i n g s o m e t h i n g e l s e ( W a r n o c k 1 9 7 6 , p . 1 9 7 )

H o p e , t o o , c a n b e v a r i o u s l y d e f i n e d , b u t t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t I

w o u l d a d o p t a s f i t t i n g t o t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y n a t u r e o f h u m a n s i s

p r o v i d e d b y A l d r i d g e ( 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 9 ) q u o t i n g H e r t h ` h o p e . . . i s a n i n n e r

p o w e r d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t h e e n r i c h m e n t o f b e i n g ' . M a c I n t y r e , q u o t e d

b y C a s s e l l ( 1 9 9 0 , p . 4 3 ) , p r o v i d e s a n o t h e r d e f i n i t i o n t h a t i s a l s o

v a l u a b l e f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s n o t i o n . ` H o p e i s i n

p l a c e p r e c i s e l y i n t h e f a c e o f e v i l t h a t t e m p t s u s t o d e s p a i r , a n d

42

m o r e e s p e c i a l l y t h a t e v i l t h a t b e l o n g s s p e c i f i c a l l y t o o u r a g e a n d

c o n d i t i o n . . . t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f h o p e i s , t h e r e f o r e , a b e l i e f i n a

r e a l i t y t h a t t r a n s c e n d s w h a t i s a v a i l a b l e a s e v i d e n c e ' .

T h e i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m o n n a t u r e - o r t h e h u m a n i s i n g o f n a t u r e - c a n

b e u n d e r s t o o d , I w o u l d s u g g e s t , i n t h e p r o s a i c b u t c o m m o n i m p u l s e

t o g a r d e n - t o c r e a t e a g a r d e n - t o h u m a n i s e a p e r s o n ' s p a r t i c u l a r

e n v i r o n m e n t . F u r t h e r , i t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t i n g a r d e n i n g u n d e r

d i f f i c u l t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , f o r e x a m p l e i n a r e a s w h e r e b o r e w a t e r i s

n o t o r i o u s l y h a r s h o n p l a n t s , o r d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f p r o l o n g e d d r o u g h t ,

t h e t e x t u r e o f t h e a b s t r a c t n o t i o n o f h o p e m a y b e s e e n . T h e s u r v i v a l

o f a s t r u g g l i n g g e r a n i u m o r r o s e b u s h b e c o m e s t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h

t h e h u m a n g a r d e n e r c a n k e e p t h e c h a o s , o r t h e ` t e r r i b l e ' u n r e l e n t i n g ,

c o n t i n g e n t w o r l d o f n a t u r e a t b a y . T h e s t r u g g l i n g p l a n t b e c o m e s a

t a c t i l e a n d t a n g i b l e s y m b o l o f c o n t i n u i t y a n d o f h o p e .

O f n e c e s s i t y t h i s b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o r a t i o n i s b r i e f a n d s k e t c h y .

H o w e v e r , D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 ) a r g u e s t h a t , a s h u m a n s e v o l v e d , t h e y

d e v e l o p e d d i s t i n c t i v e l y h u m a n n e e d s , s o m e o f w h i c h w e r e t h e n e e d

f o r p l a y , f o r r e l i g i o n , f o r r i t u a l , a n d f o r a r t . P l a y , r i t u a l , r e l i g i o n

a n d a r t m a k i n g s h a r e m a n y s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s , b u t t h e y a r e n o t t h e

s a m e t h i n g . I t m i g h t b e s a i d , h o w e v e r , t h a t ` t h e a e s t h e t i c i s n e i t h e r

r e d u c i b l e t o n o r s e p a r a b l e f r o m e t h i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s '

a n d t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t e g r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m ( M a r k T a y l o r

1 9 9 3 , p . 4 ) .

43

T h e E v o l u t i o n o f ` t h e A r t s ' .

O n e o f t h e c u l t u r a l f o r m s t h a t e v o l v e d i n t h i s p a t t e r n o f m a k i n g

s e n s e o r m e a n i n g o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e , w a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h a t

w e c a l l ` t h e a r t s ' . A r t i n t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e i s w h a t D i s s a n a y a k e

( 1 9 8 8 ) h a s t e r m e d ` m a k i n g s p e c i a l ' - a m u l t i f a c e t e d t e r m b u t

e s s e n t i a l l y i t m e a n s t h a t a r t m a k i n g w a s i n v o l v e d w i t h t h i n g s t h a t

w e r e o f p r o f o u n d , h u m a n s i g n i f i c a n c e i e . t h e y w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h

m a t t e r s t h a t w e n t t o ` t h e e n d s ' o f h u m a n l i f e , t h a t i s s u r v i v a l o r

l i v i n g i n t h e g r e a t e s t h a r m o n y w i t h s e l f , t h e g r o u p a n d t h e

e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t c h a l l e n g e s a n d c r i t i q u e s

s o m e m o d e r n n o t i o n s w h i c h s e e a r t - o r a r t o b j e c t s - a s t r i v i a l , a s

p u r e l y d e c o r a t i v e , a s a f i n a n c i a l ` i n v e s t m e n t ' , a s a l u x u r y , a

d i v e r s i o n o r a s a ` l e i s u r e p u r s u i t ' .

I t m a y b e a s w e l l t o t a k e a s h o r t p a u s e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y

e x p l o r a t i o n a t t h i s s t a g e t o h i g h l i g h t t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t I a s c r i b e

t o t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n o f a r t a n d a r t m a k i n g . F i r s t l y , r e f e r r i n g

a g a i n t o t h e t e n d e n c y t o p r i v i l e g e t h e p r e s e n t , i t i s o f t e n f o r g o t t e n

t h a t A u s t r a l i a , a s a W e s t e r n s o c i e t y , i s o n l y s o m e 2 0 0 y e a r s o l d ;

t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n , s o i n f l u e n t i a l i n W e s t e r n p h i l o s o p h y ( a n d

h e n c e t o A u s t r a l i a ) , i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 , 0 0 0 y e a r s o l d ; a n d

A u s t r a l i a n A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e i s t h o u g h t t o b e a r o u n d 4 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s

o l d . I m p o r t a n t t h o u g h a l l t h e s e p e r i o d s o f c u l t u r e m i g h t b e , t h e y

m i g h t a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d ` b l i n k s o f a n e y e ' i n e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r m s .

I t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e , t h e r e f o r e , t o a s s u m e t h a t w e , a s m o d e r n

W e s t e r n h u m a n b e i n g s , s t i l l c a r r y w i t h i n u s t h e n e e d , a n d t h e

44

` m e m o r y ' , o f a t r a d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e a r t s ( s e e R a n k 1 9 8 4 ;

N c N i f f 1 9 8 6 ; a n d A r n h e i m 1 9 9 2 ) .

I t w o u l d s e e m e s s e n t i a l , t h e n , t o f i r s t f u l l y e x p l o r e w h a t w a s

i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e a r t s i n a t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . S e c o n d l y , a

c e n t r a l t h r e a d o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i s t h e n o t i o n o f ` h e a l i n g a r t ' i e .

t h a t t h e a r t s f u l f i l e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s t h a t e n a b l e u s t o

t r a n s f o r m , t r a n s c e n d o r r e d e e m t h e s u f f e r i n g t h a t a p p e a r s a n e s s e n t i a l

f e a t u r e o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e - p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s .

T h e m e d i u m s o f a r t e n a b l e u s t o s u r v i v e , t o f l o u r i s h a n d t o r e a c h o u r

f u l l p o t e n t i a l a s h u m a n p e r s o n s . A n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f w h a t w a s

i n v o l v e d w i t h a r t m a k i n g i n a t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e m a y s e r v e t o c r i t i q u e

s o m e w e l l m e a n t , b u t o f t e n , I w o u l d s u g g e s t , m i s g u i d e d , a t t e m p t s t o

r e t u r n t h e a r t s t o a m o r e ` c o m m u n a l f o c u s ' - w i t h o u t a n y r e a l

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e i t h e r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t n o r w h a t r o l e i t m i g h t

p l a y i n t h e c r e a t i o n a n d s u s t e n a n c e o f c o m m u n i t i e s ( s e e G a b l i k 1 9 9 1 ;

a n d B e c k e r 1 9 9 4 ) . T h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t I d o n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e

a r t s c a n s e r v e a c o m m u n a l f u n c t i o n , I b e l i e v e ( w i t h M a r i t a i n 1 9 7 2 ;

B a r z u n 1 9 7 4 ; M a r c u s e 1 9 8 6 a n d R a n k 1 9 8 9 ) t h a t t h e y d o - a s w e l l a s

t h e n e e d s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n c o m m u n i t i e s . H o w e v e r , I d o n o t

b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a r t s w i l l s e r v e t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l ` h e a l i n g ' f u n c t i o n i e .

h e a l t h e f e l t s e n s e o f a l i e n a t i o n , i s o l a t i o n a n d d i s l o c a t i o n o f t e n

e x p e r i e n c e d i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s ( a n d t h e w i d e r c o m m u n i t y )

m e r e l y b y e n c o u r a g i n g g r o u p p a i n t i n g s a n d d i s c o u r a g i n g i n d i v i d u a l

o n e s .

A f u l l e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n o f t h e a r t s i n a

t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e m a y a l s o s e r v e t o c r i t i q u e s o m e o f t h e u n e t h i c a l

45

c l a i m s m a d e f o r a n d a g a i n s t a r t i n t e r m s o f h e a l t h , h e a l i n g a n d c u r e .

F o r e x a m p l e , I w a s r e c e n t l y a s k e d t o s u p p l y s o m e b i b l i o g r a p h i c

r e f e r e n c e s t o s u p p o r t a c l a i m t h a t a r t c a n c u r e c a n c e r . A p a p e r w a s

t o b e w r i t t e n b y a w o m a n w h o h a d b e e n d i a g n o s e d a s h a v i n g b r e a s t

c a n c e r . T h e w o m a n ` u s e d ' a r t p r a c t i c e s ` t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y ' e x t e n s i v e l y

d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n h e r d i a g n o s i s a n d l a t e r d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t

h e r c a n c e r w a s e i t h e r c u r e d o r i n r e m i s s i o n . T h e w o m a n b e l i e v e d i t

w a s h e r a r t t h a t h a d c u r e d h e r . I r e f u s e d t h e r e q u e s t s a y i n g t h a t I d o

n o t b e l i e v e t h a t o n e c a n , e t h i c a l l y , s u p p o r t s u c h a c l a i m . I n s a y i n g

t h i s I a m c e r t a i n l y n o t s a y i n g t h a t a r t c a n n o t b e a c a t a l y s t f o r

h e a l i n g . I b e l i e v e i t c a n , a n d f r e q u e n t l y i s . H o w e v e r , h e a l i n g , l i k e

l o v e , i n t e g r i t y a n d s o o n c a n n o t b e w i l l e d , d e m a n d e d o r f o r c e d - a n d

t h e r e i s , I b e l i e v e , a l w a y s a n e l e m e n t o f m y s t e r y i n t h e p r o c e s s .

W h i l e r e c o g n i s i n g t h a t w e c a n h a v e a g r e a t d e a l o f ` c o n t r o l ' o v e r o u r

h e a l t h a n d w e l l b e i n g , i t i s , I b e l i e v e , c r u e l a n d d i s h o n e s t t o c l a i m

t h a t a r t , m e d i c i n e o r m e d i t a t i o n - w h a t e v e r m e d i u m i s a d v o c a t e d -

c a n c u r e a l l . T o d o s o w o u l d b e a d e n i a l o f t h e r e a l c o n t i n g e n c i e s o f

a l i v e d h u m a n r e a l i t y - w h i c h , a s M u r d o c h ( 1 9 7 0 , p . 8 7 ) h a s i t , e n t a i l s

a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t l i f e i s n o t f a i r , i t i s c h a n c y a n d i n c o m p l e t e .

F u r t h e r , t h e l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n o f s u c h c l a i m s i e . t h a t a r t ( o r

m e d i c i n e ) c a n c u r e a l l , i s t h a t w e s h o u l d n e v e r d i e - a n d t h a t i s

p a t e n t l y n o t t r u e . N o t o n l y d o w e a l l h a v e t o a c c e p t d e a t h , b u t m o s t

o f u s h a v e n o i d e a w h e n o u r d e a t h s w i l l o c c u r . S u c h a c l a i m f o r a r t

t o a u t o m a t i c a l l y c u r e i s a l s o a d e n i a l o f s o m e o f t h e e s s e n t i a l

e l e m e n t s o f a r t p r a c t i c e a s t h e p o e t R i l k e ( 1 9 8 7 , p . 2 9 7 ) m a k e s p l a i n

w h e n s p e a k i n g o f t h e d e s p a i r i n d u c e d i n h i m w h e n t h e ` a n g e l o f

r h y t h m ' d o e s n o t v i s i t - h e h a s t o w a i t u p o n h e r .

46

T h e O n t o l o g i c a l a n d E t h i c a l S i g n i f i c a n c e o f A r t .

T o r e t u r n t o t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f a t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t .

D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 , c h . 3 ) a s s e r t s t h a t i t i s t h e ` m a k i n g s p e c i a l ' o f a r t

m a k i n g t h a t i s t h e e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d a n d h e n c e o f s u c h

e v o l u t i o n a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e ` a r t w o r k ' w a s

o f n o s i g n i f i c a n c e o r a c c o u n t ( m a k i n g s o m e t h i n g s p e c i a l n e c e s s a r i l y

i m p l i e s t h a t m u c h c a r e a n d t h o u g h t h a s g o n e i n t o i t s m a k i n g - a

v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f a e s t h e t i c s t h a t I w i l l r e t u r n t o

l a t e r ) . T h e a r t w o r k , h o w e v e r , w a s n o t t h e c r i t i c a l t h i n g t h a t

e n h a n c e d c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s n o t

a s s i m p l e a s s a y i n g t h a t ` t h e p r o c e s s ' o f a r t m a k i n g i s t h e m o s t

i m p o r t a n t t h i n g ( a n o t h e r c o m m o n m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g ) - i t i s r a t h e r

m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n t h a t . I t c o u l d b e s t a t e d a s s a y i n g f o r m , c o n t e n t

a n d p r o c e s s h a s a n i n t e g r a l a n d i n t e r n a l u n i t y . A s R a n k ( 1 9 8 9 )

w o u l d h a v e i t , f o r m a n d c o n t e n t w e r e o n e . D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) t a k e s

i t a s t e p f u r t h e r w h e n s h e a r g u e s t h a t t h e ` w h y ' o f t h e p r o c e s s r e f e r s

d i r e c t l y t o t h e s k i l l s / q u a l i t i e s / t r a i t s n e c e s s a r y f o r s u r v i v a l . T o

t a k e a n e x a m p l e , t h e a w a r e n e s s o f c h a n g e ( f e l t o r s e n s e d ) m a y b e

e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r i t m a y r e p r e s e n t d a n g e r . A n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y

a r e n a t u r a l h u m a n r e s p o n s e s t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e a n d a r e

f e e l i n g s a n d e m o t i o n s t h a t h a v e m o r e t h a n o n e d i m e n s i o n . O n t h e

o n e h a n d t h e y c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e i m p e t u s n e c e s s a r y t o a d a p t t o

c h a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w h i l e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e y c a n a l s o s o

p a r a l y s e a p e r s o n w i t h f e a r t h a t t h e y a r e u n a b l e t o t a k e t h e n e c e s s a r y

a c t i o n s t o e n h a n c e t h e i r s u r v i v a l . D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s t h a t

o n e o f t h e w a y s t h a t h u m a n s h a v e e v o l v e d t o c o p e w i t h s u c h

e m o t i o n s ( a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y ) p r o v o k e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f

47

c h a n g e , i s d r o m e n a - t h e n e e d a n d i m p u l s e t o ` d o s o m e t h i n g ' . O n e o f

t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t e n e t s o f h e r a r g u m e n t i s t h e n o t i o n o f p l e a s u r e , t h a t

i s , h u m a n s l i k e d o i n g t h i n g s t h a t t h e y e n j o y a n d w h i c h g i v e p l e a s u r e ,

s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d d e l i g h t . T h e t h i n g s t h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l t o f u l f i l h u m a n

n e e d s a r e g o o d i e . t h e y m a k e p e o p l e f e e l g o o d , g i v e p l e a s u r e a n d s o

f o r t h , h e n c e t h e y a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e t o d o t h e m a n d t h u s

m a x i m i s e t h e i r c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l .

A s h u m a n s e v o l v e d a n d d e v e l o p e d , o n e o f t h e u n i q u e f e a t u r e s o f w h a t

i t m e a n t t o b e h u m a n e m e r g e d - t h e n e e d a n d d e s i r e t o i m p o s e a

c u l t u r a l f o r m o n n a t u r e . I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e y h u m a n i s e d n a t u r e . T h i s

i m p o s i t i o n s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d , a s I e m p h a s i s e d e a r l i e r , i n a

m o d e r n d e r o g a t o r y o r c o n q u e r i n g s e n s e a s t h i s w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y

d i m i n i s h c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l , b u t m o r e i n t h e s e n s e o f h u m a n i s i n g

n a t u r e w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g a w a r e n e s s t h a t o n e h a s t o l i v e i n h a r m o n y

w i t h n a t u r e a s w i t h o n e s e l f a n d w i t h o t h e r s . T h e b e g i n n i n g s , o n e

c o u l d s a y , o f a n a w a r e n e s s t h a t o u r s u r v i v a l , o u r f l o u r i s h i n g , b o t h a s

i n d i v i d u a l s a n d a s m e m b e r s o f a s o c i e t y , h a s e l e m e n t s o f b o t h

i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s . H o w e v e r , t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f

f o r m i s o n e o f t h e k e y t h e m e s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g b o t h t h e n a t u r e o f

w h a t i t i s t o b e a ` k n o w i n g ' h u m a n p e r s o n a n d t h e r o l e a n d

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a r t s i n t h a t h u m a n i t y . I m p o s i n g f o r m m a k e s u s

f e e l g o o d , m a k e s u s f e e l i n c o n t r o l , i n d i c a t e s m a s t e r y a n d w e t h u s f e e l

l e s s a n x i o u s a n d u n c e r t a i n . R h y t h m , r e p e a t i n g p a t t e r n s a n d s o o n c a n

t h e n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s f o r m s o f i m p o s i n g c o n t r o l . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s , t h e r e p e t i t i o n , t h e r h y t h m a n d s o o n a r e

e x p e r i e n c e d a s a e s t h e t i c a l l y p l e a s i n g a n d s a t i s f y i n g b y a l l a s p e c t s

o f o u r s e l v e s - t h e c o g n i t i v e , t h e e m o t i o n a l , a n d t h e p h y s i c a l - a n d

48

e v o k e a s e n s e o f m a s t e r y a n d c o n t r o l . O t h e r t h i n g s l i k e v i v i d

c o l o u r s , v i g o u r a n d s o o n a r e s o u g h t a n d d e s i r e d b e c a u s e t h e y

i n d i c a t e t h e q u a l i t i e s t h a t m a x i m i s e d t h e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l . F o r

e x a m p l e , s h e e n i n d i c a t e s h e a l t h a n d l i v e l i n e s s - t h e o p p o s i t e o f d u l l

a n d l i f e l e s s , f a c t o r s t h a t w o u l d n o t i n d i c a t e e n h a n c e d c h a n c e s o f

s u r v i v a l .

D o t h e s e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f a b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t

a n d a r t m a k i n g s t i l l o b t a i n t o d a y ? I f t h e s e e l e m e n t s o f a r t m a k i n g

a r e s t i l l r e l e v a n t t o o u r s u r v i v a l i t w o u l d b e r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t

t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e r e v e a l e d i n m y o w n p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , b o t h i n

t e r m s o f m y o w n a r t p r a c t i c e a n d i n t e r m s o f m y w o r k w i t h p e o p l e i n

h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . L a s t y e a r w h i l s t p a i n t i n g i n O r m i s t o n G o r g e I

h a d a n e x p e r i e n c e t h a t w a s o u t o f t h e o r d i n a r y . D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 )

d e s c r i b e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n o u r o r d i n a r y w a y o f ` n o t

e x p e r i e n c i n g ' w i t h a n e x p e r i e n c e , i e . w e a r e c o n s c i o u s t h a t w e h a v e

e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e t h i n g . W h i l s t p a i n t i n g o n t h i s o c c a s i o n I w a s

a w a r e - I ` k n e w ' - s o m e t h i n g h a d h a p p e n e d t o m e . I f e l t I w a s b e i n g

a s k e d t o d o , o r B e , s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t . I d i d n o t k n o w w h a t t h a t

` s o m e t h i n g ' w a s . I t c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t i n D i s s a n a y a k e ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) t e r m s

I w a s a w a r e o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e . I n i t i a l l y , i t w a s a

c o m f o r t a b l e f e e l i n g . T h e n , a s t h e d a y s , w e e k s a n d m o n t h s w e n t o n , I

b e c a m e a n x i o u s a n d f e l t u n c e r t a i n ( a n d i m p a t i e n t ! ) I d i d n o t k n o w

w h a t w a s g o i n g t o h a p p e n n o r w h a t I w a s b e i n g a s k e d t o B e . H o w

d i d I c o p e w i t h t h o s e f e e l i n g s o f a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y - t h e

a p p r e h e n s i o n c o n c e r n i n g c h a n g e ? I n a ` t r a d i t i o n a l ' f a s h i o n - I d r e w

t h e s a m e v i e w o v e r a n d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n , o f t e n i n v o l u n t a r i l y - a s

49

s o o n a s I p i c k e d u p a p e n o r p a i n t b r u s h , o u t w o u l d c o m e t h i s s a m e

v i e w . I n D i s s a n a y a k e ' s t e r m s ( 1 9 9 2 ) t h i s c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d a s

r e p e t i t i o n , r h y t h m a n d s o o n . T h e c o l o u r s t h a t I u s e d w e r e b r i g h t ,

t r u e a n d l i v e l y a n d I d r e w a n d p a i n t e d t h i s s a m e s c e n e u n t i l t h e

` m e a n i n g ' o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e e m e r g e d ( t h e ` d a n g e r ' , a n x i e t y a n d

u n c e r t a i n t y h a d p a s s e d o r w a s u n d e r ` c o n t r o l ' ) - t h e i m p o r t o f t h e

e x p e r i e n c e h a d b e e n f i t t e d i n t o a p a t t e r n o f m e a n i n g . I t h e n f e l t g o o d

i e . r e l i e f , s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d p l e a s u r e a t t h e c o m p l e t i o n a n d t h e

r e s o l u t i o n . A n d o f t h e p a i n t i n g s p r o d u c e d ? T h e p a i n t i n g s w e r e n o t

u n i m p o r t a n t ( a n a c t i o n - o r a n i m a g e - m u s t h a v e a d e e p s i g n i f i c a n c e

i f o n e k e e p s r e p e a t i n g i t o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n ) b u t t h e y c a n n o t b e

l o o k e d a t i n i s o l a t i o n f r o m t h e o t h e r e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t - t h e d r a w i n g

o v e r a n d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n . B o t h m u s t b e r e g a r d e d a s i n t e g r a l t o

t h e ` k n o w i n g a n d b e c o m i n g p r o c e s s ' .

T h e f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n t o b e a s k e d i s ` A r e t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s p e c u l i a r t o

m y s e l f b e c a u s e I h a v e c e r t a i n ` a r t i s t i c ' t e n d e n c i e s a n d t a l e n t s ? ' F r o m

m y e x p e r i e n c e s i n a v a r i e t y o f ` o r d i n a r y ' a n d h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s I

w o u l d s u g g e s t n o t . T o t a k e o n e e x a m p l e o f m a n y . D u r i n g m y t i m e a s

A r t i s t i n R e s i d e n c e i n a n A c u t e P s y c h i a t r y U n i t I m e t a w o m a n w h o

h a d b e e n a d m i t t e d t o t h e U n i t o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s . I d i d n o t k n o w

a t t h e t i m e w h a t h e r ` p s y c h i a t r i c ' d i a g n o s i s w a s , n o r , w o u l d I a r g u e ,

i s i t r e l e v a n t t o w h a t I a m a b o u t t o d e s c r i b e . T h i s w o m a n h a d

s u f f e r e d a m i s c a r r i a g e a n d / o r h y s t e r e c t o m y s o m e t h r e e y e a r s p r i o r t o

m y m e e t i n g h e r . I h a d s e e n s o m e o f h e r p r e v i o u s w o r k s a n d t w o

` t h e m e s ' s e e m e d t o r e c u r c o n s t a n t l y - s y m b o l s o f h e r h o m e l a n d a n d

s y m b o l s t h a t c o u l d o n l y b e d e s c r i b e d a s g y n a e c o l o g i c a l - a s I d r e w

t h e s a m e v i e w o f N o r t h e r n T e r r i t o r y h i l l s , t h i s w o m a n c o n s t a n t l y

50

p a i n t e d t h e s a m e ` v i e w ' o f f a l l o p i a n t u b e s , w o m b s , o v a r i e s a n d s o

o n . O n e d a y s h e a s k e d f o r a v e r y l a r g e c a n v a s , ` s h e k n e w w h a t s h e

w a n t e d t o d o ' - a n d p r o c e e d e d t o p a i n t t h e s a m e f a l l o p i a n t u b e s a n d

s o o n . H a l f w a y t h r o u g h t h e p a i n t i n g s h e s t o p p e d . W h e n I a s k e d h e r

i f a n y t h i n g w a s w r o n g , s h e r e p l i e d ` I d o n ' t w a n t t o p a i n t a n y m o r e ' .

` H a v e y o u p a i n t e d t h i s b e f o r e ? ' I a s k e d . ` C o u n t l e s s t i m e s ' s h e

r e s p o n d e d . ` D o n ' t y o u n e e d t o p a i n t i t a n y m o r e ? ' ` N o ' s h e r e p l i e d

a n d b u r s t i n t o t e a r s . T h e w o m a n l e f t t h e U n i t s h o r t l y a f t e r t h i s

i n c i d e n t a n d I b e l i e v e s h e h a s n o t b e e n r e a d m i t t e d s i n c e .

I d o n o t w a n t t o s u g g e s t , i n r e c o u n t i n g t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s , t h a t t h e

r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t m a k i n g c a n b e r e d u c e d t o b i o l o g y , n o r t o

a m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m n o r t o a n ` e q u a l s s y n d r o m e ' - m e a n i n g t h a t i f I

d o t h i s a n d t h i s ( d r a w r e p e a t e d l y , f o r e x a m p l e ) a c e r t a i n r e s u l t ( e g .

h e a l i n g ) w i l l a u t o m a t i c a l l y o c c u r . A s I h a v e s a i d b e f o r e I d o

n o t t h i n k t h a t o n e c a n e t h i c a l l y m a k e s u c h c l a i m s , a n d f u r t h e r , i t i s

a s i m p l i s t i c a n d m e c h a n i c a l l y r e d u c t i o n i s t v i e w o f a r t a n d h u m a n

p e r s o n s - a v i e w t h a t i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y p r e v a l e n t i n s o m e a r e a s o f a r t

t h e r a p y . A r t t h e r a p i s t s O s t e r a n d G o u l d ( 1 9 8 7 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , h a v e

p r o d u c e d a b o o k e n t i t l e d ` U s i n g D r a w i n g s i n A s s e s s m e n t a n d T h e r a p y .

A G u i d e f o r M e n t a l H e a l t h P r o f e s s i o n a l s . ' T h e b o o k c o n t a i n s a l i s t

o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f d r a w i n g s - a l b e i t w i t h a f a i n t r e j o i n d e r t h a t a n y

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o u g h t t o b e ` c h e c k e d ' w i t h t h e p a t i e n t . T h e l i s t

c o n t a i n s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t a d r a w i n g o f a h o u s e

w i t h o u t a c h i m n e y i s s a i d t o d e n o t e a l a c k o f w a r m t h i n t h e c h i l d

a r t i s t . I w i l l t a k e u p t h e e t h i c s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n a l a t e r

c h a p t e r - a n d h o w c u l t u r a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t

w o r k s m i g h t b e . M a n y A u s t r a l i a n c h i l d r e n , f o r e x a m p l e , w o u l d n e v e r

51

h a v e h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f l i v i n g i n a h o u s e w i t h a c h i m n e y . S u c h

a r e d u c t i o n i s t a t t i t u d e d o e s l i t t l e j u s t i c e t o t h e o f t e n m y s t e r i o u s

p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g - a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e a r t s i n t h a t h e a l i n g .

H o w D o W e U n d e r s t a n d a n d C a t e g o r i z e A r t ?

I n s e e k i n g a d i f f e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t , t h i s c h a p t e r h a s

c o n f r o n t e d o n e o f t h e m a n y p a r a d o x e s o f t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n -

c a t e g o r i z a t i o n a n d d e f i n i t i o n . O n t h e o n e h a n d , a s A r n h e i m ( 1 9 8 6 ) ,

L a k o f f ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d J o h n s o n ( 1 9 9 3 ) h a v e a r g u e d , t h e c a p a c i t y a n d t h e

n e e d t o c a t e g o r i z e - t o s t r u c t u r e o u r p e r c e p t i o n a n d t o i d e n t i f y o u r

e x p e r i e n c e o f r e a l i t y i n t e r m s o f c a t e g o r i e s - i s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n

n e e d , a n o n t o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y , a n d i t i s , t h e r e f o r e , o n e o f t h e

c r i t i c a l b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f e p i s t e m o l o g y . I t i s h o w w e c o m e t o

k n o w . T h e r e f o r e , n o t o n l y c o u l d s u c h c a p a c i t y b e d e s c r i b e d a s a

G o o d i e . i t s e r v e s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d , b u t a n e c e s s a r y o n e i n

t h a t , w i t h o u t s u c h a c a p a c i t y t h e a b i l i t y t o f l o u r i s h m i g h t b e

c o m p r o m i s e d . F u r t h e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , o n e o f

t h e c a u s e s o f s u f f e r i n g i n a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s l i e s i n a n

i n c a p a c i t y t o s t r u c t u r e a p a t t e r n o f m e a n i n g t h a t c a n t a k e a c c o u n t o f

t h e c h a n g e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a p e r s o n ' s l i f e . H o w e v e r ,

p a r a d o x i c a l l y , i t c o u l d a l s o b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e i n h e r e n t n e e d t o

c a t e g o r i z e - o r r a t h e r t h e t e n d e n c y t o r e m a i n f i x e d i n a c e r t a i n m o d e

o f c a t e g o r i z a t i o n - m i g h t a l s o h a m p e r o u r f l o u r i s h i n g . O u r n e e d t o

s a f e l y s o r t p e r c e p t i o n i n t o f a m i l i a r n e a t p i l e s m i g h t n o t b e t h e m o s t

u s e f u l ( o r h e a l t h y ) t h i n g t o d o . F u r t h e r , a r e l i a n c e o n ` o l d ' w a y s o f

c a t e g o r i z a t i o n m i g h t i n h i b i t o u r a b i l i t y t o ` s e e ' d i f f e r e n t l y t h u s

o b s c u r i n g s o m e v e r y i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n s w h y a ` f i x e d ' c a t e g o r i z a t i o n

52

m i g h t b e h a r m f u l f o r o u r g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , i f

a s o c i e t y s e e s a r t a s r e f e r r i n g o n l y t o a c e r t a i n q u a l i t y o f ` a r t

o b j e c t s ' , o r t o t h e ` a r t i s t i c t a l e n t s ' o f c e r t a i n p e o p l e c a l l e d ` a r t i s t s '

i t m a k e s i t m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o s e e t h e a r t s a s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f w h a t

i t m e a n s t o b e h u m a n f o r a l l p e o p l e . I n p l a c e s l i k e h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s i t t h e n b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y t o c a t e g o r i z e a r t a s h a v i n g s o m e

o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t a l p u r p o s e ( s u c h a s ` a t h e r a p y ' o r a s a ` d i v e r s i o n '

) . T h e n , o n c e t h a t i n s t r u m e n t a l p u r p o s e h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d , a r t

a g a i n b e c o m e s n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y . S o i t c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t t h e

t e n d e n c y t o r e m a i n f i x e d i n a c e r t a i n w a y o f c a t e g o r i z a t i o n m i g h t

a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d ` n o t ' a G o o d - a n d , i n d e e d , m i g h t b e a f u r t h e r

c a u s e o f h a r m a n d s u f f e r i n g . T h e p a r a d o x i c a l d i l e m m a i s w e l l

i l l u s t r a t e d b y H a r t ' s c o m m e n t s ( 1 9 9 4 , p . x i ) p r e f a c i n g a c o l l e c t i o n o f

A u s t r a l i a n R e l i g i o u s P o e t r y ;

T h e b o r d e r s s u r r o u n d i n g p o e t r y a r e b r o k e n a n d s h i f t i n g , n o t o n o n e f r o n t b u t s e v e r a l . . . . T h e q u e s t i o n " I s t h i s a p o e m ? " c a n a l w a y s b e a s k e d , a n d t h e r e a r e m o m e n t s w h e n i t n e e d s t o b e a s k e d . . . . A n d y e t t h e r e a r e a l s o c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e n i t i s n o t t h e m o s t u r g e n t o r e v e n t h e m o s t u s e f u l q u e s t i o n t o p o s e . . . . S o m e t i m e s r e c o u r s e t o d e f i n i t i o n c a n b e a s t e p b a c k w a r d s , a n e v a s i o n o f p o e t r y a n d a f e a r o f t h e u n k n o w n .

A s H a r t p o i n t s o u t , a t i s s u e i s a c o n f u s i o n o f q u e s t i o n s o f v a l u e

w i t h q u e s t i o n s o f d e f i n i t i o n s - a s i f a n a f f i r m a t i v e a n s w e r t o t h e

q u e s t i o n ` I s t h i s a p o e m ? ' g i v e s s o m e c e r t a i n t y , s o m e w a r r a n t o f

w o r t h a n d v a l u e . T h e t e n d e n c y t o r e l y o n f a m i l i a r m o d e s o f

c a t e g o r i z a t i o n c o u l d a l s o b e s e e n a s f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f w h a t

M i c h a e l s ( 1 9 9 4 , p . 5 1 ) h a s e a r l i e r r e f e r r e d t o a s ` a t e r r o r o f t h e

a m b i g u o u s ' - a n d o f m y s t e r y - b o t h , i r o n i c a l l y , h a l l m a r k s o f b o t h a r t

a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g . T h e t a s k w o u l d s e e m t o r e q u i r e

a c k n o w l e d g me n t o f a n i n e s c a p a b l e t e n s i o n - b e t w e e n o u r i n h e r e n t n e e d

53

t o c a t e g o r i z e a n d a n a w a r e n e s s t h a t a f i x a t i o n o n c a t e g o r i e s m a y a l s o

b e o u r p r i s o n , o u r w e a p o n s o r a r a b b i t t r a p a r o u n d o u r i m a g i n a t i o n .

M a r k T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 8 3 ) o f f e r s a n o t h e r w a y o f s e e i n g t h e t e n s i o n

t h a t i s i n h e r e n t i n c h o o s i n g ( I a m r e f e r r i n g h i s r e m a r k s h e r e t o t h e

c h o i c e s i m p l i c i t i n c a t e g o r i z a t i o n ) ;

E v e n t h o u g h c h o i c e i n e v i t a b l y i n v o l v e s a n e i t h e r / o r , t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f d e c i s i o n c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d t o e x c l u s i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s . W h i l e a l w a y s s i n g l i n g o n e o u t , t h e d e c i s i o n t h a t c u t s o n e o f f f r o m o t h e r s a l s o e s t a b l i s h e s r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

T h e e m i n e n t a r t h i s t o r i a n a n d c r i t i c E H G o m b r i c h ( 1 9 8 5 , p . 4 ) a s s e r t s

q u i t e p l a i n l y t h a t ` t h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s A r t . T h e r e a r e o n l y

a r t i s t s ' . G o m b r i c h w o u l d f u r t h e r a s s e r t t h a t i t d o e s n o t r e a l l y

m a t t e r i f w e d e s c r i b e b o t h t h e c o m m e r c i a l a r t o f a d v e r t i s i n g

h o a r d i n g s a n d c a v e p a i n t i n g s a s a r t - a s l o n g a s w e k e e p i n m i n d t h a t

t h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s A r t w i t h a c a p i t a l A . A t f i r s t r e a d i n g , t h i s

v i e w w o u l d s e e m t o s u p p o r t a n a s s e r t i o n t h a t a l l a r t w o r k s a r e o f t h e

s a m e v a l u e a l t h o u g h t h a t i s n o t G o m b r i c h ' s p o s i t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e

t e r r o r a n d a n x i e t y t h a t s u c h a p r o p o s i t i o n m a y i n d u c e i n s o m e

m o d e r n G a l l e r y D i r e c t o r s w a s w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e s t a g i n g o f a

r e c e n t E x h i b i t i o n i n a m a j o r R e g i o n a l A r t G a l l e r y . T h e E x h i b i t i o n

c o m p r i s e d w o r k s b y r e s i d e n t s o f s e v e r a l n u r s i n g h o m e s a n d

p s y c h i a t r i c c e n t r e s . P e r h a p s i t w a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e w o r k s w e r e

` o u t s i d e ' m a i n s t r e a m a r t - a n d t h e r e w e r e n o ` r u l e s ' f o r t h e i r

a p p r e c i a t i o n a n d v a l u a t i o n - t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e

o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e E x h i b i t i o n . I t w a s a s i f t h e m e r e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e

w o r k s w o u l d l e s s e n t h e v a l u e o f t h e o t h e r ` p r o p e r ' a r t w o r k s i n t h e

G a l l e r y . E v e n t h e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f w o r k a s ` c o m m u n i t y a r t ' a n d

` o u t s i d e r a r t ' ( t h e l a t t e r d e s c r i p t i o n c o m m o n i n r e f e r r i n g t o t h e

54

w o r k s o f p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s s e e M a c l a g a n 1 9 9 3 ) d e f i n e s s u c h a r t a n d

a r t p r a c t i c e a s s o m e h o w ` d i f f e r e n t ' f r o m s o m e o t h e r t y p e o f a r t - o f t e n

u n c o n s c i o u s l y u n d e r s t o o d t o b e ` p r o p e r a r t ' o r ` b e t t e r a r t ' . T h e w a y

i n w h i c h c a t e g o r i z a t i o n i s e m p l o y e d a l s o r e v e a l s a p a r t i c u l a r w o r l d

v i e w , a p a r t i c u l a r w a y o f s e e i n g a s o c i e t y a n d t h e m u l t i p l e e l e m e n t s

w i t h i n i t . F o r e x a m p l e , a t a r e c e n t m e e t i n g o f a ` c o m m u n i t y a r t s '

o r g a n i z a t i o n , m y p l e a f o r m o r e a r t i s t s t o w o r k i n h o s p i t a l s a n d

n u r s i n g h o m e s w a s m e t b y t h e c o m m e n t ` W e a r e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n

p r o p e r c o m m u n i t y a r t s ' - i n v i t i n g t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s a n d t h e s i c k d i d n o t f o r m p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y t h e y s o u g h t

t o s e r v e .

T h i s c h a p t e r h a s e x p l o r e d t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t f r o m a

b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r s p e c t i v e . H u m a n s , a s t h e y e v o l v e d , d e v e l o p e d

t h e c a p a c i t y t o c r e a t e a n d i m p o s e f o r m o n t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t a n d o n

t h e v a r i o u s w a y s i n w h i c h t h e y i n t e r a c t e d w i t h n a t u r e a n d o t h e r s

w i t h i n a g r o u p . T h e s e v a r i o u s f o r m s - w h i c h c o u l d b e t e r m e d t h e

c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e , t h e c a p a c i t y t o c o n s t r u c t a n d c r e a t e p a t t e r n s o f

m e a n i n g , t h e c a p a c i t y t o r e s p o n d c r e a t i v e l y a n d ` h e a l t h i l y ' t o c h a n g e ,

t h e c a p a c i t y t o r e s p o n d t o t h e v a r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f l i f e v i a a r t

m a k i n g f o r m s ( d a n c e , d r a m a , m u s i c , p a i n t i n g a n d s o o n ) h a d p r a c t i c a l

b e n e f i t i e . t h e y e n a b l e d p e o p l e t o s u r v i v e a n d f l o u r i s h . T h i s a r t

m a k i n g , t h e n , h a d e t h i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . A r t w a s

c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a t t e r s t h a t w e r e o f s e r i o u s c o n c e r n f o r t h e m e m b e r s

o f t h e g r o u p . T h e a r t ` b e h a v i o u r s ' p r o m o t e d i n d i v i d u a l s e l f - c o n t r o l

a n d m a s t e r y , e n h a n c e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d

i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s w i t h o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p a n d t h u s e n h a n c e d

t h e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l o f b o t h . A r t m a k i n g w a s i n t e g r a l t o ( n o t

55

s e p a r a t e d f r o m ) a l l a s p e c t s o f c o m m u n i t y l i f e - a s w a s t h e p l e a s u r e

a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e f o r m m a k i n g i t s e l f . I t m i g h t b e

s a i d t h a t a r t m a k i n g e n a b l e d a c o m m u n a l l i f e t o b e L i v e d - a n d t h e

m e m b e r s t o f l o u r i s h . .

56C H A P T E R 3

THE MODERN PERIOD - some decisive influences on humans and art

Y e t n e i t h e r i n c l a s s i c a l o r m e d i e v a l t i m e s , n o r i n d e e d i n a n y o t h e r c i v i l i z a t i o n o r t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y t h a t w e k n o w o f , h a v e w o r k s b e e n m a d e t o s e r v e a s ` a r t o b j e c t s ' , t o b e j u d g e d b y a e s t h e t i c c r i t e r i a a l o n e , o r a p p r a i s e d p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e i r p o w e r t o e v o k e a e s t h e t i c e n j o y m e n t . E v e n t h o u g h a e s t h e t i c e x c e l l e n c e i n a w o r k m a y h a v e b e e n o b l i g a t o r y , t h i s w a s s o b e c a u s e t h e o b j e c t o r p e r f o r m a n c e w a s a l r e a d y i n t r i n s i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t f o r o t h e r r e a s o n s a n d t h u s r e q u i r e d t o b e d o n e b e a u t i f u l l y , a p p r o p r i a t e l y o r c o r r e c t l y .

E l l e n D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 8 8 , p . 4 1 .

T h e r o m a n t i c i m p u l s e h a s h a d a b a d r e p u t a t i o n i n t h e h i s t o r y o f p h i l o s o p h y s i n c e i t s e e m s t o i d e n t i f y i t s e l f w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f i r r a t i o n a l i s m . I t h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e d i m i n i s h i n g o f t h e r a t i o n a l . . . o n t h e c o n t r a r y i t i s a q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t . . . . I n t h e s e s o r t o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s ( t h e s h o p k e e p e r s r a t i o n a l i t y ) t h e ` r e a s o n a b l e ' t h i n g t o b e i s p o e t i c , t h a t i s , o n e s h o u l d d e m a n d n o l e s s f r o m r e a s o n t h a n w h a t r e a s o n c a n f u l l y g i v e . T h i s s i c k n e s s o f a s k i n g t o o l i t t l e f r o m r e a s o n i s r e a l l y w h a t t h i s n a r r o w - m i n d e d r a t i o n a l i s m h a s b e e n i n f l i c t i n g u p o n u s f o r t h e l a s t 2 0 0 y e a r s .

S l o t e r d i j k i n P o l i t i 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 1 8 , 1 1 9 .

T h e q u e s t i o n t o b e a d d r e s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s ` H o w i s i t t h a t

W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s h a v e g o n e f r o m a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f a r t a s a n

e s s e n t i a l , i n t e g r a l a n d n e c e s s a r y p a r t o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e a n d

c o m m u n i t y l i f e , t o t h e s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d b y D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 )

a n d F o u c a u l t ( 1 9 8 6 ) - w h e r e a r t i s u n d e r s t o o d t o m e a n ` a r t o b j e c t s '

m a d e b y a s p e c i a l , e l i t e g r o u p o f p e o p l e c a l l e d ` a r t i s t s ' a n d w h e r e ,

t h e r e f o r e , t h e g r e a t e r m a j o r i t y o f a d u l t s ( a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y c h i l d r e n )

c a n n o t d e s c r i b e a r t a s p l a y i n g a n y r e a l p a r t i n t h e i r l i v e s ? T h i s

c h a p t e r w i l l s e e k a n a c c u r a t e a c c o u n t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e

m o d e r n i n f l u e n c e s w h i c h h a v e s o s t r o n g l y s h a p e d c o n t e m p o r a r y

n o t i o n s o f p e r s o n , h e a l t h , w e l l - b e i n g a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . T h e p r e v i o u s

c h a p t e r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t m a n y o f o u r m o d e r n n o t i o n s o f a r t a n d

57

o f h e a l t h a r e s e r i o u s l y i m p o v e r i s h e d a n d c a n n o t t a k e p r o p e r a c c o u n t

o f h u m a n s u f f e r i n g a n d t h e n e e d s f o r h e a l i n g - f o r p e r s o n s a n d f o r

t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l s k e t c h s o m e d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f

` s e e i n g ' p e r s o n s e m b e d d e d i n a c o m m u n a l f l o u r i s h i n g .

T h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r h a s d e s c r i b e d h o w a r t e v o l v e d t o f u l f i l c e r t a i n

s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n n e e d s - t o c r e a t e c u l t u r e - t o c r e a t e c u l t u r a l

f o r m s t h a t ` h u m a n i s e d ' a p e r s o n ' s e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d t o g i v e a n

e x p l i c i t l y h u m a n f o r m t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a n d w a y s

o f r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s . T h e s e c u l t u r a l f o r m s , s o m e o f

w h i c h w e n o w c a l l ` t h e a r t s ' , w e r e n o t ` u s e l e s s ' - t h e y h a d a d i r e c t

a n d i m m e d i a t e p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i e . t h e y e n a b l e d p e o p l e t o

r e s p o n d i n a s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n w a y t o t h e v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s o f

t h e i r l i f e ( e s p e c i a l l y e x p e r i e n c e s f r a u g h t w i t h d a n g e r o r

u n c e r t a i n t y ) i n w a y s t h a t e n h a n c e d t h e c h a n c e s o f t h e i r s u r v i v a l a n d

f l o u r i s h i n g . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f h e a l t h c a r e i t c o u l d b e s a i d , t h e n , t h a t

a r t e n a b l e s a p e r s o n t o s u r v i v e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d

s u f f e r i n g . R e a d ( i n S t o r r 1 9 9 1 , p . 3 2 ) h a s s a i d ;

F a r f r o m b e i n g a n e x p e n d i t u r e o f s u r p l u s e n e r g y , a s e a r l i e r t h e o r i e s h a v e s u p p o s e d , a r t , a t t h e d a w n o f h u m a n c u l t u r e , w a s a k e y t o s u r v i v a l , a s h a r p e n i n g o f t h e f a c u l t i e s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e s t r u g g l e f o r e x i s t e n c e . A r t , i n m y o p i n i o n , h a s r e m a i n e d a k e y t o s u r v i v a l .

M y e x p e r i e n c e s i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y a t l a r g e

w o u l d t e n d t o s u p p o r t t h i s v i e w . H o w e v e r , i t m u s t a l s o b e

a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e w i d e s p r e a d l a c k o f a r t t o u c h i n g p e o p l e s l i v e s

i n a n y s i g n i f i c a n t m a n n e r m i g h t a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e m o d e r n w a y o f

v i e w i n g a r t f o r m s m i g h t h a v e t o b e r e v i e w e d . F u r t h e r , i f t h e

i m p u l s e f o r a r t m a k i n g i s o f s u c h c r u c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r h u m a n

f l o u r i s h i n g - a n d y e t s o m a n y p e o p l e h a v e b e e n a l i e n a t e d f r o m i t - i t

58

m i g h t a l s o b e n e c e s s a r y t o c l o s e l y e x a m i n e s o m e o t h e r a s p e c t s o f

m o d e r n l i f e t o s e e i f t h i s e v o l u t i o n a r y n e c e s s i t y h a s m a n i f e s t e d

i t s e l f i n s o m e o t h e r l e s s e a s i l y r e c o g n i s e d w a y s . O r , w h e t h e r t h e

s i g n i f i c a n t a b s e n c e o f a r t i n p e o p l e ' s l i v e s i s o n e o f t h e d i r e c t

c a u s e s o f t h e m o d e r n m a l a i s e s t h a t h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n

t h i s r e s e a r c h - t h e s e n s e d l a c k o f m e a n i n g , o f p o w e r l e s s n e s s , o f

s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n a n d f r a g m e n t a t i o n .

M o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e , a s h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , i s

d o m i n a t e d b y a b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l w h i c h s e e s t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y a s

t h e p r i m a r y f o c u s o f c a r e . A i l m e n t s o f t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y a r e

d e s c r i b e d i n g e n e r a l t e r m s - a s c a t e g o r i e s o f d i s e a s e a n d

d y s f u n c t i o n . L a t t e r l y , u n d e r s u c h i n n o v a t i o n s a s ` C a s e m i x

f u n d i n g ' , t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s o f d i s e a s e s a n d a i l m e n t s b e c o m e p a r t o f

m a t h e m a t i c a l a n d s t a t i s t i c a l f o r m u l a e w h i c h d e t e r m i n e w h a t t y p e

o f t r e a t m e n t a n y p a r t i c u l a r c a t e g o r y w i l l r e c e i v e - a n d f o r h o w

l o n g . T h e s e d e c i s i o n s a r e m a d e w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p e r s o n

w h o i s i l l a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a p e r s o n ' s l i f e o f t e n

p l a y s a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n e i t h e r d i a g n o s i s o r c a r e . C a s s e l l

( 1 9 9 1 ) , h o w e v e r , h a s d e s c r i b e d , a p e r s o n a s a c o m p l e x m i x t u r e o f

S e l v e s - o n l y o n e o f w h i c h i s a ` p h y s i c a l ' s e l f . Y e t i n h e a l t h c a r e

t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y i s d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d f r o m t h e p e r s o n w h o s e b o d y

i t i s a n d t h e v a r i o u s l i f e e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h h a v e s h a p e d i t - t h e

v e r y c o n t e x t w h i c h l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e o f a p e r s o n ' s

s u f f e r i n g . M o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e s y s t e m s t h e n s w i n g f r o m e i t h e r a n

i n t e n s e r a n g e o f p h y s i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s t o a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e a r t h

o f a t t e n t i o n w h e r e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c a r e o f t h e a g e d p e r s o n ,

59

t h e c h r o n i c a l l y i l l , o r t h e d y i n g f r e q u e n t l y r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e

p r o v i s i o n o f a t e l e v i s i o n s e t .

M o d e r n W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s c a n b e j u s t i f i a b l y p r o u d o f m a n y

i n n o v a t i o n s , d i s c o v e r i e s a n d p r o g r e s s i v e m o v e m e n t s i n s c i e n c e ,

m e d i c i n e , t e c h n o l o g y , p o l i t i c s a n d s o o n . Y e t t h e s e s a m e s o c i e t i e s

h a v e d e v e l o p e d ( o r t o l e r a t e d ) p a r a d i g m s o f h e a l t h c a r e - a n d o f a r t

- w h i c h h a v e c a u s e d m u c h s u f f e r i n g . I f t h e a r t s a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r

h u m a n s u r v i v a l a n d f l o u r i s h i n g , w h y a r e s o m a n y p e o p l e a l i e n a t e d

f r o m t h e m ? S y s t e m s o f p r a c t i c e s u c h a s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d d o n o t

e v o l v e o v e r n i g h t , n o r d o t h e y c o m e o u t o f a ` b l u e s k y ' a s T o u l m i n

( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s i t , h a v i n g n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h w h a t w e n t b e f o r e . B r a d y

( 1 9 9 5 , p . 1 9 ) h a s d e s c r i b e d o u r p r e s e n t t i m e a s ` a t t h e e n d o f t h e

W e s t e r n e r a , t h e e r a o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , i n a p o s t - c o l o n i a l w o r l d ' .

T o p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t a n d a p e r s o n , o n e h a s t o h a v e a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f

t h e i r h i s t o r y , t h e i r c o n t e x t , t h e i r l a n d s c a p e s - t h e v a r i o u s

e x p e r i e n c e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t h a v e s h a p e d t h e m i n p r o f o u n d a n d

s i g n i f i c a n t w a y s . S o i t i s i n t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r

c o n t o u r s o f o u r p r e s e n t p r e d i c a m e n t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e t u r n t o a n

a p p r e c i a t i o n o f s o m e h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s .

T h e E m e r g e n c e o f M o d e r n T h o u g h t .

T h i s c h a p t e r s e e k s o n l y t o s k e t c h i n t h e b r o a d p h i l o s o p h i c a l s y s t e m s

o f t h o u g h t t h a t h a v e s h a p e d W e s t e r n n o t i o n s o f a r t , e t h i c s , o n t o l o g y

a n d e p i s t e m o l o g y . I t c o u l d b e t r u e t o s a y t h a t m o s t m o d e r n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e s e n o t i o n s h a v e l a r g e l y b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y

R a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t w h i c h e m e r g e d i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y

60

- p r i n c i p a l l y t h r o u g h t h e w o r k o f R e n e D e s c a r t e s a n d G a l i l e o - a n d

h a s r u n t h r o u g h a l m o s t u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . T h e p e r i o d f r o m a b o u t

t h e 1 9 6 0 s o n w a r d s h a s b e e n t e r m e d ` p o s t - m o d e r n ' a l t h o u g h M a r k

T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 5 ) d e s c r i b e s s o m e o f t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e p r e s e n t t i m e

a s ` M o d e r n i s t p o s t - m o d e r n ' . T h e M o d e r n ( t h e t e r m u s e d t o

d e s c r i b e a p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d o f h i s t o r y ) h a s o f t e n b e e n c o n f u s e d w i t h

` M o d e r n i s m ' a p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e o f p o s t S e c o n d W o r l d W a r a r t a n d

a r c h i t e c t u r e - e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e w o r k o f M i e s v a n d e r R o h e

( T o u l m i n 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 ) - a n d i n A u s t r a l i a , f o r e x a m p l e , b y s o m e o f t h e

w o r k o f a r c h i t e c t H a r r y S i d l e r . W i t h T o u l m i n ( 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 ) I b e l i e v e

` a r c h i t e c t u r e i s n e i t h e r i r r e l e v a n t n o r u n i n t e r e s t i n g ' f o r

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e w o r l d v i e w o f a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t y . A r c h i t e c t u r e ,

l i k e a n y o t h e r w o r k o f a r t , ` m a k e s v i s i b l e ' a p a r t i c u l a r w a y o f s e e i n g

t h e w o r l d a n d t h e p e o p l e w i t h i n i t . T o u l m i n ( 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 ) , f o r

i n s t a n c e , d e s c r i b e s t h e b u i l d i n g s o f M o d e r n i s m a s ` a n o n y m o u s ,

t i m e l e s s a n d i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e ' . I d e s c r i b e m a n y s u c h b u i l d i n g s a s

a r r o g a n t a n d i n h u m a n i e . l a c k i n g a p r o p e r c o n c e r n f o r t h e n e e d s o f

p e o p l e w h o m u s t l i v e a n d w o r k w i t h i n a n u r b a n l a n d s c a p e .

W h a t , h o w e v e r , i s t h e M o d e r n ? I n c o m m o n p a r l a n c e ` m o d e r n ' i s

u n d e r s t o o d t o m e a n s o m e t h i n g ` n e w ' s o , l o g i c a l l y , i t m u s t b e s e e n i n

r e l a t i o n t o s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i t ` n o t ' . S o i t i s w i t h t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d

w h i c h i s c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d , a s I h a v e s a i d p r e v i o u s l y , t o h a v e

b e g u n w i t h t h e w o r k o f D e s c a r t e s a n d G a l i l e o i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h

c e n t u r y . D e s c a r t e s t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e w h i c h u t i l i z e d a

m e t h o d o l o g y o f d o u b t - l e a d i n g t o t h e f a m o u s ` c o g i t o e r g o s u m ' - ` I

t h i n k , t h e r e f o r e I a m ' - l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a n e w s y s t e m o f

e p i s t e m o l o g y . T h a t s y s t e m r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e m i n d b e e m p t i e d a n d a l l

61

p r e v i o u s t h e o r i e s o r b e l i e f s b e e r a s e d s o t h a t o n e h a s a ` c l e a n s l a t e '

o n w h i c h t o b u i l d a n e w t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e - a t h e o r y t h a t w a s

u n c o l o u r e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r y , a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e a n d

p a r t i c u l a r h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e . T h e ` c l e a n s l a t e ' t h e n m e a n t t h a t t h e

m o d e l s o f e p i s t e m o l o g y a n d m e t a p h y s i c s t h a t d e r i v e d f r o m

D e s c a r t e s ' t h i n k i n g h a d t o b e d e v o i d o f s u r r o u n d i n g s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l

i n f l u e n c e s . D e s c a r t e s i s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e f o r a n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o n t e m p o r a r y n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h c a r e a s t h e b i o -

m e d i c a l m o d e l o w e s m u c h t o ` C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m ' - t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f

t h e m i n d f r o m t h e b o d y - a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f D e s c a r t e s '

t e a c h i n g . T o u l m i n ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s c h a l l e n g e d a n d r e j e c t e d a n o t i o n o f

t h e m i n d t h a t i s a - h i s t o r i c a l a n d a - c u l t u r a l b u t s u g g e s t s t h e w o r k o f

D e s c a r t e s m i g h t b e m o r e p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d a s a r i s i n g i n r e s p o n s e

t o p a r t i c u l a r c r i t i c a l i s s u e s o f h i s t i m e - a n d w h a t w e n t b e f o r e - t h e

p e r i o d o f s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s m ( e x e m p l i f i e d i n

t h e w o r k o f M i c h e l d e M o n t a i g n e ) . D e s c a r t e s ' e n d e a v o u r w a s

a c u t e l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e p a r t i c u l a r u r g e n t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l a n d

r e l i g i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f h i s t i m e . I t w o u l d s e e m n e c e s s a r y ,

t h e r e f o r e , t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s t s r e g a r d e d

t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n a s i t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f

h u m a n i s t s l i k e d e M o n t a i g n e s h a r e d m u c h w i t h t h a t o f A r i s t o t l e -

a n o t h e r p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e o n m o d e r n t h o u g h t . H u m a n i s m i n t h i s

c o n t e x t i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s h a v i n g a c e r t a i n s c e p t i c i s m a b o u t a n y

c l a i m s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c e r t a i n t y o f k n o w l e d g e - i n c l u d i n g r e l i g i o u s

b e l i e f s . I t i s n o t t o b e e q u a t e d w i t h a m o d e r n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

` s e c u l a r h u m a n i s m ' a s i n d i c a t i n g a g n o s t i c i s m o r a t h e i s m .

62

A t t h e r i s k o f g r o s s g e n e r a l i s a t i o n , R e n a i s s a n c e h u m a n i s t i c t h o u g h t

w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a c o n c e r n f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r , l o c a l , c o n c r e t e

c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e o r s i t u a t i o n a s

w e l l a s w i t h a b s t r a c t i s s u e s o f t h e o r y ( s e e T o u l m i n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 3 0 - 3 5 ) .

T o u l m i n s a y s t h a t t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s , f o r e x a m p l e i n m o r a l

p h i l o s o p h y , a r e i n l i n e w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e s A r i s t o t l e r e c o m m e n d s i n

N i c o m a c h e a n E t h i c s i e .

` T h e G o o d h a s n o u n i v e r s a l f o r m , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o r s i t u a t i o n : s o u n d m o r a l j u d g m e n t a l w a y s r e s p e c t s t h e d e t a i l e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f s p e c i f i c k i n d s o f c a s e s . ' ( a s q u o t e d i n T o u l m i n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 3 1 , 3 2 ; s e e A r i s t o t l e 1 9 7 6 , B o o k 1 )

T h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f ` t h e G o o d ' h a d i m m e n s e p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s .

A s t h e G o o d h a d t o b e d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f a c o n c r e t e

s i t u a t i o n , e t h n o g r a p h y , g e o g r a p h y , s c i e n c e , t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e

o f a w i d e v a r i e t y o f p e o p l e - a l l w e r e v a l i d c o m p o n e n t s o f d o i n g

p h i l o s o p h y . T h e r e s o l u t i o n o f m o r a l a n d j u r i d i c a l p r o b l e m s w a s

a c h i e v e d b y a c l o s e a n d d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s

( T o u l m i n 1 9 9 0 , p . 3 1 ) . W i t h t h i s f o c u s o n t h e p a r t i c u l a r a n d t h e

c o n c r e t e , R e n a i s s a n c e h u m a n i s m w a s a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a

t o l e r a n c e o f , a n d o p e n n e s s t o , t h e c u l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s

b e l i e f s o f o t h e r s . I t w a s f u r t h e r c o l o u r e d b y a r e a l i s t i c a n d

p r a g m a t i c s c e p t i c i s m - a h u m i l i t y c o n c e r n i n g t h e v a r i e t y a n d

c o m p l e x i t y o f h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e p r o p e r l i m i t s o f h u m a n

r a t i o n a l i t y t o c l a i m s o f a b s o l u t e c e r t a i n t y a b o u t a n y b e l i e f s .

T o u l m i n ( 1 9 9 0 ) a s s e r t s t h a t i t w o u l d b e t o m i s u n d e r s t a n d t h e r o o t s o f

D e s c a r t e s ' t h o u g h t s a s o n l y l y i n g i n r e j e c t i n g t h e w a y s o f

R e n a i s s a n c e h u m a n i s m b e c a u s e ` t h e y w e r e t h e r e ' . A p a r a l l e l

c o n t e m p o r a r y s i t u a t i o n m a y m a k e t h e p o s i t i o n c l e a r e r . T h e d r a m a t i c

r i s e i n r u r a l s u i c i d e s h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o ` t h e d r o u g h t ' - t h e

63

p r o l o n g e d , a n d u n p r e c e d e n t e d c l i m a c t i c c o n d i t i o n s t h a t h a v e

p r e v a i l e d o v e r m u c h o f E a s t e r n A u s t r a l i a i n r e c e n t y e a r s . H o w e v e r ,

t h e d r o u g h t i s o n l y o n e o f n u m b e r o f s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s t h a t h a s

a f f e c t e d r u r a l A u s t r a l i a i n r e c e n t t i m e s - p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c

s h i f t s i n f o c u s

( a n d t h e r e f o r e i n p e r c e i v e d v a l u e a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n ) h a v e m e a n t t h a t

r u r a l i n d u s t r i e s a r e n o t l o n g e r r e g a r d e d a s s u p r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t .

R u r a l t o w n s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s a r e t h e n o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d ` u n e c o n o m i c

' a n d s e r v i c e s ` r a t i o n a l i s e d ' i n t e r m s o f a l a r g e r , d i f f e r e n t , n a t i o n a l

e c o n o m i c p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e ` d o w n t u r n ' i n w o o l a n d o t h e r c o m m o d i t y

p r i c e s h a s c o m e a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s w o r s e n i n g c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s (

d r o u g h t ) a n d t h e s o a r i n g i n t e r e s t r a t e s o f r e c e n t y e a r s . I t i s t h e

c o m b i n a t i o n o f a l l t h e s e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s w h i c h h a s l e d t o t h e b r e a k

d o w n a n d c o l l a p s e o f r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e u n c e r t a i n t y

s u r r o u n d i n g t h e v i a b i l i t y o f f a m i l y f a r m i n g a n d g r a z i n g e n t e r p r i s e s -

e n t e r p r i s e s t h a t h a v e p r o v i d e d a s u s t a i n a b l e w a y o f l i v i n g f o r m a n y

g e n e r a t i o n s o f p e o p l e - w i t h a c o n s e q u e n t i m p a c t o n t h e h e a l t h o f

r u r a l p e o p l e . I n t h e p s y c h i a t r i c u n i t o f o n e r e g i o n a l h o s p i t a l ` t h e

d r o u g h t ' w a s i d e n t i f i e d a s a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n s o m e 6 0 % o f

a d m i s s i o n s . I t w o u l d b e t o m i s u n d e r s t a n d t h e s u f f e r i n g o f t h e s e

p e o p l e - a n d t h e c a r e t h e y o u g h t t o r e c e i v e - i f t h e ` c a u s e s ' a s I h a v e

d e s c r i b e d t h e m w e r e t h o u g h t t o b e r e s o l v e d w h e n i t r a i n s .

I n a s i m i l a r w a y , t h e p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t m o t i v a t e d t h e

d i r e c t i o n o f D e s c a r t e s ' w o r k c a n n o t b e s i m p l y b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a

s i n g l e ` c a u s e ' . T o u l m i n ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e

T h i r t y Y e a r s r e l i g i o u s w a r , s i m i l a r u n p r e c e d e n t e d c l i m a c t i c

c o n d i t i o n s a f f e c t i n g r u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e r u r a l s o c i e t i e s ,

64

t h e e n d o f a t r a d i t i o n a l c o s m o l o g y - a l l t h e s e w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t

f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g D e s c a r t e s ' e n d e a v o u r . I n t h e f a c e o f i n c r e a s i n g

h o s t i l i t y a n d d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s o f

C h r i s t i a n i t y i t b e c a m e i m p o s s i b l e t o a d v o c a t e a t o l e r a n c e f o r

r e l i g i o u s p l u r a l i s m a s t h e R e n a i s s a n c e h u m a n i s t s h a d d o n e . E a c h

` s i d e ' - C a t h o l i c s a n d P r o t e s t a n t s - f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o c o d i f y r e l i g i o u s

b e l i e f s i n a s e r i e s o f ` d o g m a s ' a n d d o c t r i n e s t h a t w e r e u s e d a s

p o l i t i c a l a n d m o r a l w e a p o n s . T h e d e s i r e t o a v o i d i n f l a m i n g

r e l i g i o u s d i s s e n t w a s o n e o f t h e m o t i v a t i o n s f o r D e s c a r t e s ' ` Q u e s t

f o r C e r t a i n t y ' - t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s y s t e m o f t h o u g h t t h a t w a s

c e r t a i n , g e n e r a l a n d a b s t r a c t - ` a b o v e ' a n d d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e

p a r t i c u l a r s o f i n d i v i d u a l s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e a n d

r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s y s t e m s .

T h e L e g a c y o f M o d e r n i s t T h o u g h t .

T h e e m e r g e n c e o f C a r t e s i a n t h o u g h t c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s t h e r e -

e m e r g e n c e o f P l a t o n i s m . A t t h e r i s k o f g r o s s g e n e r a l i s a t i o n a n d

s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , D e s c a r t e s ' e n t e r p r i s e s h a r e d m u c h w i t h a P l a t o n i c

w a y o f t h i n k i n g - a l t h o u g h f r o m v e r y d i f f e r e n t m o t i v a t i o n s . B o t h

w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h a n e m p h a s i s o n t h e r a t i o n a l , t h e g e n e r a l , t h e

a b s t r a c t , t h e t i m e l e s s a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l . P l a t o c o n c e i v e d ` t h e G o o d ' ,

f o r e x a m p l e a s ` I d e a l F o r m ' w h i c h e x i s t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f h u m a n

e x i g e n c i e s . T h e I d e a l F o r m s h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s e x i s t i n g ` o u t

t h e r e ' d i v o r c e d f r o m h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e . T h e F o r m s , h o w e v e r , c o u l d

b e ` d i s c o v e r e d ' b y c o n t e m p l a t i o n . A s t h e s e F o r m s w e r e t h e s u p r e m e

f o r m o f t h e G o o d , t h e f o r m o f a g o o d l i f e i e . t h e g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l

f o r a p e r s o n l a y i n a d e t a c h e d , p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f

65

t h e s e t r a n s c e n d e n t r e a l i t i e s . P l a t o ' s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e a r t s i n h i s

R e p u b l i c h a s b e e n v a r i o u s l y a t t r i b u t e d . R a n k ( 1 9 8 9 ) s e e s t h e

P l a t o n i c r e s i s t a n c e a s s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e e s s e n t i a l d i s h o n e s t y o f a r t

i e . t h a t a r t i s a h u m a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a p e r c e i v e d r e a l i t y - i t i s n o t

N a t u r e . F o r N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 9 0 ) , h o w e v e r , t h e P l a t o n i c o p p o s i t i o n t o

t h e a r t s w a s n o t f o u n d e d u p o n a b e l i e f t h a t t h e a r t s i n v o l v e d f a n t a s y ,

d e l u s i o n o r a n e s c a p e f r o m r e a l i t y ( a l a t e r F r e u d i a n p e r c e p t i o n )

b u t p r e c i s e l y u p o n a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e a r t s c o u l d r e v e a l a

k n o w l e d g e o f r e a l i t y - b u t a h u m a n r e a l i t y - n o t t h e s o u g h t a f t e r

p u r e , a b s t r a c t , t r a n s c e n d e n t f o r m . T h e a r t s h a d t h e c a p a c i t y t o

e n g a g e t h e s e n s e s a n d t h e e m o t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , w e c o u l d f e e l

a n g e r a n d d e s i r e o n b e h a l f o f a c h a r a c t e r , b o t h o f w h i c h e m o t i o n s

d r e w a v i e w e r o r l i s t e n e r i n t o t h e a m b i g u o u s , c o m p l e x ` i m p u r e '

r e a l i t i e s o f a n e m b o d i e d l i v e d h u m a n e x i s t e n c e . T h u s , t h e P l a t o n i c

r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e a r t s w a s f o u n d e d u p o n a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e y c o u l d

c o m m u n i c a t e t r u t h a n d k n o w l e d g e - b u t o f n o t t h e ` r i g h t ' s o r t - a n d

t h u s t h e y c o u l d t e m p t p e o p l e a w a y f r o m t h e p r o p e r e n d o f ` m a n ' ( s e e

N u s s b a u m 1 9 9 0 ) . W h a t w a s l o s t i n C a r t e s i a n a n d P l a t o n i c t h o u g h t

w a s a c o n c e r n f o r t h e c o n c r e t e , t h e p a r t i c u l a r , t h e t e m p o r a l , t h e

h i s t o r i c a l , a n d t h e c u l t u r a l w h i c h h a d s h a p e d R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s m

a n d w h i c h h a d s u s t a i n e d t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n t r a d i t i o n .

T h e R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s t s , t h e n , c o u l d b e s a i d t o h a v e m u c h i n

c o m m o n w i t h t h e t h o u g h t s o f A r i s t o t l e . A s w e h a v e s e e n , A r i s t o t l e ' s

n o t i o n o f t h e G o o d d i f f e r e d s h a r p l y f r o m t h a t o f P l a t o . A r i s t o t l e

a p p e a r e d t o h a v e a v e r y d i f f e r e n t v i e w o f t h e t e l e o l o g i c a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a r t s i n w h a t i t m e a n t t o b e h u m a n . W h a t e v e r r o l e

t h e a r t s p l a y e d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m i n t h e c o n t e x t o f

66

A r i s t o t l e ' s t h o u g h t s r e g a r d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f ` m a n ' . A p e r s o n w a s

c o m p r i s e d o f b o t h b o d y a n d p s y c h e - i n A r i s t o t l e ' s t e r m s ` s o u l ' -

w i t h a n i n b u i l t d e s i r e a n d c a p a c i t y t o m o v e t o w a r d s e u d e m o n i a -

u n d e r s t o o d a s h a p p i n e s s . A p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e r m

h a p p i n e s s , h o w e v e r , m u s t i n c l u d e t h e n o t i o n o f b e h a v i n g w e l l a n d

f a r i n g w e l l ( A r i s t o t l e 1 9 7 6 , p . 8 4 ; M a c I n t y r e 1 9 6 6 , p . 5 9 ) H o w e v e r ,

s u c h h a p p i n e s s w a s n o t ` a l o w g r a d e c o n t e n t m e n t ' b u t m o r e a

s u s t a i n e d a n d c a r e f u l c r a f t i n g o f a p e r s o n ' s w i l l a n d a c t i o n s t o w a r d s

a d e s i r e d e n d - a G o o d w h i c h c o u l d b e a f i n a l e n d i n i t s e l f - n o t a s a

g o o d e n d a m o n g m a n y . A r i s t o t l e ( 1 9 7 6 , p p . 7 3 , 7 4 ) s a w t h e s t a t e o f

h a p p i n e s s a s t h e f i n a l e n d o r f l o u r i s h i n g . T h u s , t h e n o t i o n o f

f l o u r i s h i n g o f w h i c h I s p e a k i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a f i n a l e n d - i t

w o u l d m a k e n o s e n s e t o s p e a k o f f l o u r i s h i n g i n o r d e r t h a t I c o u l d d o

s o m e t h i n g e l s e . I n f l o u r i s h i n g I a c h i e v e t h e f u l l n e s s o f m y B e i n g (

t h e f u l l e s t p o t e n t i a l o f w h i c h I a m c a p a b l e ) a n d i m p l i c i t i n t h a t

f l o u r i s h i n g i s t h a t I a m l e a d i n g a ` g o o d ' l i f e .

T h e r e i s a f u r t h e r p o i n t t h a t i s o f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e t o t h i s

r e s e a r c h , t h a t i s , i n w h a t m a n n e r i s i t p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e s u c h

h a p p i n e s s ? S u c h a n e n d , f o r A r i s t o t l e ( 1 9 7 6 , p . 7 4 ) , c o u l d n o t b e

a c h i e v e d ` i n s o l i t a r y i s o l a t i o n o r c o n t e m p l a t i o n ' ( a s m i g h t b e

s u g g e s t e d b y t h e P l a t o n i c i d e a o f a g o o d l i f e ) b u t c o u l d o n l y b e

d i s c o v e r e d w i t h i n r i g h t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h s e l f , f a m i l y , f r i e n d s a n d

s o c i e t y . T h u s c r i t i c a l n o t i o n s o f o n t o l o g y , a r t , e t h i c s a n d s o o n

a r e i n t r i n s i c a l l y ` s o c i a l ' i e . t h e y r e l a t e t o p e o p l e w h o a r e i n

v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r s a n d t h e s o c i e t y i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e .

T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , A r i s t o t l e ' s n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p i s t o b e

u n d e r s t o o d a s h a v i n g o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i e . I c a n o n l y a c h i e v e

67

t h e f u l l n e s s o f m y B e i n g b y a n d t h r o u g h m y f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r .

I n o t h e r w o r d s I b e c o m e m o r e o f t h e ` I ' t h a t I a m c a p a b l e o f

b e c o m i n g t h r o u g h f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r ( s e e A r i s t o t l e 1 9 7 6 , B o o k

V 1 1 1 ) .

T o r e t u r n t o D e s c a r t e s a n d t h e b i r t h o f t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d . F o r t h e

v a r i o u s c o m p l e x r e a s o n s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , D e s c a r t e s s e t o u t t o

e s t a b l i s h a c e r t a i n f o u n d a t i o n f o r k n o w l e d g e g r o u n d e d i n r a t i o n a l i t y .

K n o w l e d g e g a i n e d f r o m s e n s e e x p e r i e n c e , o r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f , c o u l d

n o t b e i n c l u d e d a s w e a r e l i a b l e t o b e d e c e i v e d o r m i s t a k e n a b o u t

r e a l i t y t h u s p e r c e i v e d a n d b e c a u s e t h e i n c r e a s e d e n m i t y a n d

i n t o l e r a n c e s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s w a r s t h r e a t e n e d t o

d e c i m a t e E u r o p e a n s o c i e t i e s . H o w e v e r , i n r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e

c h a l l e n g e o f d e M o n t a i g n e ' s b e l i e f t h a t ` c e r t a i n k n o w l e d g e i s

i m p o s s i b l e ' ( T o u l m i n 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 2 ) a n d b y e l i m i n a t i n g a l l p r e v i o u s

w a y s b y w h i c h p e o p l e h a d g a i n e d a s e n s e o f k n o w l e d g e o r ` k n o w i n g ' ,

D e s c a r t e s e n d e d u p w i t h a p o s i t i o n w h e r e i t w a s f e l t t h a t t h e o n l y

t h i n g t h a t w a s b e y o n d d i s b e l i e f o r m i s t a k e , w a s h i s f a m o u s ` I t h i n k ,

t h e r e f o r e I a m ' . T h a t D e s c a r t e s ' e n d e a v o u r s m a y h a v e b e e n

m i s i n t e r p r e t e d h a s n o t p r e v e n t e d a c e r t a i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s

p h i l o s o p h y ( n o t a b l y t h e f a m o u s C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m ) i n f l u e n c i n g

m o s t s y s t e m s o f t h o u g h t e v e r s i n c e . T h e t e n s i o n i n W e s t e r n t h o u g h t

b e t w e e n a n A r i s t o t e l i a n a n d C a r t e s i a n m o d e l o f e p i s t e m o l o g y h a s

p e r s i s t e d u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t t i m e a n d c a n b e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d a s t h e

t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e u n i v e r s a l a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r , t h e l o c a l a n d t h e

g e n e r a l , t h e t e m p o r a l a n d t h e t i m e l e s s . T h e p r e s e n t d o m i n a n c e o f a

P l a t o n i c m o d e o f t h o u g h t h a s e m e r g e d f r o m t h i s s t r u g g l e .

68

T h e M o d e r n : P e r s o n s a n d C o m m u n i t y .

T h e a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h a n o b j e c t i v e , r a t i o n a l , a b s t r a c t f o u n d a t i o n

o f k n o w l e d g e h a v e p e r m e a t e d m o d e l s o f e p i s t e m o l o g y , o n t o l o g y ,

e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s a t l e a s t u n t i l t h e 1 9 5 0 s . F r o m t h e s e v a r i o u s

i n f l u e n c e s h a v e c o m e v a r i o u s ` i s m s ' - r a t i o n a l i s m , p o s i t i v i s m ,

e m p i r i c i s m , o b j e c t i v i s m a n d s o o n . T h e e m p h a s i s o n p u r e l y

` o b j e c t i v e ' i n t e l l e c t u a l r e a s o n i n g ( i e . e x i s t i n g o u t s i d e o r s e p a r a t e

f r o m t h e s u b j e c t i v e s e l f ) w i t h t h e d i s t r u s t o f t h e b o d y , s e n s e s ,

f e e l i n g s a n d e m o t i o n s h a s h a d a l a s t i n g i m p a c t o n h o w t h e

f l o u r i s h i n g ( a n d h e a l t h ) o f h u m a n b e i n g s i s c o n c e i v e d i n m o d e r n

t i m e s - a n d h o w s u c h a s t a t e o f f l o u r i s h i n g m i g h t b e o b t a i n e d . B y

a p p l y i n g a p u r e l y r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h i t w a s t h o u g h t p o s s i b l e t o h a v e

a n o b j e c t i v e ( i e . u n a m b i g u o u s a n d r e l i a b l e ) k n o w l e d g e o f h u m a n

b e h a v i o u r i n t h e s a m e w a y a s i t w a s t h o u g h t p o s s i b l e t o h a v e a ` t r u e '

s c i e n t i f i c , o r u n b i a s e d v i e w o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d v i a t h e m e t h o d s o f

p h y s i c s a n d s o o n .

T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f M o d e r n r a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t h a v e h a d a p r o f o u n d

i m p a c t o n t h e w a y s i n w h i c h n o t i o n s o f p e r s o n s , t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s -

a n d t h e i r c a r e - i s c o n c e i v e d . T h e d o m i n a n t s o c i a l m e t a p h y s i c s i s

o n e o f a t o m i s m a n d t h e s e n s e o f o u r S e l v e s a s s o c i a l b e i n g s -

i n t e r d e p e n d e n t a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d w i t h o t h e r s - h a s b e e n l o s t .

K n o w l e d g e h a s b e c o m e c o n f u s e d w i t h o r c o l l a p s e d i n t o ` f a c t s ' - a n d

f a c t s ( b e i n g s c i e n t i f i c a n d u n a m b i g u o u s ) a r e t h o u g h t t o b e t h e

o n l y r e l i a b l e w a y t o ` t r u t h ' . S c i e n t i s m h a s l e d t o a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e

o n l y p h y s i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e v a l u e d a n d s o u g h t . I n h e a l t h c a r e , f o r

e x a m p l e , i f t h e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f d i s e a s e a r e t h e p r i m e f o c u s o f a

69

` p r o p e r ' m e d i c i n e , i t h a s l e f t n o r o o m f o r t h e u n i q u e p e r s o n a l

e n c o u n t e r w i t h a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

a s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o e v a l u a t e a n d m e a s u r e b y

t h e m e t h o d s o f s c i e n c e i t h a s , g e n e r a l l y , b e e n l e f t o u t o f a c c o u n t a n d

w h a t e v e r q u e s t i o n s a r o s e f r o m s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s s i m i l a r l y c o u l d n o t

b e a n s w e r e d . M o r a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y ( s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s a m e

r a t i o n a l i s t i c t r e a t m e n t ) c o u l d n o t , i n a s i m i l a r w a y , a c c o m m o d a t e t h e

c o n c r e t e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s o f p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s . T h e p e r s o n a l

t h e n h a d t o b e r e m o v e d f r o m e t h i c s a n d m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y t o

` p a s t o r a l t h e o l o g y ' w h e r e ( s o m e t i m e s ) s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t r u l e s

c o u l d b e a p p l i e d .

T h e A r t s a n d T h e M o d e r n .

T h e h u m a n i t i e s ( i n c l u d i n g ` t h e a r t s ' ) w e r e n o t e x e m p t f r o m

R a t i o n a l i s t i n f l u e n c e s . S o m e a r t i s t s a s s e r t e d t h a t a ` h u m a n l i f e

l i v e d b y c a l c u l a t i v e r e a s o n a l o n e i s s c a r c e l y w o r t h l i v i n g ' a n d

e x a l t e d h u m a n p a s s i o n s a n d e m o t i o n s - b u t , a s T o u l m i n c l a i m s

( 1 9 9 0 , p . 1 4 8 ) , s u c h a d i v i s i o n w a s o n l y d u a l i s m i n a d i f f e r e n t f o r m .

D u r i n g t h e m o d e r n p e r i o d , a r t ( w i t h s c i e n c e a n d m e d i c i n e ) l o s t

s i g h t o f i t s h u m a n ` e n d ' , i t s ` p r a c t i c a l i t y ' i e . t o e n a b l e t h e

f l o u r i s h i n g a n d s u r v i v a l o f p e o p l e a n d t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . W h e n a r t

l o s t t h e f r a m e w o r k o f r e l i g i o n t h a t h a d f o r m e r l y p r o v i d e d i t s

m o o r i n g a n d f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e ( i t s l a n g u a g e o f e x p e r i e n c e ) a r t i s t s

h a d t o c o n s t r u c t , n o t o n l y t h e i r o w n p a t t e r n s o f m e a n i n g a n d t r u t h ,

b u t e s t a b l i s h a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s - i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l -

t h a t w o u l d e n a b l e o t h e r s t o s e e a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r w o r k a n d d e r i v e

n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m i t ( s e e B a r z u n 1 9 7 4 a n d G a d a m e r 1 9 9 1 ) . T h i s

70

w o u l d s o m e w h a t m i r r o r t h e m o d e r n n e e d t o f i n d a n a d e q u a t e

` l a n g u a g e ' t o e x p r e s s t h e r e l i g i o u s . T h e s e t a s k s w e r e , p e r h a p s , m o r e

d i f f i c u l t t h a n t h e y h a d e v e r b e e n i n t h e p a s t w h e n t h e r e w e r e

r e c o g n i s e d s y m b o l s a n d s y s t e m s o f m e a n i n g , b u t n o t i m p o s s i b l e . A s

t h e p a i n t e r M c C a h o n ( 1 9 8 8 , p . 2 6 ) s a i d ;

I n t h i s p r e s e n t t i m e i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p a i n t f o r o t h e r p e o p l e - t o p a i n t b e y o n d y o u r o w n e n d s a n d p o i n t d i r e c t i o n s a s p a i n t e r s o n c e d i d . O n c e t h e p a i n t e r w a s m a k i n g s i g n s a n d s y m b o l s f o r p e o p l e t o l i v e b y ; n o w h e m a k e s t h i n g s t o h a n g o n w a l l s a t e x h i b i t i o n s .

A r t a n d a r t i s t s a r e c r e a t u r e s o f t h e i r o w n t i m e a s m u c h a r e s c i e n t i s t s

a n d h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s . A r t w a s i n f e c t e d b y a s c i e n t i f i c

m e n t a l i t y a s m u c h a s w e r e s c i e n t i s t s t h e m s e l v e s . A s B a r z u n

( 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 0 2 ) h a s s a i d , m u c h m o d e r n a r t c a m e t o b e d i s c u s s e d , n o t i n

t e r m s o f i t s ` s o u l ' - t h e s e r i o u s h u m a n c o n c e r n s w i t h w h i c h t h e a r t i s t

s o u g h t t o g r a p p l e - b u t p u r e l y i n t e r m s o f ` f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ' a n d

a r t i s t s b e g a n t o s p e a k l i k e s c i e n t i s t s . . s p a c e , r h y t h m , a s y m m e t r y , o r

d i m e n s i o n s v a g u e l y u s e d t o s u g g e s t t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f R e l a t i v i t y

t h e o r y . T h e s e w e r e t h e a r t i s t i c e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e c e l l s , a t o m s a n d s o

o n o f s c i e n c e . L i k e s c i e n c e a n d m e d i c i n e , s u c h a r t l o o k e d o n l y

i n w a r d s t o i t s e l f b u t t h e a t t e n t i o n l a v i s h e d o n t h e b u i l d i n g b l o c k s

m a d e i t i m p o s s i b l e t o s e e w h a t t y p e o f b u i l d i n g w a s b e i n g

c o n s t r u c t e d a n d o b l i v i o u s t o t h e f a c t t h a t m a n y p e o p l e d i d n o t r e l i s h

t h e i d e a o f l i v i n g i n t h e b u i l d i n g a t a l l . I n a c e r t a i n s e n s e t h i s t y p e

o f a r t b e c a m e m e a n i n g l e s s .

T h e a r t t h a t w a s p r o d u c e d u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s u c h a R a t i o n a l i s t

p h i l o s o p h y h a d t w o e f f e c t s . L i k e h i g h l y t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f

s c i e n c e , s u c h f o r m a l a r t ( d e c o n t e x u a l i z e d f r o m l i f e ) d e m a n d e d a n

i n t e r p r e t e r ( c a l l e d a c r i t i c o r g a l l e r y d i r e c t o r ) w h o c o u l d t r a n s l a t e

71

` t h e m e a n i n g ' o f t h e w o r k t o a v i e w e r . T h i s n o t o n l y i n c r e a s e d t h e

` d i s t a n c e ' b e t w e e n a v i e w e r a n d a r t w o r k ( a n d t h e a r t i s t ) b u t

f o s t e r e d a l a c k o f c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e v i e w e r t o b e a b l e t o e x p e r i e n c e

a n d j u d g e a w o r k f o r t h e m s e l v e s . T h e l a c k o f a p r o p e r d i a l e c t i c a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e v i e w e r , t h e w o r k a n d t h e a r t i s t l e d t o a l a c k

o f e n r i c h i n g s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o n t h e p a r t o f b o t h .

R e s p o n s e s t o a n a r t w o r k f o l l o w e d t h e ` n o r m a l i s i n g ' p a t t e r n o f

F o u c a u l t ' s ( 1 9 7 3 ) b i o - p o w e r w h e r e a l l r e s p o n s e s a r e r e d u c e d t o t h e

o n e f o r m i e . t h e r e w a s o n e w a y t o r e s p o n d t o a w o r k a n d t h a t w a s t h e

w a y ` i n t e r p r e t e d ' e i t h e r b y t h e a r t i s t ( i n a n a r t i s t ' s s t a t e m e n t ) o r b y

t h e a r t e s t a b l i s h m e n t . S e c o n d l y , t h e c a p a c i t y t o e x p e r i e n c e a n a r t

w o r k ( h o w e v e r i n t e r p r e t e d ) r e f l e c t s , t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , a m o d e r n

u t i l i t a r i a n a t t i t u d e - o r h o w k n o w l e d g e a n d t r u t h a r e c o n c e i v e d .

K n o w l e d g e a n d w i s d o m c o u l d n o t , i n m o d e r n t h o u g h t , b e g a i n e d f r o m

i n t e l l i g e n t r e f l e c t i o n o n e x p e r i e n c e a s h a d b e e n t h e c a s e p r i o r t o t h e

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . N o w k n o w l e d g e w a s e q u a t e d w i t h n u m b e r s -

a n d n u m b e r s t h a t c a n b e m e a s u r e d . P e r s o n s b e c a m e ` f a c t g a t h e r e r s '

a n d k n o w l e d g e a n d w i s d o m w e r e a s s u m e d t o g r o w i n d i r e c t

p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e a m o u n t o f f a c t s t h a t o n e w a s a b l e t o a c c u m u l a t e

( s e e G i l k e y 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e ` s k i l l s ' t o d o s o m e t h i n g b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t ,

b u t n o t t h e q u e s t i o n ` W h a t s h o u l d o n e d o ? ' . S o m e t h i n g o f t h i s

a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s ` s k i l l s ' i s r e f l e c t e d , I b e l i e v e , i n t h e c o m m o n

r e q u e s t s I r e c e i v e f r o m h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o t e a c h t h e m

` a b o u t i n t e r p r e t i n g ' a r t . I b e l i e v e i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t I a m a s k e d t o

t e a c h a s k i l l a b o u t a r t , n o t t h a t I t e a c h t h e m h o w t o d o a r t a n d f o r

t h e m t o l e a r n b y r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e i r o w n p r a c t i c e .

72

W h e n i t b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y f o r a r t i s t s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r o w n

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n f o r m a n d c o n t e n t i t w a s o f t e n m a d e d i f f i c u l t

f o r o t h e r s t o a c c e s s t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e i r w o r k . A r t i s t s n o t o n l y h a d

t o d i s c o v e r a w a y o f a d e q u a t e l y s a y i n g w h a t t h e y w a n t e d t o s a y , b u t

m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y d i s c o v e r i n g w h a t i t w a s t h a t t h e y w a n t e d t o s a y .

T h i s n e e d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e a h a n d i c a p , e x c e p t t h a t w h e n t h e

i m a g i n a t i o n h a s b e e n i m p o v e r i s h e d ( o r k i l l e d ) a r t i s t s ( a l o n g w i t h

m a n y o t h e r s ) f i n d t h a t t h e y d o n ' t h a v e a n y t h i n g w o r t h w h i l e t o s a y -

o r w h a t t h e y d o h a v e t o s a y i s s o t r i v i a l a n d s h a l l o w t h a t i t d o e s n o t

s p e a k o f e s s e n t i a l a n d s e r i o u s h u m a n c o n c e r n s n o r o f t h e d e e p e s t

a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e h u m a n s p i r i t . I t d o e s n o t t h e n s p e a k t o t h e l i v e s

o f t h e v i e w e r s , d o e s n o t n o u r i s h a n d f e e d t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n , n o r

m a n i f e s t a d i f f e r e n t w a y o f ` s e e i n g ' - a n d t h i s , I b e l i e v e , i s t h e

m e a n i n g o f B a r z u n ' s p h r a s e ` p u r e a r t . . . d o e s n o t a p p l y t o t h e r e a l

w o r l d ( a n d t h e r e f o r e ) s t r i c t l y , a r t h a s n o m e a n i n g ' ( 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 0 3 ) .

A r t i s d e v o i d o f l i f e , t h e r e f o r e ( i n a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e p h r a s e ) a r t i s

d e a d .

U n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f R a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t , r e a s o n , e s p e c i a l l y i t s

a p p l i c a t i o n i n s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y , c a m e t o b e a t t r i b u t e d w i t h t h e

s a m e r e d e m p t i v e p o w e r s a s w e r e f o r m e r l y a s c r i b e d t o a G o d i e . t o

s a v e t h e w o r l d , b r i n g h a p p i n e s s , m e a n i n g , p r o s p e r i t y a n d p e r s o n a l

f u l f i l m e n t . T h i s d e n i e d t h e r e a l e x i g e n c i e s o f l i f e a s c h a n c y ,

a m b i g u o u s a n d u n c e r t a i n a n d f o s t e r e d a b e l i e f i n c e r t a i n t y t h a t w a s

a t o d d s w i t h t h e p r a g m a t i c h u m i l i t y o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s t s .

A n a t t i t u d e c a m e t o p r e v a i l t h a t i f s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y c a n n o t

p r e s e n t l y p r o v i d e a l l k n o w l e d g e , i t i s o n l y a m a t t e r o f t i m e a n d

m o n e y b e f o r e s u c h a n s w e r s w i l l b e f o r t h c o m i n g . T h e s e s e v e r a l

73

f a c t o r s h a v e l e d t o a r a d i c a l r e v i s i o n i n g o f ` r i g h t ' e n d s . E c o n o m i c

r a t i o n a l i s m ( o r i n s t r u m e n t a l r e a s o n ) , f o r e x a m p l e , s e e s t h e ` r i g h t '

e n d a s l y i n g i n n o n h u m a n t e r m s i e . i n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c e f f i c i e n c y

a n d s u c c e s s ( C h a r l e s T a y l o r 1 9 9 1 , p . 5 ) w i t h c o n s e q u e n t l y p r o f o u n d

e f f e c t s o n t h e h e a l t h c a r e o f p e r s o n s .

M o d e r n r a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t a n d t h e d r a m a t i c e x p a n s i o n o f s c i e n c e

a n d t e c h n o l o g y h a s l e d t o a n o t h e r f e a t u r e o f m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s -

s p e c i a l i s a t i o n - w h i c h h a s h a d m o r e o f a d e v a s t a t i n g i m p a c t t h a n i s

c o m m o n l y r e a l i z e d . P a r t l y a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e v a s t a m o u n t o f

k n o w l e d g e t h a t i s n o w a v a i l a b l e f o r e a s y d i s s e m i n a t i o n -

s p e c i a l i s a t i o n h a s b e c o m e t h e n o r m - e n c o u r a g e d a s w e l l a s

h a n d s o m e l y r e w a r d e d . I n f r e q u e n t l y ( a t l e a s t u n t i l r e c e n t t i m e s )

d o e s o n e h e a r c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t s u c h s p e c i a l i s a t i o n n o r c r i t i c a l

r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e d i s a s t r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s u c h m o v e m e n t s .

M a r i t a i n , h o w e v e r , w r i t i n g i n 1 9 3 0 s a n d 1 9 4 0 s , a r g u e s t h a t s u c h

i n c r e a s e d s p e c i a l i s a t i o n n o t o n l y l e a d s t o t h e d e h u m a n i s a t i o n o f

h u m a n e x i s t e n c e , b u t i s i t s e l f a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t h e i d e a l s o f

d e m o c r a c y - a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a j u s t e t h i c ;

H o w c a n a n y p e r s o n m a k e a n y j u d g e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e g o o d o f m e n i f t h e y o n l y k n o w o f t h e i r o w n s m a l l f i e l d o f e n d e a v o u r ? ( M a r i t a i n 1 9 7 2 , p . 1 9 )

B r o d y , w r i t i n g i n 1 9 9 2 , r e c o g n i s e s s o m e o f t h e p e r i l s i n h e r e n t i n

s p e c i a l i s a t i o n ( a n d f o r e c a s t s t h e n e e d f o r t h e h u m a n i t i e s t o b e a n

i n t e g r a l p a r t o f m e d i c a l e d u c a t i o n ) w h e n h e s a y s ; t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d a n a l y t i c t o o l s o f o n e ' s d i s c i p l i n e t e n d t o e r e c t b a r r i e r s t o l o o k i n g a t t h i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s , w h e r e a s i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e m a y f o r c e o n e t o r e a l i z e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h a t t h e b a r r i e r s a r e t h e r e , a n d w h a t l i e s o n t h e o t h e r s i d e . ( B r o d y 1 9 9 2 , p . x , x i )

74

F r o m a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , b u t I s u g g e s t r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s a m e

` n a r r o w i n g ' d a n g e r s a s i d e n t i f i e d b y M a r i t a i n ( 1 9 7 2 ) , i s B r i t i s h

d r a m a t h e r a p i s t J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 9 2 ) c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e u s e o f d r a m a i n

h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . I n a d v o c a t i n g t h e u s e o f g r e a t a r t w o r k s ( i n

t h i s i n s t a n c e S h a k e s p e a r i a n p l a y s ) f o r t h e c l i e n t s o f d r a m a t h e r a p y

J e n n i n g s r e m a r k s ; I f h u m a n b e i n g s o n l y e x p l o r e w i t h i n t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e a n d w i t h t h e i r l i m i t e d a n d d a m a g e d s e l v e s , t h e r e i s a l w a y s a b o u n d a r y o n h o w f a r w e c a n t r a v e l . ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 5 )

A t a l o c a l l e v e l , t h e A u s t r a l i a n A I D S Q u i l t h a s b e c o m e a p o t e n t

f o r c e f o r h e a l i n g a n d r e c o n c i l i a t i o n f o r a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s - o n e o f

w h i c h i s t h a t i t h a s r e s t o r e d a r t t o i t s s o c i a l f u n c t i o n - i t h a s ` b r o k e n

d o w n s o m e o f t h e o f b o u n d a r i e s ' t h a t f e n c e d a r t o f f f r o m t h e l i v e s o f

o r d i n a r y p e o p l e . I t i s d e m o c r a t i c i n t h e o r i g i n a l s e n s e o f t h e w o r d .

D e a t h a n d i l l n e s s a r e b o t h g r e a t l e v e l l e r s , b u t w i t h t h e Q u i l t t h e

l e v e l l i n g h a s b r o u g h t f o r t h a n e w a p p r e c i a t i o n o f w h a t a d e m o c r a t i c

i d e a l m i g h t l o o k l i k e . T h e a r t f o r m , a n d t h e s e v e r a l r i t u a l s o f t h e

Q u i l t , b o t h p e r m i t a n d e n a b l e p e o p l e t o c a r e a c r o s s t h e b o u n d a r i e s

o f t e n e r e c t e d b y i d e o l o g i e s , s t a t u s , g e o g r a p h y a n d g e n d e r - t h e r e b y

r a i s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s o m e n e w f o r m s o f c o m m u n i t y .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e Q u i l t m a k e s v i s i b l e t h e i n t e r f a c e o f t h e p r i v a t e a n d

t h e c o m m u n a l . I t i s o n e t h i n g t o m a k e a p a n e l f o r t h e Q u i l t t o

r e m e m b e r s o m e o n e w h o h a s d i e d , a n d f o r s o m e p e o p l e t h a t m a y b e

e n o u g h . F o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e t h e r i t u a l h a n d i n g o v e r o f t h e i r

p a n e l t o b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n a n a t i o n a l a n d g l o b a l p r o j e c t i s a n

e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e h e a l i n g p r o c e s s . I n t h e h a n d i n g o v e r o f t h e i r

Q u i l t , t h e i r p r i v a t e g r i e f i s j o i n e d i n a g l o b a l l a n g u a g e o f g r i e f ,

w h i c h a t t h e s a m e t i m e s a n s w e r s t h e i r p e r s o n a l n e e d f o r h e a l i n g .

75

A r t f o r m s l i k e t h e A I D S Q u i l t w o u l d a n s w e r w h a t S l o t e r d i j k

( 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 1 8 ) h a s d e s c r i b e d a s a c o n t e m p o r a r y p r e s s u r e o n t h e a r t s t o

r e j e c t s o m e o f t h e d e s t r u c t i v e i n f l u e n c e s o f M o d e r n i s m a n d t o ;

d e f e n d t h e t r u t h o f l i f e a g a i n s t f l a t e m p i r i c i s m a n d d e a d l y p o s i t i v i s m , w h i c h a r e n o l o n g e r c a p a b l e o f a n a w a r e n e s s o f a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n f a c t s a n d w h i c h a r e t h e r e f o r e i n c a p a b l e o f c u l l i n g t h e e n e r g y t o c r e a t e n e w i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f v i t a l o r l i v i n g f o r c e s .

S e v e r a l f u r t h e r m o v e m e n t s o f t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d h a v e h a d a d e c i s i v e

i n f l u e n c e o n h o w t h e n a t u r e o f p e r s o n s ( a n d t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s )

m i g h t b e c o n c e i v e d ; t h e r i s e i n i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s ( w i t h c o n s e q u e n t

f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f r u r a l s o c i e t i e s ) ; t h e a d v e n t o f a s e c u l a r a g e , a n d

t h e s p r e a d o f l i t e r a c y w h i c h a g a i n a d d e d t o s o c i a l f r a g m e n t a t i o n -

p e o p l e n o l o n g e r d e p e n d e n t u p o n c e r t a i n m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p f o r

t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f c o m m o n

m e a n i n g s a n d v a l u e s . I t w i l l b e r e c a l l e d t h a t D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 )

s a w o n e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s o f a r t a s l y i n g i n t h e

t r a n s m i s s i o n o f c u l t u r e f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n t o a n o t h e r - a s m i g h t

s t i l l p e r t a i n i n m a n y A b o r i g i n a l c o m m u n i t i e s t o d a y ( M i c h a e l s 1 9 9 4 ) .

A M o d e r n V i e w o f P e r s o n s .

R a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t h a s i n f l u e n c e d c o n t e m p o r a r y n o t i o n s o f p e r s o n ,

o f c o m m u n i t y , o f a r t , o f e t h i c s - a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t w e r e

t h o u g h t t o e x i s t ( o r n o t e x i s t ) b e t w e e n t h e m . T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l

f o c u s o n t h r e e a s p e c t s o f t h e n a t u r e o f p e r s o n s a s i n t e g r a l t o a r t ,

h e a l t h a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . F i r s t l y , t h e n a t u r e o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y w i l l

b e e x p l o r e d . S e c o n d l y , t h e r o l e o f n a r r a t i v e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

s u c h i d e n t i t y w i l l b e e x a m i n e d , a n d t h i r d l y , t h e r o l e o f t h e

76

i m a g i n a t i o n i n w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a p e r s o n - p a r t i c u l a r l y a s i t

r e l a t e s t o t h e c a p a c i t y t o s u f f e r a n d t o h e a l - w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d .

T h e N a t u r e o f P e r s o n a l I d e n t i t y .

A s w e h a v e s e e n , C a s s e l l ' s ( 1 9 9 1 ) n o t i o n o f a p e r s o n e n c o m p a s s e s a

c o m p l e x i t y o f S e l v e s - e a c h b e i n g d e r i v e d f r o m o r i n f l u e n c e d b y o u r

e n v i r o n m e n t , o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r s , o u r p a r t i c u l a r g o a l s a n d

a s p i r a t i o n s , o u r h i s t o r y , a n d o u r u n i q u e p h y s i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n .

T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p e r s o n s w a s d i f f i c u l t t o i n c o r p o r a t e i n M o d e r n

t h o u g h t w h i c h w a s a t o m i s t i c , d i v o r c e d f r o m c o n c r e t e p a r t i c u l a r i t y ,

a n d a s p i r e d t o t h e g e n e r a l , t h e a b s t r a c t , a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l .

K n o w l e d g e , i e . o u r m o d e s o f k n o w i n g , i n s t e a d o f b e i n g g r o u n d e d i n

a d i a l e c t i c b e t w e e n t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f a l i v e d h u m a n r e a l i t y a n d

a b s t r a c t t h e o r y , w a s o n l y t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e g e n e r a l , t h e a b s t r a c t

a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l .

T h e W e s t e r n n o t i o n o f a P e r s o n a s a n a u t h e n t i c , a u t o n o mo u s i n d i v i d u a l

d e s e r v i n g o f d i g n i t y a n d r e s p e c t a n d w i t h ` r i g h t s ' t h a t a r e d e f i n e d

b y t h e v e r y f a c t o f h u ma n e x i s t e n c e i s a p r o d u c t o f t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d

a n d i s o f c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t o r i g i n . S u c h a n o t i o n c a m e a b o u t f o r

s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F i r s t l y , t h e c o l l a p s e o f s o c i a l h i e r a r c h i e s w h i c h

h a d d i c t a t e d t h a t h o n o u r , d i g n i t y a n d r e s p e c t w e r e a c c o r d e d t o

p e r s o n s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t a t u s o f t h e i r b i r t h a n d p o s i t i o n .

S e c o n d l y , t h e r i s e o f d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t i e s w h e r e i n a l l m e m b e r s w e r e

c o n s i d e r e d e q u a l . A t h i r d d e c i s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t c a m e a t t h e e n d o f

t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n o t i o n o f a n

77

i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a p e r s o n a l s e n s e o f m o r a l w o r t h a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y -

a n ` i n n e r v o i c e ' w h i c h k n e w w h a t w a s r i g h t a n d w r o n g a n d w h i c h

d i r e c t e d a n d i n f o r m e d p e r s o n a l a c t i o n s t o a c c o r d w i t h t h i s ` i n n e r

t r u t h ' . H o w e v e r , t h i s ` i n n e r t r u t h ' w a s n o w u n d e r s t o o d i n a v e r y

d i f f e r e n t w a y , n o t a s a m e a n s b y w h i c h o n e m i g h t a p p r e h e n d t r u t h (

a s u n d e r s t o o d f r o m w i t h i n a r e l i g i o u s f r a m e w o r k , f o r e x a m p l e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g G o d ' s w i l l ) b u t a s t h e v e r y w a y o f b e c o m i n g

a u t h e n t i c , a u t o n o m o u s , a n d i n d i v i d u a l ( s e e C h a r l e s T a y l o r

1 9 9 1 , 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a n ` i n n e r v o i c e ' o r

` i n n e r d e p t h s ' p l a y e d a c r i t i c a l r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g n o t o n l y

i n d i v i d u a l g o a l s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s , b u t i t p r o f o u n d l y a f f e c t e d n o t i o n s

o f c o m m u n i t y a n d p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y

n o t i c e a b l e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s w h e r e i t m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s i g n

o f p a t h o l o g y , f o r e x a m p l e , t o a c k n o w l e d g e a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f

i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s w i t h a n o t h e r . A s w e h a v e s e e n ,

a r t i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y s o c i a l - i t s p r a c t i c e s i n v i t e e n j o y m e n t , i n t i m a c y

a n d c o m m u n i t y . Y e t i n h e a l t h c a r e m i l i e u x d i s p l a y i n g s u c h a

r e s p o n s e t o p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a r t p r a c t i c e s o f t e n i n v i t e s t h e j u d g m e n t

b y h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s t h a t a p e r s o n ` i s b e c o m i n g t o o

d e p e n d e n t ' - m e a n i n g l a c k i n g i n i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d a u t o n o m y .

T h e M o d e r n v i e w o f p e r s o n s i s i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g c h a l l e n g e d a n d t h e

g r o u n d s f o r i t s r e j e c t i o n a r e w e l l e x e m p l i f i e d b y C h a r l e s T a y l o r

( 1 9 9 1 , p . 4 0 ) w h e n h e s a y s ;

I can define my identity only against the background of things that matter. But to bracket out history, nature, society, the demands of solidarity, everything but what I can find in myself, would be to eliminate all candidates for what matters. Only if I exist in a world in which history, or the demands of nature, or the needs of my fellow human beings, or the duties of citizenship, or the call of god, or something else of this order matters crucially, can I define an identity for myself that is not trivial.

78Authenticity is not the enemy of demands that emanate from beyond the self; it supposes such demands.

T w o b o t a n i c a l i m a g e s m a y s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e i m p o v e r i s h m e n t o f

a M o d e r n , a t o m i s t i c n o t i o n o f p e r s o n s . T h e s e i m a g e s a l s o s e r v e t o

i l l u s t r a t e a n o t i o n o f p e r s o n s ` b e c o m i n g ' a n d p r o v i d e a f u r t h e r

b a c k g r o u n d a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e n o t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e - i d e n t i t y ,

i n t e g r i t y , a n d n a r r a t i v e - c a n b e v i e w e d ( s e e D e w e y 1 9 8 0 a n d

M a r i t a i n 1 9 7 2 ) . T h e i m a g e b y w h i c h I ` i m a g i n e ' t h e n o t i o n o f

f l o u r i s h i n g i s o n e o f t w o t o m a t o b u s h e s . O n e c o u l d b e c a l l e d a

f l o u r i s h i n g t o m a t o b u s h . I t i s u p r i g h t , i t s l e a v e s a n d f r u i t h a v e a

l u s t r e a n d s h e e n , a n d t h e r e i s a q u e s t i n g c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e

d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h i t s l e a v e s a n d b r a n c h e s g r o w . I t i s b l o o m i n g .

T h e o t h e r , t o o , h a s b r a n c h e s , l e a v e s a n d b l o o m s , b u t i t h a s t h e

a p p e a r a n c e o f b e i n g s o m e w h a t ` s l o p e s h o u l d e r e d ' a b o u t t h e b u s i n e s s

o f b e i n g a t o m a t o b u s h . I t a p p e a r s s t r u g g l i n g a n d i t c o u l d b e s a i d t o

b e ` s u b s i s t i n g ' r a t h e r t h a n ` l i v i n g ' a n d ` f l o u r i s h i n g ' .

T h e s e c o n d i m a g e i s o f a b u d d e v e l o p i n g i n t o a f l o w e r . T o b e

h u m a n , t o b e a P e r s o n , i s t o b e e m b o d i e d - t h a t i s w e h a v e a

p h y s i c a l , o r g a n i c , b i o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . I t i s a l s o t r u e t o s a y t h a t o u r

e x i s t e n c e i s n o t m e r e l y a s a n o r g a n i c s t r u c t u r e b u t i s c o n s t i t u t e d b y

a c o m p l e x t e x t i l e o f m a n y i n t e r w o v e n t h r e a d s a n d e l e m e n t s - s e n s e s ,

m i n d , c h a r a c t e r , s p i r i t a n d s o u l . A s A p o s t o l o s - C a p p o d o n a (

1 9 8 4 , p . 2 4 ) r e m a r k s ;

t o b e h u m a n m e a n s m o r e t h a n t o b e a b l e t o t h i n k ; i t e n c o m p a s s e s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a l l t h e s e n s e s a n d f a c u l t i e s w e a s s o c i a t e w i t h t h e h u m a n p e r s o n .

A b u d g r o w i n g i n t o a n o p e n f l o w e r i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h

w e g r o w , b l o s s o m a n d f l o u r i s h . W e a r e b o r n a s a c l o s e d b u d a n d t h e

79

v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s o f o u r l i v e s e i t h e r e n a b l e u s t o o p e n o u r m a n y

p e t a l s t o t h e i r f u l l e s t e x t e n t a n d b e a u t y ( i e . t o b l o s s o m a n d

f l o u r i s h ) , o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , t o h a r m t h e e m e r g i n g p e t a l s t o s u c h a n

e x t e n t t h a t t h e y s h r i v e l a n d p e r h a p s d i e b e f o r e t h e y c a n f u l l y

d e v e l o p a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e b l o o m . T h e p l a n t a n d f l o w e r l i v e

i n a c o m p l e x r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h i t s n u t r i e n t s - t h e s o i l , a i r

a n d w a t e r w h i c h e n a b l e s i t t o f l o u r i s h , g r o w a n d b l o o m . I t c o u l d b e

s a i d t h a t t h e f l o u r i s h i n g p l a n t a n d i t s b l o o m s a r e a w o r k o f a r t . I t

m i g h t a l s o b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t s u c h w o r k s o f a r t c a n a l s o b e d e s c r i b e d

a s G o o d - a n d a s B e a u t y . I n t h e s a m e w a y a s i t m i g h t b e s u g g e s t e d

t h a t t h e e m b r y o n i c b u d o r p l a n t h a s a n i n h e r e n t c a p a c i t y t o a c h i e v e

t h i s u n i q u e f l o u r i s h i n g ( o r t h e G o o d o r B e a u t y ) s o i t m i g h t b e s a i d

t h a t t h e h u m a n o r g a n i s m h a s a s i m i l a r i n h e r e n t c a p a c i t y a n d d e s i r e

t o m a k e o f i t s e l f a w o r k o f a r t . T h e h u m a n n u t r i e n t s r e q u i r e d f o r

f l o u r i s h i n g w o u l d i n c l u d e f r i e n d s h i p , a s e n s e o f s u s t a i n i n g

c o m m u n i t y a n d w h a t a r e c o m m o n l y t e r m e d ` t h e a r t s ' - t h e m e a n s b y

w h i c h o u r i m a g i n a t i o n s a r e n u r t u r e d a n d t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h w e

( i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d c o m m u n a l l y ) ` m a k e s e n s e ' o r m e a n i n g o f t h e

v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s a n d e l e m e n t s o f o u r l i v e s .

I f a p e r s o n h a s a n i n h e r e n t c a p a c i t y , d e s i r e a n d n e e d f o r t h e g o o d ,

f o r b e a u t y , i t c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t a n a e s t h e t i c s e n s e ( o r s e n s e o f

b e a u t y , o r s e n s e o f ` l i f e ' , o r s e n s e o f ` r i g h t n e s s ' ) h a s t o d o w i t h a

r e c o g n i s i n g d i s c e r n m e n t o f t h o s e t h i n g s o r e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t c a n

c o n t r i b u t e t o o u r l i v e s a s f u l f i l l i n g t h a t o p t i m u m c o n d i t i o n - o u r

l i v e s a s w o r k s o f a r t . A n a e s t h e t i c s e n s e c o u l d t h u s b e d e s c r i b e d a s

a f a c u l t y t h a t d i s c e r n s ( o r a p p r e h e n d s ) t h e p o t e n t i a l i n e x p e r i e n c e s

t h a t c a n l e a d t o a n e x p a n s i o n a n d f l o u r i s h i n g o f o u r s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s

80

- o r w h i c h m a y c a u s e h a r m o r i n j u r y . A f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n

u n d e r l i e s t h i s s e c t i o n t h u s f a r , t h a t i s , t o g r o w , d e v e l o p a n d f l o u r i s h

i s g o o d a n d d e s i r a b l e . A f u r t h e r a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t a l i f e o f m e a n i n g

a n d p u r p o s e i m p l i c i t i n t h e c o n c e p t o f g r o w t h , d e v e l o p m e n t a n d

f l o u r i s h i n g i s a G o o d a n d d e s i r e d l i f e . A s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r

` g r o w t h ' a n d ` d e v e l o p m e n t ' a r e n o t o n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p h y s i c a l

a s p e c t s o f o u r B e i n g - i t i s p o s s i b l e t o ` g r o w ' a n d ` d e v e l o p ' a s a

p e r s o n e v e n a s o u r p h y s i c a l b o d i e s d e c l i n e a n d d e g e n e r a t e . T h e

v a l i d i t y o f t h i s a s s u m p t i o n m u s t b e c h e c k e d a g a i n s t a c r i t i c a l

r e f l e c t i o n o n o u r l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e a n d a f u r t h e r b o t a n i c a l i m a g e w i l l

i n t r o d u c e a c a u t i o n a r y q u a l i f i c a t i o n t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t a l l

f l o u r i s h i n g i s u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y G o o d . R a w l s , ( i n h i s e x p l o r a t i o n o f

t h e o r i e s o f j u s t i c e , 1 9 7 1 ) , h o l d s t h a t ` G o o d ' i s , i n m a n y r e s p e c t s , a

m o r a l l y n e u t r a l c o n c e p t - t h a t i s , o f i t s o w n i t d o e s n o t s h e d

s u f f i c i e n t l i g h t o n t h e w h o l e n o t i o n o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o l e a d a j u s t ,

g o o d , a n d d e s i r a b l e l i f e . F o r e x a m p l e , r e t u r n i n g t o t h e t o m a t o

b u s h e s , i t i s p r o b a b l y w i t h i n t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f m o s t t o

r e c o g n i s e t h a t a l l f l o u r i s h i n g i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y ` g o o d , ' ` r i g h t ' a n d

d e s i r a b l e . M y n e i g h b o u r h a s , a t p r e s e n t , a t o m a t o b u s h t h a t i s s o

r a m p a n t i n i t s f l o u r i s h i n g t h a t i t h a s s u f f o c a t e d a n d k i l l e d a l l o t h e r

p l a n t s i n t h e v e g e t a b l e p a t c h . S o m e e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l s o u p m a k e r s

m a y r e j o i c e i n t h i s l u x u r i o u s f l o u r i s h i n g . T h e s a m e s e n s e o f j o y a n d

e x c i t e m e n t m a y n o t b e f e l t i f o n e w e r e a c a r r o t s t r u g g l i n g f o r

s u r v i v a l b e n e a t h t h e r a m p a n t t o m a t o . A p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

` f l o u r i s h i n g ' a n d t h e G o o d w o u l d t h u s b e i n f o r m e d b y t h e e t h i c a l

d e m a n d s o f i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f o u r s e l v e s w i t h

O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r . B a r z u n ( 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 4 8 ) e x t e n d s t h i s c a u t i o n t o

a r t w h e n h e s a y s t h a t i t i s w r o n g t o c o n s i d e r a l l a r t u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y

81

g o o d - a ` w e l l m e a n t d i s h o n e s t y ( t h a t ) w i l l r e t a r d b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l

a n d s o c i e t y ' .

T h e n o t i o n o f a p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y i s o n e t h a t i s h e l d t o b e c r i t i c a l l y

i m p o r t a n t , a t l e a s t i n c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s . H o w e v e r ,

t h i s n o t i o n , a s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n , i s f r e q u e n t l y

u n d e r s t o o d ( o r m i s u n d e r s t o o d ) a s m e a n i n g i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m a n d

s e p a r a t e d f r o m o t h e r s . I t i s , h o w e v e r , i m p o s s i b l e t o d e f i n e o u r

i d e n t i t y e x c e p t i n r e l a t i o n t o O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r - u n d e r s t o o d i n

t h i s c o n t e x t a s N a t u r e , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t - a s t h e s e s i m p l e e x a m p l e s

s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e . T h e c o n c e p t o f m o t h e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , c o u l d b e

s a i d t o h a v e n o m e a n i n g e x c e p t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o n c e p t o f a c h i l d

o r c h i l d r e n ; t o s a y t h a t a h u m a n i s ` a l i v i n g , b r e a t h i n g o r g a n i s m '

m e a n s l o g i c a l l y t h a t t h e o r g a n i s m b r e a t h e s s o m e t h i n g O t h e r ( o x y g e n

a n d s o o n ) a n d f u r t h e r t h a t t h e r e i s a n i m p l i c i t a n d e x p l i c i t

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o ( s e e C h a r l e s T a y l o r 1 9 9 2 a n d M a r k

T a y l o r 1 9 9 5 ) . T h u s , i t m u s t b e p o s s i b l e t o s a y t h a t o n e o f t h e

c o n s t i t u t i v e n o t i o n s o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a P e r s o n i s t h a t t h e

i d e n t i t y o f t h a t p e r s o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d a n

i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r . I t w o u l d a l s o s e e m

r e a s o n a b l e t o s a y t h a t a n y n o t i o n s o f t h e ` G o o d ' o r f l o u r i s h i n g t h a t

a r e u n c o v e r e d d u r i n g t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n ( a s t h e y a r e a p p l i e d t o h u m a n

P e r s o n s a n d h u m a n b e h a v i o u r ) m u s t a l s o e m b r a c e q u a l i t i e s t h a t

e n h a n c e , s u s t a i n a n d e n c o u r a g e t h i s i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s a n d

i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e .

T h e n o t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y m u s t a l s o e n c o m p a s s a p a r a d o x - a

n o t i o n o f a n o S e l f ( M a r k T a y l o r 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s s e e m s i m p l i c i t i n

82

s o m e n o t i o n s o f a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e s - a n d m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s

w h e r e o n e e x p e r i e n c e s a s t a t e w h e r e o u r s e n s e o f S e l f i s s o m e h o w

s u s p e n d e d , t r a n s f o r m e d o r t r a n s c e n d e d . A s M e r t o n d e s c r i b e s i t ` i n

a n e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f a r t , w e n o t o n l y l o s e o u r s e l v e s b u t f i n d

o u r s e l v e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e ( M e r t o n i n A p o s t o l o s - C a p p a d o n a

1 9 8 4 , p . 2 4 ) . A g a i n t h e r e i s a s e e m i n g p a r a d o x i n t h e S e l f t h a t i s

f o u n d i n t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s - n o t o n l y d o e s o n e f i n d a ` t r u e ' S e l f (

i n d i c a t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r d e g r e e o f u n i q u e n e s s a n d i n d i v i d u a l i t y ) b u t a

S e l f t h a t c a r r i e s w i t h i n i t a c e r t a i n e l e m e n t o f a n o n y m i t y - o r a S e l f

w i t h n o b o u n d a r i e s .

T h e r o l e o f N a r r a t i v e i n P e r s o n a l I d e n t i t y .

T h e i d e n t i t y o f a p e r s o n m i g h t a l s o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s n a r r a t i v e l y

c o n s t r u c t e d - a s a w o r k o f a r t i n p r o g r e s s . O u r i d e n t i t y a s P e r s o n s

i s s h a p e d ( l i k e a w o r k o f a r t ) b y t h e c u l t u r a l s t o r y a n d l a n d s c a p e o f

t h e s o c i e t y i n w h i c h w e l i v e a n d i n w h i c h w e h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t u p .

O u r i d e n t i t y i s f u r t h e r s h a p e d b y t h e i n t e r e s t s t h a t w e c h o o s e t o

p u r s u e . F o r e x a m p l e , m y i d e n t i t y , m y s e n s e o f S e l f i s d i f f e r e n t

s i n c e I d e c i d e d s o m e y e a r s a g o t h a t , w h a t e v e r I d i d i n t h e f u t u r e , i t

m u s t s o m e h o w i n v o l v e a r t . T h a t c h o i c e h a s o b v i o u s l y m e a n t t h a t I

c a n ` n o t ' ( w i t h i n t e g r i t y ) c h o o s e o t h e r p a t h s ; t h a t s o m e o p t i o n s a r e

` n o t ' o p e n t o m e . T h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t I a m n o t f r e e t o d o o t h e r

j o b s , b u t r a t h e r a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e y h a v e b e c o m e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n

t h e p u r s u i t o f m y m a i n d i r e c t i o n .

H o w e v e r , w h i l e i t c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t I a m ` f r e e ' t o c o n s t r u c t m y

n a r r a t i v e a s I w i s h , t h a t f r e e d o m i s c o l o u r e d b y t h e s a m e c o n s t r a i n t s

83

t h a t a p p l y t o m y a r t m a k i n g - i n n e r t r u t h , a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d a c e r t a i n

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o w a r d s o t h e r s . A s B r u n e r ( 1 9 8 7 , p . 1 4 ) , a s s e r t s ;

not just any autobiography will do - either for its teller or for his listener...one imposes criteria of rightness on the self-report of a life just as one imposes them on the account of a football game or the report of an event in nature.

O u r i d e n t i t y , o u r p e r s o n a l n a r r a t i v e , o u r p e r s o n a l l a n d s c a p e , i s

s h a p e d n o t o n l y b y t h e s t o r i e s t h a t w e t e l l o f o u r s e l v e s , b u t a l s o b y

t h e s t o r i e s t h a t w e a r e p e r m i t t e d ( o r n o t p e r m i t t e d ) t o t e l l o f

o u r s e l v e s ( L e F e v r e , 1 9 8 7 , p . 3 4 ) . W i t h i n m o d e r n m e d i c i n e , f o r

e x a m p l e , t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s w a s d i s m i s s e d , i g n o r e d ,

n o t r e c o r d e d o r r i d i c u l e d a s ` f a n c i f u l ' ( s e e S a c k s 1 9 8 4 ) . I n a n a r t

` m a r k e t ' s i m i l a r f o r c e s m a y d e t e r m i n e t h a t t h e ` d a r k p e r i o d '

p a i n t i n g s o f a p a r t i c u l a r a r t i s t m i g h t n o t f i n d a r e a d y m a r k e t - w i t h

t h e r e s u l t t h a t s u c h w o r k s ( s u c h n a r r a t i v e s ) h a v e e i t h e r t o b e

p e r s o n a l l y c e n s o r e d o r n o t e x h i b i t e d . A g a i n , o u r n a r r a t i v e s a r e

c o n s t r a i n e d b y h o w f r e e d o m i s i n t e r p r e t e d . M u c h s u f f e r i n g ( o r

h a r m t o o u r S e l v e s ) c a n a t t e n d t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t p r e v e n t u s

f r o m r e v e a l i n g o u r i n n e r t r u t h s . S o m e c o m m o n e x a m p l e s w o u l d

i n c l u d e ;

a. the `shutters ' come down when one speaks of grief and bereavement - so

that the grieving Self is not permitted to be spoken and heard and,

b . t h e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e t h e b i o -

m e d i c a l m o d e l i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s , e r e c t s b a r r i e r s t o d i f f e r e n t

w a y s o f s e e i n g , t o t h e t e l l i n g o f d i f f e r e n t n a r r a t i v e s t h a t m i g h t

c h a l l e n g e a n d t h r e a t e n t h e s t a t u s q u o .

O n t h e o n e h a n d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t w e d o h a v e t h e

f r e e d o m - w i t h i n c e r t a i n l e g a l a n d m o r a l c o n s t r a i n t s - t o n a r r a t e

o u r s e l v e s a s w e w o u l d l i k e t o b e p e r c e i v e d . F u r t h e r , a s B r u n e r

84

( 1 9 8 7 , p . 1 4 ) h a s p o i n t e d o u t , a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l a c c o u n t s . . . ( a r e )

n o t a b l y u n s t a b l e ( w h i c h m a k e s t h e m ) h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e t o c u l t u r a l ,

i n t e r p e r s o n a l , a n d l i n g u i s t i c i n f l u e n c e s . I n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e r e a r e f u r t h e r p a r a d o x i c a l ` b a r r i e r s ' t o h e a r i n g t h e

s t o r i e s o f a n o t h e r . T h e s e a r e s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e ` r i g h t ' i n t e g r i t y

o f d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n a n e m p a t h e t i c c o m p a s s i o n f o r a n o t h e r s l i p s o v e r

i n t o a t o t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n - w h i c h n o l o n g e r a l l o w s t h e O t h e r t o b e

s e e n a s O t h e r ( A d a m s i n G r i f f i t h 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 ) . W h a t a p p e a r s t o b e

r e q u i r e d i s t o h o l d t h e t e n s i o n - t o k e e p o p e n a m o r a l s p a c e -

b e t w e e n t h e d e m a n d s o f c o m p a s s i o n ( t h a t w e m i g h t f e e l a s t h o u g h

w e w e r e t h e o t h e r ) a n d a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t w e a r e ` n o t ' t h a t o t h e r . I n

t h e s a m e w a y t h a t A n g l o - S a x o n s a r e ( g e n e r a l l y ) n o t ` a t h o m e ' w i t h

s p e a k i n g o f g r i e f a n d b e r e a v e m e n t , n o r , s i m i l a r l y , a r e w e a t h o m e

w i t h p e o p l e i n d i s t r e s s o r s u f f e r i n g . T h e i n s t i n c t i v e r e s p o n s e t o

c o m f o r t , t o h u g , t o ` s t o p t h e c r y i n g ' a l w a y s h a s a n o t h e r s i d e . A l l

t h e v e r y n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t s t o c o m f o r t m a y b e w e l l m e a n t , b u t m i g h t ,

a t t h e s a m e t i m e , p r e v e n t a n a r r a t i v e f r o m b e i n g t o l d . I m i g h t t h i n k

I k n o w h o w a n o t h e r f e e l s ( a s g r i e f h a s s o m e u n i v e r s a l p a r a l l e l s ) ,

b u t I d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d u n t i l I a l l o w y o u t o t e l l m e h o w y o u p a i n t

y o u r p i c t u r e o f g r i e f o r , t h e w o r d s t h a t y o u c h o o s e f o r y o u r

n a r r a t i v e .

85

S u f f e r i n g

A s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , t h e n o t i o n o f p a i n a n d t h e

n o t i o n o f s u f f e r i n g , w h i l e o f t e n c o n f u s e d o r c o l l a p s e d i n t o o n e

a n o t h e r , a r e n o t t h e s a m e t h i n g . S u f f e r i n g d o e s n o t r e f e r t o a

p h y s i c a l s t a t e b u t t o a n o n t o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y - a s t a t e w h e r e a p e r s o n

i s f e a r f u l t h a t t h e i r s t a t e o f B e i n g , t h e i r S e l f , t h e i r i d e n t i t y , i s i n

d a n g e r o f d e a t h , d e s t r u c t i o n o r i n j u r y . U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n a r r a t i v e

n a t u r e o f o u r i d e n t i t y a s p e r s o n s m i g h t a l s o p r o v i d e a d i f f e r e n t w a y

o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n o f a r t w h i c h ` l e t s u s

t r a n s f o r m r e a l i t y . . . t o r e s t r u c t u r e r e a l i t y s o t h a t w e c a n l i v e w i t h t h e

s u f f e r i n g ' ( D e S t a e b l e r 1 9 8 4 , p . 2 5 ) . T h e n o t i o n o f s u f f e r i n g m i g h t

t h e n a l s o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s i n c o r p o r a t i n g a c a p a c i t y t o s e e t h a t t h e

o l d p i c t u r e - t h e o l d r u l e s - o r t h e o l d c o n s t r u c t - o l d f o r m - o r o l d

i d e n t i t y - n o l o n g e r h o l d ` t h e t e r r o r o r f e a r o f t h e f o r m l e s s ' a t b a y .

I n a n A B C p r o g r a m i n 1 9 8 9 e n t i t l e d ` I t ' s o n l y a n i l l n e s s ' a m a n w i t h

A I D S s a i d ;

N o t h i n g l i k e t h i s h a d e v e r h a p p e n e d t o m e b e f o r e a n d I f o u n d I h a d n o l a n g u a g e t o s p e a k a b o u t i t .

S u f f e r i n g , t h e n , m i g h t a l s o b e s e e n a s i n d i c a t i n g a t i m e w h e n t h e

r e d e m p t i v e s p a c e w h i c h c a n o p e n u p b e t w e e n t h e o l d l a n g u a g e a n d

t h e n e w h a s n o t y e t b e e n p a i n t e d i n t h e n e w c o l o u r s o f l i f e - a n d

i n d i c a t i n g , p e r h a p s , a f u r t h e r r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t , w h a t e v e r n e w c o l o u r s

a r e u s e d , t h e y t o o , i n t i m e , w i l l h a v e t o b e r e p a i n t e d , y i e l d t o a n e w

p i c t u r e , a n e w ` d e f e n c e ' a g a i n s t ( o r a c c e p t a n c e o f ) t h e ` v o i d ' , t h e

a m b i g u o u s , t h e ` t e r r o r ' , a n d t h e u n c e r t a i n .

A b i o - m e d i c a l a p p r o a c h e m p h a s i s e s t h e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f i l l n e s s

w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e r e i s m u c h d e n i a l o f s u f f e r i n g i n m o d e r n

86

h e a l t h c a r e w h i c h o f t e n i n t e n s i f i e s s u f f e r i n g b y d e l a y i n g t h e

r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e n e e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t , t o r e c r e a t e a n e w p i c t u r e o f

o u r S e l v e s ( s e e C a s s e l l 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e d e n i a l o f s u f f e r i n g m i g h t a l s o b e

e v i d e n c e d b y t h e e n d e m i c a n d p e r v a s i v e u s e o f a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s a n d

t h e a t t i t u d e o f t e n e x p r e s s e d t o w a r d s a r t b y h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s

- a s a d i v e r s i o n ` t o t a k e y o u r m i n d o f f t h i n g s . ' A s w e h a v e s e e n

p r e v i o u s l y , c a t e g o r i s i n g a r t a s a ` d i v e r s i o n ' i s o n e o f t h e w a y s i n

w h i c h t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s i s

m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d / o r c o n t r o l l e d w i t h i n a m e d i c a l p a r a d i g m . T h e

d e s i r e t o ` d i v e r t ' a t t e n t i o n f r e q u e n t l y m a s k s t h e f a c t t h a t b o r e d o m

a n d d e p r e s s i o n o f t e n s t e m f r o m a l a c k o f s e n s o r y a n d m e n t a l

s t i m u l a t i o n i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l s u r r o u n d s - w h i c h w o u l d t h e n m a k e

b o r e d o m a ` n a t u r a l ' a n d d e s i r e d r e s p o n s e . S e c o n d l y , s u c h a

p e r c e p t i o n o f a r t m i s u n d e r s t a n d s w h a t i s i n v o l v e d i n a r t m a k i n g i e .

t h a t t h e p r o c e s s e s o f a r t m a k i n g o f t e n t a k e p e o p l e d e e p e r i n t o t h e i r

p r e d i c a m e n t , n o t a w a y f r o m i t . C a t e g o r i s i n g a r t a s a ` d i v e r s i o n ' ,

h o w e v e r , o f t e n r e s u l t s i n p a t i e n t s b e i n g t o l d b y h e a l t h c a r e

p r o f e s s i o n a l s ;

` Y o u s h o u l d s t o p a l l t h i s p a i n t i n g . I t i s a n a v o i d a n c e t a c t i c . Y o u s h o u l d b e w o r k i n g o n y o u r p r o b l e m s . '

o r s o m e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s b e i n g a s k e d b y o t h e r s ;

` W h e n a r e y o u g o i n g t o s t o p p l a y i n g w i t h p a i n t a n d d o s o m e p r o p e r w o r k ? '

A u t o n o m y a n d P e r s o n a l I d e n t i t y .

S o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e n o t i o n s o f a u t o n o m y a n d

a u t h e n t i c i t y c o n t a i n a p a r a d o x . D e w e y ( i n M c D e r m o t t , 1 9 7 3 ) a n d

C h a r l e s T a y l o r ( 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 1 ) h a v e s a i d t h a t , w h i l e w e a r e s o c i a l

b e i n g s , w e e a c h h a v e u l t i m a t e p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o u r o w n

87

a u t h e n t i c i t y - t h a t i t i s o u r p e r s o n a l a n d s i n g u l a r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o

g r o w a n d e x p a n d t o o u r f u l l e s t p o t e n t i a l . T h e p a r a d o x l i e s i n t h e

f a c t t h a t t h e f u l l n e s s o f o u r B e i n g , o u r i d e n t i t y a s a u t h e n t i c ,

i n d e p e n d e n t a n d a u t o n o m o u s P e r s o n s , c a n o n l y b e a c h i e v e d b y a n d

t h r o u g h o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d d e p e n d e n c e u p o n O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r -

i t i s i n t e r d e p e n d e n t a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d . S u f f e r i n g , t h e n , h a s a

c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n a s w e l l a s a p e r s o n a l o n e . I n h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s , o n e i s p a i n f u l l y a w a r e o f t h e s u f f e r i n g t h a t i s a l s o

e x p e r i e n c e d b y f r i e n d s , f a m i l y a n d s t a f f . T h u s , a j u s t c a r e o f

p e r s o n s w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g w o u l d a l s o e n c o m p a s s a c a r e o f

t h o s e w h o s u f f e r w i t h t h e m . T h a t b e i n g t h e c a s e , c a r e , n u r t u r e ,

t o l e r a n c e , a c c e p t a n c e a n d c o m p a s s i o n o u g h t t o b e s e e n a s m u c h p a r t

o f e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s a s a r e t h e m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n s o f

j u s t i c e , r i g h t s a n d s o o n ( s e e G i l l i g a n & A t t a n u c c i 1 9 8 8 ) .

F u r t h e r m o r e , a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a n e t h i c a l c a r e m u s t b e a n

a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f a s e n s e o f h e l p l e s s n e s s a n d p o w e r l e s s n e s s - t h a t

o f t e n t h e r e i s l i t t l e w e c a n ` d o ' . T h e c h a l l e n g e , t h e n , b e c o m e s a n

o n t o l o g i c a l o n e i e . w e a r e r e q u i r e d t o B e d i f f e r e n t l y a s M a y

( 1 9 9 1 , p . 4 ) p u t s i t . S o m e e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g l e a v e

u s , a s M o d j e s k a ( 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 1 9 ) h a s d e s c r i b e d , a s i f a l l o u r n e r v e

e n d i n g s a r e e x p o s e d - l i k e a s k i n n e d r a b b i t i n a b u t c h e r s h o p . A j u s t

a n d c a r i n g h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e m i g h t a l s o b e c o n c e i v e d a s p r o v i d i n g

a ` s a f e ' s p a c e w h e r e i n a s i c k p e r s o n c a n e x p e r i e n c e t h e ` h e a l i n g

b a l m ' o f ` r e s t ' t h a t i s n e e d e d i n o r d e r f o r t h e m t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r

j o u r n e y t o w a r d s w h o l e n e s s a n d ` h e a l t h ' . S u c h a n o t i o n o f h e a l t h

c a r e w o u l d r a d i c a l l y c h a l l e n g e t h e ` C a s e m i x m o d e l ' m e n t i o n e d

p r e v i o u s l y - i f , w i t h i n t h a t m o d e l , e c o n o m i c e n d s o b l i t e r a t e d t h e

i n d i v i d u a l n e e d s o f p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n s .

88

T h e I m a g i n a t i o n .

F r o m a b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r s p e c t i v e i t i s c l e a r t h a t h u m a n s h a v e

e v o l v e d a n d a d a p t e d t o e x h i b i t c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l l y h u m a n n e e d s .

D a r w i n h a s i d e n t i f i e d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a s ` t h e h i g h e s t f u n c t i o n o f

m a n ' ( i n A b b s 1 9 8 9 , p . 1 9 1 ) . U n d e r R a t i o n a l i s m , w i t h i t s e m p h a s i s

o n t h e r a t i o n a l , t h e a b s t r a c t , t h e g e n e r a l , a n d t h e ` s c i e n t i f i c ' , t h e

i m a g i n a t i o n h a s s u f f e r e d a n i m p o v e r i s h e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( s e e

M a r i t a i n 1 9 4 3 , 1 9 7 2 ; W a r n o c k 1 9 7 6 ; M a r c u s e 1 9 8 6 a n d R a n k 1 9 8 9 ) .

H o w e v e r , i t s e e m s c l e a r t h a t i t w a s t h e h u m a n c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e

i e . t o c r e a t e a n d c o n s t r u c t d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f r e a l i t y t h a t w a s o f s u c h

e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t ( s e e D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 9 2 ) .

W h a t , h o w e v e r , i s t h e i m a g i n a t i o n ? T h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e ( l i k e

t h e c a p a c i t y t o m a k e a n d r e s p o n d t o a r t ) i s n o t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s

b e l o n g i n g o n l y t o s o m e ` i m a g i n a t i v e o r c r e a t i v e p e o p l e ' . I t i s m o r e

u s e f u l t o u n d e r s t a n d i m a g i n a t i o n a s a c o n t i n u u m e x i s t i n g b e t w e e n

t h e f a m i l i a r a n d t h e n e w . I m a g i n a t i o n i s a w a y o f s t r u c t u r i n g

p e r c e p t i o n - o f i m p o s i n g f o r m o n o u r e x p e r i e n c e s b y t h e c r e a t i o n o f

i m a g e s . A s W a r n o c k ( 1 9 7 5 , p . 2 0 7 , 2 0 8 ) e x p l a i n s ;

B y i m a g i n a t i o n w e r e n d e r t h e w o r l d f a m i l i a r , a n d t h e r e f o r e m a n a g e a b l e . A t a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l , a n d s p o r a d i c a l l y , w e m a y a l s o u s e i t t o r e n d e r o u r e x p e r i e n c e u n f a m i l i a r a n d m y s t e r i o u s . O n o n e l e v e l t i d y i n g u p t h e c h a o s o f s e n s e e x p e r i e n c e . . . a n d a t a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l u n t i d y i n g i t a g a i n .

M a r c u s e , h o w e v e r , e m p h a s i s e s t h e s u b v e r s i v e a n d p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e o f

t h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n h o l d s t h e k e y t o t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y o f h u m a n l i b e r a t i o n - i t s r e g e n e r a t i v e a b i l i t y t o r e m a i n

u n c o l o n i z e d b y a p r e v a i l i n g i d e o l o g y , t o c o n t i n u e t o g e n e r a t e n e w

i d e a s , a n d t o r e c o n f i g u r e t h e f a m i l i a r ( B e c k e r 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 1 4 ) . T h e

89

p o t e n t i a l o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n c a n b e l i k e n e d t o t h e p o t e n t i a l o f a r t

w h e r e ;

( i t s t r u t h ) l i e s i n i t s p o w e r t o b r e a k t h e m o n o p o l y o f e s t a b l i s h e d r e a l i t y ( i e . o f t h o s e w h o e s t a b l i s h e d i t ) t o d e f i n e w h a t i s r e a l ( M a r c u s e 1 9 8 6 , p . 9 )

T h e i m a g i n a t i o n , t h e n , c a n b e s a i d t o c o n s t r u c t f o r m s a n d p a t t e r n s o f

m e a n i n g - w h i c h c a n b e a l t e r e d o r r e c r e a t e d . F u r t h e r , t h e a b i l i t y t o

i m a g i n e i e . t o d e f i n e w h a t i s r e a l , i s a l s o v i t a l l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e

c a p a c i t y t o h o p e - t o ` s e e ' a r e a l i t y t h a t i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o n e

p r e s e n t l y e x p e r i e n c e d .

O f c r i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r o u r S e l v e s t o f l o u r i s h , t o c r e a t e o u r l i v e s

a s w o r k s o f a r t , i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i s n o t u s e l e s s - i t

h a s c r i t i c a l m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i e . o u r a c t i o n s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m a n d

a r e i n f o r m e d b y t h e f o r m i n w h i c h w e c o n s t r u c t o u r r e a l i t i e s . I n a

t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y t h e f o r m s i m p o s e d o n r e a l i t y w e r e i n f o r m e d b y

a n d d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s a n ` e n d ' i e . t h e y h a d a t e l e o l o g i c a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e , i n t h i s c a s e t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e g r o u p a n d t h e

i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h a t g r o u p . A t r a d i t i o n a l a e s t h e t i c c o u l d t h e n b e

s a i d t o b e h o w w e l l - o r ` f i t t i n g ' - t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m s e r v e d t h e

c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l o f t h e g r o u p . R e t u r n i n g t o t h e i n s i g h t s o f

D i s s a n a y a k e ' s b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y a p p r o a c h ( 1 9 9 2 ) , i t m i g h t b e s e e n

t h a t a r e s p o n s e t h a t w a s ` t o o m u c h ' o r ` n o t f i t t i n g ' w o u l d n o t b e o f

e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t b e c a u s e a n e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t i n a r t m a k i n g

p r a c t i c e i s t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n g a i n e d b y m a s t e r y a n d c o n t r o l - a s e n s e

o f s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . F o r e x a m p l e i n d a n c e , t h e p l e a s u r e e x p e r i e n c e d

b y a n i n d i v i d u a l c o m e s n o t o n l y f r o m t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e i r o w n

b o d i e s , b u t a l s o r h y t h m i c m o v e m e n t w i t h o t h e r s - t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g

o n e w i t h o t h e r s . H o w e v e r , i f o n e p e r s o n m o v e d u n f i t t i n g l y o r

90

e x c e s s i v e l y o r w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e o t h e r d a n c e r s ( w i t h o u t

r e s p e c t i n g t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e a r t f o r m ) b o t h t h e c o m m u n a l a n d t h e

i n d i v i d u a l r h y t h m o f t h e d a n c e g r o u p w o u l d b e l o s t . S i m i l a r l y , i f a

p e r s o n d i d n o t r e s p o n d e n o u g h , i e . i f t h e y w e r e n o t a c t i v e e n o u g h

n o r i n h a r m o n y w i t h t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s , t h e y w o u l d d e r i v e n o

p l e a s u r e a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d a g a i n t h e

c r i t i c a l , p l e a s u r a b l e r h y t h m o f t h e d a n c e w o u l d b e l o s t a n d t h e y

m i g h t n o t s e e k a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e . T h e r e f o r e , i t w o u l d

a p p e a r t h a t a n a e s t h e t i c s e n s e o f ` w h a t i s f i t t i n g ' i s o n e o f t h e

r e g u l a t o r s o f m o r a l a c t i o n . I n u s i n g t h e t e r m ` r e g u l a t o r ' I d o n o t

w i s h t o i m p l y t h a t m o r a l a c t i o n m u s t b e i n f o r m e d b y ` r e g u l a t i o n s ' a s

u n d e r s t o o d i n a m o d e r n s e n s e ( s e e J o h n s o n 1 9 9 3 ) .

I m a g i n a t i o n a n d E t h i c s .

C o n t r a r y t o a R a t i o n a l i s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g , e t h i c s i s e s s e n t i a l l y

p r a c t i c a l - i t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h d o i n g a n d B e i n g . I t i s c o n c e r n e d

w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t e n a b l e p e r s o n s t o f l o u r i s h - a n d w i t h n a m i n g

t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s o r p r a c t i c e s w h i c h c a u s e h a r m a n d d e s t r u c t i o n a n d

w h i c h m a y b e t e r m e d e v i l . A s e t h i c s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h w a y s o f

` s e e i n g ' o u r s e l v e s a n d O t h e r s , i t m i g h t a l s o b e s a i d t h a t t h e

i m a g i n a t i o n ( t o s e e i n b o t h f a m i l i a r a n d i n n e w w a y s ) i s a n i n t e g r a l

a n d n e c e s s a r y p a r t o f b o t h a e s t h e t i c s a n d m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y . F u r t h e r ,

t h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e i s i n t e g r a l t o t h e n o t i o n o f c o m p a s s i o n - t h e

a b i l i t y t o f e e l a s i f o n e w a s a n o t h e r . T h i s a b i l i t y t o ` f e e l a s t h o u g h

a n o t h e r ' e n a b l e s u s t o c a r e f o r a n d a b o u t a n o t h e r . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n ,

t h e n , h a s b o t h i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n s .

91

W h i l e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i s a n i n d i v i d u a l c a p a c i t y i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o

h a v e a c o m m u n a l i m a g i n a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e w h e r e a g r o u p o f p e o p l e

a r e i n s p i r e d b y t h e s a m e v i s i o n o r g o a l . T h e A I D S Q u i l t i s a p r i m e

e x a m p l e o f M a r c u s e ' s b e l i e f t h a t a r t ;

c a n n o t c h a n g e t h e w o r l d , b u t i t c a n c h a n g e t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f p e o p l e w h o c a n c h a n g e t h e w o r l d . ( M a r c u s e 1 9 8 6 , p . 3 2 )

T h e Q u i l t e x e mp l i f i e s h o w a n i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o mmu n a l i ma g i n a t i o n c a n

b e b o u g h t t o g e t h e r t o b r i n g a b o u t a r a d i c a l c h a n g e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

T h e i ma g i n a t i o n o f o n e man , C l e v e J o n e s , i n S a n F r a n c i s c o h a s i n s p i r e d

mi l l i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d b y s a y i n g ` s e e o u r e x p e r i e n c e o f A I D S

t h i s w a y - ` s e e o u r g r i e f , l o s s a n d a n g e r t h i s w a y ' . M y c a p a c i t y t o

i ma g i n e a l l o w s me t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s w a y o f ` s e e i n g ' . I t a l l o w s me

t o r e memb e r t h a t w a y o f s e e i n g f r o m t h e p a s t , t o d r a w s u s t e n a n c e f r o m

i t i n t h e p r e s e n t , a n d t o p r e s e n t t h a t v i e w o f r e a l i t y t o o t h e r s . L i k e a n

e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f a r t , t h e c a p a c i t y t o ` s e e ' a d i f f e r e n t w a y o f

B e i n g a l l o w s me t o b e h a v e a n d s e e d i f f e r e n t l y i n t h e f u t u r e - i t h a s a

mo r a l d i men s i o n . R e s e a r c h c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e A me r i c a n Q u i l t , f o r

e x a mp l e , h a s r e v e a l e d t h a t s o me 7 0 % o f p e o p l e w h o h a v e a t t e n d e d a

d i s p l a y o f t h e Q u i l t h a v e b e e n mo v e d t o a p r a c t i c a l r e s p o n s e - c a r i n g

f o r t h e s i c k , t h e i r f a mi l i e s a n d f r i e n d s , f u n d r a i s i n g f o r A I D S c a u s e s -

o r s i mi l a r a c t i v i t i e s f o r o t h e r s w h o a r e i l l o r i n n e e d .

I t i s t h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e - t o c r e a t e , c o n s t r u c t a n d p r e s e n t n e w

o r d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f ` s e e i n g ' - w h i c h i s m a d e m a n i f e s t i n a r t . T h e

i m a g i n a t i o n i s t h e t h r e a d w h i c h d r a w s t o g e t h e r e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s .

B y m e a n s o f a r t ( w h e r e t h e i m a g i n e d r e a l i t y i s m a d e v i s i b l e ) w e a r e

a b l e t o i m a g i n e a m o r e h u m a n w o r l d , a n d i t i s t h a t v e r y c a p a c i t y t o

i m a g i n e , t o ` s e e ' ` s o m e t h i n g a n o t h e r w a y ' w h i c h e n a b l e s u s t o w o r k

92

t o w a r d s t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f t h a t w o r l d . T h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e ( l i k e

n o t i o n s o f ` t h e G o o d ' a n d ` f l o u r i s h i n g ' ) c a n a l s o b e u n d e r s t o o d i n

t h e n e g a t i v e - i n d i c a t i n g a n e g a t i v e i m a g i n i n g o r a r e s t r i c t e d

i m a g i n i n g . I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s ` n e g a t i v e i m a g i n i n g ' i s

i l l u s t r a t e d i n s o m e o f t h e p o o r ( a n d u n e t h i c a l ) h e a l t h c a r e

e n v i r o n m e n t s - a n d p r a c t i c e s - t h a t o f t e n o b t a i n t o d a y . A s t h e

r e s u l t o f t h e d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d n a t u r e o f m u c h M o d e r n p r a c t i c e a n d

t h e p e r s o n a l a l i e n a t i o n f r o m a r t p r a c t i c e , t h e c a p a c i t y t o v i s u a l i z e

h a s b e e n b l u n t e d o r d i m m e d s o t h a t m a n y a r e u n a b l e t o i m a g i n e a n y

d i f f e r e n t r e a l i t y t o t h a t b y w h i c h t h e y a r e p r e s e n t l y c o n f r o n t e d . A s

a s i m p l e i l l u s t r a t i o n , t h e g r o s s s e n s o r y d e p r i v a t i o n o f m a n y h e a l t h

c a r e s e t t i n g s h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o p r e v i o u s l y - b u t s o m a n y s i m p l y

` d o n o t n o t i c e ' t h e d e p r i v a t i o n a f t e r a w h i l e . N o r d o w e n o t i c e t h a t

m a n y o f t h e w a y s o f c a t e g o r i s i n g t h a t w e e m p l o y d a i l y a r e s i m i l a r l y

d e p r i v e d o f a n a b i l i t y t o i g n i t e a n d i n s p i r e a d i f f e r e n t w a y o f

` s e e i n g ' .

P r i o r t o t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d p e o p l e r e c e i v e d t h e n u t r i e n t s t o n o u r i s h

t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n f r o m s e v e r a l s o u r c e s - n o t a b l y r e l i g i o n a n d t h e a r t s

- r e c a l l i n g t h a t i t i s o n l y t h i n g s o f s e r i o u s h u m a n c o n c e r n t h a t h a v e

t h e n e c e s s a r y v i t a l i t y t o s u s t a i n f l o u r i s h i n g . I t m u s t a l s o b e

a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t w e c a n b e m i s t a k e n i n w h a t w e c o n s i d e r m a t t e r s

o f s e r i o u s h u m a n c o n c e r n ( a n d t h e e n d s o f h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g ) a s

h a s b e e n w i t n e s s e d b y s o m e o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c e x c e s s e s o f t h e

1 9 8 0 s . T h e a r t s i n a t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g w e r e n o t a t r i v i a l o r

` l e i s u r e a c t i v i t y ' - t h e y a n s w e r e d e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s b e c a u s e t h e y

s p o k e t o c o n c e r n s t h a t w e n t t o t h e h e a r t o f w h a t i t w a s t o s u r v i v e

a n d f l o u r i s h . A s s u c h a r t w a s m o r e l i k e l y t o f e e d a n d n o u r i s h t h e

93

i m a g i n a t i o n b y a n s w e r i n g t h e s e c o n c e r n s , b y m a n i f e s t i n g a d i f f e r e n t

r e a l i t y a n d t h e n c e p r o v i d i n g t h e i m p e t u s f o r p e o p l e t o ` d o

s o m e t h i n g ' t o e n a b l e t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h o s e d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f

` s e e i n g ' . A s a r t t h e n d i d n o t d i v o r c e t h e ` d o i n g ' f r o m t h e ` B e i n g '

( o n t o l o g y a n d e t h i c s w e r e o n e ) i t m a y b e m o r e a c c u r a t e t o s a y t h a t

a r t p r o v i d e d t h e n u t r i e n t s f o r o u r ` b e c o m i n g ' ( s e e M a r i t a i n 1 9 7 2 :

D e w e y 1 9 8 0 ; a n d J u n g i n S t o r r 1 9 8 9 b ) . I d o n o t s e e k t o i d e a l i s e a l l

a r t o f a r e l i g i o u s e r a , n o r d i s p a r a g e a l l a r t w o r k s p r o d u c e d i n

m o d e r n t i m e s , n o r d i s p a r a g e a r t a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a r e e n g a g e d i n a s

` l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s ' - b u t t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e a b i l i t y t o h a v e a n

i m a g i n a t i v e , a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f a r t i e . h a v e s o m e

a c c e s s t o i t s m e a n i n g , m i g h t h a v e b e e n e a s i e r w h e n t h e r e w a s a

` c o m m o n l a n g u a g e o f e x p e r i e n c e ' t h a n i t m i g h t b e w h e n s u c h a

l a n g u a g e i s m o r e f r a g m e n t e d . F u r t h e r , i t i s w e l l t o r e m e m b e r , a s

D u n c u m ( 1 9 8 0 - 1 9 8 1 ) m a k e s p l a i n , t h a t c h i l d r e n ( a n d I w o u l d

s u g g e s t a d u l t s a s w e l l ) d r a w a n d p a i n t f o r a n y n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s -

f o r p l a y , t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e m s e l v e s o r i n t h e i r

s u r r o u n d s , t o d e m o n s t r a t e c o m p e t e n c e i n t h e i r d r a w i n g s k i l l s , a s a

m e a n s o f r e l e a s i n g f e e l i n g s a n d e m o t i o n s .

T h e I m a g i n a t i o n , S u f f e r i n g a n d H e a l i n g .

T h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e c a n b e s a i d t o b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r b o t h o u r

c a p a c i t y t o b o t h s u f f e r - a n d t o h e a l . A d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y - f o r

e x a m p l e a R a t i o n a l i s t v i e w o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a p e r s o n - r e n d e r s

i n v i s i b l e t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a n d s c a p e o f s u f f e r i n g . T h e r e i s n o r o o m

n o r a n y l a n g u a g e t o m a k e v i s i b l e t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s .

C o n t r a r y t o D e s c a r t e s ' d e s i r e t o ` r e m a i n m a s k e d ' ( T o u l m i n

94

1 9 9 0 , p . 7 8 , 7 9 ) M a r c u s e ( 1 9 8 6 ) w o u l d s a y t h a t a r t ' s g r e a t e s t

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s t o ` u n m a s k ' - t o r e v e a l t h a t w h i c h o f t e n l i e s h i d d e n ,

t o u n c o v e r a n o t h e r r e a l i t y t h a t w e a r e o f t e n t o o p r e o c c u p i e d t o s e e -

o r h a v e n o t l e a r n t t o r e c o g n i s e . A r t i n a n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g c a n

t h e n u n m a s k a n d m a k e v i s i b l e t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o l o u r s o f a n

e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s - a n d t h e s u f f e r i n g t h a t m a y b e e n c o u n t e r e d b y

t h e p e r s o n w h o i s s i c k . B u t t h e a r t c a n a l s o m a n i f e s t h o p e - t h e

a b i l i t y t o t r a n s f o r m a n d t r a n s c e n d a p r e s e n t r e a l i t y b y t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n o t h e r w h i c h ` m a k e s s e n s e ' o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e a n d

r e d e e m s i t s s u f f e r i n g . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a r t , s u f f e r i n g a n d

h e a l i n g i s p u t b y M a r k T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 5 ) t h u s ;

a r t i s t s s t r u g g l e t o f i g u r e t h e u n f i g u r a b l e t h a t r e l i g i o u s l a n g u a g e c a n n o t a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s . B y d o i n g s o , a r t b e c o m e s a n a e s t h e t i c e d u c a t i o n w h o s e p u r p o s e i s n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n r e d e m p t i o n .

T h e c a p a c i t y t o r e d e e m s u f f e r i n g i s t h e n , p e r h a p s , o n l y a n o t h e r w a y

o f s a y i n g b e i n g h e a l e d ( s e e M a r k T a y l o r 1 9 9 3 ) .

I m a g i n a t i o n a n d p l e a s u r e .

T h e c r e a t i o n a n d i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m - l i k e a r t m a k i n g - i s i n f o r m e d

a n d s u s t a i n e d b y p l e a s u r e - t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d s e n s e o f c o n t r o l o r

m a s t e r y e n g e n d e r e d i n b o t h i n d i v i d u a l s a n d w i t h i n g r o u p s . A s

p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , i f p e o p l e f e l t g o o d a b o u t t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n

` f o r m m a k i n g ' a c t i v i t i e s t h e y w e r e m o r e l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e d o i n g

t h e m a n d h e n c e e n h a n c e t h e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l ( s e e D i s s a n a y a k e

1 9 9 2 ) . U n d e r s t o o d i n t h i s w a y , p l e a s u r e a n d f e e l i n g g o o d c o u l d b e

s a i d t o b e a n e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e o f a d a p t a t i o n . I m a g i n a t i o n ,

p l e a s u r e a n d t h e a c t i o n s t h a t a r e i n f o r m e d b y b o t h w o u l d t h e n a p p e a r

95

t o h a v e a n i n t e r n a l d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p - r e m e m b e r i n g t h e

q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e s a r e n o t a l w a y s ` g l e e f u l '

( s e e D e w e y 1 9 8 0 ) . W h i l e p l e a s u r e a n d h e a l t h c a r e m i g h t a p p e a r t o

b e s t r a n g e b e d - f e l l o w s - a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r p l e a s u r e i s

c o n s p i c u o u s l y m i s s i n g f r o m m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e p o l i c y a n d p r a c t i c e

- i t i s a n i m p o r t a n t i s s u e w h o s e w h o l e n e g l e c t f r e q u e n t l y l e a d s t o

u n h e a l t h y

( a n d u n e t h i c a l ) p r a c t i c e s - i f o n l y i n n e g l e c t i n g t h e s i m p l e f a c t , a s

C o l e s ( 1 9 8 3 , p . 4 ) o b s e r v e s , p e o p l e h e a l b e t t e r w h e n t h e y f e e l b e t t e r .

F u r t h e r m o r e , a s p r e v i o u s l y a l l u d e d t o , t h e g r o s s s e n s o r y

d e p r i v a t i o n o f m a n y h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s h a s a d i r e c t i m p a c t o n

h u m a n h e a l t h a n d f l o u r i s h i n g ( s e e A d a m s o n 1 9 8 4 ; M o s s 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 8 8 ;

A r t s I n j e c t i o n 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e d i r e c t i o n o f s o m e m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e

p r a c t i c e s e e k s t o m i n i m i s e h o s p i t a l i s a t i o n , o r t o r e d u c e t h e p e r i o d

s p e n t i n h o s p i t a l i f a n y i s n e c e s s a r y . T h e i m p u l s e f o r t h e s e c h a n g e s

i n p o l i c y d i r e c t i o n m i g h t s t e m f r o m m a n y f a c t o r s - f o r e x a m p l e ,

f i n a n c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s - a n d f r o m a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t p e o p l e a r e

g e n e r a l l y h a p p i e r i f c a r e d f o r b y t h e i r f a m i l i e s . T h e r e a r e i m p o r t a n t

e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s t h a t u n d e r l i e n o t i o n s o f f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y c a r e

w h e r e , f o r e x a m p l e , i t i s f r e q u e n t l y o n l y t h e f e m a l e m e m b e r s o f a

f a m i l y w h o p r o v i d e t h e ` c o m m u n i t y c a r e . ' H o w e v e r , I w o u l d s u g g e s t

t h e f a c t t h a t h e a l t h c a r e s u r r o u n d s m a y a c t u a l l y p r e v e n t h e a l i n g i s

r a r e l y d e s c r i b e d a s a r e a s o n f o r b r i e f h o s p i t a l i s a t i o n .

W h y d i d t h e M o d e r n p e r s i s t ?

T h e q u e s t i o n t h a t m u s t b e a s k e d i s ` W h y d i d s u c h a n a p p r o a c h t o

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n p e r s i s t ? ' P a r a d o x i c a l l y a n d

96

i r o n i c a l l y , s o m e o f t h e s a m e i m p u l s e s w h i c h g a v e b i r t h t o a r t m a k i n g

g a v e i m p e t u s t o a c o n t i n u i n g r e l i a n c e a n d l a u d i n g o f t h e ` r a t i o n a l ' .

A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r t w o , p e o p l e i n a t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y

r e s p o n d e d t o f e e l i n g o f a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y a r i s i n g f r o m t h e

p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e b y e v o l v i n g c u l t u r a l f o r m s ( t h e a r t s ) w h i c h

e n a b l e d t h e m t o t r a n s f o r m ( a n d t o t r a n s c e n d ) t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s o f

f e a r - a n d f e e l i n g s o f a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y - i n t o o n e s o f m a s t e r y

a n d c o n t r o l t h u s e n h a n c i n g t h e i r s u r v i v a l . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p e o p l e

c a n a l s o r e s p o n d t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e b y t u r n i n g i n w a r d s -

c l i n g i n g w i t h t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a z e a l o t t o o l d f a m i l i a r w a y s o f

` s e e i n g ' . O n s o m e o c c a s i o n d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f M o d e r n i s m , f o r

e x a m p l e d u r i n g t h e l a s t s t a g e s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e f i r s t

y e a r s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , i t a p p e a r e d t h a t a r e t u r n t o a

H u m a n i s t w a y o f t h o u g h t m i g h t b e p o s s i b l e . T h e n t h e F i r s t W o r l d

W a r , i t s u n c e r t a i n t y a n d r a m i f i c a t i o n s , c a u s e d t h e r e c l a m a t i o n t o b e

a b a n d o n e d i n f a v o u r o f t h e f a m i l i a r ` c e r t a i n t y ' o f r a t i o n a l i s m .

A c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y a n d t h a t w h i c h

c o n f r o n t e d D e s c a r t e s ( a n d o u r p r e s e n t t i m e ) w a s t h e p r e s e n c e i n a

t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y o f a u n i f i e d c o s m o l o g y i e . t h e r e w a s a s p i r i t u a l o r

r e l i g i o u s w o r l d v i e w w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e d n o t o n l y t h e m s e l v e s , b u t

a l s o t h e i r p h y s i c a l a n d s p i r i t u a l l a n d s c a p e s . E x p e r i e n c e s - w i t h t h e

a t t e n d a n t m y s t e r i e s a n d a m b i g u i t i e s - w e r e s o m e h o w e n a b l e d t o ` f i t

i n t o ' a l a r g e r p a t t e r n o f m e a n i n g . T h e w o r l d f o r D e s c a r t e s w a s

d i f f e r e n t . T h e c o s m i c r e l i g i o u s w o r l d v i e w t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y

g r o u n d e d b o t h p h i l o s o p h y a n d a r t w a s c h a l l e n g e d d u r i n g t h e

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d d u r i n g t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d c o n t i n u e d t o b e

s h a t t e r e d a n d w a s e v e n t u a l l y l o s t . A s e n s e o f a u n i f i e d e c o l o g y - o f

97

p e o p l e c o - e x i s t i n g r e s p o n s i b l y w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ( a n d

e n c o m p a s s i n g a r e l i g i o u s a n d s p i r i t u a l d i m e n s i o n ) h a s o n l y r e -

e m e r g e d i n c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t t i m e s . T h e l o s s o f a r e l i g i o u s

w o r l d v i e w ( s o m e t i m e s a l s o d e s c r i b e d a s t h e D e a t h o f G o d - a p h r a s e

a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a t h e i s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r N i e t z s c h e )

h a s o f t e n b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s m e a n i n g t h a t p e o p l e n o l o n g e r h a d t h e

c a p a c i t y o r d e s i r e f o r r e l i g i o u s a n d s p i r i t u a l b e l i e f s . T h e s i t u a t i o n

m i g h t b e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d a s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e f o r m s ( w h e r e

p r e v i o u s l y t h e f o r m a n d t h e c o n t e n t o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f w e r e o n e ) h a d

c e a s e d t o b e a l i v e . H o w e v e r , i t w a s b y a ` u n i f i e d ' f o r m t h a t

k n o w l e d g e w a s t r a n s m i t t e d . N o w , t h e q u e s t i o n ` W h a t i s r e l i g i o u s

a r t ? ' i n d e e d , ` W h a t i s R e l i g i o u s ? ' c a n n o l o n g e r b e d e t e r m i n e d

s i m p l y b y r e f e r r i n g t o o b s e r v a b l e s y m b o l i c f e a t u r e s - n o r b y

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e ` a u t h o r i t y ' o f t h e C h u r c h . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h i s

s i t u a t i o n h a s l e d t o a g r e a t e r f r e e d o m - a n d a g r e a t e r a w a r e n e s s t h a t

r e l i g i o u s a n d s p i r i t u a l s e n t i m e n t s a n d l o n g i n g s ( l i k e c r e a t i v i t y ) c a n

t a k e m a n y f o r m s - s o m e m o r e f o r m a l a n d r e c o g n i z a b l e t h a n o t h e r s .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e s a m e s i t u a t i o n h a s l e d

t o a s e n s e o f c o n f u s i o n , a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y - a n d a f e a r o f t h e

u n k n o w n s i m i l a r t o w h a t H a r t i d e n t i f i e s a s p e r t a i n i n g t o p o e t r y ( H a r t

1 9 9 4 , p . x v i ) .

C o n c l u s i o n .

T h i s c h a p t e r h a s s o u g h t t o u n c o v e r s o m e o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s t h a t h a v e

s h a p e d c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n n o t i o n s o f a r t , p e r s o n s , h e a l t h ,

f l o u r i s h i n g a n d e t h i c s . T h e s e v a r i o u s n o t i o n s h a v e b e e n d e c i s i v e l y

i n f l u e n c e d s i n c e t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y M o d e r n t h o u g h t w h i c h i s

98

c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y ` r a t i o n a l i s m ' , a b e l i e f i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n

k n o w l e d g e t h a t i s g e n e r a l , a b s t r a c t , t i m e l e s s a n d u n i v e r s a l . T h e

l e g a c y o f t h i s M o d e r n p e r i o d i s a v i e w o f p e r s o n s w h i c h s e e s t h e m a s

d u a l i s t i c - t h e i r p h y s i c a l s e l v e s s e p a r a t e d f r o m a l l o t h e r a s p e c t s o f

t h e m S e l v e s ; a s d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e s o c i a l a n d c o m m u n a l ; a n d a s

e x i s t i n g a p a r t f r o m t h e i r h i s t o r y , t h e i r t i m e a n d t h e i r n a r r a t i v e . T h e

h e a l t h a n d w e l l - b e i n g o f s u c h p e r s o n s i s t h u s c o n c e i v e d a s b e i n g

d e f i n e d o n l y b y t h e s t a t e o f t h e i r p h y s i c a l b o d i e s o v e r w h i c h

m e d i c a l e x p e r t s h a v e p o w e r a n d c o n t r o l . T h e n o t i o n o f h e a l i n g i s

e i t h e r l o s t o r c o l l a p s e d i n t o n o t i o n s o f ` c u r e ' . A r t i s s i m i l a r l y

s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e l i v e s o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e i n t o t h e d o m a i n o f

t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t s c a l l e d ` A r t i s t s ' . T h e i m p o v e r i s h m e n t o f t h i s v i e w

o f a r t l i e s i n s t a r k c o n t r a s t w i t h a n o t i o n o f a r t a s a n e s s e n t i a l

h u m a n n e e d a s e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e A I D S Q u i l t w h i c h h a s t h e p o w e r t o

e n a b l e t h e h e a l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l s a n d t h e p o w e r t o c r e a t e n e w f o r m s

o f c o m m u n i t y - l o c a l l y , n a t i o n a l l y a n d g l o b a l l y . I n r e c e n t y e a r s

t h e r e h a s b e e n a g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s t h a t M o d e r n t h o u g h t i s s e r i o u s l y

i m p o v e r i s h e d a n d h a s c a u s e d m u c h h a r m a n d s u f f e r i n g t o p e r s o n s a n d

t h e w o r l d i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e . T h e r e h a v e b e e n m o v e s t o r e c l a i m a

w a y o f r e g a r d i n g t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n t h a t h a s m o r e i n c o m m o n w i t h

t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s m . T h a t

H u m a n i s m w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a d i a l e c t i c b e t w e e n t h e c o n c r e t e

p a r t i c u l a r s o f p e r s o n a l l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e a n d a b s t r a c t t h e o r y . T h e

c o n t e m p o r a r y t a s k s e e m s t o r e q u i r e , n o t a r e j e c t i o n o f a l l

r a t i o n a l i s m , b u t a h u m a n i z i n g o f i t . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e

p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , t h e a r t s e v o l v e d t o e n a b l e p e r s o n s t o f l o u r i s h i n a

s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n w a y - t o l i v e i n h a r m o n y w i t h t h e m s e l v e s , t h e i r

c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e i r s u r r o u n d s . T h e a r t s w e r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a

99

c o m m u n i t y l i f e t h a t c o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e s e r i o u s c o n c e r n s o f

p e r s o n s w e r e o f t e n o f a s p i r i t u a l o r r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e . A s e x p e r i e n c e

i s f u n d a m e n t a l t o s u c h a r e c l a m a t i o n a n d r e v i s i o n i n g o f a t r u l y

h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g t h e n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l e x p l o r e w h a t i s t h e n a t u r e o f

t h a t e x p e r i e n c e .

100 C H A P T E R 4 THE NATURE OF EXPERIENCE and THE NATURE OF ARTISTIC EXPERIENCE

M a n y a p e r s o n w h o p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t t h e m u s e u m c o n c e p t i o n o f a r t , s t i l l s h a r e s t h e f a l l a c y f r o m w h i c h t h a t c o n c e p t i o n s p r i n g s . F o r t h e p o p u l a r n o t i o n c o m e s f r o m a s e p a r a t i o n o f a r t f r o m t h e o b j e c t s a n d s c e n e s o f o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e t h a t m a n y t h e o r i s t s a n d c r i t i c s t a k e p r i d e t h e m s e l v e s u p o n h o l d i n g a n d e v e n e l a b o r a t i n g .

J o h n D e w e y 1 9 8 0 , p . 6 .

T h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r h a s d e s c r i b e d h o w t h e r a t i o n a l i s m o f t h e M o d e r n

p e r i o d h a s r e d u c e d a n o t i o n o f p e r s o n s t o a n a t o m i s t i c m i n d / b o d y

d u a l i s m . T h e p r e - e m i n e n c e g i v e n t o t h e a b s t r a c t , t h e u n i v e r s a l a n d

t h e g e n e r a l i n s u c h M o d e r n t h o u g h t h a s r e m o v e d t h e r i c h n e s s o f

c o m p l e x p e r s o n a l p a r t i c u l a r i t y f r o m n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h , e t h i c s ,

a e s t h e t i c s a n d a r t . T h e ` l a n g u a g e o f e x p e r i e n c e ' o f p e r s o n s f i n d s n o

p l a c e i n a h e a l t h c a r e s y s t e m c o n c e i v e d w i t h i n a r a t i o n a l i s t b i o -

m e d i c a l m o d e l . S i m i l a r l y , ` t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f a r t f r o m t h e o b j e c t s

a n d s c e n e s o f o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e ' r e f e r r e d t o b y D e w e y a b o v e c a n

a l s o b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f R a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t . T h e

l e g a c y o f a C a r t e s i a n s y s t e m o f e p i s t e m o l o g y a l s o s a w n o t i o n s o f

e t h i c s , t h e a e s t h e t i c , B e a u t y , T h e G o o d , f l o u r i s h i n g , a r t , h e a l t h a n d

h e a l i n g a s s o m e h o w e x i s t i n g ` o u t t h e r e ' , a s s o m e h o w r e v i v i f y i n g t h e

a b s t r a c t e x i s t e n c e o f P l a t o n i c f o r m s . T h e c h a l l e n g e t o ` h u m a n i z e

r a t i o n a l i s m ' d e m a n d s , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e s e v a r i o u s n o t i o n s o u g h t n o t

b e u n d e r s t o o d a s b e i n g d i v o r c e d f r o m ` o r d i n a r y ' e x p e r i e n c e , b u t

r a t h e r a s b e i n g i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n f o r m e d a n d d e s c r i b e d b y t h e l i v e d

r e a l i t y o f P e r s o n s ( s e e N u s s b a u m 1 9 9 0 ) . I t t h e n s e e m s f u n d a m e n t a l

t h a t t h e e x p l o r a t i o n c o n t i n u e s w i t h a n i n q u i r y i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f

e x p e r i e n c e i e . h o w p e r s o n s e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r l i v e d r e a l i t i e s -

101

i n c l u d i n g e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g . F u r t h e r , i f k n o w l e d g e

i s p r o p e r l y f o u n d e d o n a d i a l e c t i c b e t w e e n e x p e r i e n c e a n d a b s t r a c t

t h e o r y ( s e e M a r i t a i n 1 9 3 4 ; D e w e y 1 9 8 0 a n d R a n k 1 9 8 9 ) i t s e e m s

e s s e n t i a l t o f u l l y e x p l o r e t h e n a t u r e o f t h o s e f o u n d a t i o n s . A r i s t o t l e

a n d P l a t o w e r e b o t h c o n c e r n e d , a s h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , w i t h

t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r a r t c o u l d e m b o d y a n d c o m m u n i c a t e k n o w l e d g e

a n d t r u t h . D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 ) a n d N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a v e s a i d t h a t a n

a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f a r t c a n b e a s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e . I t

c o u l d b e s a i d , t h e n , t h a t t h e k n o w l e d g e g a i n e d f r o m s u c h a e s t h e t i c

a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e s h a s e t h i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d (

w e r e a r t t o b e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f h e a l t h c a r e ) w o u l d h a v e p a r t i c u l a r

r e l e v a n c e t o p e r s o n s w h o s e w e l l - b e i n g a n d f l o u r i s h i n g i s h a m p e r e d b y

s i c k n e s s o r a c c i d e n t .

T h e N a t u r e o f P e r s o n s .

A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g a r e

e x p e r i e n c e d b y p e r s o n s - n o t d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d p h y s i c a l b o d i e s . T h e

n a t u r e o f p e r s o n s w i l l d e t e r m i n e h o w t h e y e x p e r i e n c e a l a c k o f w e l l -

b e i n g a n d h o w t h e y e x p e r i e n c e s u f f e r i n g - a n d w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , i n f o r m

w h a t c a r e t h e y r e q u i r e w h i l s t s i c k . I s a a c s ( f o r t h c o m i n g , p p . 4 - 1 0 ) h a s

i d e n t i f i e d s e v e n t h e m e s w h i c h g i v e s h a p e a n d t e x t u r e t o t h e

d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h u m a n b e i n g s a s p e r s o n s . E a c h

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h a s b o t h a n i n d i v i d u a l a n d a c o m m u n a l o r s o c i a l

d i m e n s i o n a n d d e s c r i b e s t h e w a y s i n w h i c h o u r S e l v e s a s p e r s o n s c a n

b e h a r m e d o r d e s t r o y e d b y a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s . A s e m b o d i e d

b e i n g s w h o p o s s e s s a b i o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n , w e h a v e p h y s i c a l n e e d s

f o r n u t r i e n t s , s u s t e n a n c e , g o o d h e a l t h a n d s h e l t e r - a n d , a s s o c i a l

102

b e i n g s , w e h a v e n e e d s t o b e l o n g w i t h i n s u s t a i n i n g f r i e n d s h i p s , g r o u p s

a n d c o m m u n i t i e s . W e e x p e r i e n c e r e a l i t y a s e m b o d i e d a n d w e a r e

r e c o g n i z e d b y o t h e r s t h r o u g h o u r p h y s i c a l b o d i e s ( p . 4 ) . A s w e h a v e

a l s o g l e a n e d f r o m a b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y v i e w o f a r t , p e r s o n s a l s o h a v e a

p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n i e . h u m a n s h a v e e v o l v e d w i t h a c a p a c i t y t o

s t r u c t u r e t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f r e a l i t y , t o i m a g i n e a n d t o h o p e . T h e s e

v a r i o u s a b i l i t i e s h a v e m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e - t h e y p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r

o u r b e l i e f s a n d g u i d e o u r a c t i o n s . T h e a b i l i t y t o r e m e m b e r p r o v i d e s a

p e r s o n w i t h a s e n s e o f t h e p a s t , o f h i s t o r y , o f t h e m s e l v e s a s h a v i n g a

c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e d c o n t i n u i t y . A s w e h a v e s e e n p r e v i o u s l y , t h e a b i l i t y

t o i m a g i n e a n d t o h o p e i s o f g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e f l o u r i s h i n g

a n d w e l l - b e i n g o f p e r s o n s - t h e y a r e t h e a b i l i t i e s a n d c a p a c i t i e s

n e c e s s a r y t o c r e a t e d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f r e a l i t y - a n d i t i s t h e ` c o n c r e t e '

n a t u r e o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t r e a l i t i e s t h a t e n a b l e p e r s o n s t o s u r v i v e a n d

t o f l o u r i s h i n t h e f a c e o f d a n g e r , a n x i e t y , u n c e r t a i n t y a n d

f r a g m e n t a t i o n ( p . 5 ) . P e r s o n s a r e a l s o t e m p o r a l b e i n g s - w e a r e a b l e t o

f o r m ` t e n s e d b e l i e f s a n d t e n s e d i n t e n t i o n s ' ( p . 5 ) . T h i s t e m p o r a l

q u a l i t y m e a n s t h a t w e h a v e , a s p e r s o n s , a s e n s e o f a p a s t , a s e n s e o f

o u r s e l v e s a s p r e s e n t l y e x i s t i n g a n d w e c a n l o o k t o w a r d s a f u t u r e t i m e .

T h i s a l s o m e a n s t h a t w e h a v e t h e a b i l i t y t o s t r u c t u r e a ` l i f e p l a n '

w h i c h c a n b u i l d u p o n - o r c h a n g e - w h a t w e h a v e d o n e i n t h e p a s t , a n d

b y w h i c h w e c a n g i v e s h a p e a n d d i r e c t i o n t o t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s w e

w o u l d l i k e t o o b t a i n i n t h e f u t u r e . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s

c h a p t e r o n e o f t h e d e s t r u c t i v e f e a t u r e s o f M o d e r n t h o u g h t i s i t s a -

t e m p o r a l i t y - t h e r i c h n e s s o f h i s t o r y , t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e p r e s e n t ,

a n d t h e h o p e s f o r a p e r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l f u t u r e a r e d i f f i c u l t t o

a c c o m m o d a t e w i t h i n a r a t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k w h i c h i s d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e

103

s o c i a l a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r a n d w h i c h p r i v i l e g e s t h e a b s t r a c t , t h e

u n i v e r s a l a n d t h e g e n e r a l .

F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m t h i s , a s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , p e r s o n s a r e

s o c i a l b e i n g s ( p . 6 ) - t h e y l i v e i n a w o r l d o f c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p s

w i t h f a m i l y , f r i e n d s , c o l l e a g u e s a n d s o c i e t y a t l a r g e - a n d i t i s b y a n d

t h r o u g h t h e s e v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t o u r s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y a s a

s o c i a l S e l f i s c o n s t r u c t e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d . P e r s o n s a r e a l s o s e l f - a w a r e

b e i n g s ( p p . 6 , 7 ) , t h a t i s , w e a l w a y s e x p e r i e n c e o u r s e l v e s a s b e i n g

p r e s e n t i n t h e w o r l d a n d a s b e i n g t h e ` c e n t r a l p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e ' f o r

t h e w o r l d w h i c h w e e n c o u n t e r i n o u r v a r i o u s m o d e s o f b e i n g . T h i s

m e a n s t h a t w e c a n e x p e r i e n c e o u r s e l v e s a s ` b e i n g a t h o m e ' i n t h e

w o r l d i e . a s s h a r i n g a r e c i p r o c a l s e n s e o f a c c e p t a n c e a n d v a l u e - o r

w e c a n e x p e r i e n c e o u r s e l v e s a s ` b e i n g l o s t ' o r ` b e i n g a n o u t s i d e r ' .

A g a i n , p e r s o n s a r e a c t i v e b e i n g s ( p . 7 ) - t h e y c a n a c t i n a n d o n t h e i r

w o r l d ' . I t i s b y w a y o f o u r a c t i o n s a n d a c t i v i t i e s t h a t w e c a n

e s t a b l i s h , s h a r e i n a n d s u s t a i n s o c i a l a n d c o m m u n a l p r a c t i c e s .

F i n a l l y , a s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , p e r s o n s a r e s e l f -

c r e a t i v e b e i n g s c o n t i n u o u s l y o p e n t o a p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g ( p p . 7 , 8 ) .

T h e e x a m p l e o f m y s e l f a n d t h e w o m a n p a t i e n t p a i n t i n g o u r

` i n t e g r a t i n g i m a g e s ' ( s e e p a g e s 4 8 - 5 0 ) d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t w e c a n s e e k

t o c r e a t e - a n d r e c r e a t e - o u r s e l v e s i n t h e p r e s e n t i n t h e l i g h t o f b o t h

t h e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e . A s t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l d e s c r i b e , o u r v a r i o u s

e x p e r i e n c e s c a n l e a d t o a n e x p a n s i o n o r a c o n t r a c t i o n o f o u r S e l v e s -

w e c a n c o m e t o n e w a n d d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f ` s e e i n g ' , n e w a n d e n r i c h i n g

u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f o u r S e l v e s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r

- o r t h e y c a n c a u s e o u r S e l v e s t o s h r i v e l u p a n d , p e r h a p s , d i e .

104

A f u l l a n d r i c h e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s w a y s i n w h i c h w e

e x p e r i e n c e o u r s e l v e s a s e m b o d i e d p e r s o n s s e r v e s t o r a d i c a l l y

c r i t i q u e m o d e r n n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h a n d h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e s . A

M o d e r n v i e w o f i l l h e a l t h o r a c c i d e n t , f o r e x a m p l e , s e e s t h e s i c k

p e r s o n a s ` d i s a b l e d ' o r ` s o m e h o w l e s s ' t h a n ` n o r m a l ' . T h e m e d i c a l

t a s k i s t o ` r e s t o r e ' t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y t o a s t a t e o f ` h e a l t h ' m e a n i n g

t h e b r o k e n p a r t s o r d y s f u n c t i o n s h a v e b e e n r e p a i r e d o r ` f i x e d u p ' .

S u c h a v i e w o f h e a l t h a n d h e a l t h c a r e d o e s n o t , a n d t o a c e r t a i n

e x t e n t w i t h i n s u c h a c o n c e p t i o n , c a n n o t , t a k e a c c o u n t o f a n d h e a l t h e

h u r t a n d i n j u r y o c c a s i o n e d t o t h e m o d a l i t i e s o f b e i n g o f t h e p e r s o n

a s p a t i e n t . A s I m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , C a s s e l l ( 1 9 9 1 ) h a s i d e n t i f i e d

s u f f e r i n g a s o c c u r r i n g p r e c i s e l y w h e n t h e i n t e g r i t y o f o n e ' s i d e n t i t y

- o n e ' s m o d e s o f B e i n g - i s t h r e a t e n e d o r h a r m e d . F o r e x a m p l e , a n

e l d e r l y w o m a n i n t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n U n i t o f a r e g i o n a l h o s p i t a l h a d

s u f f e r e d a n u m b e r o f s t r o k e s . W h i l e t h e s e h a s s e v e r e l y c u r t a i l e d h e r

p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t s s h e h a d m a i n t a i n e d h e r ` c l a i m t o f a m e ' - h e r

v a l i d i t y a n d s e n s e o f w o r t h w i t h i n h e r e x t e n d e d f a m i l y - b y

c r o c h e t i n g b e d s p r e a d s f o r n u m e r o u s f a m i l y m e m b e r s . T h e s e

c r o c h e t e d b e d s p r e a d s w e r e h e r l i n k s t o h e r s o c i a l w o r l d b e y o n d t h e

d o o r o f ` d i s a b i l i t y ' . H e r l a s t s t r o k e l e f t h e r w i t h t h e u s e o f o n l y o n e

a r m a n d s h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r c r o c h e t . W h i l e h e r b o d i l y i n t e g r i t y h a d

b e e n f u r t h e r d i s r u p t e d b y i l l n e s s i t w a s h e r i n a b i l i t y t o c o n t r i b u t e t o

t h e t e x t u r e o f h e r f a m i l y l i f e i n t h e w a y s t h a t s h e h a d d o n e i n t h e

p a s t t h a t c a u s e d h e r t o e x p e r i e n c e g r e a t s u f f e r i n g . H e r p h y s i c a l

i n j u r i e s w e r e n o t a b l e t o b e ` c u r e d ' b u t w h a t e n a b l e d t h i s w o m a n t o

s u r v i v e h e r e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s - t o t r a n s c e n d a n d t r a n s f o r m h e r

s u f f e r i n g - t o r e g a i n a s e n s e o f h e r S e l f a s ` w h o l e ' a n d ` h e a l e d ' - w a s

105

d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t s h e c o u l d p a i n t w i t h o n e h a n d . H e r p a i n t i n g s

e n a b l e d h e r t o f l o u r i s h a g a i n .

A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , o u r e x p e r i e n c e o f

r e a l i t y i s a n i n t e r p r e t e d o n e . W e s t r u c t u r e p e r c e p t i o n b y w a y o f a n

i m a g i n a t i v e c a p a c i t y w h i c h a l l o w s u s t o u s e l a n g u a g e i e . w e d e s c r i b e

a n d c l a s s i f y t h i n g s a c c o r d i n g t o w h a t w e h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e

p a s t , w h a t w e e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e p r e s e n t a n d w h a t w e e x p e c t t o

e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e f u t u r e ( s e e W a r n o c k 1 9 7 6 , p . 2 0 1 ) - a n d w e a r e a b l e

t o s h a r e t h e f r u i t s o f t h e s e c a p a c i t i e s . W e c a n s h a r e c o m m o n w a y s

o f ` s e e i n g ' t h e w o r l d .

T h e i n t e r p r e t e d , c o n s t r u c t e d n a t u r e o f o u r p e r c e p t i o n r a d i c a l l y

c h a l l e n g e s s o m e M o d e r n n o t i o n s o f r e s e a r c h a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t

h a v e p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e f o r h e a l t h c a r e . A b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f

h e a l t h c a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , p r i d e s i t s e l f o n b e i n g ` s c i e n t i f i c ' . W h a t

d o e s i t m e a n , h o w e v e r , t o s a y t h a t s o m e m e t h o d o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s

` s c i e n t i f i c ' , r e l i a b l e o r ` t r u t h f u l ' ? N i e l s e n ( 1 9 9 0 , p . 4 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t ,

i n a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t e d n a t u r e o f p e r c e p t i o n , w h a t

p u r p o r t s t o b e a ` s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d ' i e . f r e e f r o m t h e b i a s o f

s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , m i g h t n e e d t o b e r e - e x a m i n e d - t o

s e p a r a t e w h a t s c i e n t i s t s ( a n d c l i n i c i a n s ) a c t u a l l y d o ( i e . i n t e r p r e t ) -

a s o p p o s e d t o w h a t t h e y c l a i m t h e y d o . T h e i n t e r p r e t e d n a t u r e o f

o u r e x i s t e n c e a l s o a g a i n r a i s e s t h e p o i n t o f w h a t h a v e b e e n t e r m e d

` p r e j u d i c e s ' o r ` p r e j u d g e m e n t s ' - m e a n i n g t h a t w e d o n o t c o m e t o

e x p e r i e n c e s ( o f l i f e , o f w o r k s o f a r t , o r i l l n e s s a n d a c c i d e n t ) a s

t a b u l a r a s a o r b l a n k s l a t e s . W e c o m e t o e x p e r i e n c e s a s c a n v a s e s

w h i c h a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g . S o m e p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e

106

a s s e r t e d t h a t w e s h o u l d ` s u s p e n d ' o u r p r e j u d i c e s a n d p r e j u d g m e n t s

w h e n a p p r o a c h i n g a w o r k o f a r t . H o w e v e r , G a d a m e r ( i n N i e l s e n

1 9 9 0 , p . 2 8 ) a r g u e s a c o n t r a r y v i e w - t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s t e p

o u t s i d e o u r S e l v e s , t o h a v e a ` b i r d ' s e y e ' o r ` G o d ' s e y e ' v i e w o f

r e a l i t y , a s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e o u t s i d e a f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e .

M o r e o v e r , s u c h a p o s i t i o n i s n o t c o n d u c i v e t o o u r f l o u r i s h i n g , n o r t o

a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e t h i c s , a r t , h e a l t h a n d s o o n . O u r

p r e j u d g m e n t s a n d p r e j u d i c e s a r e , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , o u r o n t o l o g i c a l

r e a l i t y - t h e y a r e o u r o p e n i n g t o t h e w o r l d a n d , i n f a c t , t h e w a y w e

c o m e t o k n o w l e d g e - a n d t o n e w a n d d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f k n o w i n g

( G a d a m e r i n N i e l s e n 1 9 9 0 , p . 2 8 ) .

T h e r e a r e m a n y t h e o r i e s a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s t h a t c a n s h e d l i g h t o n t h e

w a y s i n w h i c h h u m a n s d e v e l o p a n d f l o u r i s h - a n d , a s i m p o r t a n t l y ,

w h a t h a m p e r s , h i n d e r s o r h a r m s t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t . I n t h i s r e g a r d , i n

e x p l o r i n g N u s s b a u m ' s a s s e r t i o n o u t l i n e d a b o v e - t h a t n o t i o n s o f t h e

G o o d a n d f l o u r i s h i n g a r e n o t t o b e f o u n d ` o u t t h e r e ' ( 1 9 9 0 ) - i t

w o u l d t h e n a p p e a r t h a t o u r l i v e d e x i s t e n c e , o u r e x p e r i e n c e s , o u g h t t o

p r o v i d e t h e c l u e s t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e a b s t r a c t n o t i o n s o f t h e G o o d ,

e t h i c s , a r t , h e a l t h a n d h e a l i n g a n d s o o n . A g a i n , i t w i l l b e r e c a l l e d ,

t h a t s o m e o f t h e b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y f e a t u r e s o f h u m a n b e i n g s o u t l i n e d

p r e v i o u s l y s u g g e s t t h a t t o b e h u m a n i s t o b e , i n s o m e s e n s e , a r t i s t i c

a n d c r e a t i v e . D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 1 1 ) a r g u e s t h a t a r t a n d a r t i s t i c

e x p e r i e n c e s a r e , i n s o m e w a y s , o n l y q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m

o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e s i e . t h a t a n a r t w o r k i s t h e i d e a l i z a t i o n , a

t a n g i b l e f o r m o f e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t a r e h a d i n e v e r y f a c e t o f e v e r y d a y

l i f e . A s M a y ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 8 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t e x t r e m e f o r m s o f a n

e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s i l l u m i n a t e t h e q u e s t i o n s o f s u f f e r i n g ,

107

d i s l o c a t i o n a n d t r a u m a t h a t a r e e x p e r i e n c e d i n l e s s e x t r e m e m e d i c a l

c a s e s a n d i n d e e d , i n o t h e r a r e a s o f ` o r d i n a r y ' l i f e , i t m i g h t b e s a i d

t h a t t h e a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e s o f p e r s o n s w h o a r e i l l w i l l r e v e a l ,

i l l u m i n a t e , m a k e v i s i b l e t h e c o m p l e x c o n t o u r s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

i l l n e s s a s i t i s l i v e d o u t i n t h e s u b j e c t i v e p a r t i c u l a r i t y o f t h a t

p e r s o n s ' s l i f e . I n t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n , t h e n , e x p e r i e n c e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y

u n d e r s t o o d a s ` a r t i s t i c ' w i l l o v e r l a p w i t h r e f l e c t i o n o n m o r e ` n o r m a l '

e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s . I t m i g h t b e a t r u i s m t o s a y

t h a t s o m e o f t h e m o r e o b v i o u s a s p e c t s o f e v e r y d a y l i v e d e x i s t e n c e a r e

s o ` n a t u r a l ' a n d c o m m o n p l a c e t h a t t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e i s o f t e n

o v e r l o o k e d . I n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , a s I h a v e i n d i c a t e d i n s e t t i n g t h e

p a r a m e t e r s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , i t m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o e x a m i n e t h e

o r d i n a r i n e s s o f t h e e v e r y d a y o c c u r r e n c e s o f h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e t o

u n d e r s t a n d w h y s o m a n y e x p e r i e n c e s u f f e r i n g i n s e t t i n g s d e s i g n e d t o

c a r e f o r t h e s i c k .

I n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e - a r t i s t i c a n d o r d i n a r y - I w i s h t o

a v o i d a n i m p r e s s i o n t h a t e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h i s n a t u r e m i g h t b e

c o n s i d e r e d i n s o m e w a y i n c i d e n t a l t o , o r o p t i o n a l e x t r a s f o r , h e a l t h

a n d f l o u r i s h i n g , g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . I t i s o n e t h i n g t o s a y t h a t

t h e a r t s c a n a s s i s t i n t h e c r e a t i o n a n d r e c r e a t i o n o f a n i d e n t i t y , a

S e l f t o t a k e a c c o u n t , f o r i n s t a n c e , o f h a r m o c c a s i o n e d t o t h e S e l f b y

d i s l o c a t i o n , l o s s a n d s u f f e r i n g . H o w e v e r , I b e l i e v e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y

t o t h i n k o f s u c h i d e n t i t y i n a m o r e r a d i c a l w a y . A n i d e n t i t y , o r

s e n s e o f S e l f , i s n o t j u s t a m e t a p h y s i c a l o r a p s y c h o l o g i c a l

` c o n s t r u c t ' , b u t i t r e f e r s a l s o t o t h e d e p t h s o f o u r B e i n g - t h e w a y

o u r b o d i e s a r e o r g a n i c a l l y a n d b i o l o g i c a l l y c o n f i g u r e d . F u r t h e r ,

t h e s e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s r a d i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e o u r w a y o f B e i n g i n t h e

108

w o r l d a n d t h e w a y s i n w h i c h o u r p a r t i c u l a r a n d u n i q u e S e l v e s c a n

g r o w , h e a l a n d f l o u r i s h . H e a l t h c a r e t h e n , a s S a c k s ( 1 9 9 5 , p . x i v )

s u g g e s t s , w o u l d d e m a n d , n o t o n l y ` t h e s t u d y o f i d e n t i t y , t h e i n n e r

w o r l d t h a t p a t i e n t s , u n d e r t h e s p u r o f i l l n e s s , c r e a t e ' b u t f u r t h e r ,

t h a t ` i t m a y . . . b e n e c e s s a r y t o r e d e f i n e t h e v e r y c o n c e p t s o f

` h e a l t h ' a n d ` d i s e a s e ' , t o s e e t h e m i n t e r m s o f t h e o r g a n i s m n e e d t o

r e c r e a t e a n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d o r d e r , o n e t h a t f i t s i t s s p e c i a l ,

a l t e r e d d i s p o s i t i o n a n d n e e d s . ' I n c h a p t e r o n e a n d c h a p t e r t w o a n

e s s e n t i a l r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n o f a r t h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s r e s i d i n g i n

i t s a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e a s p a c e w h e r e i n a p e r s o n i s a b l e t o c r e a t e , a n d

r e c r e a t e a s e n s e o f t h e i r i d e n t i t y t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e i r

e x p e r i e n c e s o f s u f f e r i n g , l o s s a n d u n c e r t a i n t y . I t w o u l d t h u s a p p e a r

t h a t a c c e s s t o t h e f o r m s o f a r t m a k i n g i s a n i m p e r a t i v e o f a n e t h i c a l

s y s t e m o f h e a l t h c a r e - p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s .

T h e N a t u r e o f E x p e r i e n c e .

T h i s e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f a r t i s t i c a n d ` o r d i n a r y ' e x p e r i e n c e

w i l l f a l l i n t o t h r e e s t a g e s . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , i t m a y s e e m , t h e f i r s t s t a g e

w i l l b e t o i g n o r e t h e ` d i s t r a c t i o n ' o f c o n v e n t i o n a l w o r k s o f a r t t o

f o c u s o n t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f . T h u s , t h e s e c o n d s t a g e w i l l

e x p l o r e h o w t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e i n f o r m s a n d i l l u m i n a t e s a r t i s t i c

e x p e r i e n c e . T h e t h i r d s t a g e w i l l e x a m i n e t h e m o r a l a n d e t h i c a l

i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e p a r t i c u l a r l y a s t h e y r e l a t e t o

n o t i o n s o f f l o u r i s h i n g , h e a l t h c a r e a n d c o m m u n i t y .

109

T h e v e x e d q u e s t i o n o f ` d e f i n i t i o n s ' h a s a r i s e n m a n y t i m e s b e f o r e i n

t h i s r e s e a r c h . M a r k T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 5 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t w h a t i s

d e m a n d e d i s t o t h i n k ` b e y o n d ' t r a d i t i o n a l c a t e g o r i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s .

D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 ) a s s e r t s f u r t h e r t h a t m a n y o f t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t a t t e n d

a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e x p e r i e n c e , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s o f a r t ,

c o m e f r o m t h e c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z i n g , s e p a r a t i o n a n d i s o l a t i n g t h a t i s

e n d e m i c i n M o d e r n m o d e s o f t h o u g h t . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , s o m e

i n t r i n s i c f e a t u r e s o f b o t h a r t , a n d i n d e e d e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h a s s u m e a

p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s w h e r e s o m e e l e m e n t s o f

m e d i c a l c a r e , d i a g n o s i s a n d t r e a t m e n t a r e i m b u e d w i t h a s e n s e o f

c e r t a i n t y a n d a u t h o r i t y . E x p e r i e n c e , i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , w a s

d e s c r i b e d a s ` n e v e r f i n i s h e d ' , a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f ` s i l k e n t h r e a d s ' , a s

` t e e m i n g w i t h r e l a t i o n a l t h r e a d s ' - i n f a c t a s f l u i d a n d f e c u n d . A r t ,

s t e m m i n g f r o m e x p e r i e n c e , i s s i m i l a r l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d - i n f a c t ,

` a m b i g u i t y i s t h e h a l l m a r k o f g r e a t a r t ' . M i c h a e l s ( 1 9 9 4 ) , s p e a k i n g

o f t h e p a i n t i n g s o f t h e W a r l p i r i p e o p l e , d e s c r i b e s s o m e o f t h e

d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d d a n g e r s t h a t a t t e n d a t t e m p t s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e

m e a n i n g o f t h e s e w o r k s . T h e W a r l p i r i p a i n t i n g s a r e , i n a s e n s e ,

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l . . . a n d ` t h e " t r u e " a n d " p r o p e r " W a r l p i r i v i s i o n o f

t h e l a n d s c a p e i s c o n v e y e d g r a p h i c a l l y t o t h e i n i t i a t e d v i e w e r ' ( p . 5 1 ) .

H o w e v e r , t h e l e a r n i n g o r t h e k n o w l e d g e w h i c h e n a b l e s o n e t o b e

` i n i t i a t e d ' i n t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p a i n t i n g , c o m e s , n o t f r o m t h e

p a i n t i n g , b u t f r o m a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n , a n d a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f , t h e

v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f W a r l p i r i c o m m u n i t y l i f e . C o n f r o n t e d b y t h e

` m y s t e r y a n d t e r r o r o f t h e a m b i g u o u s ' m a n y E u r o p e a n o b s e r v e r s

o v e r c o m e t h e s e f e e l i n g s b y ` s e l e c t i n g o u t a f e w f i g u r e s t o s e r v e a s

h a n d l e s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a m e a n i n g s a t i s f y i n g t o ( t h e m a s )

u n i n i t i a t e d v i e w e r ( s ) ' ( p . 5 1 ) . T h i s p r o c e s s , M i c h a e l s s u g g e s t s , m a y

110

r e s u l t i n ` s o m e t h i n g f a l s e a n d d a m a g i n g ' a n d c o m e s a t ` t h e e x p e n s e

o f a r t a n d o f m e a n i n g ' ( p . 5 1 ) . T h i s ` p r e j u d i c e ' a g a i n s t ( o r f e a r o f )

m y s t e r y a n d t h e a m b i g u o u s c o u l d b e s e e n a s a d e n i a l o f t h e

o n t o l o g i c a l v a l u e w h i c h G a d a m e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) a t t r i b u t e s t o o u r ` p r e -

j u d g m e n t s ' - t h a t i s , t h e y a r e o u r o p e n i n g t o t h e w o r l d a n d t h e w a y

w e ` c o m e t o k n o w ' .

S o m e r e f e r e n c e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e t o t h e m o d e r n m a l a i s e s w h i c h

h a v e a r i s e n d u r i n g t h e M o d e r n P e r i o d - t h e s e n s e o f s o c i a l

i s o l a t i o n , p o w e r l e s s n e s s , a n d l a c k o f m e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e . I t m i g h t

b e w e l l h e r e t o i d e n t i f y a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n e x i s t e n t i a l m a l a i s e a n d

m e n t a l i l l n e s s - t w o n o t i o n s t h a t I s u g g e s t a r e o f t e n c o n f u s e d i n

h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . E x i s t e n t i a l m a l a i s e , a s d e f i n e d b y S m i t h

( 1 9 8 3 , p . 1 0 5 ) , i s n o t a m e n t a l i l l n e s s - i t i s t h e a w a r e n e s s o f

u n c e r t a i n t y . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m c h a p t e r t w o , f e e l i n g s o f

u n c e r t a i n t y c a n e i t h e r c r i p p l e u s w i t h f e a r a n d a n x i e t y o r t h e y c a n

p r o p e l u s i n t o t h e a c t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o e n h a n c e t h e c h a n c e s o f

s u r v i v a l . E x i s t e n t i a l h e a l t h i s t h e a b i l i t y t o a c c e p t t h e f a c t t h a t

u n c e r t a i n t y i s a n i n e v i t a b l e p a r t o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e - t h a t w e d o n o t

n e e d t o d e n y i t n o r s e e k t o r e s o l v e i t .

T o r e f l e c t o n o u r o w n i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s i m m e d i a t e l y c o l l i d e s

w i t h t h e M o d e r n n o t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y w h i c h , a s I h a v e s u g g e s t e d i n

t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , n e e d s r e - e x a m i n a t i o n . O n t h e o n e h a n d , I a m i n

s o m e a g r e e m e n t w i t h m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s w h o h a v e a r t i c u l a t e d

a n e e d f o r l e s s i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c n o t i o n s o f a r t ( a n d a r t i s t s ) - a m o v e

t o w a r d s s o m e m o r e c o m m u n a l a n d s o c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e n o t i o n s

111

( s e e D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 8 8 ; S a r a s o n 1 9 9 0 ; S a r a s o n 1 9 9 0 ; G a b l i k 1 9 9 1

a n d K a p r o w 1 9 9 3 ) . H o w e v e r , w h i l e i t m a y b e t r u e t o s a y t h a t a

M o d e r n n o t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k s o f s e p a r a t i o n a n d i s o l a t i o n

f r o m o t h e r s , f r o m a n o t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e a d i f f e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

r o l e a n d n a t u r e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l e m e r g e s - t h a t i t i s o n l y b y a n d

t h r o u g h t h e f u l l u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e l f t h a t m e a n i n g f u l

n o t i o n s o f t h e u n i v e r s a l a n d c o m m u n a l a r e p o s s i b l e . A s M e r t o n

( 1 9 8 9 , p . 3 8 7 ) h a s i t ;

A r t e n a b l e s u s t o f i n d o u r s e l v e s a n d l o s e o u r s e l v e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e . T h e m i n d t h a t r e s p o n d s t o t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s t h a t l i e h i d d e n i n a p o e m , a p a i n t i n g , o r a p i e c e o f m u s i c , d i s c o v e r s a s p i r i t u a l v i t a l i t y t h a t l i f t s i t a b o v e i t s e l f , t a k e s i t o u t o f i t s e l f , a n d m a k e s i t p r e s e n t t o i t s e l f o n a l e v e l o f b e i n g t h a t i t d i d n o t k n o w i t c o u l d e v e r a c h i e v e .

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , i n r e t h i n k i n g n o t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , o f h e a l t h , a n d o f

a r t , m u c h a s s i s t a n c e c a n b e g a i n e d f r o m w r i t e r s f r o m a n u m b e r o f

s p i r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n s . L a m a A n a g a r i k a G o v i n d a ( 1 9 7 0 , p . 1 2 4 ) , a

B u d d h i s t m o n k , s h a r e s w i t h M e r t o n a d i f f e r e n t a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e

n a t u r e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l :

I n d i v i d u a l i t y i s n o t o n l y t h e n e c e s s a r y a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y o p p o s i t e o f u n i v e r s a l i t y b u t t h e f o c a l p o i n t t h r o u g h w h i c h a l o n e u n i v e r s a l i t y c a n b e e x p e r i e n c e d . T h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r r e l i g i o u s d e n i a l o f i t s v a l u e o r i m p o r t a n c e , c a n o n l y l e a d t o a s t a t e o f c o m p l e t e i n d i f f e r e n c e a n d d i s s o l u t i o n , w h i c h m a y b e a l i b e r a t i o n f r o m s u f f e r i n g , b u t a p u r e l y n e g a t i v e o n e , a s i t d e p r i v e s u s o f t h e h i g h e s t e x p e r i e n c e t o w a r d s w h i c h t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n s e e m s t o a i m : t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p e r f e c t e n l i g h t e n m e n t o r B u d d a h o o d i n w h i c h t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f o u r t r u e b e i n g i s r e a l i s e d .

S o w h a t h a p p e n s t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h e n t h e y ` h a v e a n e x p e r i e n c e ' ?

D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 1 1 ) h a s p o s i t e d t h a t w h a t i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o

u n d e r s t a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e i s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t a n a r t w o r k i s

t h e i d e a l i z a t i o n - a t a n g i b l e f o r m o f e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t a r e h a d i n

112

e v e r y f a c e t o f e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e - i n c l u d i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

i l l n e s s . A n e x p e r i e n c e i n D e w e y ' s t e r m s i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s

r e c o g n i z e d a s q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m ` o r d i n a r y ' c o n s c i o u s n e s s -

s o m e t h i n g w h i c h e n a b l e s u s t o s a y t h a t w e h a v e h a d a n e x p e r i e n c e .

E x p e r i e n c i n g i n t h i s s e n s e i s n o t p a s s i v e . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i t i s v e r y

a c t i v e i n t h a t a l l t h e s e n s e s o f t h e o r g a n i s m a r e u t i l i z e d a n d b o u g h t

i n t o h a r m o n i o u s a n d v i t a l u n i t y ;

T h e e s t h e t i c o r u n d e r g o i n g p h a s e o f e x p e r i e n c e i s r e c e p t i v e . I t i n v o l v e s s u r r e n d e r . B u t a n a d e q u a t e y i e l d i n g o f t h e s e l f i s o n l y p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h a c o n t r o l l e d a c t i v i t y t h a t m a y w e l l b e i n t e n s e . I n m u c h o f o u r i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h o u r s u r r o u n d i n g s w e w i t h d r a w ; m u c h f r o m f e a r , i f o n l y o f e x p e n d i n g u n d u l y o u r s t o r e o f e n e r g y ; s o m e t i m e s f r o m p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h o t h e r m a t t e r s , a s i s t h e c a s e o f r e c o g n i t i o n . P e r c e p t i o n i s a n a c t o f g o i n g - o u t o f e n e r g y i n o r d e r t o r e c e i v e , n o t a w i t h h o l d i n g o f e n e r g y . T o s t e e p o u r s e l v e s i n a s u b j e c t - m a t t e r w e h a v e f i r s t t o p l u n g e i n t o i t . W h e n w e a r e o n l y p a s s i v e t o a s c e n e , i t o v e r w h e l m s u s a n d , f o r l a c k o f a n s w e r i n g a c t i v i t y , w e d o n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t w h i c h b e a r s u s d o w n . W e m u s t s u m m o n e n e r g y a n d p i t c h i t a t a r e s p o n s i v e k e y i n o r d e r t o t a k e i t i n . ( D e w e y 1 9 8 0 , p . 5 3 )

P a r a d o x i c a l l y , i t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t , a s s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s c a n n o t

b e ` w i l l e d ' , t h e y a l s o s p e a k o f m y s t e r y , o f g i f t , o f g r a c e , a n d t h e

u n k n o w a b l e . S u c h a n o t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e , h o w e v e r , a l s o s p e a k s o f t h e

c r i t i c a l n e e d f o r a p e r s o n a l s e n s e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d p o w e r t o

a v o i d b e i n g o v e r w h e l m e d b y a n e x p e r i e n c e . H o w e v e r , a s h a s a l r e a d y

b e e n d e s c r i b e d , p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d a s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l p o w e r

a r e t h e v e r y t h i n g s t h a t a r e l i a b l e t o b e u n d e r m i n e d b y t h e

e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d t h e d e m a n d s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s e t t i n g s .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e a b i l i t y t o c r e a t i v e l y r e s p o n d t o t h e d e m a n d s o f

e x p e r i e n c e - p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s - t a k e s o n

a p r o f o u n d l y e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s .

I n D e w e y ' s t e r m s p e r c e p t i o n a n d r e c o g n i t i o n a r e d i f f e r e n t p h e n o m e n a .

113

R e c o g n i t i o n s t o p s s h o r t o f p e r c e p t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , I r e c o g n i z e

s o m e o n e i n t h e s t r e e t a n d d o n o t s e e t h e m ` a s t h e y a r e ' b u t I s e e t h e m

( r e c o g n i z e t h e m ) i n o r d e r t o d o s o m e t h i n g e l s e - i n t h i s c a s e t o g r e e t

t h e m ( D e w e y 1 9 3 4 , p . 5 2 ) . T h i s m i g h t b e l i k e n e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i n

w h i c h p e o p l e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a r e o f t e n ` r e c o g n i z e d ' i n m e d i c a l

a n d b u r e a u c r a t i c t e r m s - a s ` t h e t h e a t r e c a s e f o r T h u r s d a y ' , ` l a s t

n i g h t ' s a d m i s s i o n ' o r b y t h e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f t h e i r s y m p t o m s a s ` a

d i s e a s e ' - ` t h e r h e u m a t o i d a r t h r i t i s i n B e d 3 ' . I n t h e p r o c e s s t h a t i s

p e r c e p t i o n , h o w e v e r , w h a t i s i n v o l v e d i s a c r e a t i v e a n d q u a l i t a t i v e l y

d i f f e r e n t ` s e e i n g ' - a s e e i n g t h a t , u l t i m a t e l y , h a s a d o m i n o e f f e c t o r a

p a r t i c u l a r f e c u n d i t y .

F o r e x a m p l e , t h e w e e k b e f o r e m y f a t h e r d i e d I f l e w t o B r i s b a n e t o s e e

h i m . M y m o t h e r h a d s a i d h e w a s ` d e t e r i o r a t i n g ' , a w o r d s h e h a d n e v e r

b e f o r e u s e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e h e a l t h o f m y f a t h e r . O n e o f m y

s i s t e r s h a d b e e n a d v i s i n g m y f a t h e r t o t a k e a w a l k a f t e r h i s V e n t o l i n -

t h a t i t w o u l d h a v e g r e a t e r e f f e c t . O n e d a y m y f a t h e r d i d g o f o r a

w a l k . I t t o o k u s a n h o u r t o w a l k a r o u n d t h e b l o c k . A t o n e s t a g e I

l o o k e d a t m y f a t h e r a n d ` s a w ' h i m , n o t a s m y f a t h e r , b u t a s t h e m a n ,

t h e h u m a n b e i n g t h a t h e w a s - o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l i a r r o l e s o f h u s b a n d

a n d f a t h e r . A n d I s a w t h a t h i s e y e s w e r e o l d a n d t i r e d . M u c h l a t e r I

w r o t e t h i s p o e m a b o u t t h a t e x p e r i e n c e , t h a t m o m e n t o f ` s e e i n g ' .

O l d t i r e d e y e s - y e t s t i l l a l i v e a n d k n o w i n g T h e w a l k a r o u n d t h e b l o c k - i t w a s a k i n d o f p i l g r i m a g e f o r a d a u g h t e r w h o w a s a f r a i d y e t b r a v e P e r h a p s t h e o l d k i n d e y e s c o u l d s e e t h e p a r a d o x a n d l o v e d a n d k n e w t h e s a m e W a s h e l o n e l y - t h i s o l d t i r e d f a t h e r o f m i n e ? D i d h e f e a r a p p r o a c h i n g d e a t h ? O r w a s i t o n l y t h e a f r a i d a n d t h e b r a v e t h a t f e a r e d t h e u n k n o w n

114t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n t h a t w a i t e d f o r t h e r e a l i t y n o t k n o w i n g i f i t w a s a l l t o b e p r o v e d t r u e o r f a l s e .

What I am t ry ing to descr ibe i s the layered repercuss ions , the domino

ef fec t , o r , as Mer ton ( in Gr i f f in 1979) may descr ibe i t , the fecundi ty of

percept ion , of th i s ` see ing ' . In the case of my see ing my fa ther `as i f for

the f i r s t t ime ' there were a number of repercuss ions - no t the leas t o f

which was the prec ip i ta t ion of the `prepara tory gr ie f ' fo r h i s dea th . More

impor tan t ly , f rom his perspec t ive and mine , I was more ab le to a l low h im

to `be ' , to accept h im for what he was a t tha t t ime, a t i red , s ick , o ld man.

I was ab le to somehow put myse l f as ide and see as though I were my

fa ther . I was ab le to accept , as I was la te r in my exper iences of people

dy ing of AIDS, tha t people in the process of dy ing have the i r own

agendas , the i r own needs . Somet imes they may coinc ide wi th ours .

Somet imes they may be d i f fe ren t and our d isappoin ted expec ta t ions a re

of ten the resu l t o f our `not see ing ' . La ter tha t moment of percept ion

made a grea t d i f fe rence to how I reac ted to the dea th of my fa ther . I was

ab le to comprehend - o r accept - tha t i t would have been wrong and

somehow ungrac ious to wish tha t my fa ther could have l ived - he was o ld ,

t i red and s ick and the t ime for h i s dea th had come.

T h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i v e e x p e r i e n c e w o u l d t h u s h a v e m o r a l a n d

e t h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t i n v o l v e t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e i r i n n e r

w o r l d b e i n g b r o u g h t i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e o u t e r - t h e c o m m u n a l

a n d t h e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e . I t s e e m s t h a t t h e t w o ( t h e i n d i v i d u a l

e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e m o r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s ) a r e i n t e r t w i n e d i n a

r e f l e x i v i t y - n o t a t t h e p r e c i s e m o m e n t s o f p e r c e p t i o n - a s t h a t

w o u l d , i n a s e n s e , n e g a t e t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p e r c e p t i o n , b u t t h e

e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e c o m e s f r o m c o n t e m p l a t i o n a n d r e f l e c t i o n o n t h a t

115

e x p e r i e n c e . A s N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s i t , a v i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n

t h e a b s t r a c t a n d t h e p r a c t i c a l h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e n , a s a r e s u l t

o f a p r o c e s s t h a t i n v o l v e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l e n g a g e d i n a d i a l e c t i c a l

r e f l e x i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e O t h e r , t h e e x p e r i e n c e - m y s e e i n g a s

i f I w e r e t h e O t h e r - b e c o m e s p a r t o f m y i d e n t i t y , m y s e l f . H o w e v e r ,

i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e a s i t b e c o m e s p a r t o f m y o r g a n i s m

d o e s s o l i k e l i g h t t h a t i s r e f l e c t e d t h r o u g h a p r i s m - i t i s n o t a s i n g l e

b e a m o f M e l i g h t t h a t i s r e i n c o r p o r a t e d , b u t s o m e h o w t h e c o l o u r s o f

t h e O t h e r h a v e b e c o m e p a r t o f t h a t l i g h t a n d s o b e c o m e p a r t o f m y

S e l f . A s i m p l e e x a m p l e o f t h i s i s t h e i m p o r t a n t p a r t m e m o r y p l a y s i n

t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n i d e n t i t y . M y e x p e r i e n c e s , o r m y m e m o r i e s o f

m y e x p e r i e n c e s , a r e s o m u c h p a r t o f a l l f a c e t s o f m y S e l f - m y s k i n ,

m y s o u l , m y s p i r i t , m y c h a r a c t e r - t h a t I c a n n o t s e p a r a t e t h e m o u t

f r o m m y B e i n g . T h i s m a y b e l i k e n e d t o t h e b e n e f i t s A r i s t o t l e

( 1 9 7 6 , p . 3 1 0 ) a s c r i b e s t o t h e G o o d o f f r i e n d s h i p i e . I a m e n a b l e d t o

b e c o m e m o r e o f t h e M e b y a n d t h r o u g h m y f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r .

M e r t o n ( 1 9 8 9 , p . 3 2 8 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p r o c e s s

o f e x p e r i e n c e i n t h i s w a y ;

T h e n h e r e s t s i n t h i s i n t u i t i o n ( w h e n h i s m i n d c a n g r a s p t h e w h o l e c o n t e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t i n o n e d e e p a n d p e n e t r a t i n g g a z e ) , l e t t i n g t h e t r u t h s i n k i n a n d b e c o m e a p a r t o f h i m s e l f . A b o v e a l l , i n t u i t i o n , s e t t i n g t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e m p o r a r i l y a t r e s t , s h o u l d l e a v e t h e w i l l f r e e t o a d a p t i t s e l f t o t h e p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e t r u t h t h u s s e e n a n d t o d i r e c t o u r w h o l e l i f e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h i t .

I f p e r c e p t i o n a s e m b o d i e d i n a n e x p e r i e n c e i s s e e n a s p a r t o f a

c o n t i n u u m o f b e c o m i n g o r a n u n f o l d i n g o r a p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g a n d

f l o u r i s h i n g , t h e d i l e m m a t h a t m i g h t b e s e e n t o e x i s t b e t w e e n s e e i n g

t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d / o r t h e c o m m u n a l d i s a p p e a r s ( s e e R a n k 1 9 8 9 ) .

E v e r y i n d i v i d u a l b r i n g s t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e m s e l v e s t o a n e x p e r i e n c e

116

a n d p e r h a p s i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f c o n t e m p l a t i v e r e f l e x i v i t y t h e

e x p e r i e n c e i n t u r n i l l u m i n a t e s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e u n f o l d i n g

i n d i v i d u a l S e l f - e x i s t i n g i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r .

T h a t r e f l e x i v i t y - b o t h o u t t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e - t h e o b j e c t o f t h e

e x p e r i e n c e - a n d b a c k t o t h e s e l f , i s a n i n t e g r a l , a n d d e f i n i t i v e

e l e m e n t i n e x p l a i n i n g h o w o u r S e l v e s , o u r i d e n t i t i e s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d

a n d w e f l o u r i s h , o r b l o s s o m , a n d g r o w . R e c e n t l y a s m a l l g i r l a s k e d

m e t o h e l p h e r d r a w a r u b b i s h b i n . W h e n I w e n t t o d r a w t h e r u b b i s h

b i n , I d r e w i t f r o m w h e r e I w a s s i t t i n g a n d I f o r g o t t o s a y t h a t t h e

p e r s p e c t i v e f r o m w h e r e s h e w a s s i t t i n g w o u l d b e d i f f e r e n t - s h e w o u l d

s e e i t d i f f e r e n t l y . S i m i l a r l y , i t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t a s a r e s u l t o f

t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f o u r e x p e r i e n c e s w e s e e a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e ,

n o t o n l y o f o u r s e l v e s , b u t o n t h e m y r i a d r e l a t i o n s h i p s , w e b s a n d n e t s

t h a t a r e t h e l a n d s c a p e o f o u r s e n s e o f m e a n i n g . T h e r o l e a n d

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e x p e r i e n c e t h u s u n d e r s t o o d w o u l d a c c o r d w i t h

G a d a m e r ' s r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e e f f e c t o f e x p e r i e n c i n g a w o r k o f a r t - t h a t

i t c h a n g e s n o t o n l y t h e w a y I s e e t h i n g s n o w , b u t h o w I h a v e s e e n

t h e m i n t h e p a s t , a n d w i l l s e e t h e m i n t h e f u t u r e ( G a d a m e r 1 9 9 1 ) .

A s I e m p h a s i z e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c h a p t e r , i n s a y i n g t h i s , i t i s

n o t t o s a y t h a t e x p e r i e n c e s a n d o u r r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e m a r e m e r e l y

i n s t r u m e n t a l o r i n c i d e n t a l t o o u r g r o w t h a n d f l o u r i s h i n g , b u t t h a t t h e y

p r o v i d e t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e v e r y m e c h a n i s m s b y w h i c h w e d o

g r o w a n d f l o u r i s h .

H o w D o E x p e r i e n c e s H a p p e n ?

117

I t m i g h t b e t r u e t o s a y t h a t v e r y f e w p e o p l e h a v e e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e

s e n s e t h a t I h a v e d e s c r i b e d - o r , p e r h a p s , b e c a u s e o f a n a l i e n a t i o n

f r o m t h e i r ` a r t i s t i c a n d s p i r i t u a l S e l v e s ' , a n d t h e d o m i n a n c e o f

M o d e r n i s t r a t i o n a l i s m , d o n o t h a v e t h e ` t o o l s ' , t h e l a n g u a g e , o r t h e

p a r a d i g m s t o r e c o g n i z e a n d d e s c r i b e t h e c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e

o n e s t h e y d o h a v e . I n a d d i t i o n , D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 2 1 ) a t t r i b u t e s t h i s

a l i e n a t i o n a n d s t e r i l i t y t o t h e f a c t t h a t p r e s t i g e ( c o m m o n l y ) g o e s t o

t h o s e w h o u s e t h e i r m i n d s w i t h o u t p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e i r b o d i e s a n d

w h o a c t v i c a r i o u s l y t h r o u g h c o n t r o l o f t h e b o d i e s a n d l a b o u r o f

o t h e r s .

H o w e v e r , t o c o n t i n u e w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n ` H o w d o e x p e r i e n c e s h a p p e n ? '

M e r l e a u - P o n t y ( i n C r o w t h e r 1 9 9 3 , p . 1 0 4 ) d e s c r i b e s p e r c e p t i o n i n

t e r m s o f ` p r i m a r y ' a n d ` s e c o n d a r y ' e x p r e s s i o n . S e c o n d a r y e x p r e s s i o n

i s w h e n w e a r t i c u l a t e t h e w o r l d i n t e r m s o f p e r c e p t i o n s o r c o n c e p t s

t h a t a r e r o u t i n e o r f a m i l i a r t o u s . P r i m a r y e x p r e s s i o n i s w h e n w e t a k e

u p a n u n o r t h o d o x o r i n n o v a t o r y p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e w o r l d -

w h e n w e o r g a n i z e i t i n a n e w w a y , f o r e x a m p l e , a s a p o e t d o e s i n h i s

o r h e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f l a n g u a g e . H o w e v e r w e c l a s s i f y o r d e s c r i b e

o c c a s i o n s o f p e r c e p t i o n , t h e q u e s t i o n s t i l l r e m a i n s - W h a t c a u s e s o r

a l l o w s t h e s e p r i m a r y e x p r e s s i o n s t o a r i s e a n d s u r f a c e ? T h e r e a r e

s e v e r a l w a y s i n w h i c h t h e a n s w e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n c a n b e a p p r o a c h e d .

D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 ) , C r o s b y ( c . 1 9 9 0 ) a n d B e r r y ( 1 9 9 5 ) , e a c h i n t h e i r

s e v e r a l w a y s , s h e d s o m e l i g h t o n t h e s o m e w h a t m y s t e r i o u s p r o c e s s o f

g r o w i n g , l i v i n g a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . I q u o t e s o m e l e n g t h y p a s s a g e s h e r e

a s w h a t e a c h o f t h e s e w r i t e r s a p p e a r t o b e d e s c r i b i n g a r e s o m e o f t h e

i n e v i t a b l e l u m p s , b u m p s , p e a k s a n d t r o u g h s o f e v e r y d a y l i v e d

e x i s t e n c e . O n e o f t h e m o r e d e s t r u c t i v e f e a t u r e s o f t h e w a y i n w h i c h

118

m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e i s c o n c e i v e d i s t h a t i t o f t e n s e e k s t o a n a e s t h e t i z e ,

t o i r o n o u t t h e p a i n f u l b u m p s w h i c h a r e n o t o n l y a n a t u r a l p a r t o f

l i v e d e x i s t e n c e b u t w h i c h a r e n e c e s s a r y a n d c r i t i c a l f o r o u r g r o w t h ,

f l o u r i s h i n g a n d s u r v i v a l a s a r t i s t i c a n d c r e a t i v e P e r s o n s . A s D e w e y

( i n M c d e r m o t t 1 9 7 3 , p . x x i x ) p u t s t h e p r o c e s s o f l i v i n g ;

L i f e i t s e l f c o n s i s t s o f p h a s e s i n w h i c h t h e o r g a n i s m f a l l s o u t o f s t e p w i t h t h e m a r c h o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g t h i n g s a n d t h e n r e c o v e r s u n i s o n w i t h i t - e i t h e r t h r o u g h e f f o r t o r b y s o m e h a p p y c h a n c e . A n d , i n a g r o w i n g l i f e , t h e r e c o v e r y i s n e v e r m e r e r e t u r n t o a p r i o r s t a t e , f o r i t i s e n r i c h e d b y t h e s t a t e o f d i s p a r i t y a n d r e s i s t a n c e t h r o u g h w h i c h i t h a s s u c c e s s f u l l y p a s s e d . I f t h e g a p b e t w e e n o r g a n i s m a n d e n v i r o n m e n t i s t o o w i d e , t h e c r e a t u r e d i e s . I f i t s a c t i v i t y i s n o t e n h a n c e d b y t h e t e m p o r a r y a l i e n a t i o n , i t m e r e l y s u b s i s t s . L i f e g r o w s w h e n a t e m p o r a r y f a l l i n g o u t i s a t r a n s i t i o n t o a m o r e e x t e n s i v e b a l a n c e o f t h e e n e r g i e s o f t h e o r g a n i s m w i t h t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h i t l i v e s .

F r o m a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , C r o s b y ( c . 1 9 9 0 ) o b s e r v e s ;

S o m e t i m e s w h e n t h e b o t t o m f a l l s o u t o f o u r l i f e , w e a r e s e t f r e e . W e a t t a i n e n l i g h t e n m e n t , o r a n e n l i g h t e n m e n t o f s o r t s ; s o m e p e r s p e c t i v e , s o m e c l a r i t y , s o m e s e n s e o f r e a l i t y , s o m e s e n s e o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h i n g s a s t h e y a r e , s o m e r e l i e f f r o m a n x i e t y a n d p e r p l e x i t y b e c a u s e s o m e t h i n g p r o f o u n d h a s h a p p e n e d .

W h e n e v e r t h a t p r o f o u n d t h i n g h a p p e n s , w e c a n e x p e c t t o g o t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s , s o m e t i m e s a l o n g p r o c e s s , a p a i n f u l o r a t l e a s t a n u n c o m f o r t a b l e p r o c e s s , i n w h i c h w e l e t g o o f s o m e t h i n g a n d s l o w l y l e a r n h o w t o l i v e a g a i n . T h i s i s t r u e n o m a t t e r w e l o s e a l o v e d o n e , a w o r k , a h o p e , a v i s i o n , a n i m a g e o f o u r s e l v e s , a p a r t o f o u r s e l v e s . L o s s m a k e s a r t i s t s o f u s a l l a s w e w e a v e n e w p a t t e r n s i n t h e f a b r i c o f o u r l i v e s .

F i n a l l y , i n a r e c e n t i s s u e o f T a l k a b o u t m a g a z i n e , a m a g a z i n e f o r

p e o p l e l i v i n g w i t h A I D S , B e r r y ( 1 9 9 5 , p . 2 0 ) , a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t

w o r k i n g w i t h p e o p l e n e w l y d i a g n o s e d w i t h A I D S , s p e a k s o f ` a p s y c h i c

s h a k e - u p . . ( a n d ) s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e i n i t i a l r e s p o n s e t o d i a g n o s i s c a n b e

l i k e n e d i n s o m e c a s e s t o a p s y c h i c e x p l o s i o n . I n t h i s e x p l o s i o n o n e ' s

i d e n t i t y , w h a t w e c a l l o u r " s e l f " , f e e l s a s i f i t i s d e s t r o y e d . T h e o l d

119

m a p i s i n e f f e c t i v e a n d p s y c h i c " r e o r g a n i z a t i o n " c a n o n l y o c c u r

t h r o u g h c h a n g i n g t h a t m a p a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e n o t i o n o f

s e l f . '

I t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t m a n y e x p e r i e n c e s o f h e a l t h a n d i l l n e s s

( i n d e e d m a n y o f t h e e v e n t s o f o u r e v e r y d a y l i v e s ) w o u l d h a v e

s i m i l a r r e p e r c u s s i o n s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , B e r r y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e

f e e l i n g s - o f ` b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d t o a n e w w o r l d w h e r e a l l t h e

s u r r o u n d i n g s a r e d i f f e r e n t . . ( w h e r e ) f a m i l i a r p e o p l e , e v e n t s , a n d

s i t u a t i o n s b e c o m e u n f a m i l i a r a n d s t r a n g e ' - t h e s e f e e l i n g s a r e t h e

s a m e a s t h o s e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e b e r e a v e d a n d b y t h o s e e x p e r i e n c i n g

w h a t i s n o w d e s c r i b e d a s m i d l i f e c r i s i s ( B e r r y 1 9 9 5 , p . 2 1 ) .

P e r c e p t i o n i n t h e s e n s e t h a t D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 ) s p e a k s o f i t c o u l d b e

l i k e n e d t o t h e s e s a m e p s y c h i c s h a k e - u p s . W h i l e s o m e c o u l d b e

d e s c r i b e d a s s h a k e - u p s , s o m e c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s p s y c h i c n u d g e s -

o r p e r h a p s a s e v i d e n c e o f t h e o r g a n i s m s d e s i r e t o l i v e d i f f e r e n t l y o r

m o r e f u l l y .

L i s t e n i n g .

A n e s s e n t i a l i n g r e d i e n t i n t h e t y p e o f e x p e r i e n c e s o f w h i c h I a m

s p e a k i n g i s l i s t e n i n g . L i s t e n i n g i s m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l - i t c a n u t i l i z e

a l l s e n s e s s o t h a t w e c a n l i s t e n w i t h o u r w h o l e b o d i e s a s w e l l a s o u r

e a r s , m i n d s a n d e y e s . A s M a r k T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 2 7 0 ) q u o t e s J a k e s ;

` Y o u d o n o t g o i n t o t h e d e s e r t t o f i n d i d e n t i t y b u t t o l o s e i t , t o l o s e y o u r p e r s o n a l i t y , t o m a k e y o u r s e l f a n o n y m o u s . Y o u m a k e y o u r s e l f t h e v o i d . Y o u b e c o m e s i l e n c e . I t i s v e r y h a r d t o l i v e w i t h s i l e n c e . T h e r e a l s i l e n c e i s d e a t h a n d t h i s i s t e r r i b l e . I t i s v e r y h a r d i n t h e d e s e r t . Y o u m u s t b e c o m e m o r e s i l e n t t h a n t h e s i l e n c e a r o u n d y o u . A n d t h e n s o m e t h i n g e x t r a o r d i n a r y h a p p e n s : y o u h e a r

120s i l e n c e s p e a k . ' H o w c a n o n e b e c o m e m o r e s i l e n t t h a n s i l e n c e ? H o w c a n o n e h e a r t h e s i l e n c e s p e a k a n d s e e t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e d e s e r t ?

I h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e d e s e r t ` s p e a k i n g ' . H o w e v e r , o n

a m o r e m u n d a n e l e v e l , I r e a l i z e t h a t t h i s i s w h a t I a d v i s e p e o p l e t o d o

w h e n I a m t e a c h i n g t h e m t o p a i n t . I f r e q u e n t l y s a y ` p u t y o u r h e a d o u t

o f g e a r a n d t r u s t y o u r h a n d s a n d e y e s b e c a u s e t h e y k n o w h o w t o

p a i n t . ' I a m c e r t a i n l y n o t a d v i s i n g t h e m t o p u t t h e i r i n t e l l i g e n c e o u t

o f g e a r , b u t t o r e c o g n i z e a s M a r k T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 5 ) p o s i t s t h a t

i n t e l l i g e n c e h a s m a n y f o r m s a n d i s s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o d y - i t i s

n o t o n l y l o c a t e d i n s o m e s p a c e b e t w e e n o u r e a r s . T h u s a n

e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y a r t i s t i c

e x p e r i e n c e w i l l a l s o b e a r e v i s i o n i n g o f t h e n a t u r e a n d r o l e o f

i n t e l l i g e n c e . D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 4 5 ) a n a l y z e s t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f o r t t h a t

i s r e q u i r e d i n a r t i n t h e s e t e r m s ;

B e c a u s e p e r c e p t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w h a t i s d o n e a n d w h a t i s u n d o n e c o n s t i t u t e s t h e w o r k o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d b e c a u s e t h e a r t i s t i s c o n t r o l l e d i n t h e p r o c e s s o f h i s w o r k b y h i s g r a s p o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t h e h a s a l r e a d y d o n e a n d w h a t h e i s t o d o n e x t , t h e i d e a t h a t t h e a r t i s t d o e s n o t t h i n k a s i n t e n t l y a n d p e n e t r a t i n g l y a s a s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r e r i s a b s u r d . A p a i n t e r m u s t c o n s c i o u s l y u n d e r g o t h e e f f e c t o f h i s e v e r y b r u s h s t r o k e o r h e w i l l n o t b e a w a r e o f w h a t h e i s d o i n g a n d w h e r e h i s w o r k i s g o i n g . M o r e o v e r , h e h a s t o s e e e a c h p a r t i c u l a r c o n n e c t i o n o f d o i n g a n d u n d e r g o i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e w h o l e t h a t h e i s d e s i r i n g t o p r o d u c e . T o a p p r e h e n d s u c h r e l a t i o n s i s t o t h i n k , a n d i s o n e o f t h e m o s t e x a c t i n g m o d e s o f t h o u g h t .

T h i s i s n o t h o w a r t m a k i n g i s c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d i n h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s , n o r , i t m u s t b e a d m i t t e d , b y m a n y p e o p l e i n m o d e r n W e s t e r n

s o c i e t i e s . A r t m a k i n g i s g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s , e i t h e r a s o m e w h a t s e l f

i n d u l g e n t ` h o b b y ' ; a m e a n s o f c a t h a r t i c e x p r e s s i o n o r , a s s o m e t h i n g

t h a t t a l e n t e d p e o p l e c a l l e d A r t i s t s d o .

121

T h e c a p a c i t y t o l i s t e n - s o i n t e g r a l t o b o t h a r t a n d h e a l t h c a r e

p r a c t i c e - c o u l d b e s a i d , t h e r e f o r e , t o h a v e m o r a l , e t h i c a l a n d

a e s t h e t i c d i m e n s i o n s . L e v i n ( i n G a b l i k 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 1 1 ) a s s e r t s t h a t

l i s t e n i n g i s a q u e s t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r . . ( a n d ) i t s d e v e l o p m e n t i s a

p r a c t i c e o f t h e s e l f . I n t h i s s e n s e i t c o u l d b e l i k e n e d t o a r t

p r a c t i c e w h i c h r e q u i r e s a c o n t i n u a l p r a c t i c e o f ` s e e i n g ' . H o w e v e r ,

i t t a k e s l i t t l e r e f l e c t i o n o n e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e t o r e a l i z e h o w

i n f r e q u e n t l y l i s t e n i n g i n t h i s s e n s e h a p p e n s . I n p a r t t h i s m a y b e a

s a n i t y s a v i n g r e s p o n s e t o t h e c o n t i n u a l b a r r a g e o f n o i s e t h a t i s p a r t

o f m o d e r n l i v i n g a s C o r k ( 1 9 7 9 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d . I t m i g h t a l s o b e s e e n

a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a R a t i o n a l i s t e p i s t e m o l o g y w h e r e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e , e x p e r i e n c e a n d c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n i s e i t h e r

b l u r r e d o r n o n e x i s t e n t . O t h e r s , h o w e v e r , s e e i t a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f

m u c h c o n t e m p o r a r y e d u c a t i o n w h e r e f a c t s , ` h a r d d a t a ' a n d p h y s i c a l

e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e e q u a t e d w i t h k n o w l e d g e a n d w i s d o m ( s e e B a r z u n 1 9 7 4

a n d G i l k e y i n A p o s t o l o s - C a p p a d o n a 1 9 8 4 ) . A p a r a l l e l i n h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s w o u l d b e t h e a t t e n t i o n a n d v a l u e t h a t i s a c c o r d e d t h e

` m a c h i n e s ' a n d a p p a r a t u s o f t e c h n o l o g y - o f t e n t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f

t h e p e r s o n a s p a t i e n t w h o s e p a r t i c u l a r ` s y m p t o m s ' a r e f r e q u e n t l y

r e g a r d e d a s ` u n r e l i a b l e d a t a ' . M o o r e ( 1 9 9 2 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t l i t t l e

v a l u e i s p l a c e d o n t h e a b i l i t y t o ` l i s t e n ' o r t o c o n t e m p l a t e a s c a n

b e e v i d e n c e d b y t h e s i m p l e e x p e r i m e n t o f w a t c h i n g c h i l d r e n d u r i n g a

v i s i t t o a n a r t g a l l e r y w h e r e i t a p p e a r s o b l i g a t o r y t h a t t h e y h a v e t o

b e b u s y a l l t h e t i m e . T h e y h a v e t o f i l l i n f o r m s , w r i t e d o w n t h e i r

r e s p o n s e s - w i t h o u t h a v i n g t i m e t o l i s t e n t o o r h a v e a n i m a g i n a t i v e

r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a n y w o r k o f a r t . A s C o r k ( 1 9 7 9 ) f u r t h e r r e m a r k s ,

t h e f a s t f a c t s a p p r o a c h t o a r t w o r k s ( a n d e x p e r i e n c e ) i s o f t e n

r e f l e c t e d i n g a l l e r y d e s i g n w h e r e s p a c e s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r m a x i m u m

122

e f f i c i e n t f l o w t h r o u g h w i t h l i t t l e p r o v i s i o n f o r s e a t i n g t h a t i n v i t e

a n d e n a b l e p e o p l e t o s i t a n d ` l i s t e n ' . F u r t h e r m o r e , a m o d e r n

i n t o l e r a n c e o f a m b i g u i t y , m y s t e r y a n d t h e u n c e r t a i n o f t e n m e a n s ,

a s D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 4 4 ) r e m a r k s , t h a t r e s i s t a n c e ( t o a n e x p e r i e n c e ,

t o a n a r t w o r k o r t o a n i l l n e s s ) i s n o t u n d e r s t o o d a s a n i n v i t a t i o n

i n t o r e f l e c t i o n ( a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a r t p r a c t i c e ) b u t a s a n

o b s t r u c t i o n t o b e b e a t e n d o w n - s o m e t h i n g t o b e g o t r i d o f ( s e e

a l s o G o m b r i c h 1 9 8 5 ) .

O n e o f t h e l e g a c i e s o f t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d h a s b e e n t h e m o v e f r o m

a n o r a l t o a w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s

c h a p t e r , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f l i t e r a c y a d d e d t o s o c i a l

f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d i s o l a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n s o c i e t y - p e o p l e

w e r e n o l o n g e r d e p e n d e n t u p o n o r a l s o u r c e s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e

o f k n o w l e d g e a n d c u l t u r e f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n t o a n o t h e r . A s a

r e s u l t m a n y h a v e l o s t t h e a b i l i t y t o l i s t e n t o t h e s p o k e n

n a r r a t i v e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s m u c h m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e i s

i n c r e a s i n g l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n t e c h n o l o g y , t h e r e i s l i t t l e t i m e

a l l o w e d f o r t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l o r t h e p a t i e n t t o s p e a k

a n d t o l i s t e n . A r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s h o w e v e r c h a l l e n g e s t h i s

t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p r e m a c y - a r t n o t o n l y a l l o w s t h e p a t i e n t a s

p e r s o n t o s p e a k , b u t c h a l l e n g e s t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l t o

l i s t e n i n a n e w a n d d i f f e r e n t w a y .

U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n o t i o n o f l i s t e n i n g a s i n t e g r a l t o e x p e r i e n c e

a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e ( a n d a n e t h i c a l m o d e l o f h e a l t h c a r e ) , i t

w o u l d s e e m t h a t l i s t e n i n g i s e s s e n t i a l l y a m a t t e r o f ` s e e i n g ' t h e

l a n d s c a p e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t h e i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f w h a t i s b e i n g

123

e x p e r i e n c e d - b e i t a w o r k o f a r t , t h e O t h e r o r a n o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g .

I n a w o r k o f a r t C e z a n n e ( i n B a r n e s 1 9 9 0 , p . 3 4 ) s p e a k s o f c o l o u r s

l i s t e n i n g t o e a c h o t h e r - ` f o l l o w i n g e a c h o t h e r a c c o r d i n g t o a l a w o f

h a r m o n y ' w h i l e D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p p . 3 6 , 3 7 ) d r a w s a p e n e t r a t i n g p a r a l l e l

b e t w e e n a w o r k o f a r t a n d a c o n v e r s a t i o n ;

I n a w o r k o f a r t , d i f f e r e n t a c t s , e p i s o d e s , o c c u r r e n c e s m e l t a n d f u s e i n t o u n i t y , a n d y e t d o n o t d i s a p p e a r a n d l o s e t h e i r o w n c h a r a c t e r a s t h e y d o s o - j u s t a s i n a g e n i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n t h e r e i s a c o n t i n u o u s i n t e r c h a n g e a n d b l e n d i n g , a n d y e t e a c h s p e a k e r n o t o n l y r e t a i n s h i s o w n c h a r a c t e r b u t m a n i f e s t s i t m o r e c l e a r l y t h a n h i s w o n t .

A s I m e n t i o n e d i n t h e I n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r , s o m e a s p e c t s o f

A b o r i g i n a l p h i l o s o p h y a r e c o n s t a n t t h r e a d s r u n n i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h i s

r e s e a r c h . T h i s i s n o t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e

i d e n t i f i e d d e f i c i e n c i e s o f m o d e r n A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y c a n b e r e m e d i e d

b y t h e s i m p l e e x p e d i e n t o f b e c o m i n g ` A b o r i g i n a l ' n o r b y r e t u r n i n g t o

s o m e g o l d e n a g e o f t r a d i t i o n a l w a y s t h a t c a n n o t n o w b e r e c r e a t e d .

H o w e v e r , A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e ( a l o n g w i t h m a n y o t h e r s f r o m d i f f e r e n t

c u l t u r e s ) a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n A u s t r a l i a n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a n d t h e

p a r t i c u l a r c a r e t h a t t h e y r e q u i r e m a y s h e d l i g h t o n s o m e n e w w a y s i n

w h i c h a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h c a r e f o r a l l m i g h t b e c o n c e i v e d . F o r e x a m p l e ,

d u r i n g a p a i n t i n g t r i p I u n d e r t o o k t h r o u g h t h e N o r t h e r n T e r r i t o r y l a s t

y e a r , a c o m m u n i t y w o r k e r a t H e r m a n n s b u r g s a i d t h a t ` f o r A b o r i g i n a l

p e o p l e i t i s f i r s t n e c e s s a r y t o h e a l t h e m i n d b e f o r e t h e b o d y ' . T h e

r e v e r s e c o u l d b e s a i d t o a p p l y i n W e s t e r n n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h c a r e w h e r e

t h e ` m i n d ' ( e n c o m p a s s i n g a l s o n o t i o n s o f t h e s p i r i t u a l , t h e r e l i g i o u s ,

t h e i m a g i n a t i v e - t h e s o u r c e o f b o t h h e a l i n g a n d s u f f e r i n g ) i s e i t h e r

l e f t o u t o f a c c o u n t , o r , m a y c o m e a f t e r a n i n t e n s e f o c u s o n t h e

p h y s i c a l b o d y .

124

C a r r y i n g f o r w a r d t h e e s s e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f ` l i s t e n i n g ' , t h e n , B r a d y

( 1 9 9 5 , p . 1 5 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e . . . i s e s s e n t i a l l y

c o n t e m p l a t i v e , b a s e d o n l i s t e n i n g d a d e r i , a s t a t e o f w o r d l e s s

c o n t e m p l a t i o n , a n d t h u s a n o b e d i e n c e . T h e r o o t m e a n i n g o f

o b e d i e n c e i s l i s t e n i n g . I t i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l l y c o m m u n a l , t h e s e l f i s

p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y o f a l l l i v i n g t h i n g s . U n d e r s t o o d t h u s , o n e c a n

r e c o g n i z e , w i t h G a b l i k ( 1 9 9 1 ) , t h a t t h i s l a c k o f l i s t e n i n g o r

e m p a t h e t i c a t t e n t i o n c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e c a u s e o f s o m u c h

l o n e l i n e s s , i s o l a t i o n a n d i l l h e a l t h . A s G a b l i k q u o t e s a n u r s i n g

h o m e r e s i d e n t :

` I t h i n k a l o t o f s e n i l i t y c o m e s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t n o b o d y a s k s y o u a n y t h i n g . N o b o d y a s k s y o u t o s p e a k . P r e t t y s o o n y o u l o s e y o u r m e m o r y . I s u f f e r a l o t f r o m p e o p l e n o t l i s t e n i n g t o m e ' . ( M e r i d e l L e S u e u r i n G a b l i k 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 1 1 )

T h e ` c l i n i c a l , n o r m a l i z i n g ' g a z e o f m a n y h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s

t o g e t h e r w i t h a m o d e r n a p p r o a c h t o w a r d s t h e s i c k ( i f t h e y c a n n o t

b e ` c u r e d ' t h e y a r e a v o i d e d o r i g n o r e d ) m e a n s t h a t m a n y p e o p l e w h o

m a k e u p t h e c l i e n t g r o u p s o f h e a l t h c a r e s u f f e r f r o m b e i n g r e n d e r e d

` i n v i s i b l e ' . L i t t l e i s e x p e c t e d o f t h e s i c k b e y o n d t h e i r c o m p l i a n c e

w i t h m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t s a n d r e g i m e s . I t i s t h e n o f t e n u n i m a g i n a b l e ,

e i t h e r b y t h e p e r s o n w h o i s s i c k , o r b y t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l ,

t h a t t h o s e w h o a r e i l l c a n b e v a l u a b l e , c o n t r i b u t i n g m e m b e r s o f

s o c i e t y - a s c a p a b l e o f g i v i n g g e n e r o u s l y a s t h e y a r e o f r e c e i v i n g .

A r t m a k i n g e n a b l e s t w o t h i n g s t o h a p p e n . F i r s t l y , i t e n a b l e s t h e

s i c k p e r s o n t o b e c o m e v i s i b l e - t o d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s a s h a v i n g t h e

c a p a c i t y f o r c r e a t i o n , c o n t r i b u t i o n a n d g i f t - e v e n i f t h e i r g i f t i s a s

h u m b l e a s o v e r l o c k i n g p a i n t e d t a b l e n a p k i n s , o r a s p o i g n a n t a s t h e

g i f t o f s i l k g i v e n t o h i s m o t h e r b y t h e m a n w i t h A I D S . S e c o n d l y ,

125

t h e w o r k s o f a r t b y t h o s e w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s g i v e a v i s i b l e ,

t a c t i l e f o r m t o t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s o f r e c r e a t i o n a n d b e c o m i n g - t h e y

m a k e m a n i f e s t t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e i r l i v e s a s w o r k s o f a r t . T h e i r a r t

w o r k s a n d p r a c t i c e c a n o p e n u p t h e g i f t o f t h e m S e l v e s t o b e ` s e e n '

b y t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s w h o s e v o c a t i o n i t i s t o c a r e . I n

m a k i n g ` v i s i b l e ' t h e i r u n i q u e e x p e r i e n c e s o f s i c k n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g

t h e y o p e n u p t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e c a n t h e r e b y

c h a n g e .

M a n y p a i n t e r s ( s e e F r a n c k 1 9 7 3 ; M c C a h o n 1 9 8 8 ; C e z a n n e i n B a r n e s

1 9 9 0 ) - a n d t h e s a m e a p p l i e s t o o t h e r a r t i s t s - h a v e s a i d t h a t

p a i n t i n g i s a m a t t e r o f ` s e e i n g ' . S e e i n g i n t h i s s e n s e i s

q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m ` l o o k i n g ' . I t m e a n s s e e i n g t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d t h e i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f

t o n e s o f c o l o u r s , s p a c e s , s h a p e s , t e x t u r e s , a n d t h e ` s i l e n c e s ' o f

m o v e m e n t s t h a t ` s p e a k ' . M c C a h o n ( 1 9 8 8 , p . 4 9 ) r e f e r r i n g t o a

M o n d r i a n p a i n t i n g s a i d ;

A l t h o u g h h e ( M o n d r i a n ) p u t u p h i s g r i d , i f y o u h a v e t h e r i g h t s o r t o f e y e s f o r l o o k i n g a t t h e m , i t s o r t o f s p l i t s . . . a n d i t p a s s e s u n d e r t h i s o n e o r o v e r t h e t o p o f i t . . . t h e r e a r e w a y s t h r o u g h .

W h a t m i g h t b e r e q u i r e d i n h e a l t h c a r e i s t o a c q u i r e s o m e n e w w a y s

o f ` s e e i n g ' a s e a c h p e r s o n i n t h e i r e m b o d i e d ` i n s e r t i o n i n t h e w o r l d '

s e e s t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e s e i n t e r r e l a t e d s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e i r o w n

u n i q u e w a y . T h e e v i d e n c e o f t h i s i s s e e n i n t h e f a c t t h a t e a c h

p e r s o n p a i n t s d i f f e r e n t l y - e v e n i f t h e y a r e p a i n t i n g t h e s a m e

` s c e n e ' . A r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e - f r o m t h e b e h o l d e r s p o i n t o f v i e w -

c a n t h e n b e d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g a b l e t o ` s e e ' i n m y p a i n t i n g h o w I

p e r c e i v e t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s o f i n t e r r e l a t e d m o d e s o f b e i n g - h o w I

c o n s t r u c t m y s e n s e o f S e l f - a s i f t h e y w e r e s e e i n g i t w i t h m y S e l f .

126

T h i s a s p e c t o f a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e , t h e n , h a s b o t h a c o m m u n a l a n d

e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . H o w e v e r , a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a f a i l u r e t o ` s e e ' t h e

i n t e r p l a y s , i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s a n d t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e l i g h t s a n d

t h e s h a d o w s o f t h e w o r l d a n d o u r s e l v e s e m b o d i e d i n i t m a y b e s e e n i n

t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f t h e e x i s t e n t i a l m a l a i s e p r e v i o u s l y r e f e r r e d t o . S m i t h

( 1 9 8 3 , p p . 1 0 0 , 1 0 1 ) s a y s a n e x i s t e n t i a l a w a r e n e s s n a t u r a l l y a n d o f t e n

i n c l u d e s a d e e p f e e l i n g o f a l o n e n e s s . . . o f b e i n g a m i n u t e p a r t i c l e i n a

v a s t w h o l e - r a t h e r t h a n o f b e i n g t h a t w h o l e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s a

g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f a l o n e n e s s a n d t h e

f e e l i n g s o f l o n e l i n e s s , a l i e n a t i o n a n d d e s p a i r t h a t a c c o m p a n y

e x i s t e n t i a l m a l a i s e .

A n a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f a p a i n t i n g , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c a n b e s a i d t o

h a v e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . A s M e r l e a u -

P o n t y s a y s o f C e z a n n e ( h e ) m a k e s v i s i b l e h o w t h e w o r l d t o u c h e s u s ;

T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i s w o r k c o n s i s t s i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t r e t u r n s u s t o ( t h e ) l e v e l o f p r i m o r d i a l p e r c e p t i o n . . . ( h i s ) p e r s p e c t i v a l i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s e v o k e t h e w a y t h i n g s t a k e f o r m t h r o u g h o u r b o d y ' s o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s t h e w o r l d . . h i s h a r m o n i z i n g o f l i n e a n d c o l o u r e v o k e s t h e i n s e p a r a p a b i l i t y o f t h e v i s u a l a n d t h e t a c t i l e i n p r e - r e f l e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n . ( i n C r o w t h e r 1 9 9 3 , p p . 1 0 6 , 1 0 7 )

T h e U s e s o f A r t i s t i c E x p e r i e n c e .

I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t w h a t h a s b e e n r ev e a l e d i n t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e

n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e i s a n i n v e r s i o n o f t h e ` p r o b l e m ' - t h a t t h e u s e s o f

a r t ( a n d e x p e r i e n c e ) w i l l d e t e r mi n e , a n d i n f o r m, t h e n a t u r e o f w h a t a r t

i s a n d t h u s t h e e t h i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t i s t i c

e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s w o u l d s e e m t o su p p o r t t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t s o f

a r t t h a t h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) i n t h e s e c o n d

c h a p t e r . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s w i d e s p r e a d l a c k o f p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f

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a r t f o r m s . A l l e n ( 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 7 ) a s s e r t s t h a t t h e v i s u a l l i t e r a c y o f t h e

a v e r a g e a d u l t h a s r e g r e s s e d t o t h a t o f a t w o y e a r o l d , w h i l e A r n h e i m

( 1 9 8 6 , p . 2 5 6 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t m a n y p e o p l e a r e h a n d i c a p p e d b y t h e s a d

s t a t e o f a r t e d u c a t i o n w h i c h p r e v e n t s t h e a v e r a g e c i t i z e n f r o m

d e v e l o p i n g t h e i r n a t u r a l g i f t s f o r a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

p e r h a p s b e c a u s e a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e h a s , g e n e r a l l y , b e e n s e e n a s f o r

c h i l d r e n , t h e m e n t a l l y i l l a n d t h e h a n d i c a p p e d , t h e r e i s n o t a n

a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d p e r c e p t u a l r i g o u r t h a t i s o f t e n

i n v o l v e d i n a r t m a k i n g , n o r t h e s t o i c s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e n e e d e d t o s u s t a i n

t h e c o n t i n u a l d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s o f f a l l i n g s h o r t i n a n a b i l i t y t o

a d e q u a t e l y r e n d e r w h a t i s ` s e e n ' a n d d e s i r e d t o b e e x p r e s s e d . A s

B e c k e r ( 1 9 9 4 , p . x i i i ) f u r t h e r p o i n t s o u t ;

A r t r e f u s e s t o b e e a s y . B u t a s i t p o s i t s t h e o f t e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e o f w h a t e x i s t s a r o u n d u s , i t a p p e a r s l e s s a n d l e s s f a m i l i a r t o t h o s e u n t r a i n e d t o r e a d t h e c o m p l e x i t y t h e y i n f a c t l i v e .

However , I be l i eve tha t i f a r t works were seen in t e rms o f ev idence o f a

pe r son ' s s t rugg le t o hea l and to l i ve - a s t he i r ab i l i t y t o s t r i ve fo r a v i t a l

and mean ing fu l cohe rence be tween the i r i nne r wor ld and the Othe r - a r t

p rog rams in hea l th ca re s e t t i ngs migh t be r ega rded ve ry d i f f e ren t ly .

Modern Wes te rn soc i e t i e s p r iv i l ege ve rba l modes o f exp res s ion - a f ac t

t ha t i n i t s e l f i s a cause fo r much su f f e r ing in hea l th ca re s e t t i ngs where

the capac i ty fo r ve rba l a r t i cu l a t ion i s compromised by seve ra l f ac to r s

a l r eady desc r ibed - t he e f f ec t s o f med ica t ions , f ea r , anx ie ty ,

power l e s sness , l ack o f s e l f - e s t eem and so on . The re i s a d i s t i nc t ion to

be d rawn , however , be tween a ve rba l exchange o f ` f ac t s ' and l i s t en ing

and speak ing an o ra l na r r a t ive a s I have men t ioned ea r l i e r i n t h i s

chap te r . We need to r ec l a im an ab i l i t y t o l i s t en and speak a s be f i t t i ng

ou r i den t i t y a s works o f a r t i n t he p rocess o f c r ea t ion . The re fo re , i t

128

cou ld be s a i d w i t h M e r l e a u - P o n t y ( i n C r o w t h e r 1 9 9 3 , p . 1 1 4 ) t h a t t h e

` m u t e n e s s ' o f p a i n t i n g s i s a p o s i t i v e v i r t u e . I t i s a b l e t o r e t u r n u s t o

o u r p r i m o r d i a l h i s t o r i c i t y w i t h a ` f u l l i n n o c e n c e ' t h a t w r i t i n g - w i t h

i t s p r o f f e r i n g o f i d e a s , o p i n i o n s , a n d a d v i c e - c a n n o t p r o v i d e . T h e

a b i l i t y t o l i s t e n t o ( a n d l e a r n f r o m ) t h e s i l e n t m u t e n e s s o f a n a r t

w o r k m a y b r i n g a b o u t s o m e r a d i c a l c h a n g e s , n o t o n l y i n h e a l t h c a r e ,

b u t , a s S a c k s ( 1 9 9 5 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d , i n t h e v e r y w a y i n w h i c h h e a l t h

a n d d i s e a s e i s c o n c e i v e d .

T h i s e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e

h a s d e s c r i b e d h o w a n a r t w o r k ( a n d o u r e x p e r i e n c e o f a n a r t w o r k ) i n

a s e n s e , m a k e s v i s i b l e o u r i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s w i t h t h e O t h e r . A n a r t

w o r k i s a g r a p h i c e x a m p l e o f t h e a b s t r a c t n o t i o n t h a t m y i d e n t i t y , m y

S e l f , m y m o d e o f b e i n g , c a n o n l y b e d e s c r i b e d i n r e l a t i o n t o a n O t h e r

o r t o O t h e r n e s s . F u r t h e r , i t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e c o m m u n a l

c a n v a s e s c r e a t e d i n s o m e h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s m a k e v i s i b l e t h e

e s s e n t i a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h t h e c o m m u n a l

- a n d m i g h t s u g g e s t s o m e n e w p e r s p e c t i v e s o n w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a n

a r t i s t - a n d a P e r s o n .

T h r o u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r t h e n o t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e h a s d o m i n a t e d t h e

d i s c u s s i o n s . I m p l i c i t i n t h e n o t i o n o f f l o u r i s h i n g a r e n o t i o n s o f

g r o w t h , d e v e l o p m e n t a n d r e c r e a t i o n . O n e o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h

P e r s o n s g r o w , d e v e l o p , h e a l a n d f l o u r i s h i s b y a n d t h r o u g h t h e i r

e x p e r i e n c e s . T h u s , a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e h a s l e d

t o a n a p p r e c i a t i o n t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f ` o r d i n a r y ' e x p e r i e n c e h a s s i m i l a r

f u n c t i o n s a n d q u a l i t i e s a s a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e - a n e x p e r i e n c e o f a

w o r k o f a r t - t h e y e n a b l e u s t o ` s e e ' d i f f e r e n t l y . A g a i n t h e

129

i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e h a s l e d t o a f u r t h e r

a r e a t h a t r e q u i r e s e x p l o r a t i o n - t h e n o t i o n o f t h e a e s t h e t i c .

I t m a y s e e m t h a t e x p e r i e n c e , a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e a n d a e s t h e t i c s a r e a

l o n g w a y f r o m t h e p r e s s i n g q u e s t i o n s o f t h e e t h i c s o f a r t a n d h e a l t h

c a r e p r a c t i c e . H o w e v e r , a s N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s p o s i t e d , i t w i l l b e

f r o m a c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n , c h e c k i n g , w e i g h i n g a n d r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e s e

v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e , c o l o u r s a n d t e x t u r e s

o f t h e G o o d , e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s w i l l e m e r g e . T h e n i t m a y b e

p o s s i b l e t o h a v e a s o u n d f o u n d a t i o n f o r a n a p p r a i s a l a n d c r i t i q u e o f

h e a l t h c a r e p o l i c i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s , o f w h i c h a r t a c t i v i t i e s f o r m a p a r t -

o r o u g h t f o r m a p a r t . T o p u t i t i n a n o t h e r w a y , h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e s

a r e c h a l l e n g e d b y a n a r t i s t i c g a z e a s w e l l a s a m e d i c a l o n e . B r o d y

( 1 9 9 2 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t i t m i g h t b e t h r o u g h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

a r t i s t i c d i m e n s i o n s o f P e r s o n s - a n d t h e i r a r t - t h a t t h e s t e r i l i t y a n d

d e s t r u c t i v e n a t u r e o f s o m e h e a l t h c a r e e n v i r o n m e n t s a n d h e a l t h c a r e

p r a c t i c e s c a n b e s e e n m o r e s t a r k l y a n d c l e a r l y . C o n v e r s e l y , i t c o u l d

b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o m p l e x l a n d s c a p e o f e x p e r i e n c e

c a n l e a d t o a r i c h e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e v i t a l l i n k s b e t w e e n m e d i c i n e ,

a r t , h e a l t h a n d h e a l i n g .

130

C H A P T E R 5

M E D I C I N E , A R T , H E A L T H A N D H E A L I N G .

I k n o w n o w t h a t p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w o u l d m a k e s e n s e f o r m e o n l y i f I w e r e r e a l l y s e r i o u s a b o u t t h e s t r a n g e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n o l o n g e r w r i t i n g , w h i c h d u r i n g t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f M a l t e I o f t e n d a n g l e d i n f r o n t o f m y n o s e a s a k i n d o f r e l i e f . T h e n o n e m i g h t l e t o n e ' s d e v i l s b e e x o r c i s e d , s i n c e i n d a i l y l i f e t h e y a r e t r u l y d i s t u r b i n g a n d p a i n f u l . A n d i f i t h a p p e n e d t h a t t h e a n g e l s l e f t t o o , o n e w o u l d h a v e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s a s a f u r t h e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n a n d t e l l o n e s e l f t h a t i n t h e n e w p r o f e s s i o n ( w h i c h ? ) t h e r e w o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e n o u s e f o r t h e m .

R a i n e r M a r i a R i l k e . 1 9 8 7 , p . 3 1 2 .

T h i s i s t h e p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g : t h e e s c a p e f r o m e m o t i o n a l f r a g m e n t a t i o n t o t h e c r e a t i v e a c t o f w h o l e n e s s .

D a v i d A l d r i d g e a n d o t h e r s ` W o r k i n g t o g e t h e r ' 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 7 .

B u t t h e e n e r g y a n d e n t h u s i a s m f o r p h y s i c a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n m a y o b s c u r e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l o s s i s n o t j u s t a p h y s i c a l o n e , i t m a y p r e v e n t u s f r o m s e e i n g o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s , m a y b e m o r e i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n s i n t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f p e o p l e w i t h b o d i l y l o s s e s . S u c h e m p i r i c a l r i g o u r h i d e s t h e f a c t t h a t a p e r s o n i s a s u b j e c t , n o t a n o b j e c t , a n d t h a t g e n u i n e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n m a y b e i m p o s s i b l e w i t h i n a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t i n g a n d m a y b e b e y o n d t h e a m b i t o f m e d i c i n e . . . . A n d t h e r e a l c o n c e r n o f t h e p a r a l y s e d p e r s o n . . . i s n o t t h a t h e o r s h e w i l l d i e b u t t h a t t h e y m a y h a v e t o l i v e .

W e n d y S e y m o u r . B o d i l y A l t e r a t i o n s 1 9 8 9 , p p . 6 4 - 6 5 .

I f e e l b e t t e r n o w .

A n a d v e r t i s e m e n t f o r a h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n y .

T h e l o c a t i n g o f t h e s i c k w i t h i n h o s p i t a l s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s i s a

M o d e r n n o t i o n a n d t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l t r a c e s o m e o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l

b e g i n n i n g s o f t h a t p r a c t i c e . T h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r h a s e x a m i n e d t h e

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e w e l l - b e i n g

a n d f l o u r i s h i n g o f p e r s o n s . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l s e e k a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f h o w t h o s e v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s a r e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e l o c u s o f a n

i l l n e s s e x p e r i e n c e e s p e c i a l l y a s t h e y a r e s t r u c t u r e d w i t h i n h e a l t h

c a r e s e t t i n g s s u c h a s h o s p i t a l s , h o s p i c e s , n u r s i n g h o m e s a n d s o

131

f o r t h . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a r t a n d t h a t s p e c i f i c h u m a n

e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h w e c a l l t h e i l l n e s s e x p e r i e n c e h a s l a r g e l y b e e n

a r t i c u l a t e d b y t h e t r a d i t i o n o f a r t t h e r a p y . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l t h u s

b e g i n w i t h a c r i t i c a l r e v i e w o f t h e v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s t o a r t

t h e r a p y . W h i l e i t c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h

c a r e s e t t i n g s h a s b e e n e n a b l e d b y t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a r t t h e r a p y ,

t h e v i e w o f a r t a n d i l l n e s s t h a t a r t t h e r a p y a d v o c a t e s n e e d s t o b e

c r i t i c a l l y e x a m i n e d a n d i t s l i m i t a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d . I w i l l t h e n a r g u e

t h a t w e n e e d t o m o v e b e y o n d a n i d e a o f a r t a s a r t t h e r a p y t o a v i e w

w h i c h h o n o u r s t h e v a l i d i t y o f ` a r t a s a r t ' i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s .

A n O v e r v i e w o f A r t T h e r a p y .

A r t t h e r a p y , o r t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s a s t h e y a r e k n o w n i n

A m e r i c a , a r e p r o l i f e r a t i n g a n d g r o w i n g a t a g r e a t ( a n d s o m e w o u l d

s a y a n a l a r m i n g ) r a t e . T h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n a n d g r o w t h c a n b e

a t t r i b u t e d t o s e v e r a l f a c t o r s . F i r s t l y , t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l p e r c e p t i o n

t h a t ` a r t i s a g o o d t h i n g ' - i t i s a ` m e a n s o f e x p r e s s i o n a n d

c o m m u n i c a t i o n ' . F r o m t h i s p o s i t i o n i t a p p e a r s a l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n

t h a t i f a r t i s a d d e d t o a p r o c e s s o f t h e r a p y t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g ` a r t

t h e r a p y ' w i l l b e a g o o d o r b e t t e r t h i n g a s w e l l . S e c o n d l y , a n d

s t e m m i n g i n p a r t f r o m t h e f i r s t p e r c e p t i o n , t h e r e i s a g r o w i n g

a w a r e n e s s t h a t s o m e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s o f h e a l t h c a r e a r e

i m p o v e r i s h e d , i n m a n y r e s p e c t s , a n d i f a r t t h e r a p y i s e m p l o y e d s o m e

` m o r e c r e a t i v e a n d h o l i s t i c ' f o r m s o f t r e a t m e n t m i g h t b e p o s s i b l e .

T h i r d l y , a n d i r o n i c a l l y , t h e g r o w t h o f t h e a r t s t h e r a p i e s h a s b e e n

a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e M o d e r n s e p a r a t i o n o f a r t f r o m t h e l i v e s o f o r d i n a r y

p e o p l e . A s d r a m a t h e r a p i s t J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 ) r e m a r k s ` i f d r a m a

a n d t h e a t r e w e r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f o u r l i v e s t h e r e w o u l d b e l e s s

132

n e e d f o r d r a m a t h e r a p i s t s ' . I c e r t a i n l y w o u l d n o t d i s a g r e e w i t h t h e

p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a r t i s a m o d e o f e x p r e s s i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

H o w e v e r , w h a t i s o f c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e ( a n d i s o f t e n l e f t o u t o f

a c c o u n t ) a r e t h e r e a s o n s w h y p e o p l e h a v e t h e o n t o l o g i c a l a n d m o r a l

n e e d s t o e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s - a n d w h y e x p r e s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s b y

w a y o f a r t m a k i n g h a s s u c h e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y

b e n e f i t . I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e q u e s t i o n ` W h a t i s t h e o n t o l o g i c a l a n d

e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f ` c r e a t i v i t y ' a n d ` a r t m a k i n g ' ? i s o n e t h a t i s

r a r e l y , i f e v e r , a s k e d . S i m i l a r l y , w h i l e t h e r e i s m u c h d i s c u s s i o n

c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e a n d f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n s o f a r t t h e r a p y , t h e n e e d

f o r a r t a s a t h e r a p y w a s n e v e r q u e s t i o n e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e

r e v i e w e d . T h e s e o m i s s i o n s a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f o u r t e c h n i c a l c u l t u r e

w h e r e t h e m a i n q u e s t i o n i s ` H o w d o w e d o s o m e t h i n g ? ' n o t ` S h o u l d

w e d o s o m e t h i n g ? ' ( s e e G i l k e y 1 9 8 4 ) .

T h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s i n c l u d e n o t o n l y v i s u a l a r t s t h e r a p y b u t

a l s o p o e t r y t h e r a p y , m u s i c t h e r a p y , d a n c e t h e r a p y , d r a m a t h e r a p y ,

b i b l i o t h e r a p y ( w r i t i n g ) a n d , l a t t e r l y , p s y c h o d r a m a . T h e s a m e

g r o w t h a n d p r o l i f e r a t i o n a p p e a r s t o p r e v a i l i n E u r o p e a n d B r i t a i n ,

a n d h a s a l r e a d y b e g u n i n A u s t r a l i a . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a r e n o w a r t

t h e r a p y d e g r e e s a v a i l a b l e a t s e v e r a l A u s t r a l i a n u n i v e r s i t i e s - E d i t h

C o w a n U n i v e r s i t y i n P e r t h b e i n g o n e o f t h e f i r s t t o o f f e r p o s t -

g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g i n t h i s a r e a .

O r i g i n s o f A r t T h e r a p y .

A r t t h e r a p y a s a s e p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e a n d l a t e r a s a p r o f e s s i o n , b e g a n

i n t h e U S A i n t h e 1 9 4 0 s ( s e e D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 ) . I t h a d i t s i n i t i a l r o o t s

133

i n a n u m b e r o f a l l i e d d i s c i p l i n e s - n a m e l y a r t e d u c a t i o n , p s y c h o l o g y

a n d p s y c h i a t r y , w i t h t h e m a i n i n f l u e n c e c o m i n g f r o m t h e

p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a d i t i o n s b e g u n b y J u n g a n d F r e u d . I n t h e U n i t e d

K i n g d o m a r t t h e r a p y d e v e l o p e d l a r g e l y f r o m a r t e d u c a t i o n a n d i t s

g r e a t e s t s t i m u l u s c a m e w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e W e l f a r e S t a t e a n d t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l H e a l t h S e r v i c e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e

e a r l i e s t u s e s o f a r t i n t h e r a p y w e r e w i t h p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s , a n d

t h e s e w o u l d h a v e b e e n f r o m t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y . A r t T h e r a p y

r e c e i v e d i t s g r e a t e s t i m p e t u s w h e n , i n U S A , ` p s y c h o a n a l y s t s

d i s c o v e r e d a r t ' . W h a t n o t i o n o f a r t w a s d i s c o v e r e d h a d c r i t i c a l

s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r s h a p i n g t h e m o d e l s o f a r t t h e r a p y t h a t e m e r g e d

f r o m t h i s d i s c o v e r y . A r g u a b l y t h e t w o m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l

p s y c h o a n a l y s t s o f m o d e r n t i m e s a r e F r e u d a n d J u n g . B o t h F r e u d

a n d J u n g d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e ` s e c o n d a r y p r o c e s s e s ' ( v e r b a l ,

r a t i o n a l , a n d a n a l y t i c m o d e s o f t h o u g h t ) a n d t h e ` p r i m a r y p r o c e s s e s '

( i m a g i n a t i v e , s y m b o l i c , n o n - v e r b a l , n o n - d i s c u r s i v e m o d e s ) ( s e e

D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e s e t w o p s y c h o a n a l y t i c g i a n t s d i f f e r e d

s h a r p l y i n h o w t h e s e p r o c e s s e s w e r e t o b e v i e w e d . F r e u d , f o r

e x a m p l e , t e n d e d t o a s s o c i a t e t h e ` p r i m a r y s o u r c e s ' ( a t l e a s t a s t h e y

m a n i f e s t e d t h e m s e l v e s i n a d u l t s ) w i t h r e g r e s s i o n , n e u r o s i s , a n d i l l -

h e a l t h . H e w a s , t h e r e f o r e , n e v e r e n t i r e l y a b l e t o f r e e h i m s e l f f r o m

t h e v i e w t h a t a r t w a s o n t h e s i d e o f i l l n e s s - o r , a t b e s t , a n u n e a s y

d e f e n c e a g a i n s t i t ( F u l l e r i n D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 , p . x ) . T h u s F r e u d i s

r e p u t e d t o h a v e c o n s i d e r e d a r t i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s ` a s a s u b l i m e f o r m o f

p l a y i n g i n o n e ' s o w n e x c r e m e n t ' ( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 , p . 3 2 ) . A n a r t i s t ,

t h e n , w a s ;

a n i n t r o v e r t , n o t f a r r e m o v e d f r o m n e u r o s i s . H e d e s i r e s t o w i n h o n o u r , p o w e r , w e a l t h , f a me a n d t h e l o v e o f w o men ; b u t h e l a c k s t h e m e a n s f o r a c h i e v i n g t h e s e s a t i s f a c t i o n s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , l i k e a n y o t h e r u n s a t i s f i e d m a n , h e t u r n s a w a y f r o m r e a l i t y a n d t r a n s f e r s a l l h i s i n t e r e s t a n d h i s l i b i d o t o o , t o t h e w i s h f u l

134 c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h i s l i f e i n p h a n t a s y , w h e n c e t h e p a t h m i g h t l e a d t o n e u r o s i s ( i n W a l l e r 1 9 8 4 , p . 5 ) .

F r e u d ( a n d a F r e u d i a n a p p r o a c h ) w o u l d t e n d t o v i e w a r t i n t e r m s o f

a p a t h o l o g y a n d w o u l d s e e k t o d r a w p e o p l e a w a y f r o m t h e i r a r t

w o r k s t o e x p l o r e a n d e x p o s e t h e r e a l s o u r c e s o f c o n f l i c t s a n d

n e u r o s i s ( s e e R o b i n s o n 1 9 8 4 , p . 8 4 ) .

J u n g , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , d i v e r g e d s h a r p l y f r o m F r e u d i n h o w t h e

` p r i m a r y p r o c e s s e s ' w e r e t o b e v i e w e d . I n s t e a d o f d r a w i n g t h e

i n d i v i d u a l a w a y f r o m t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e i r d r e a m s ( a n d s o m e w o u l d

e x t e n d t h i s t o t h e a r t w o r k s p r o d u c e d ) J u n g b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e

c o n t e n t o f t h e s e d r e a m s h e l d i m p o r t a n t a n d s p e c i f i c r e l e v a n c e f o r

t h e i n d i v i d u a l - t h a t t h e y h a d t h e f u n c t i o n o f t e a c h i n g o r r e v e a l i n g

s o m e t h i n g o f i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e w e l l b e i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . I n

t h i s r e s p e c t t h e a r t w o r k ( o r d r e a m ) i s r e s p e c t e d a s a v i t a l r e s o u r c e

- a s a t e a c h e r ( R o b i n s o n 1 9 8 4 , p . 8 4 ) .

F r o m t h o s e b e g i n n i n g s i n t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a d i t i o n a n d w i t h i n

a r t e d u c a t i o n , t w o b r o a d , a n d s o m e w o u l d s a y p o l a r i z e d , a p p r o a c h e s

h a v e e m e r g e d ( H e s s e r i n F o u r i n a s h 1 9 9 3 , p . 6 9 ) . I t m a y , h o w e v e r , b e

m o r e h e l p f u l t o v i s u a l i z e a c o n t i n u u m w i t h t h o s e a r t t h e r a p i s t s w h o

s e e t h e m s e l v e s p r i m a r i l y a s p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s w h o u s e a r t a t t h e

` c l i n i c a l ' e n d , m o v i n g t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y a n d m i x t u r e o f a p p r o a c h e s

t o t h o s e w h o h a v e c h a l l e n g e d a t r a d i t i o n a l b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f

t h e r a p y a n d w h o s e e t h e m s e l v e s e s s e n t i a l l y a s a r t i s t s w h o u s e a r t

t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y , o r a r t i s t s w h o d o t h e r a p y - t h e ` a r t i s t i c ' e n d .

I n w h a t I h a v e t e r m e d t h e ` c l i n i c a l ' e n d o f t h e s p e c t r u m t h e p r o c e s s

o r a c t i v i t y o f t h e r a p y i s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e a r t w o r k p r o d u c e d .

135

I n t h i s c a s e t h e r o l e o f t h e t h e r a p i s t i s s e e n a s c r i t i c a l t o t h e

h e a l i n g p r o c e s s . A t t h e ` a r t i s t i c ' e n d , t h e a r t f o r m i s s e e n a s t h e

m o s t i m p o r t a n t , a n d t h e a r t f o r m a n d a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s o r a c t i v i t y i s

s e e n a s t h e v e h i c l e b y w h i c h h e a l i n g c a n t a k e p l a c e . T h e r e i s ,

h o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r a b l e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o p o s i t i o n s .

D i f f e r e n t A p p r o a c h e s t o A r t T h e r a p y .

T h e s e s e v e r a l a p p r o a c h e s t o a r t t h e r a p y d i f f e r i n h o w t h e y e a c h s e e

t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f a n a r t t h e r a p y , n a m e l y ;

1 . W h a t i s t h e n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n o f a r t ?

2 . H o w d o t h e y v i e w t h e a r t w o r k p r o d u c e d a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f

i t s c r e a t i o n ?

3 . H o w d o t h e y v i e w t h e p e r s o n a s ` c l i e n t ' o r ` p a t i e n t ' ? a n d

H o w d o t h e y v i e w t h e r o l e o f t h e t h e r a p i s t ?

A s w e h a v e s e e n F r e u d a n d a r t t h e r a p i s t s w h o p r a c t i c e a F r e u d i a n

p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h w o u l d f a l l w i t h i n t h e c l i n i c a l e n d o f t h e

s p e c t r u m i e . t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e r a p y a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e t h e r a p i s t a s

t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s . W h i l e B i r t c h n e l l , a B r i t i s h

p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t a n d a r t t h e r a p i s t , m a y n o t b e a s e x t r e m e a s F r e u d i n

h i s v i e w o f a r t , h e d o e s c a l l a g o o d d e a l o f a r t ` t h e h a r n e s s e d m e s s '

( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 , p . 3 2 ) ` a n a e s t h e t i c s t a t e m e n t t h a t i s a s f a r a s t h e

c r e a t o r i s p r e p a r e d t o g o i n m a k i n g e x p l i c i t h i s i n n e r c o n f l i c t s

' ( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 , p . 4 1 ) . I n t h i s c o n t e x t h e s e e s h i s r o l e o f

t h e r a p i s t , a n d p a r t o f t h e j o b o f a r t t h e r a p y , t o m o v e i n a n d

d i s e n t a n g l e t h e n e a t a n d e l e g a n t s t a t e m e n t o f t h e a e s t h e t i c c r e a t i o n ,

b r e a k d o w n t h e v e n e e r o f o r d e r l i n e s s a n d g e t b a c k t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g

t u r m o i l b e f o r e i t i s t i d i e d u p a n d m a d e a c c e p t a b l e ( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 ,

136

p . 3 7 ) . T h e a r t w o r k i s t h e f o c u s f o r t h e ` r e a l ' t h e r a p y w h i c h

i n v o l v e s t a l k i n g a b o u t a n d t a l k i n g t o t h e p i c t o r i a l c o n t e n t . T h e

t h e r a p y i s a c h i e v e d b y t h e e m o t i o n r e l e a s e d a n d t h e i n s i g h t g a i n e d b y

t a l k i n g ( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 , p . 4 1 ) . B i r t c h n e l l v i e w s t h e a r t c o m p o n e n t

a s v e r y m u c h s u b s i d i a r y t o t h e t h e r a p y o n e ( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 , p . 3 0 ) .

D a l l e y ( 1 9 8 4 , p . x i i ) a l e a d i n g B r i t i s h a r t t h e r a p i s t a n d

p s y c h o a n a l y s t , s h a r e s m a n y o f B i r t c h n e l l ' s v i e w s . D a l l e y a s s e r t s

t h a t ` a t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w o f a r t - a s a m e a n s o f p e r s o n a l e x p r e s s i o n

w i t h i t s m a i n a i m t h e c r e a t i o n o f a ` g o o d p a i n t i n g ' - i s v e r y

d i f f e r e n t t o t h e c o n c e p t o f a r t w h e n u s e d i n a t h e r a p e u t i c s e t t i n g ' . I

w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t D a l l e y i s r e s p o n d i n g t o a M o d e r n i s t v i e w o f a r t

n o t a t r a d i t i o n a l a r t a s d e s c r i b e d b y D i s s a n a y a k e i n c h a p t e r t w o .

D a l l e y d e f i n e s t h e r a p y ` a s t h e a i m o r d e s i r e t o b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e

i n h u m a n d i s o r d e r s ' ( 1 9 8 4 , p . x i i ) a n d q u o t e s p i o n e e r a r t t h e r a p i s t ,

N a m b u r g , i n p r o v i d i n g a d e f i n i t i o n o f a r t w h e n u s e d i n t h e r a p y ;

a r t i s a f o r m o f ` s y m b o l i c s p e e c h ' a n d ` n o n - v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ' . I t i s a w a y o f s t a t i n g m i x e d , p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d f e e l i n g s i n a n a t t e m p t t o b r i n g t h e m i n t o c l a r i t y a n d o r d e r ( i n D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 , p . x i i i ) .

F o r D a l l e y ( a n d p e r h a p s f o r m a n y w h o f o l l o w a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c

a p p r o a c h ) ` a r t h a s l i t t l e t h e r a p e u t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h o u t t h e

i n t e r v e n t i o n o r p r e s e n c e o f a t h e r a p i s t ' ( 1 9 8 4 , p . x i x ) . T h e a r t

a c t i v i t i e s c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t i n t h a t t h e y a r e

a c t i v e l y a n d p h y s i c a l l y e n g a g i n g a n d a n i n d i v i d u a l m a y e x p e r i e n c e

a c a t h a r t i c r e a c t i o n w h i c h c a n e r o d e d e f e n c e s a n d b a r r i e r s a n d t h u s

a l l o w p o w e r f u l e m o t i o n s t o b e e x p r e s s e d , b u t t h e a r t f o r m , i n

D a l l e y ' s v i e w , i s e s s e n t i a l l y r e g a r d e d a s a ` t h e r a p e u t i c t o o l ' . I t

p r o v i d e s a f o c u s f o r d i s c u s s i o n , a n a l y s i s a n d s e l f e v a l u a t i o n . T h u s

a p e r s o n c a n b e h e l p e d t o g a i n i n s i g h t , b o t h i n t e l l e c t u a l l y a n d

137

e m o t i o n a l l y , b y c o n n e c t i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p i c t u r e t o h i s o r h e r

l i f e s i t u a t i o n ( D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 , p . x i v ) . T h i s n o t i o n o f a t h e r a p e u t i c a c t

m i g h t b e s e e n a s i n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t t o t h a t e s p o u s e d b y F o u c a u l t -

w h e r e t h e f u n c t i o n o f a t h e r a p e u t i c a c t i s t o b r i n g a b o u t a c h a n g e i n

t h e ( n o r m a l i z i n g ) s t r u c t u r e , t o g i v e t h e l i f e o f t h e p a t i e n t t h e

s t a b i l i t y a n d u n i q u e n e s s o f a w o r k o f a r t ( F o u c a u l t i n A l d r i d g e

1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 9 5 ) . I w o u l d a d o p t t h e v i e w o f F o u c a u l t .

I n t h e m i d d l e , a n d o f t e n I w o u l d s u g g e s t , w i t h a f o o t p l a n t e d f i r m l y

a t b o t h e n d s o f t h e c o n t i n u u m , i s M c N i f f , a n A m e r i c a n a r t i s t a n d a r t

t h e r a p i s t , w h o h a s b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t

o f v a r i o u s a r t t h e r a p y t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s i n U S A , E u r o p e a n d I s r a e l .

M c N i f f h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s c o n s i s t e n t l y a l i g n i n g h i m s e l f w i t h t h e

` a n t i ' p o s i t i o n - a n t i - E s t a b l i s h m e n t , a n t i - p s y c h o l o g y , a n t i - F r e u d a n d

s o f o r t h ( K a p i t a n 1 9 9 3 , p . 4 3 6 ) . I n c o n t r a s t w i t h s o m e o f t h e F r e u d i a n

a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e a r t w o r k a s t y p i f i e d b y B i r t c h n e l l , M c N i f f b e l i e v e s

t h a t t h e i m a g e p r o d u c e d ` s h o u l d b e e x t e n d e d t h e s a m e c o u r t e s y t h a t

w o u l d b e g i v e n a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' w h i c h h e l p s p r e v e n t t h e ` r u d e n e s s ' o f

d i a g n o s t i c i a n s w h o a p p r o a c h a r t w o r k s a s t h o u g h t h e y a r e d i r e c t

p r i n t o u t s r e v e a l i n g t h e m i n d o f t h e a r t i s t . T h i s i s l i k e n e d t o

h a v i n g a m a n e n t e r t h e r o o m a n d w i t h o u t g r e e t i n g h i m p r o c e e d t o

d i a g n o s e a n d i n t e r p r e t h i m - h i s r e d j u m p e r m u s t m e a n h e i s a n g r y a n d

t h o s e w i d e e y e s s p e a k o f p a r a n o i a a n d s o o n ( M c N i f f 1 9 9 3 . p p . 6 , 7 ) .

I n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h i s , M c N i f f ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 5 ) c o n c u r s w i t h A r n h e i m

( 1 9 8 6 , p . 5 5 ) i n s a y i n g t h e e s s e n c e o f e n g a g e m e n t ( w i t h t h e i m a g e ) i s

n o t w h a t w e d o t o t h e i m a g e b u t w h a t i t d o e s f o r u s . T h u s ` t h e b a s i s

o f t h e r a p y i s a n " i m a g i n a l d i a l o g u e " ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 8 ) w i t h t h e i m a g e - a n

a n i m a t e d t h i n g t h a t i s c a p a b l e o f o f f e r i n g s u p p o r t a n d g u i d a n c e .

138

T h e i n t i m a t e f u n c t i o n o f t a l k i n g a n d d i a l o g u e h e l p s u s a c c e s s a n d

b e c o m e m o r e a w a r e o f w h a t t h e i m a g e i s s a y i n g v i s u a l l y ' ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 7 ) .

T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i v e t h e r a p e u t i c e n g a g e m e n t o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e

p r i m a r y l a n g u a g e o f t h e i m a g e , t h e b o d y a n d p h y s i c a l e n a c t m e n t .

A n a l y s i s a n d d i s c u s s i o n , a s w e l l a s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a r e o f t e n

e s s e n t i a l p a r t s o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c e x p e r i e n c e e s p e c i a l l y w i t h i n t h e

c o n t e x t o f s h a r i n g a n d c l a r i f y i n g f e e l i n g s a n d t h o u g h t s - t h u s ,

r e a s o n a n d a r t a r e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 1 0 ) .

M c N i f f ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 4 ) p l a c e s t h e u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e o n t h e p e r s o n a l

a r t i s t i c q u a l i t i e s o f t h e t h e r a p i s t . T h i s n o t o n l y e n a b l e s t h e m t o

m a s t e r t h e s k i l l s o f r e l a t i n g t o i m a g e s , b u t t h e ` o n - g o i n g f i r s t h a n d

e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h p e r s o n a l a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n w i l l a l s o k e e p t h e

c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s c l o s e t o t h e p r i m a r y p r o c e s s o f t h e

p r o f e s s i o n ' . M c N i f f ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 1 0 ) f u r t h e r w a r n s t h a t ` w h e n w e l e a v e

t h e l a n g u a g e o f a r t , w e d i s t a n c e o u r s e l v e s f r o m f e e l i n g a n d s e p a r a t e

o u r s o u l s f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e . T h e p r i n c i p a l v a l u e o f t h e c r e a t i v e

a r t s t h e r a p i e s i s t h e i r a b i l i t y t o b r i n g a b o u t d i s c i p l i n e d a n d

p r o f o u n d t h e r a p e u t i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a t t h e p r i m a r y l e v e l o f t h e

s e n s e s ' .

` A r t i s t i c ' M o d e l s o f A r t T h e r a p y .

T h e ` a r t i s t i c ' m o d e l o f a r t t h e r a p y a n d t h e a p p r e c i a t i o n t h a t i t i s

t h e a r t f o r m i t s e l f w h i c h i s t h e v e h i c l e o f h e a l i n g d i r e c t l y

c h a l l e n g e s t h e ` c l i n i c a l ' m o d e l w e h a v e e x a m i n e d t h u s f a r . A n

e x p o n e n t o f t h e ` a r t i s t i c ' m o d e l i s J e n n i n g s , a p r o f e s s i o n a l t h e a t r e

p e r s o n a n d d r a m a t h e r a p i s t w h o h a s b e e n i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e

139

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e o f d r a m a t h e r a p y i n G r e a t

B r i t a i n f o r 3 0 y e a r s . F o r J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 ) ` t h e o v e r r i d i n g

p r i n c i p l e b e h i n d a r t s t h e r a p i e s g e n e r a l l y , a n d d r a m a t h e r a p y i n

p a r t i c u l a r , i s t h a t t h e a r t s h a v e a l w a y s e x i s t e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h o s e

t h i n g s w h i c h o t h e r w i s e c a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d ' . T h e r e f o r e , ` t h e a r t s

t h e r a p i e s f u n c t i o n i n t h e s a m e w a y f o r t h o s e p e o p l e w h e r e t h e a r t s

i n t h e m s e l v e s d o n o t p r o v i d e e n o u g h p o s s i b i l i t y f o r c h a n g e ' .

A l i e n a t i o n f r o m t h e A r t s - i t s e f f e c t s .

J e n n i n g s ' s l a s t c o m m e n t r a i s e s a g a i n t h e a l i e n a t i o n f r o m p e r s o n a l

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a r t m a k i n g t h a t a p p l i e s t o s o m a n y p e o p l e i n m o d e r n

W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f a

p r o p e r c a r e o f t h e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e w i t h i n

h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s ) m a n y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t f o r m t h e c l i e n t

g r o u p s o f a r t t h e r a p y a r e s o m e o f t h e m o s t d i s a d v a n t a g e d i n o u r

s o c i e t y . T h e y a r e t h o s e w h o a r e r e s i d e n t s o f p s y c h i a t r i c

i n s t i t u t i o n s o f v a r i o u s t y p e s , h o m e l e s s a n d d i s t u r b e d c h i l d r e n ,

a d o l e s c e n t s a n d a d u l t s , t h e c h r o n i c a l l y i l l , a n d t h e d y i n g . I n

W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s t h a t h a v e r e g a r d e d t h e a r t s a s e i t h e r a l u x u r y o r

t h e p r o v i n c e o f a n e l i t e g r o u p o f e x p e r t s ( a r t i s t s a n d a r t c o l l e c t o r s )

t h e s e p e o p l e s u f f e r a f u r t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e a n d a l i e n a t i o n f r o m

e x p o s u r e t o a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a l l a r t f o r m s . W h i l e i t i s g e n e r a l l y

a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t a r t i s ` a g o o d t h i n g ' - s o m e , l i k e F u l l e r , w o u l d

s a y e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e h e a l t h a n d h a p p i n e s s o f p e r s o n s - i t i s

b e c o m i n g h a r d e r a n d h a r d e r f o r o r d i n a r y m e n a n d w o m e n t o h a v e

a c c e s s t o i t ( F u l l e r i n D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 , p . x ) .

140

T o r e t u r n t o J e n n i n g ' s a p p r o a c h t o d r a m a t h e r a p y . D r a m a t h e r a p y i s

a m e a n s o f b r i n g i n g a b o u t c h a n g e i n i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s t h r o u g h

d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a t r e a r t . A l t h o u g h t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f d r a m a

a r e t h e m e a n s w h e r e b y t h i s h a p p e n s , i t i s t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e t h e a t r e

a r t f o r m t h a t i s a t t h e c o r e o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e ( e m p h a s i s i n o r i g i n a l )

( J e n n i n g s 1 9 9 2 , p . 5 ) . J e n n i n g s p o i n t s o u t t h e e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n ` w a t c h i n g ' a r t a n d p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a r t . T h i s , I b e l i e v e , i s

t h e c r i t i c a l e l e m e n t w h i c h m i g h t t h r o w l i g h t o n t h e m o d e r n m a l a i s e s

a n d a r i d i t y o f m a n y p e o p l e ' s l i v e s w h e n t h e y a r e d e n i e d a c c e s s t o ,

o r a r e a l i e n a t e d f r o m p e r s o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e a r t s . I t i s n o t

a l w a y s e n o u g h , J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 2 5 3 ) a s s e r t s , f o r u s t o r e a d o r

w a t c h a p l a y o r m y t h - h o w e v e r m u c h t h i s m i g h t e n g a g e o r a b s o r b

u s .

I t i s t h e a c t u a l e m b o d i m e n t o f t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d s c e n a r i o w h i c h i n v o l v e s u s p h y s i c a l l y i n a l l o u r s e n s e s a n d t h o u g h t s . I t a l l o w s b o t h a n i n n e r e x p a n s i o n a n d a n o u t e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n . I t a l l o w s p a r t i c i p a n t s . . . t o s t e p i n t o d r a m a t i c r e a l i t y f r o m e v e r y d a y r e a l i t y , t h r o u g h w h i c h c r e a t i o n a n d r e -c r e a t i o n i s e n g e n d e r e d i n n e w a n d u n e x p e c t e d w a y s .

T h e r e a r e m a n y a s p e c t s o f J e n n i n g s ' a p p r o a c h t o a r t i n t h e r a p y

w h i c h r e c a l l s o m e o f t h e b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y a s p e c t s o f a r t m a k i n g a s

d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r t w o a n d w h i c h m i g h t b e r e g a r d e d a s c r u c i a l f o r

a n e t h i c a l a n d ` h e a l t h y ' a p p r o a c h t o a r t t h e r a p y . F i r s t l y , t h e r e i s a

g r e a t r e s p e c t f o r t h e p o w e r o f t h e a r t f o r m a n d t h i s n e c e s s i t a t e s a

r i g o r o u s p r e p a r a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l f o r t h e ` j o u r n e y '

o r ` q u e s t ' f o r h e a l i n g a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . P r e p a r a t i o n i n v o l v e s

t r a i n i n g t h e b o d y - ` t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n '

b y m e a n s o f s u c h t e c h n i q u e s a s d r a m a g a m e s . D r a m a g a m e s t e a c h

c o n t r o l , d e v e l o p t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d t e a c h u s a b o u t r i t u a l - t h e

r e p e t i t i o n t h a t p r o v i d e s s e c u r i t y a n d t h e k n o w n b a s e , a n d a l s o t h e

r i s k ( J e n n i n g s 1 9 9 2 , p . 6 ) .

141

O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f J e n n i n g s ' a p p r o a c h ( a n d w h i c h

I f o u n d l a c k i n g i n m o s t o f t h e a r t t h e r a p y l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d ) i s

t h a t a n i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e , ` t r a n s c e n d e n t ' a n d ` u n i v e r s a l ' d i m e n s i o n i s

a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e i n t i m a c y o f p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e . P e o p l e a r e

e n c o u r a g e d t o m o v e a w a y f r o m t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e i n t o a l a r g e r

h o r i z o n b e c a u s e ;

i f h u m a n b e i n g s o n l y e x p l o r e w i t h i n t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e a n d w i t h t h e i r l i m i t e d a n d d a m a g e d s e l v e s , t h e r e i s a l w a y s a b o u n d a r y o n h o w f a r w e c a n j o u r n e y ( J e n n i n g s 1 9 9 2 . p . 5 ) .

T h e r e f o r e , i n u s i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , S h a k e s p e a r i a n p l a y s s u c h a s K i n g

L e a r , ` t h e c h a r a c t e r s t h e m s e l v e s g i v e u s i n s i g h t i n t o h u m a n b e i n g s

t h e m s e l v e s , a n d t h e v e r y l a n g u a g e t r a n s p o r t s u s i n t o r e a l m s o f

c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t w e o t h e r w i s e w o u l d n o t a c h i e v e ' . ` T h e s e p l a y s

p r o v i d e a m e a n s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g h u m a n b e i n g s a n d t h e i r w o r l d s

a n d t h e w o r l d i n a w a y t h a t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h a n y o t h e r

m e a n s ' ( J e n n i n g s 1 9 9 2 , p p . 1 6 , 1 7 ) .

J e n n i n g s ' a p p r o a c h a l s o p r o v i d e s a c r i t i q u e o f s o m e f o r m s o f t h e r a p y

a n d h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e ( p e r h a p s l i k e B i r t c h n e l l ' s ) t h a t b e l i e v e i t

i s a l w a y s r i g h t a n d n e c e s s a r y t o p r o b e d e e p l y i n t o p e o p l e ' s w o u n d s .

` O r e a s o n n o t t h e n e e d ' q u o t e s J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 2 ) a n d s a y s t h a t ,

` w h i l e t h e p l a y o f K i n g L e a r a l l o w s u s t o s p e a k w h a t i s o t h e r w i s e

u n s p e a k a b l e - i t a l s o a l l o w s u s t o s t r u g g l e w i t h o u r i n a b i l i t y t o

s p e a k a s o t h e r s w i s h a n d b e i n g f o r c e d t o s a y s o m e t h i n g ' - a r e c u r r i n g

t h e m e i n h e r w o r k w i t h c l i e n t s . I t i s e x a c t l y t h i s b e i n g f o r c e d t o

s p e a k - a n d t h e e m p h a s i s o n v e r b a l m o d e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n - t h a t

C a s s e l l ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 4 2 ) a s s e r t s m a y b e a c a u s e o f h a r m t o o u r ` s e c r e t

S e l f ' - t h a t s e c r e t p a r t o f o u r s e l v e s t h a t w e s h o u l d n o t b e f o r c e d t o

r e v e a l t o a n y o n e . S u c h d e m a n d s f o r d i s c l o s u r e c a n t h e r e f o r e b e a

142

c a u s e o f f u r t h e r s u f f e r i n g n o t a n a l l e v i a t i o n o f i t . T h e s e s e v e r a l

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e i n f o r c e m y b e l i e f t h a t a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s

s h o u l d b e n o n - c l i n i c a l - t h a t t h e s a f e s p a c e w h i c h a r t p r o v i d e s

( w h e r e p r o c e s s e s , r e s p o n s e s a n d i n s i g h t s a r e n o t g o i n g t o b e w r i t t e n

i n c l i n i c a l n o t e s , a n a l y z e d , i n t e r p r e t e d a n d d i s s e c t e d ) - o u g h t t o b e

p r e s e r v e d a s s a c r o s a n c t .

O f t h e h e a l i n g p o t e n t i a l o f d r a m a , J e n n i n g s 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 6 ) s a y s ;

h e a l i n g o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e d r a m a a n d i n d e e d d r a m a t h e r a p y ( w h e n ) o u r c l i e n t s , w e h o p e , m a y s a f e l y g o t o t h e e d g e o r c o m e b a c k f r o m i t . L e a r , l i k e a l l o f u s , f i n d s s o m e h e a l i n g f o r h i s w o u n d s a f t e r h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e i n n e r a n d o u t e r s t o r m .

` G o i n g t o t h e e d g e ' a n d s a f e l y r e t u r n i n g i s , I b e l i e v e , p r e c i s e l y t h e

a e s t h e t i c s e n s e o f ` f i t t i n g ' o r a n i n t e g r i t y o f d i s t a n c e t h a t i s

i m p l i c i t i n a t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t m a k i n g . T h i s a e s t h e t i c

s e n s e ( w h i c h a s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m c h a p t e r t w o e n c o m p a s s e s a l l

a s p e c t s o f o u r S e l v e s - c o g n i t i v e , e m o t i o n a l , p h y s i c a l a n d s e n s u a l ) i s

a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a n o t i o n o f a r t w h i c h d e r i v e s i t s t r u t h f r o m i t s

c a p a c i t y t o e n a b l e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , r e d e m p t i o n a n d , t h u s , h e a l i n g . I t

i s t h e n d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a c a t h a r t i c e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h i s w i t h o u t

f o r m , s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e a n d o f t e n w i t h o u t a d u e r e c o g n i t i o n o f , a n d

r e s p e c t f o r , t h e O t h e r . F u r t h e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e

e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e i n

c h a p t e r f o u r , w h a t i s r e q u i r e d i n a n e x p e r i e n c e i s b o t h a p r o p e r

d e g r e e o f i m m e r s i o n a n d ` l e t t i n g g o ' a n d a r e c o g n i t i o n o f w h e r e

` t h e e d g e ' i s . H o w e v e r , a s D e w e y ( i n M c D e r m o t t 1 9 7 3 , p . x x i x ) h a s

s o c h i l l i n g l y p o i n t e d o u t , i f t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e h a r m o n y o f t h e

o r g a n i s m a n d i t s s u r r o u n d s b e c o m e s t o o w i d e a n d i s u n a b l e t o b e

c l o s e d - t h e o r g a n i s m d i e s . T h i s ` b e i n g o u t o f h a r m o n y ' ( w i t h o n e s

s e n s e o f S e l f a n d w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r ) i s p r e c i s e l y w h a t i s

143

i n v o l v e d w i t h a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g . W h a t b e c o m e s

o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s - a n d i n a r t a n d i n

a r t t h e r a p y - i s a f u r t h e r r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t ` t h e e d g e ' i s n e v e r f i x e d ,

n o r s t a t i c . A s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s i s n e v e r t h e s a m e f o r t w o

p e o p l e , n e i t h e r w i l l ` t h e e d g e ' b e t h e s a m e f o r a l l o n a l l o c c a s i o n s .

I t i s ` t h i s g a p ' - a n d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n o f i t , w h i c h i s m a d e v i s i b l e i n

a r t . W h a t i s t h e n a l s o m a d e v i s i b l e i s t h e d e a t h o f t h e p e r s o n -

a n d / o r t h e i r s t r u g g l e t o s u r v i v e . S u f f e r i n g c o u l d t h e n a l s o b e

d e s c r i b e d a s t h e a p p r e h e n s i o n o f ` t h e g a p ' b e t w e e n ` l i f e ' a n d ` d e a t h '

w h i c h m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d t o r e f e r t o a m e t a p h o r i c a l a n d

m e t a p h y s i c a l d e a t h - t h e d e a t h o f t h o s e i n t a n g i b l e p a r t s o f

o u r S e l v e s - o u r s p i r i t , o u r c h a r a c t e r , o u r m i n d , o u r h o p e a n d o u r

w i l l t o f l o u r i s h . I n t h i s c a s e t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y m a y c o n t i n u e t o

l i v e , b u t t h e p e r s o n a s S e l f h a s d i e d . I t c a n a l s o l e a d t o p h y s i c a l

d e a t h - o f t h e t y p e w h i c h i s o f t e n e n c o u n t e r e d i n h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s w h e r e a p e r s o n c a n ` s h r i v e l u p ' a n d d i e a l m o s t b e f o r e o u r

e y e s . T h e i r d e a t h i s n o t a l w a y s t o b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i r d i s e a s e o r

d y s f u n c t i o n b u t t o t h e f a c t t h a t ` t h e g a p ' h a s b e c o m e t o o w i d e a n d

t h e h o p e f o r a d i f f e r e n t r e a l i t y h a s b e c o m e u n i m a g i n a b l e . I t m i g h t

b e t h a t t h e t i m e f o r t h e i r d e a t h h a s c o m e . I t m i g h t a l s o b e t h a t

t h e i r S e l f a s P e r s o n h a s b e e n d e s t r o y e d b y a n u n r e d e e m e d s u f f e r i n g .

F o r t h e s e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s i t i s c r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e

t h e r a p i s t ( a n d a n a r t i s t w h o w i s h e s t o w o r k i n h e a l t h c a r e ) h a s a n

i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a r t f o r m , p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s p o w e r , a n d t h e

t e c h n i q u e s o f i t s p r o d u c t i o n .

A t t h e a r t i s t i c e n d o f t h e s p e c t r u m i s a n o t h e r v e r y d i f f e r e n t v i e w o f

t h e r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n o f a r t t h e r a p y a n d o n e w h i c h c h a l l e n g e s n o t

144

o n l y t h e b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l s o f a r t t h e r a p y e x a m i n e d s o f a r i n t h i s

c h a p t e r , b u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c h a l l e n g e s h o w t h e n o t i o n o f ` t h e c l i n i c a l '

a n d ` c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e ' m i g h t b e c o n c e i v e d . T h i s i s t h e r o l e o f a r t

t h e r a p y i n t h e c a r e o f t h o s e w i t h c h r o n i c , o r t e r m i n a l i l l n e s s e s o r

w h o m a y b e d y i n g . T h i s a p p r o a c h c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s s i m i l a r t o

t h a t w h i c h i s e x t e n d e d t o t h o s e ` l o n g t e r m i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d ' a n d

t h o s e w i t h c h r o n i c c o n d i t i o n s w h o ` h a v e n o r e a l i s t i c h o p e o f

" g e t t i n g b e t t e r " ' ( D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 , p . x v i i ) . T h e s e v a r i o u s g r o u p s o f

p e o p l e n o t o n l y c h a l l e n g e t h e g r o u n d s a n d c l a i m s o f t h e r a p y , b u t

t h e y c h a l l e n g e h o w a c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t y ` c a r e s f o r t h e s i c k , t h e p o o r

a n d t h o s e w e l a b e l a s d e v i a n t ' ( A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 8 ) .

T h i s a p p r o a c h t o a r t t h e r a p y i s e x e m p l i f i e d b y A l d r i d g e ( 1 9 9 3 a ) i n

a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s i n t h e

t r e a t m e n t o f p e o p l e l i v i n g w i t h A I D S . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , h e s a y s ,

t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s o f f e r a n e x i s t e n t i a l f o r m o f t h e r a p y t h a t a c c e p t s p a t i e n t s a s t h e y a r e a n d a f f o r d s t h e m o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e y w i s h t o b e . T h e y a r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a e s t h e t i c n o t i o n s o f f o r m a n d e x i s t e n t i a l n o t i o n s o f p o t e n t i a l r a t h e r t h a n c o n c e p t s o f p a t h o l o g y ( p . 2 8 5 ) .

A l d r i d g e b e l i e v e s a l o n g w i t h F o u c a u l t ( a s q u o t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g

o f t h i s r e s e a r c h ) t h a t t h e a r t s e x i s t t o e n a b l e p e o p l e t o m a k e t h e i r

l i v e s a w o r k o f a r t - t o c r e a t e l i v e s t h a t a r e f u l l o f h o p e , m e a n i n g ,

p u r p o s e a n d v a l u e . H o p e , a s w e h a v e n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , i s d e f i n e d

a s ` a n i n n e r p o w e r d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e e n r i c h m e n t o f " b e i n g " '

( H e r t h i n A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 9 ) . F u r t h e r , ` t h e m e a n i n g o f l i f e '

( i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r a s a c o n t i n u i n g t h r e a d t h r o u g h o u t

t h i s r e s e a r c h ) ` i s d i s c o v e r e d i n c o n c r e t e a c t s o f c r e a t i o n t h a t a r e

a e s t h e t i c .

W h a t i s i n t e r n a l i s e x p r e s s e d e x t e r n a l l y a s f o r m . B y b r i n g i n g o n t o p a p e r , o r f o r m i n g a s s o u n d , b y m o v i n g t h e b o d y i n a

145 s e q u e n c e o f d a n c e , o r c r e a t i n g a n a r r a t i v e w i t h d r a m a t i c i n t e n t , t h e i n d i v i d u a l t a k e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a n s w e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s l i f e a s k s . T o d o s o m e t h i n g p o s i t i v e , t o c r e a t e , t o p l a y , i s t o t a k e l i f e s e r i o u s l y . T h e c r e a t i v e a c t i s t o t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o l i v e ' ( A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 9 ) .

R a r e i n t h e a r t t h e r a p y l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d , a n d r a r e i n m y

e x p e r i e n c e o f h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s , i s A l d r i d g e ' s a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f

t h e r o l e o f s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s i n c r e a t i n g t h e ` p r o b l e m s ' t h a t

v a r i o u s c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s a i m t o t r e a t o r c u r e . A s A l d r i d g e

( 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 6 ) p o i n t s o u t t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e b o d y o f w o r k o n

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l i f e e v e n t s a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r .

S t i g m a t i z a t i o n , i s o l a t i o n , l o n e l i n e s s , p o v e r t y , c h r o n i c i l l n e s s ,

h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n , p r e j u d i c e - a l l t h e s e m a n y f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e n o t

o n l y t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y a n d i t s p h y s i c a l i n t e g r i t y ( e g . t h e i m m u n e

s y s t e m ) b u t s e r i o u s l y i m p a c t o n t h e s o c i a l , s p i r i t u a l a n d

p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e g r i t y o f t h e p e r s o n . P a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h d i s e a s e s

l i k e A I D S ( a n d o n e m i g h t a l s o i n c l u d e n o t i o n s o f m e n t a l i l l n e s s a n d

s o f o r t h ) t h e s e f a c t o r s c h a l l e n g e t h e m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e a r t

t h e r a p i s t t o o f f e r u n c o n d i t i o n a l c a r e a n d t o e n t e r i n t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p

o f c r e a t i v e i n t i m a c y w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h a t i s b o t h n o n - j u d g m e n t a l

a n d e q u a l ( A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p p . 2 8 7 , 2 8 9 ) . T h i s a p p r o a c h r a d i c a l l y

c h a l l e n g e s m a n y n o t i o n s o f a t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c a l c a r e , n o t t h e l e a s t

o f w h i c h i s t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s h o u l d

r e m a i n a t a s a f e , c l i n i c a l d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e i r c l i e n t s ( s e e C a s s e l l

1 9 9 1 ) .

W i t h i n a n a r t i s t i c a p p r o a c h t o a r t t h e r a p y t h e r e i s m o r e l i k e l y t o b e

a g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s o n t h e a e s t h e t i c s o f t h e a r t w o r k p r o d u c e d a n d

i t s i n t e g r i t y . A r n h e i m ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 2 5 6 ) a s s e r t s t h a t ( a r t t h e r a p i s t s )

m u s t n o t b e l i e v e t h a t , f o r t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e s , t h e q u a l i t y o f

t h e p a t i e n t ' s w o r k i s i r r e l e v a n t . ` A e s t h e t i c q u a l i t y i s n o t h i n g b u t

146

t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h a r t i s t i c s t a t e m e n t s ( o f r e a l i t y ) r e a c h t h e i r g o a l .

N o t o n l y s h o u l d t h e c o n c e p t i o n b e g e n u i n e , i t s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t

t o t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e r e a l i z a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h r o u g h i t s c l a r i t y a n d

s t r e n g t h t h e w o r k o f a r t e x e r t s i t s p o w e r , e v e n o n i t s o w n m a k e r ' .

W h i l e t h i s e m p h a s i s o n t h e a r t w o r k s p r o d u c e d w o u l d s e e m t o b e a

d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e s t a t u s o f a n a r t w o r k p r o d u c e d i n a ` t r a d i t i o n a l '

m a n n e r a s e x p o u n d e d b y D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) e a r l i e r , I b e l i e v e t h a t

t h e y s h a r e a s i m i l a r v i e w o f t h e a e s t h e t i c d e m a n d i e . a r t m a k i n g i n

t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h ` m a k i n g s o m e t h i n g

s p e c i a l ' a n d i m p l i c i t i n t h i s i s t h e f a c t t h a t g r e a t c a r e i s t a k e n i n i t s

p r o d u c t i o n - i t i s m a d e t o t h e b e s t o f o n e ' s a b i l i t y .

T h e H e a l t h C a r e S e t t i n g i n M o d e r n M e d i c i n e .

T h e v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s t o a r t t h e r a p y j u s t r e v i e w e d a r e a l l l o c a t e d

w i t h i n a ` c l i n i c a l ' p a r a d i g m a n d o f t e n c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n t r a d i t i o n a l

h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . H o w e v e r , t h e d o m i n a n c e o f h o s p i t a l b a s e d c a r e

i s i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g c h a l l e n g e d b y m o v e m e n t s t o w a r d s a ` p r i m a r y

h e a l t h c a r e ' d e l i v e r e d w i t h i n ` n o n - c l i n i c a l ' c o m m u n i t y s t r u c t u r e s .

T h e s e m o v e m e n t s c o u l d p e r h a p s b e r e g a r d e d a s p a r t o f a g r o w i n g

a p p r e c i a t i o n t h a t t h e M o d e r n r a t i o n a l i s t a p p r o a c h t o m e d i c i n e ,

h e a l t h c a r e , a r t , p h i l o s o p h y a n d s o o n m i g h t b e t t e r b e r e g a r d e d a s a

` m i x e d b l e s s i n g ' f o r h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t r a t h e r t h a n t h e u n q u a l i f i e d

a d v a n c e i t h a s p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h o u g h t t o b e ( s e e T o u l m i n

1 9 9 0 , p . 1 7 4 ) .

T h e B i r t h o f H e a l t h C a r e S e t t i n g s .

147

T h e b i r t h o f h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a n d t h e p r a c t i c e o f l o c a t i n g t h e

s i c k i n s e p a r a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e h o s p i t a l s a n d n u r s i n g

h o m e s , i s o f c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t o r i g i n ( s e e F o u c a u l t 1 9 7 3 ) . T h e

p r a c t i c e c a n , i n m a n y r e s p e c t s , b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e m e d i c a l

e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e M o d e r n p r a c t i c e o f l o c a t i n g a r t w i t h i n g a l l e r i e s

a n d m u s e u m s - s e p a r a t e f r o m ` o r d i n a r y ' c o m m u n i t y l i f e a n d w h e r e

t h e d i s p l a y a n d r e s p o n s e s t o w o r k s i s n o r m a l i z e d t o c o n f o r m w i t h a

p r e v a i l i n g i d e o l o g y o f a n a r t e s t a b l i s h m e n t . T h e l o c a t i o n o f a r t

w o r k s w i t h i n s u c h d e f i n e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d s p a c e s r e i n f o r c e s a

M o d e r n p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a r t h a s n o s i g n i f i c a n t r e l e v a n c e f o r t h e

f l o u r i s h i n g a n d w e l l b e i n g o f ` o r d i n a r y ' p e o p l e - i t i s r a t h e r t o b e

c o n c e i v e d a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h ` o b j e c t s ' , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f w h i c h i s

t h e p r o v i n c e o f a n e l i t e g r o u p o f e x p e r t s c a l l e d A r t i s t s .

I n t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s t h e h e a l t h a n d w e l l b e i n g o f m e m b e r s o f t h e

g r o u p w o u l d h a v e b e e n m a t t e r s o f s e r i o u s c o n c e r n i e . t h e y w e n t t o

t h e e n d s o f t h e g r o u p - i t s s u r v i v a l - a n d , a s s u c h , a s D i s s a n a y a k e

( 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 2 ) h a s a r g u e d , w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f g r o u p

c e r e m o n i e s a n d r i t u a l s i n v o l v i n g a r t m a k i n g f o r m s a n d p r a c t i c e s .

M o d e r n m e d i c i n e a s w e k n o w i t o n l y b e g a n i n t h e l a s t c e n t u r y .

P r i o r t o t h a t t h e c a r e o f t h e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g w a s s h a r e d b y

v a r i o u s p e o p l e w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y - f a m i l y m e m b e r s , m i d w i v e s ,

p r i e s t s a n d t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y e q u i v a l e n t o f c h e m i s t s o r

a p o t h e c a r i e s .

148

T h e O r i g i n s o f H e a l t h C a r e I n s t i t u t i o n s .

T h e m o d e r n c o n c e p t o f l o c a t i n g t h e s i c k w i t h i n i n s t i t u t i o n s

d e v e l o p e d f r o m t h e m e d i e v a l n o t i o n o f a h o s p i c e - a l t h o u g h

h o s p i c e s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d a s p e r f o r m i n g v e r y d i f f e r e n t

f u n c t i o n s w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t y . H o s p i c e s i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l

u n d e r s t a n d i n g w e r e p l a c e s o f r e f u g e - p l a c e s w h e r e p i l g r i m s ,

t r a v e l l e r s a n d t h e s i c k c o u l d l o d g e a n d r e c e i v e c a r e - m o s t

f r e q u e n t l y f r o m m e m b e r s o f r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s . F o u c a u l t ( 1 9 7 3 )

h a s t r a c e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m h o s p i c e t o h o s p i t a l ( e s p e c i a l l y i n

F r a n c e a n d E u r o p e ) - a t r a n s i t i o n t h a t s a w h o s p i t a l s b e c o m e , n o t

p l a c e s o f r e f u g e , b u t a l s o p l a c e s o f r e g u l a t i o n a n d i n c a r c e r a t i o n i e .

t h e y s e r v e d p o l i t i c a l e n d s . A t v a r i o u s t i m e s i t w a s f e l t b y s o c i a l

a n d p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s t h a t t h e u n e m p l o y e d ( o r l a z y ) w e r e n o t v i s u a l

a s s e t s i n a w e l l o r d e r e d s o c i e t y a n d w e r e i n c a r c e r a t e d w i t h i n

h o s p i t a l s ( h o s p i c e s a s t h e y w e r e k n o w n i n F r a n c e ) w h e r e t h e y

` w o r k e d ' . W h e n t h e i r ` w o r k ' t h r e a t e n e d t h e e c o n o m i c v i a b i l i t y o f

` o r d i n a r y ' b u s i n e s s , t h e ` i n m a t e s ' w e r e r e l e a s e d - a n d e v e n t u a l l y

a n o t h e r g r o u p t o o k t h e i r p l a c e w i t h i n t h e h o s p i c e s y s t e m - t h e

d e r a n g e d , a n d d i s o r d e r l y w h o c a m e t o b e d e s c r i b e d a s t h e m e n t a l l y

i l l ( s e e F o u c a u l t 1 9 7 3 ) .

M e d i c i n e ' s i n c r e a s i n g r e l i a n c e o n t e c h n o l o g y h a s a l s o d e t e r m i n e d t h a t

t h e e f f i c i e n t c a r e a n d t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s i c k e n t a i l s t h a t t h e p e o p l e

a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e m a c h i n e s - t o t h e c e n t e r s w h e r e t h e e x p e r t s a n d

t e c h n o l o g i c a l a p p a r a t u s a r e l o c a t e d . I n s o m e w a y s t h i s i s a n

i n e v i t a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e m a n y d i a g n o s t i c a n d t r e a t m e n t a d v a n c e s

o f m o d e r n m e d i c i n e . W h i l e s u c h a d v a n c e s h a v e m a n y b e n e f i c i a l

e f f e c t s , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e s i c k i n t o

149

h e a l t h c a r e i n s t i t u t i o n s r e i n f o r c e s t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e s i c k a r e

n o t p a r t o f a g e n e r a l c o m m u n i t y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; i t r e i n f o r c e s t h e

s e n s e o f a l i e n a t i o n , a b a n d o n m e n t a n d i s o l a t i o n o f t e n a s i g n i f i c a n t

f a c t o r i n t h e s u f f e r i n g w h i c h c a n a c c o m p a n y a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s ;

a n d i t f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e s a n e n c o u r a g e d p e r c e p t i o n t h a t h e a l t h c a r e

p r o f e s s i o n a l s ( l i k e s o m e p e r c e p t i o n s o f a r t ) ` c a n d o i t a l l f o r u s ' -

t h a t w e c a n a b r o g a t e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o u r f l o u r i s h i n g t o

` s o m e t h i n g o t h e r ' o r s o m e o n e e l s e ( s e e M u r d o c h 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 9 ) .

T h e o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y i n m o d e r n s y s t e m s o f h e a l t h

c a r e h a s r e s u l t e d i n p e r s o n s w h o a r e s i c k b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d a s p a s s i v e

r e c i p i e n t s o f a c a r e p r o v i d e d b y m e d i c a l e x p e r t s . T h e s i c k , b e i n g

d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l t o d e f i n e t h e i r

` w e l l n e s s ' , a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a s h a v i n g a c a p a c i t y t o b e

v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i n g m e m b e r s o f s o c i e t y . T h i s h a s r e s u l t e d i n s o m e

p a r a d o x i c a l a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s w o r k e v i d e n t , f o r e x a m p l e , i n m o d e r n

p s y c h i a t r y . W a r n e r ( 1 9 9 4 ) , i n a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e c o v e r y r a t e s

f r o m s c h i z o p h r e n i a i n p e r s o n s f r o m F i r s t W o r l d c o u n t r i e s a n d T h i r d

w o r l d c o u n t r i e s , f o u n d t h a t t h e r e c o v e r y r a t e w a s h i g h e r i n T h i r d

w o r l d s o c i e t i e s . T h e h i g h e r r e c o v e r y r a t e w a s , i n p a r t , a t t r i b u t e d

t o t h e r o l e o f w o r k i n a i d i n g r e c o v e r y i e . i n m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l

s o c i e t i e s p e o p l e r e c o v e r i n g f r o m s c h i z o p h r e n i a w e r e i n c l u d e d i n s o m e

f o r m o f me a n i n g f u l w o r k w i t h i n t h e c o mmu n i t y - t h u s f o s t e r i n g a s e n s e

o f b e l o n g i n g , o f p e r s o n a l v a l u e a n d s e l f e s t e e m . I n F i r s t W o r l d

s o c i e t i e s , h o w e v e r , i t w a s m o r e l i k e l y t h a t s u c h p e o p l e w o u l d b e

e x c l u d e d f r o m ` n o r m a l ' s o c i e t y i e . t h e y w o u l d s u f f e r s t i g m a t i z a t i o n

a n d l a c k o f s e l f c o n f i d e n c e a n d e s t e e m ; t h e y w o u l d r e c e i v e s o c i a l

s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s b u t w o u l d n o t h a v e t h e s e n s e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d

150

v a l u e d e r i v e d f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n w o r k ( s e e W a r n e r 1 9 9 4 ) . W h i l e

m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e p u r p o r t s t o a i m t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f r e t u r n i n g

p e o p l e t o a s e n s e o f n o r m a l c y ( h o w e v e r t h a t i s d e f i n e d ) , o f w h i c h

n o r m a l c y w o r k m i g h t p l a y a n i n t e g r a l p a r t , a p a r a d o x i c a l t e n s i o n

w o u l d s e e m t o o b t a i n i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n a

p s y c h i a t r y u n i t w h i c h h a d a n e x t e n s i v e a r t p r o g r a m o p e r a t i n g , i f

p a t i e n t s w e r e s e e n t o b e e n j o y i n g t h e m s e l v e s b y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e

` a r t i s t i c w o r k ' o f t h e U n i t - h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s w o u l d o f t e n

i n t e r p r e t s u c h p a r t i c i p a t i o n a s i n d i c a t i n g e i t h e r a ) t h e p e o p l e w e r e

n o t s i c k i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e i e . t h e y w e r e h y p o c h o n d r i a c s o r

m a l i n g e r e r s - a n d t h e y w o u l d b e d i s c h a r g e d o r b ) i f t h e y h a d b e e n

s i c k , t h e c a p a c i t y t o f e e l p l e a s u r e a n d b e c o m e a b s o r b e d i n c r e a t i v e

a c t i v i t y m e a n t t h a t t h e y w e r e n o l o n g e r s i c k - a n d t h e y , t o o , w o u l d

b e d i s c h a r g e d .

I a m n o t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t e i t h e r o p t i o n m a y n o t h a v e s o m e e l e m e n t s

o f t r u t h , b u t t h e m e d i c a l a t t i t u d e m i g h t a l s o r e f l e c t a d e e p l y

i n g r a i n e d n o t i o n o f w h a t r o l e a s i c k p e r s o n s h o u l d p l a y - t h a t t h e y

s h o u l d b e w e a k , p o w e r l e s s , d e p e n d e n t , i s o l a t e d a n d s h o u l d b e

r e c i p i e n t s n o t c o n t r i b u t o r s o r g i v e r s . I t i s t h e s e v e r y f a c t o r s ,

h o w e v e r , t h a t h a r m a p e r s o n ' s s e n s e o f t h e m S e l v e s a s a u t o n o m o u s

s o c i a l b e i n g s w i t h c e r t a i n r i g h t s , r o l e s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d

w h i c h , t h e r e f o r e , c a n b e a c a u s e o f f u r t h e r s u f f e r i n g ( s e e C a s s e l l

1 9 9 1 ; A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a ) . T h i s m o d e l o f s i c k p e r s o n i s , h o w e v e r ,

b e i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y c h a l l e n g e d b y v a r i o u s g r o u p s , n o t a b l y b y p e o p l e

l i v i n g w i t h A I D S a n d t h o s e l i v i n g w i t h a m e n t a l i l l n e s s .

151

T h e M o d e r n V i e w o f M e d i c i n e .

A c o n t e m p o r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e o f m e d i c i n e i s s h a p e d

b y t h e s a m e M o d e r n n o t i o n s o f o b j e c t i v e r a t i o n a l i t y t h a t h a d b e e n

d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r t h r e e a s a l s o a p p l y i n g t o s c i e n c e , p h i l o s o p h y

a n d t h e a r t s . I n f a c t , s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c e n t u r y , s c i e n c e

h a s b e e n t h e d o m i n a n t p a r a d i g m o f m e d i c i n e - a n d t h e a l l i e d f i e l d s

o f n u r s i n g a n d p s y c h o l o g y . I n d e e d , m o s t a l l i e d h e a l t h f i e l d s t h a t

h a v e s o u g h t t h e s t a t u s o f ` a p r o f e s s i o n ' h a v e g e n e r a l l y r e s o r t e d t o

a m e d i c a l , s c i e n t i f i c m o d e l t o e n s u r e t h e i r a c c e p t a n c e w i t h i n t h e

d o m i n a n t b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f t h e m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n . T h e

s c i e n t i f i c w o r l d v i e w w h i c h h a s b e e n e x p l o r e d i n a p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r

i n v i t e s t h e b e l i e f t h a t a l l k n o w l e d g e i s o b t a i n a b l e b y m e a n s o f

o b j e c t i v e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s . T h u s , k n o w l e d g e , f o r

e x a m p l e , a b o u t t h e w o r k i n g s o f t h e b o d y c o u l d b e d i s c o v e r e d b y

d i s s e c t i o n , a n a l y s i s o f p a r t s a n d e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . W h i l e i t c a n n o t

b e d e n i e d t h a t s o m e o f t h e m a r v e l l o u s d i s c o v e r i e s o f m o d e r n

m e d i c i n e h a v e c o m e f r o m c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n a n d d i s s e c t i o n o f

v a r i o u s p a r t s , t h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a v a s t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n k n o w i n g

t h e m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e o f t h e h e a r t , f o r i n s t a n c e , a n d

u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e v a r i o u s o t h e r o r g a n s a n d

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f s u f f e r i n g t h a t a p e r s o n m a y

e x p e r i e n c e w h e n t h e i r h e a r t i s d i s e a s e d o r m a l f u n c t i o n i n g - a n d ,

t h e r e f o r e , w h a t c a r e a n d t r e a t m e n t t h e y p a r t i c u l a r l y a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y

r e q u i r e .

C a t e g o r i e s a n d D e f i n i t i o n s .

I n d i s c u s s i n g a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s , a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

h e a l t h , f l o u r i s h i n g a n d w e l l b e i n g , m u c h c o n f u s i o n r e s u l t s f r o m a

152

m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r d ` t h e r a p e u t i c ' a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

t h e n o t i o n o f ` t h e r a p y ' . F r o m t h e C o n c i s e O x f o r d D i c t i o n a r y o f

E n g l i s h E t y m o l o g y ( H o a d 1 9 8 6 , p . 4 9 0 ) I t a k e t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s ;

` t h e r a p e u t i c ' i s a s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t e r m a n d m e a n s t h e a r t o f

h e a l i n g , ` t h e r a p y ' i s a n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w o r d m e a n i n g m e d i c a l

t r e a t m e n t .

T h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s a w t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e M o d e r n S t a t e a n d

t h e ` c l i n i c a l g a z e ' d e s c r i b e d b y F o u c a u l t ( 1 9 7 3 ) w h i c h h a s a p o l i t i c a l

f u n c t i o n a s w e l l a s a ` m e d i c a l ' o n e . P o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l

o r g a n i s a t i o n s ( n o t a b l y m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s a n d l a w y e r s ) w e r e

a c c o r d e d t h e r i g h t s - o r t o o k t h o s e r i g h t s u p o n t h e m s e l v e s - t o

d e f i n e w h a t b e h a v i o u r w a s ` n o r m a l ' , w h a t s t a t e s w e r e t o b e c o n s i d e r e d

` h e a l t h y ' a n d t h e r e f o r e w h i c h p e r s o n s w e r e s i c k , a n d w h a t f o r m t h a t

s i c k n e s s s h o u l d t a k e . T h e ` b i o - m e d i c a l g a z e ' i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e

c o n t r o l l i n g g a z e o f t h e M o d e r n S t a t e a n d r e l i e s f o r i t s p o w e r o n

e m p t y i n g ` t h e O t h e r ' ( i n t h i s c a s e t h e s i c k p e r s o n ) o f a n y s e n s e o f

S e l f , o f p e r s o n a l f r e e d o m o r a u t o n o m y . I t c a n n o t b e s a i d , h o w e v e r ,

t h a t a l l o r g a n i s a t i o n a l i n i t i a t i v e s o f m o d e r n m e d i c i n e h a v e b e e n

u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y b a d . T h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f m e d i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s f o r

v a r i o u s d i s e a s e s a n d t h e i r s y mp t o ms h a s n o t o n l y mad e t h e t e a c h i n g o f

m e d i c i n e p o s s i b l e , b u t h a s a l s o m a d e p o s s i b l e t h e e x c h a n g e o f

i n f o r m a t i o n a n d k n o w l e d g e b o t h n a t i o n a l l y a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y ( s e e

C a s s e l l 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e i n h e r e n t d a n g e r i n t h e s y s t e m i z a t i o n a n d

c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f m e d i c a l k n o w l e d g e i s t h e s a m e a s h a s b e e n

i d e n t i f i e d a s c o n c e r n i n g p o e t r y a n d t h e a r t s i e . a r e l i a n c e o n

c e r t a i n m o d e s o f c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f t e n p r e v e n t s o t h e r w a y s o f s e e i n g

b e i n g p o s s i b l e . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , t h e b i o -

153

m e d i c a l m o d e l o f h e a l t h c a r e h a s l e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n w h e r e d i s e a s e

d i a g n o s i s , t r e a t m e n t a n d p r o g n o s i s c a n a l l b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h o u t

r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p e r s o n w h o i s s i c k .

M e d i c i n e - a n d t h e a l l i e d p r o f e s s i o n s o f n u r s i n g a n d s o o n - h a s

s o m e t i m e s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s a n ` a r t ' : t h e a r t o f m e d i c i n e . S o m e

m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s a r e s o m e w h a t s c e p t i c a l a b o u t a r e m e d y f o r t h e

m a l a i s e s o f m o d e r n m e d i c i n e ( t h e d i v o r c e o f t h e b o d y f r o m t h e S e l f

o f t h e P e r s o n ) l y i n g o n l y i n r e d e f i n i n g m e d i c i n e a s a n a r t ( s e e

C a s s e l l 1 9 9 1 ) . W h i l e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f h e a l t h c a r e

a s ` a n a r t ' m i g h t b e a l a u d a b l e a i m , h o w t h a t ` a r t ' i s c o n c e i v e d w i l l

b e o f c r u c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s

` a r t ' c a n b e r e g a r d e d i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s - a s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n

n e e d d e r i v i n g i t s t r u t h a n d v a l i d i t y f r o m b e i n g d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t h e

e n d o f h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g - o r i t c a n b e r e g a r d e d i n s t r u m e n t a l l y a s

a n o p t i o n a l e x t r a w i t h i n a b i o - m e d i c a l s y s t e m o f t r e a t m e n t a n d

c u r e .

T h e R o l e a n d S i g n i f i c a n c e o f A r t i n H e a l t h C a r e S e t t i n g s .

W h a t , t h e n , i s t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e ? W h a t

c a n a r t ` d o ' f o r p e o p l e w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g o r , w h o , l i k e t h e

m a n w i t h A I D S , m a y b e d y i n g ? A n e t h i c a l c a r e o f s i c k p e r s o n s

w o u l d r e q u i r e t h a t ` a t t e n t i o n b e p a i d ' t o t h e c h a n g e s t h a t h a v e b e e n

w r o u g h t i n a p e r s o n ' s l i f e a n d i n t h e i r c h a n g e d s e n s e o f w e l l - b e i n g

a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . E a c h p e r s o n e x p e r i e n c e s i l l h e a l t h i n t h e i r o w n

p a r t i c u l a r a n d u n i q u e w a y a n d t h e c h a n g e s w r o u g h t b y i l l n e s s w i l l

p r o d u c e c h a n g e s i n h o w t h e y p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s a s b e i n g i n h a r m o n y

w i t h t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r s u r r o u n d s . T h e s e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i o n s

154

w i l l c o l o u r t h e i r o w n u n i q u e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g .

F o r a s i c k p e r s o n t o r e c e i v e a n a p p r o p r i a t e ( a n d e t h i c a l ) c a r e i t

w o u l d s e e m n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a n d s c a p e o f t h e i r i l l n e s s

e x p e r i e n c e a n d s u f f e r i n g b e f o r e a t t e n t i o n c a n p r o p e r l y b e g i v e n t o

i t . T h e q u e s t i o n t o b e p o s e d a n d a n s w e r e d i s ` H o w c a n w e c o m e t o

k n o w t h e t e x t u r e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r l a n d s c a p e o f i l l n e s s a n d

s u f f e r i n g ? '

A r t h a s e v o l v e d , i n p a r t , t o a c c o u n t f o r ` t h e s p e c i a l ' - t h o s e

e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t a r e o u t s i d e t h e o r d i n a r y - t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h

a r e o f s u f f i c i e n t s e r i o u s n e s s a n d c o n c e r n t h a t t h e y a r e f e l t t o

t h r e a t e n s u r v i v a l . T h u s a r t c o u l d b e s a i d t o h a v e e v o l v e d t o g i v e

a c c o u n t o f t h o s e ` s p e c i a l ' e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h c a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d i n

t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e o r d i n a r y a n d t h e e v e r y d a y - t h a t d e m a n d e d a

f o r m a n d ` l a n g u a g e ' t h a t w a s c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y ` s p e c i a l ' a n d ` o u t s i d e '

t h e m u n d a n e . S o m e e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g a r e

l i k e w i s e s o ` s p e c i a l ' a n d ` s e r i o u s ' i n t h a t o u r c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e ,

w e l l - b e i n g a n d f l o u r i s h i n g i s t h r e a t e n e d - o u r i n t e g r i t y a s p e r s o n i s

t h r e a t e n e d - a n d l i k e w i s e d e m a n d a f o r m a n d a l a n g u a g e t h a t c a n

a d e q u a t e l y c o n v e y a n d e x p r e s s t h e i m p o r t o f t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s .

A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , t h e d e m a n d s o f a h e a l t h

c a r e s e t t i n g a s a t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n - i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

i l l n e s s i t s e l f - o f t e n r e n d e r v e r b a l m o d e s o f e x p r e s s i o n i n a d e q u a t e

a n d u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t f o r a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h

c a r e p r a c t i c e l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t ` m a k e s v i s i b l e ' o r g i v e s f o r m t o

t h o s e f e e l i n g s a n d e m o t i o n s w h i c h c a n n o t b e a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s e d

i n a n y o t h e r w a y . I n f a c t , a r t a l l o w s f o r , a n d d e r i v e s i t s s t r e n g t h ,

155

t r u t h a n d v i t a l i t y f r o m , f o r m s w h i c h i n v i t e , n o t d e n y , t h e

a m b i g u o u s , t h e t e n u o u s , t h e m y s t e r i o u s , t h e s a c r e d a n d t h e d e m o n i c .

T h e f o r m s o f a r t m a k e v i s i b l e i n t e g r a t i o n , h a r m o n y a n d a t o n e n e s s

w i t h s e l f a n d O t h e r - n o t a l w a y s i n a ` g l e e f u l ' w a y - b u t i n a w a y

w h i c h h o n o u r s t h e r e a l e x i g e n c i e s o f h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e a n d h u m a n

r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h a l w a y s h a v e a n e l e m e n t o f i n c o m p l e t e n e s s , a

q u a l i t y o f ` n o t y e t ' , o f f u l l n e s s b u t n o t a c o m p l e t e a n d f i n a l

f u l l n e s s .

A r t p r a c t i c e c o n t a i n s m a n y p a r a d o x e s . O n t h e o n e h a n d t h e s h e e r

c o n c e n t r a t i o n n e e d e d i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n a r t w o r k p r o v i d e s a s e n s e

o f s t a b i l i t y a n d i n t e g r a t i o n t h a t r e s i s t s a n d t r a n s f o r m s t h e c h a o s a n d

f r a g m e n t a t i o n t h a t s u r r o u n d m a n y i n t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d

h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h a t s a m e e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t

m a k i n g m a n i f e s t s t h e r e a l i t y t h a t h e a l i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i o n , m a s t e r y

a n d c o n t r o l i s o n l y ` f o r t h i s t i m e ' , t h i s m o m e n t . T h e n e x t t i m e w e

p a i n t i t w i l l b e a d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e . T h e ` u n c o m p r o m i s i n g l o g i c o f

a r t ' h a s b e e n r e v e a l e d i n t h e e x p e r i e n c e s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r t w o

w h e r e I a n d a w o m a n p a t i e n t ` h a d ' t o p a i n t c e r t a i n t h i n g s u n t i l t h e

i m p o r t o f a n e x p e r i e n c e h a d b e e n f i t t e d i n t o a p a t t e r n o f m e a n i n g

( s e e A r n h e i m 1 9 8 6 , p . 2 5 6 ) . A s A r n h e i m ( 1 9 8 6 ) f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e s t h e

l o g i c o f a r t , b o t h o f u s ` h a d ' t o s h a p e o u r a r t f o r m s t o c o n f o r m t o

s o m e ` i n n e r i n t e g r i t y ' r e g a r d l e s s o f w h a t o u r p e r s o n a l d e s i r e s o r

f e a r s m i g h t h a v e b e e n . I n t h i s s e n s e t h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g l o g i c o f

a r t w o u l d s e e m t o p a r a l l e l t h e i n t e g r a t i n g f o r c e o f h e a l i n g w h i c h

J u n g ( i n S t o r r 1 9 8 9 b ) d e s c r i b e s a s h a v i n g a f o r c e a n d d i r e c t i o n o f i t s

o w n .

156

A r t c a n m a k e m a n i f e s t t h a t w e a r e n o t s t a t i c i n o u r g r o w t h a n d

d e v e l o p m e n t b u t a r e i n a c o n t i n u a l s t a t e o f b e c o m i n g . I n e a c h

e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t m a k i n g , a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s w e c a n e x p e r i e n c e

s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d d e l i g h t , t h e r e i s a l w a y s a s e n s e t h a t t h e p a i n t i n g i s

n o t t h e l a s t o n e t o b e p a i n t e d . T h e n e x t o n e m a y g e t c l o s e r t o

c l o s i n g t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e r e a l i t y t h a t w e p e r c e i v e a n d t h e r e a l i t y

t h a t w e c a n r e n d e r i n p a i n t , c l o t h , s t o n e , s o u n d o r w o r d . E a c h

e x p e r i e n c e o f p a i n t i n g o r c r e a t i n g c a n c a r r y t h e s a m e s a t i s f a c t i o n ,

d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , h o p e a n d e x p e c t a t i o n . B y e n c o m p a s s i n g a n o t i o n o f

` a n o t h e r t i m e ' , ` a n o t h e r c h a n c e ' , ` a f u t u r e ' , t h e a c t o f c r e a t i o n c a n

a l l e v i a t e t h e s u f f e r i n g o c c a s i o n e d w h e n a p e r s o n ' s s e n s e o f f u t u r e

h a s b e e n h a r m e d .

T h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s h a s s e v e r a l

d i m e n s i o n s . F i r s t l y , a r t c a n g i v e f o r m t o t h e c o m p l e x t e x t u r e s o f a

p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g a n d t h e r e b y m a k e s

p o s s i b l e a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h c a r e w h i c h c a n t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e

u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e p e r s o n a n d t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e y e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r

l a c k o f w e l l - b e i n g . A r t c a n , t h e r e f o r e , m a k e v i s i b l e h o w a

p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n i s e n d e a v o u r i n g t o c o m p e n s a t e , t o r e s t o r e , o r t o

p r e s e r v e ( o r r e c r e a t e ) t h e i r i d e n t i t y a n d i n t e g r i t y a s a p e r s o n . A r t

c a n t h e n m a k e p l a i n w h a t a t t e n t i o n a n d c a r e t h e y n e e d - a n d w h a t

t h e y m a y n o t n e e d a n d w h a t , t h e r e f o r e , m a y i n c r e a s e t h e i r s u f f e r i n g

o r h e l p a l l e v i a t e i t .

S u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t r a d i c a l l y

c h a l l e n g e s t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s m u s t b e

c o n c e i v e d ` i n s t r u m e n t a l l y ' - a s a ` t h e r a p y ' , o r , a s ` a d i v e r s i o n -

157

s o m e t h i n g t o t a k e o u r m i n d s o f f t h i n g s ' . A d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n o f

a r t h a s e m e r g e d f r o m t h i s r e s e a r c h i e . t h a t a r t i s m o r e p r o p e r l y t o

b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d - a s e s s e n t i a l a s f o o d ,

s h e l t e r , f r i e n d s h i p , t h e b e l o n g i n g w i t h i n a n u r t u r i n g c o m m u n i t y , a s

a n e v o l u t i o n a r y a d a p t a t i o n w h i c h e n a b l e s t h e s u r v i v a l , f l o u r i s h i n g

a n d w e l l b e i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( a n d t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s ) t h r o u g h

p e r i o d s o f d a n g e r , a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y . T h a t i s , a r t i s t o b e

c o n c e i v e d a s h a v i n g a n e t h i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e

n e e d f o r a r t c o u l d a c c o r d i n g l y b e s a i d t o e s c a l a t e i n t i m e s o f c r i s i s

s u c h a s t h o s e o c c a s i o n e d b y i l l h e a l t h o r a c c i d e n t .

A r t e n c o m p a s s e s t h e n o t i o n o f a s p a c e w h i c h c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d i n

t w o w a y s - a s a m e a n s o f e n h a n c i n g a n d e n a b l i n g l i f e o r , a s

s i g n i f y i n g a n d m a n i f e s t i n g s u f f e r i n g a n d d e a t h . A g a i n , l i f e a n d

d e a t h c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d b o t h l i t e r a l l y a n d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y . T h u s ,

a r t c a n b e a s p a c e w h e r e i n h e a l i n g , w h o l e n e s s a n d l i b e r a t i o n c a n b e

e x p e r i e n c e d . O r , i t c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s d e s c r i b i n g a s t a t e w h e r e

t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e i n t e g r a l h a r m o n y o f t h e p e r s o n a n d i t s

s u r r o u n d s h a s b e c o m e t o o w i d e - i n w h i c h c a s e t h e p e r s o n s u f f e r s

a n d m a y d i e .

T h e n o t i o n o f a ` s p a c e ' o p e n i n g u p h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o o n m a n y

o c c a s i o n s d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n - t h e a u t h o r s o f A r t s

I n j e c t i o n ( 1 9 9 4 ) s p e a k o f a ` s p a c e ' o p e n i n g u p i n t h e u n e a s e o f a r t

c r e a t i n g a s e n s e o f ` n o t b e i n g a t h o m e ' i n m e d i c a l s e t t i n g s - a s p a c e

w h i c h m i g h t p r o v i d e f o r a r e v a l u a t i o n a n d r e a p p r a i s a l o f n o t i o n s o f

e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s a n d h o w t h e s e m i g h t i n f o r m h e a l t h c a r e

p r a c t i c e a n d a r t p r a c t i c e w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s .

158

I d o n o t u s e t h e t e r m ` h e a l t h ' o r ` h e a l i n g ' t o i n d i c a t e a n a b s e n c e o f

s i g n s a n d s y m p t o m s o f d i s e a s e , n o r t o i n d i c a t e a ` c u r e ' f o r d i s e a s e s

a n d d y s f u n c t i o n . I a d o p t t h e v i e w o f h e a l i n g a s o u t l i n e d b y

A l d r i d g e ( 1 9 9 3 a , p . 1 7 ) : ` t h e e s c a p e f r o m e m o t i o n a l f r a g m e n t a t i o n t o

t h e c r e a t i v e a c t o f w h o l e n e s s ' a n d o n e t h a t s e e s ` m e d i c i n e a s a

r e s t r i c t e d s e t o f p r a c t i c e s f r o m t h e r e p e r t o i r e o f o u r p o s s i b l e

h e a l i n g s t r a t e g i e s . . . w h a t w e a l s o n e e d a r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s g a i n e d

f r o m e x i s t e n t i a l p s y c h o l o g y a n d t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e m s e l v e s '

( A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 5 ) . I n a d o p t i n g t h e s e v i e w s I d o n o t d i s a g r e e

w i t h t h e n e e d f o r m e d i c a l s c i e n c e t o e x p a n d i t s a b i l i t y t o ` c u r e '

d i s e a s e a n d d y s f u n c t i o n - b u t w h a t n e e d s t o i n f o r m r e s e a r c h , p o l i c y

a n d p r a c t i c e i s t h e f a c t t h a t d i s e a s e s a n d i l l n e s s e s o c c u r i n

p a r t i c u l a r a n d u n i q u e P e r s o n s ( s e e C a s s e l l 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e r e f o r e , h e a l t h

c a r e - l i k e a r t - o u g h t p r o p e r l y b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s a n e t h i c a l

e n d e a v o u r i n f o r m e d b y t h e e n d o f f l o u r i s h i n g a n d b e c o m i n g h e a l e d -

o f w h i c h e n d e a v o u r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f s i g n s a n d s y m p t o m s o f d i s e a s e

f o r m s a n i m p o r t a n t - b u t n o t t h e o n l y - p a r t .

H e a l i n g a n d H e a l t h C a r e .

H e a l i n g i s a p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g w h o l e - p h y s i c a l l y a n d

p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y . . . ( a n d ) h e a l i n g t a k e s p l a c e e v e n a s t h e b o d y

w e a k e n s ( G r a h a m i n M a l c h i o d i 1 9 9 3 ) . O r a s A l d r i d g e ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 7 )

p o i n t s o u t ` i t i s o u r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t w h e n t h e d e e p e s t l o n g i n g s o f

t h e h u m a n s p i r i t c a n b e m a n i f e s t e d t h e n w e a r e h e a l e d . T h e r e f o r e ,

t h e t h e r a p e u t i c t a s k i s t o ;

c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f h o p e , a c c o m m o d a t i n g f e e l i n g s o f l o s s , i s o l a t i o n a n d a b a n d o n m e n t , u n d e r s t a n d i n g s u f f e r i n g , f o r g i v i n g o t h e r s , a c c e p t i n g d e p e n d e n c y w h i l e r e m a i n i n g i n d e p e n d e n t a n d m a k i n g s e n s e o f d y i n g ( A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 9 5 )

159

W h e n t h e c r i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n i s l o s t ( b e t w e e n h e a l i n g a n d c u r e ,

b e t w e e n t h e r a p y a n d t h e r a p e u t i c ) i t e n c o u r a g e s a C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m

w h i c h r e s u l t s i n t h e n e g l e c t o f p e r s o n s a s p a t i e n t f o r w h o m t h e

c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n i s n o t t h a t t h e y m i g h t d i e , b u t t h a t t h e y m a y h a v e

t o l i v e i n a w o r l d w h i c h h a s n o p l a c e f o r t h e m ( s e e S e y m o u r 1 9 8 9 ) .

T h e n o t i o n o f b e c o m i n g ( o r t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e g r a t i o n , o r

i n d i v i d u a t i o n ) h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s ( s e e

M a r i t a i n 1 9 7 2 ; A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a ; F r i e d a n 1 9 9 3 ) . I f o u r i n t e g r a t i o n a s

a p e r s o n , o u r i n d i v i d u a t i o n , o u r h e a l i n g i s a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s o f

` B e c o m i n g ' w h i c h i s n e v e r f u l l y c o m p l e t e , t h e n e e d f o r a r t - t h e

n u t r i e n t s t o n o u r i s h o u r i m a g i n a t i o n - m i g h t i n f a c t i n c r e a s e w i t h

a g e - n o t d e c r e a s e . T h i s w o u l d c h a l l e n g e s o m e c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n s

t h a t s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , o l d e r p e o p l e a n d t h e d y i n g a s n o t i n n e e d o f

g r o w t h a n d a s , i n f a c t , t h e l e a s t c r e a t i v e ( s e e A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a ;

B i n n s 1 9 9 4 ) . F u r t h e r i t m i g h t b e s a i d t h a t t h e f u l l n e s s o f o u r

b e c o m i n g S e l v e s m a y o c c u r a t t h e v e r y t i m e t h a t o u r p h y s i c a l b o d i e s

t e n d t o w e a k e n a n d s u f f e r i n c r e a s i n g d i s e a s e a n d i l l n e s s . T h e s e

v a r i o u s a s s u m p t i o n s m a y a l s o a c c o u n t f o r t h e s o c i e t a l a n d

i n s t i t u t i o n a l s a n c t i o n s w h i c h i n h i b i t r e s e a r c h d e s i g n e d t o

d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t m a i n t a i n i n g i n t e r e s t s a n d n e w i n i t i a t i v e s i n o l d a g e

m a y , i n f a c t , r e v e r s e s o m e o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l d y s f u n c t i o n s t h o u g h t t o

b e c a u s e d b y o l d a g e i t s e l f ( s e e F r i e d a n 1 9 9 3 ; R o w e 1 9 9 4 ) . A s w e

h a v e s e e n i n c h a p t e r t w o , a r t e v o l v e d t o e n a b l e p e o p l e t o c o p e i n a

s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n w a y w i t h f e e l i n g s o f a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y

e v o k e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e - a r t e n a b l e d p e o p l e t o s u r v i v e .

T h e c h a n g e s f a c e d b y p e o p l e a s t h e y a g e - a n d i n e x p e r i e n c e s o f

i l l n e s s - a r e a s o n e r o u s a s c h a n g e s t h a t t a k e p l a c e a t o t h e r t i m e s o f

160

m a j o r t r a n s i t i o n - c h i l d h o o d t o a d u l t h o o d , t o p a r e n t h o o d a n d s o o n .

T h e r e f o r e , a s I h a v e s a i d p r e v i o u s l y , a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s

b e c o m e s a n e t h i c a l i m p e r a t i v e - n o t a d i v e r s i o n , n o r a l u x u r y , n o r a

` t h e r a p y ' .

C o n c l u s i o n .

W h e r e t o f r o m h e r e ? T h e v a r i o u s c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s a r e ` a

g r o w t h i n d u s t r y ' o f t h e 1 9 9 0 s - i n A u s t r a l i a a s w e l l . R a r e l y ,

h o w e v e r , h a s t h e n e e d f o r a r t a s a t h e r a p y b e e n q u e s t i o n e d - n o r

h a v e t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a r r i e r s t o e f f e c t i v e t h e r a p y o f a n y k i n d .

A l i g n e d w i t h t h e ` c l i n i c a l g a z e ' i s a l s o w h a t h a s b e e n t e r m e d t h e

` c l i n i f i c a t i o n s y n d r o m e ' w h i c h s o m e a r t s t h e r a p i s t s , s u c h a s M c N i f f

( 1 9 9 3 , p . 3 ) , b e l i e v e i s i n f e c t i n g t h e p r o f e s s i o n o f c r e a t i v e a r t s

t h e r a p i e s . C e r t a i n l y i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d t h e r e i s a c o n s t a n t

c a l l o n t h e p a r t o f m o s t a r t t h e r a p i s t s t o h a v e t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n

v a l i d a t e d a n d a c c e p t e d - o f t e n w i t h i n t h e d o m i n a n t m e d i c a l

f r a m e w o r k . T h o s e ( l i k e M c N i f f ) t h a t r a i l a g a i n s t t h e ` c l i n i f i c a t i o n

s y n d r o m e ' o f t e n , I b e l i e v e , h a v e a f o o t f i r m l y p l a n t e d i n b o t h

c a m p s . I n a m a j o r w o r k i n 1 9 8 6 ` E d u c a t i n g t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s

t h e r a p i s t : A P r o f i l e o f t h e P r o f e s s i o n ' M c N i f f u r g e d t h a t t h e

t r a i n i n g o f c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i s t s s h o u l d b e s u c h t h a t t h e y c o u l d

t a k e t h e i r p l a c e , a s p r i m a r y t h e r a p i s t s , i n a c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g a n d i n

t h e c l i n i c a l c a r e o f p a t i e n t s - i n c l u d i n g a s s e s s m e n t a n d d i a g n o s i s .

M c N i f f r e g a r d e d t h e c l i n i c a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s

t h e r a p i s t w i t h o t h e r m e m b e r s o f a m e d i c a l m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y t e a m a s

o n e o f t h e g r e a t s t r e n g t h s o f t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s . H o w e v e r ,

n e i t h e r M c N i f f , n o r a n y o t h e r c o m m e n t a t o r r e v i e w e d , ( w i t h o n e

e x c e p t i o n ) h a s r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e d i f f i c u l t y ( o r

161

i m p o s s i b i l i t y ) o f a r t t h e r a p y a n d a r t t h e r a p i s t s e s t a b l i s h i n g o r

r e t a i n i n g t h e i r h e a l i n g c r e a t i v i t y w i t h i n a m e d i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l

s e t t i n g - n o r t h e i r c l i e n t s r e g a i n i n g a n d r e t a i n i n g t h e i r a r t i s t i c

i n t e g r i t y a n d a u t o n o m y .

R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) , a B r i t i s h a r t t e a c h e r a n d a r t t h e r a p i s t , i s o n e o f

t h e f e w v o i c e s r a i s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a r r i e r s t o

e f f e c t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r ,

h e a l t h c a r e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w h e r e , a s R o b i n s o n

s a y s ;

t h e p r o b l e m s t o b e o v e r c o m e . . . a r e n o t s o m u c h a c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s b u t t h e s t e r e o t y p e d r e s i s t a n c e s t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l l i f e t h a t r e q u i r e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l n o l e s s t h a n e v e r y t h i n g ( p . 8 9 ) .

M o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y R o b i n s o n s a y s ` w h e n a n i n s t i t u t i o n a s a w h o l e

a l l o w s t h e f e m i n i n e t o b e d e v a l u e d ( c r e a t i v i t y , i n t u i t i o n , c a r i n g a n d

c o m p a s s i o n ) t h e n , h o w e v e r n a t u r a l a n d n o u r i s h i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ,

t h e f a c i l i t i e s , t h e f o o d , t h e a c t i v i t i e s , s o m e h o w o n e s e n s e s a l a c k o f

o v e r a l l , a t o p h e a v i n e s s , a n a r t i f i c i a l i t y w h i c h n e v e r q u i t e m e e t s t h e

b e d r o c k n e e d s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' ( p . 9 0 ) . T h i s l a s t p o i n t i s

p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e , a s t h e p o e t R a i n e r M a r i a R i l k e ( i n

M i t c h e l l 1 9 8 7 , p . 3 3 7 ) r e m i n d s u s ` t h e d e e p e s t e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e

c r e a t i v e a r t i s t i s f e m i n i n e , f o r i t i s a n e x p e r i e n c e o f c o n c e i v i n g a n d

g i v i n g b i r t h ' .

I t w o u l d t h e n s e e m t h a t t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f a r t a s t h e r a p y c a n n o t

t r a n s c e n d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g s a s i d e n t i f i e d b y

R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) , J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 9 2 ) a n d A l d r i d g e ( 1 9 9 3 a ) f o r t h r e e

r e a s o n s . F i r s t l y , a r t a s t h e r a p y t a k e s a s g i v e n t h e c l i n i c a l a n d t h a t

162

t h e l o c u s o f a r t i s t h e c l i n i c . H o w e v e r , a s I h a v e a l r e a d y i d e n t i f i e d ,

t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e c l i n i c a l h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g a s t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n

i s p a r t o f t h e t r a u m a a n d t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s

w h e r e t h e s i c k p e r s o n i s t a k e n o u t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y t o a p l a c e

w h e r e t h e y a r e ` n o t a t h o m e ' . A r t a s a r t - a s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n

n e e d - h a s t h e p o w e r , h o w e v e r , t o t r a n s c e n d t h e c o n s t r u c t e d

c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g . A s a n e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f

a r t e x t e n d s ` b e y o n d t h e c a n v a s ' s o , t o o , c a n a r t p r o v i d e a v o i c e

w h i c h c a n r e a c h b e y o n d t h e c l i n i c a n d t h e c l i n i c a l . S e c o n d l y ,

b e c a u s e a r t t h e r a p y w o r k s w i t h i n a b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f h e a l t h c a r e

i t f i n d s i t s e l f s i t u a t e d w i t h i n a R a t i o n a l i s t v i e w o f h e a l i n g i e . t h e

r e p a i r o f b r o k e n o r d y s f u n c t i o n a l b o d i e s . A g a i n , h o w e v e r , s u c h a

v i e w m u s t b e r e j e c t e d a n d a m o r e h o l i s t i c v i e w o f h e a l t h a n d

h e a l i n g r e c l a i m e d . I n t h i s v i e w a r t h a s a n i n t e g r a l p l a c e i n t h e

h e a l i n g o f s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g p e r s o n s . I t c a n e n a b l e u s t o r e - c r e a t e

o u r S e l v e s t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f l o s s a n d c h a n g e ; i t c a n e n a b l e t h e r e -

i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e d p a r t s o f o u r s e n s e o f S e l f a n d i t c a n

e n a b l e u s t o s p e a k w i t h a n d l i s t e n t o O t h e r s . T h i r d l y , t h e r e i s a

c r i t i c a l n e e d f o r a r t i n t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e a b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l

o f h e a l t h s a y s ` t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t h a t w e c a n d o ' - f o r e x a m p l e i n

s i t u a t i o n s o f c h r o n i c i l l n e s s a n d u n t r e a t a b l e t e r m i n a l i l l n e s s . A s

t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e A I D S Q u i l t h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d , a r t a l l o w s u s t o

d e a l w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f f r a c t u r e , l o s s a n d g r i e f w h i c h a r e p a r t

o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s - f o r o u r s e l v e s i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d a s p a r t

o f a c o m m u n i t y .

T h e p r e s e n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s r a i s e s m a n y q u e s t i o n s -

` W h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h ,

163

h e a l i n g , a n d w e l l b e i n g ? ' a n d , t h e r e f o r e , ` W h a t i s a p r o p e r c a r e o f

s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g p e r s o n s ? ' T h e a n s w e r s t o t h e s e v a r i o u s q u e s t i o n s

w i l l a c c o r d i n g l y r a i s e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f ` t h e

c l i n i c a l ' a n d ` c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e ' w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s m i g h t

n e e d t o b e r a d i c a l l y r e v i s i o n e d . F u r t h e r , t h e p o w e r a n d n e c e s s i t y o f

a d i f f e r e n t a p p r e c i a t i o n o f a r t c a n b e g a i n e d f r o m t h e s t o r y o f a

s u r v i v o r o f a G e r m a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p w h o w r o t e t h a t h e w o u l d

t r a d e h i s m e a g r e b r e a d r a t i o n f o r a r t l e s s o n s ;

` B r e a d i s n e e d e d t o a n e x t e n t b u t i t w a s t h e a r t l e s s o n s t h a t r e a l l y h e l p e d u s t o s u r v i v e i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s . T h e y h e l p e d t o s a l v a g e m y s o u l , m y d i g n i t y a s a h u m a n b e i n g ' ( i n C o l e s 1 9 8 3 , p . 4 ) .

M y o w n p o s i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n o f a r t w o u l d

a c c o r d w i t h t h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n , t h a t i s , a r t i s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d

t h a t e n a b l e s u s t o s u r v i v e - a s p e r s o n s - e x p e r i e n c e s o f c r i s i s ,

s u f f e r i n g a n d d e p r i v a t i o n . H e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a r e p l a c e s w h e r e

p e o p l e a r e o f t e n i n c r i s i s , s e p a r a t e d f r o m f a m i l i e s , r e m o v e d f r o m

h o m e s , a n d l i m i t e d i n f r e e d o m . W h i l e s o m e m a y e x p e r i e n c e h e a l t h

c a r e s e t t i n g s a s a ` w e l c o m e ' r e s p i t e , f o r m a n y t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f

i l l n e s s i s n o t o n l y a r u p t u r e w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s , i t i s a r u p t u r e o f

t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h O t h e r s a n d i t i s a r u p t u r e i n t h e i r p r o c e s s o f

f l o u r i s h i n g . T h e r e i s a n u r g e n t n e e d , t h e r e f o r e , f o r t h e a r t s i n

h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s , b u t I w o u l d a r g u e , f o r t h e v a r i o u s r e a s o n s t h a t

I h a v e h i g h l i g h t e d b e f o r e , t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t n e e d i s f o r t h e a r t s t o b e

n o n - c l i n i c a l . T h e c r i t i c a l r o l e t h a t a r t c a n p l a y i n t h e c a r e o f t h o s e

w h o a r e i l l o r s u f f e r i n g i s t h a t t h e y c a n a c c e p t ` p a t i e n t s ' a s t h e y

a r e a n d ( c a n a f f o r d ) t h e m a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s a s

t h e y w i s h t o b e ' ( s e e A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 5 ) . I t c a n r e s u r r e c t ,

r e v i v i f y a n d k e e p a l i v e t h e h u m a n n e e d s t h a t w e a l l h a v e t o k e e p

f l o u r i s h i n g . A r t a n d a r t p r a c t i c e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s m u s t t h e n

164

b e c o n c e i v e d a s a n e t h i c a l e n g a g e m e n t w h i c h r e q u i r e s u s t o

r e c o g n i z e i t s e t h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s .

I a m , h o w e v e r , c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e g r o w t h a n d s p r e a d o f t h e v a r i o u s

a r t s t h e r a p i e s r e f l e c t s a g e n e r a l t r e n d t o r e m o v e r o l e s t h a t s h o u l d b e

p a r t o f a n y c a r i n g c o m m u n i t y ( i n c l u d i n g i t s a r t i s t s ) i n t o t h e h a n d s

o f ` m e d i c a l i z e d e x p e r t s ' . I b e l i e v e t h a t a s i t u a t i o n m a y b e

d e v e l o p i n g w h e r e , i f a c c e s s t o a r t i s p r o v i d e d w i t h i n a h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g t h a t i t i s s e e n a s a l o g i c a l a n d n e c e s s a r y e x t e n s i o n t h a t t h e

a r t s h o u l d b e ` t h e r a p y ' o r i e n t a t e d a n d i n f o r m e d . T h e r e i s a f u r t h e r

p o i n t t h a t i s p a i d s c a n t a t t e n t i o n i n a r t t h e r a p y l i t e r a t u r e . I f

p e r s o n s w h o a r e t h e c l i e n t s o f a r t t h e r a p i s t s a r e e n c o u r a g e d t o

r e g a i n t h e i n t e g r i t y , p o w e r a n d a u t o n o m y o f t h e i r a r t i s t i c s e l v e s

( w h i c h I b e l i e v e i s t h e r o l e a n d t h e f u n c t i o n o f a r t - i n c l u d i n g a r t

t h e r a p y ) , t h e n t h e y a n d t h e i r a r t m a y n o t b e c o m f o r t a b l e . A s G i l k e y

( 1 9 8 4 , p . 1 9 0 ) p o i n t s o u t ;

a r t e n h a n c e s d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e ; i t a l s o t e a r s o f f t h e m a s k c o v e r i n g o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e t o e x p o s e i t s d i s a r r a y , i t s d i s a s t r o u s w a y w a r d n e s s , i t s b e t r a y a l s ( a n d ) i t s s u f f e r i n g .

I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e n , t h e a r t t h e r a p i s t m a y b e i n a n e q u a l l y

u n c o m f o r t a b l e p o s i t i o n . M a n y h a v e r e m a r k e d u p o n t h e s u s p i c i o n

w h i c h s o o f t e n a t t e n d s t h e a r t i s t , o r a r t t h e r a p i s t , i n o u r s o c i e t i e s -

t h e ` b a s t a r d s ' f o r w h o m t h e g o d s w e r e a s k e d t o s t a n d . I r o n i c a l l y , i t

m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h e d y i n g , d i s t r e s s e d a n d d i s o r d e r e d w i l l s h o w t h e

w a y t o b r i n g i n g a r t ( a n d s o m e o f t h e a r t s t h e r a p i e s ) b a c k t o a m o r e

e t h i c a l a n d c o m p a s s i o n a t e r o l e i n c a r i n g f o r a l l m e m b e r s o f o u r

c o m m u n i t i e s - n o t o n l y t h o s e w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g . T h e n w e

m a y b e a b l e t o s a y , w i t h F o u c a u l t , t h a t t h e a r t s e x i s t s o t h a t o u r

l i v e s m a y b e w o r k s o f a r t .

165

C H A P T E R 6

A R T , H E A L T H A N D T H E G O O D - F L O U R I S H I N G .

. . . t h e s e i l l n e s s e s s h o w y o u a s i t u a t i o n , m o r e i n t e n s e t h a n n o r m a l , w h e r e t h e q u e s t i o n ` W h a t i s F a t e ? ' i s n o l o n g e r a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s u b j e c t f o r d e b a t e . A n d t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y t h i n g i s t h a t , w i t h t h i s m y s t e r i o u s c a t h a r t i c e f f e c t , y o u c a n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f a c e t h e t e r r o r s o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e a n d i t s a m a z i n g l y p o s i t i v e s i d e .

Peter Brook in Benedict Nightingale `Peter Brook Voyages to Inner Space'. The New York Times.1995,pp.2,4.

A d i s e a s e i s n e v e r a m e r e l o s s . . . t h e r e i s a l w a y s a r e a c t i o n , o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a f f e c t e d o r g a n i s m o r i n d i v i d u a l t o r e s t o r e , t o r e p l a c e , t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r a n d t o p r e s e r v e i t s i d e n t i t y h o w e v e r s t r a n g e t h e m e a n s m a y b e : a n d t o s t u d y o r i n f l u e n c e t h e s e m e a n s , n o l e s s t h a n t h e p r i m a r y i n s u l t t o t h e n e r v o u s s y s t e m , i s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f o u r r o l e a s p h y s i c i a n s .

Oliver Sacks 1985, The Man Who Mistook His Wife For a Hat p.4.

D e f i n i t i o n s p l a c e b o u n d a r i e s l e a v i n g u s w i t h i d e n t i t i e s w e d o n o t a l w a y s k n o w t h e s h a p e o f . E x p l o r i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s b r i n g s u s i n t o u n f a m i l i a r t e r r i t o r y , n o l o n g e r ` b e i n g ' a n u r s e , o r a n a r t i s t , o r a u n i o n i s t .

M e g a n E v a n s i n T h e A r t o f N u r s i n g 1 9 9 4 , p . 2 .

` W h a t i s t h e G o o d ? ' ` W h a t d o e s i t m e a n t o s a y w e a r e " h e a l t h y " a n d

f l o u r i s h i n g ? ' ` W h a t i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a r t , h e a l t h a n d t h e

G o o d ? ' F o r s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y h u m a n i s t s ( a s i t w a s f o r t h o s e l i k e

A r i s t o t l e i n t h e C l a s s i c a l p e r i o d ) t h e G o o d w a s n o t t o b e f o u n d ` o u t

t h e r e ' a s s o me s e p a r a t e l y e x i s t i n g P l a t o n i c F o r m. T h e G o o d h a d t o b e

d i s c o v e r e d o r a p p r e h e n d e d i n t h e c o n c r e t e p a r t i c u l a r s o f e a c h

p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . T h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t r a t i o n a l i t y a n d

a b s t r a c t t h e o r y p l a y e d n o p a r t i n t h e e n t e r p r i s e b u t r a t h e r t h a t

t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e w e r e b o t h i n f o r m e d a n d c r i t i q u e d i n a c o m p l e x

d i a l e c t i c .

166

E t h i c s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h n o t i o n s o f t h e G o o d - o f f l o u r i s h i n g - b o t h

o f w h i c h h a v e a p e r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n . C o n t r a r y t o

M o d e r n u n d e r s t a n d i n g s w h i c h w o u l d s e e e t h i c s a s i n v o l v e d w i t h a

p u r e l y r a t i o n a l f o r m u l a t i o n o f m o r a l l a w s a n d g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s ,

e t h i c s i s e s s e n t i a l l y p r a c t i c a l - i t i s a p e r f o r m a n c e o f p r a c t i c a l

w i s d o m . T h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f g e n e r a l m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s , a l t h o u g h

n e c e s s a r y a n d , a t m a n y t i m e s , u s e f u l , a r e a s c o n s t r u c t e d a s a w o r k o f

a r t i s c o n s t r u c t e d a n d h a v e t h e s a m e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h ` r e a l i t y ' a s a

w o r k o f a r t h a s . P r o b l e m s a r i s e w h e n m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d r u l e s a r e

i n v e s t e d w i t h a c e r t a i n t y o f a u t h o r i t y ( o r g u a r a n t e e o f s u c c e s s ) t h a t

t h e y d o n o t p o s s e s s - a n d , i n a v e r y r e a l s e n s e , c a n n o t p o s s e s s . I n

s u c h a n e l e v a t i o n o f r u l e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s , t h e e x i s t e n t i a l p a r t i c u l a r s

o f p e r s o n s a r e o f t e n o b l i t e r a t e d o r n e g l e c t e d .

E t h i c s a l s o h a s a c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n . I t i s a l s o c o n c e r n e d w i t h

n a m i n g t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e w h i c h e n a b l e t h e f l o u r i s h i n g a n d

w e l l b e i n g o f p e r s o n s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r - a n d

w i t h n a m i n g - a n d c h a l l e n g i n g - t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e s

w h i c h h a r m t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f p e r s o n s i n t h e i r v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

I n l i n e w i t h a n A r i s t o t e l i a n / H u m a n i s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n e t h i c a l

e n d e a v o u r c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g c o n c e r n e d t h a t a l l p e r s o n s a r e

a f f o r d e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h e n a b l e t h e m t o B e w e l l a n d d o w e l l -

t h a t t h e r e b e n o s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g a n d t h e i r

l e a d i n g a g o o d l i f e - e s p e c i a l l y w h i l s t s i c k , p o w e r l e s s a n d

v u l n e r a b l e . T h i s a p p r o a c h w o u l d b e i n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t t o t h e M o d e r n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e t h i c s b u t , a s J o h n s o n ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 5 ) w a r n s ;

a n e x c l u s i v e f o c u s o n m o r a l l a w s a n d r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s i s a t h r e a t t o h u m a n w e l l - b e i n g b e c a u s e i t b l i n d s u s t o t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f m o r a l i m a g i n a t i o n t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y i f w e a r e t o b e m o r a l l y s e n s i t i v e a n d f u l l y r e s p o n s i b l e t o o t h e r p e o p l e .

167

T h e d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l f o c u s o n t h e t w o d i f f e r e n t

d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e G o o d a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . F i r s t l y , t h e G o o d a s

r e f e r r i n g t o t h e f l o u r i s h i n g o f S e l f w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d . S e c o n d l y , t h e

c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n o f f l o u r i s h i n g w i l l b e e x a m i n e d - t h e G o o d a s

l i v e d w i t h O t h e r s . T h i r d l y , w h i l e a r t o u g h t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a n

e t h i c a l e n d e a v o u r i n ` o r d i n a r y ' l i f e - i n t h a t i t e n a b l e s u s t o s u r v i v e ,

f l o u r i s h a n d l i v e i n c o m m u n i t y w i t h o t h e r s - t h e r e a r e s o m e e t h i c a l

c o n c e r n s w h i c h h a v e p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e a n d i m p o r t a n c e w h e n a r t i s

c a r r i e d o u t w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . T h e c h a p t e r w i l l c o n c l u d e

w i t h s o m e f i n a l r e f l e c t i o n s o n t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t f o r t h e

h e a l t h a n d w e l l - b e i n g o f p e r s o n s i n c o m m u n i t y .

A r t a s a n E t h i c a l E n d e a v o u r .

A s I h a v e p r e v i o u s l y men t i o n e d , t h e G o o d c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s h a v i n g

t w o d i m e n s i o n s . T h e G o o d a s i t r e f e r s t o t h e f l o u r i s h i n g o f o u r s e l f

a s a P e r s o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h o s e e l e m e n t s w h i c h e n a b l e u s t o

l i v e i n h a r m o n y w i t h o u r S e l f - a f e l t s e n s e o f h a r m o n y , p e a c e ,

a u t h e n t i c i t y - a n d a f e l t s e n s e o f l i v i n g a l i f e o f m e a n i n g a n d

p u r p o s e . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r t w o , w e h a v e e v o l v e d t o l i v e

t o g e t h e r i n s o c i a l g r o u p s - o u r e s s e n t i a l h u m a n i t y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d

b y a n i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r .

T h e c o mmu n a l d i men s i o n o f o u r f l o u r i sh i n g r e f e r s t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h

w e a r e a b l e t o l i v e a G o o d l i f e w i t h O t h e r s . I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e

n o t i o n s o f t h e G o o d , w h a t i s i t t h a t c a n h a p p e n i n a r t p r a c t i c e i n

h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s t h a t c a n b e o f s u c h b e n e f i t t o t h o s e w h o a r e

s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g a n d w h i c h d e m a n d s a r t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a n e t h i c a l

168

e n d e a v o u r ? I t m i g h t b e s a i d t h a t m o s t t y p e s o f i l l n e s s c o u l d b e

t e r m e d b o u n d a r y e x p e r i e n c e s w h e r e , a s M o d j e s k a ( 1 9 9 4 , p p . 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 )

s a y s , ` a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t h o w y o u l i v e c h a n g e s : y o u r v a l u e s , y o u r

s e n s o r y p e r c e p t i o n s , e v e n y o u r l o v e s a n d f r i e n d s h i p s ' . A s M o d j e s k a

g o e s o n t o s a y o f a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s ;

I c a m e t o s e e t h a t w h a t I f e a r e d , t h o u g h I c a l l e d i t b l i n d n e s s . . . w a s n o t t h e b l i n d n e s s i n i t s e l f , b u t o f s o l i t u d e . . . I t i s t h e e m p t i n e s s t h a t b r i n g s y o u s l a p u p a g a i n s t t h a t n a k e d r e f l e c t i o n i n t h e m i r r o r ( 1 9 9 4 , p p . 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 ) .

E x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g o f t e n u n c o v e r t h e t a b o o s t h a t

m o d e r n W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s t r y s o h a r d t o p r e v e n t e n t e r i n g ` o r d i n a r y

e v e r y d a y ' c o n s c i o u s n e s s - d e a t h , s e x u a l i t y , m o r t a l i t y , i m m o r t a l i t y ,

f a t e , c h a n c e , s a n i t y a n d i n s a n i t y . I a m f o r c i b l y r e m i n d e d b y t h e

p o e t W e b b t h a t m a n y o f t h e ` h i d d e n ' f e a r s i n h e a l t h c a r e m i g h t l i e i n

a n u n s p o k e n r e c o g n i t i o n o f h o w f i n e t h e l i n e c a n b e b e t w e e n

h e a l t h / s i c k n e s s , l i f e / d e a t h / , s a n i t y / i n s a n i t y ;

T o w a t c h m a y b e d e a d l y . T h e r e i s n o j u d g m e n t , c o m p u l s i o n , A n d t h e o b j e c t b e c o m e s o u r s e l v e s . T h a t i s t h e t e r r o r . F r a n c i s W e b b . W a r d T w o ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 2 2 0 ) .

M u c h o f t h e s u f f e r i n g - t h e d i s l o c a t i o n a n d f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f S e l f -

t h a t o f t e n a t t e n d s a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s c o u l d b e s a i d t o d e r i v e

f r o m t h e t e r r o r o f ` s l i p p i n g o v e r ' , t h e f e a r o f f a c i n g t h e ` n a k e d

r e f l e c t i o n i n t h e m i r r o r ' , t h e f e a r o f s o l i t u d e , a n d t h e t e r r o r o f

d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . A s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , a n

A b o r i g i n a l n o t i o n o f h e a l t h a n d h e a l i n g w o u l d s e e t h e f i r s t d u t y o f

h e a l t h c a r e a s l y i n g i n h e a l i n g t h e m i n d o f a p e r s o n b e f o r e t h e i r

b o d y . I s h o u l d l i k e t o d r a w a p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e ` m i n d ' a n d o u r

i m a g i n a t i o n - o u r a b i l i t y t o r e a c t i v a t e M a r c u s e ' s ( 1 9 7 8 ) n o t i o n o f a

s p a c e - w h e r e i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o u r l i b e r a t i o n m a y l i e . I s h o u l d

a l s o l i k e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e l i b e r a t i o n t h a t i s s o d e s p e r a t e l y s o u g h t

169

b y m a n y i n m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s - l i b e r a t i o n f r o m s o c i a l

i s o l a t i o n , f r o m f r a c t u r e d a n d f r a g m e n t e d S e l v e s ( s e e R D L a i n g

1 9 6 9 ) , f r o m t h e s e p a r a t i o n f r o m o t h e r s , f r o m t h e f e a r o f s o l i t u d e ,

f r o m t h e i n c e s s a n t r e q u i r e m e n t t o s e p a r a t e ` d o i n g ' f r o m ` b e i n g ' - a l l

t h e s e s e v e r a l t h i n g s t h a t f i g u r e s o p r o m i n e n t l y i n h e a l t h c a r e - t h a t

t h e l i b e r a t i o n m a y c o m e f r o m a n d w i t h i n o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e

l a n d , t h e l a n d s c a p e , t h e D e s e r t . I t i s n e c e s s a r y , h o w e v e r , t o s e e t h a t

t h e p h y s i c a l l a n d s c a p e h a s a s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t y a s w e l l a n d t h a t o u r

S e l v e s , a s p e r s o n s - a s w o r k s o f a r t - a l s o h a v e a l a n d s c a p e - a n d a

D e s e r t a s w e l l . T h e N e w Z e a l a n d p a i n t e r M c C a h o n ( 1 9 8 8 ) r e m a r k s ;

Y o u b u r y y o u r h e a r t a n d i t g o e s d e e p e r i n t o t h e l a n d ; y o u c a n o n l y f o l l o w . I t ' s a p a i n f u l l o v e - l o v i n g a l a n d . I t t a k e s a l o n g t i m e .

a n d a s M e r t o n ( i n S i m s i c 1 9 8 8 , p . 3 4 ) s a y s ;

O n e h a s t o b e a l o n e , u n d e r t h e s k y , b e f o r e e v e r y t h i n g f a l l s i n t o p l a c e a n d o n e f i n d s o n e s o w n p l a c e i n t h e m i d s t o f i t a l l .

a n d f r o m R a i n e r R i l k e ( i n S i m s i c 1 9 8 8 , p . 3 9 ) ;

. . . o u t o f a l l t h i s s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d t h a t I h a v e r e m a i n e d b o u n d i n a s p e c i a l w a y t o t h i s l a n d s c a p e i n w h i c h I h a v e m e t w i t h t h e f u l l n e s s o f g r a c e .

S o l i t u d e , p a i n f u l l o v e , t h e f u l l n e s s o f g r a c e - a l l t h e s e m i g h t s e e m ,

l i k e a r t i n t h e a d o l e s c e n t m e d i c a l u n i t , s o m e w h a t u n s e e m l y , n o t ` a t

h o m e ' i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f e t h i c s i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . H o w e v e r , a s

C a s s e l l ( 1 9 9 1 ) r e m a r k s , a r e t i c e n c e a b o u t t h e b o d y h a m p e r e d m e d i c a l

p r o g r e s s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d a r e t i c e n c e a b o u t t h e

i n t i ma c y i n v o l v e d w i t h k n o w i n g a p e r s o n mi g h t s i mi l a r l y b e h a mp e r i n g

t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e s i n m e d i c a l c a r e i n t h e

t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s I h a v e r e m a r k e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s

170

t h e s i s , I b e l i e v e w i t h B r a d y ( 1 9 9 5 ) t h a t s o m e e l e m e n t s o f A b o r i g i n a l

s p i r i t u a l i t y m i g h t e n a b l e a r e v i s i o n i n g o f n o t i o n s o f a r t , h e a l t h ,

h e a l i n g a n d t h e p l a c e a n d n a t u r e o f p e r s o n i n c o m m u n i t y .

A c c o r d i n g l y , a s I h a v e s a i d i n C h a p t e r o n e , m y p r a c t i c e i n h e a l t h

c a r e s e t t i n g s d i f f e r s s o m e w h a t t o t h a t w h i c h m i g h t b e a p p r o p r i a t e i n

a n ` o r d i n a r y ' w o r k s h o p . W h i l e I g e n e r a l l y r e f u s e t o d r a w f o r s o m e o n e

e l s e - o r t o t e l l t h e m w h a t t o d o - o r w h e n t h e i r w o r k i s f i n i s h e d ,

t h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t I g i v e n o d i r e c t i o n . S u c h a p o s i t i o n w o u l d

b e b o t h u n c a r i n g a n d u n e t h i c a l p r a c t i c e . I n s t e a d I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e

` t o o l s ' o f a r t m a k i n g m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a n a l o g o u s t o t h e ` t o o l s '

t h a t m i g h t b e r e q u i r e d i n d i s c e r n i n g s o m e o f t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s

t h a t a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r u s t o f l o u r i s h a n d c r e a t e o u r l i v e s a s w o r k s

o f a r t i e . l i v e a m o r a l l y g o o d l i f e - w h i c h m u s t a l s o i n c l u d e h o w w e

` m o r a l l y ' l i v e o u r e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l h e a l t h , a c c i d e n t a n d s u f f e r i n g .

I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e I t e a c h t h e u s e o f v a r i o u s ` t o o l s ' - t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f

v a r i o u s p a i n t s , b r u s h e s , p e n c i l s , d y e s a n d s o o n - h o w t h e y g e n e r a l l y

a n d u s u a l l y ` b e h a v e ' - w h a t t h e y c a n d o a n d w h a t o u g h t n o t b e

r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t e d o f t h e m . T h i s c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s a t y p e o f

p s y c h o l o g y o f a r t m a t e r i a l s . T h e c o m p a r a b l e ` t o o l s ' o f m o r a l

r e a s o n i n g m i g h t b e r e c o g n i z i n g t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h w e

i m a g i n a t i v e l y a n d c r e a t i v e l y c o n s t r u c t n o t i o n s o f w e l l - b e i n g a n d

h o w w e a r e a b l e t o i m a g i n e a p o s s i b l e r a n g e o f s c e n a r i o s ; t o b e a b l e

t o i d e n t i f y w i t h i n o u r v a r i o u s n a r r a t i v e s a n d l a n d s c a p e s ( p a i n t e d ,

s p o k e n a n d w r i t t e n ) r e c u r r i n g m o t i f s t h a t m i g h t s h e d l i g h t o n t h e

c o n t o u r s o f o u r v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s ; t o b e a b l e t o ` s t a n d b a c k ' f r o m

t h e w o r k b e i n g c r e a t e d ( a n d o u r l i v e s a s a w o r k o f a r t ) a n d t o ` s e e '

171

w h e r e t h e ` r i g h t n e s s ' i s - o r m a y n o t b e - a n d w h a t m i g h t b e d o n e t o

c o r r e c t t h e m i s t a k e s i n s e e i n g ; o r t o , p e r h a p s , g o i n t h e d i r e c t i o n

o f a n ` i n s p i r a t i o n ' a n d t a k e t h e r i s k o f f a i l u r e - o r , m o r e

i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e r i s k o f s u c c e s s t h a t m i g h t c o m e f r o m s e e i n g

s o m e t h i n g ` d i f f e r e n t l y ' . T h i s l a s t a s p e c t i s o f p a r t i c u l a r

r e l e v a n c e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s w h e r e t h e ` n o r m a l ' w o r l d h a s b e e n

d i s r u p t e d a n d d i s l o c a t e d a n d t h e s i c k p e r s o n e x p e r i e n c e s t h e m s e l v e s

a s v u l n e r a b l e a n d p o w e r l e s s . T h e t o o l s o f a r t m a k i n g a r e a b o u t

d i s c e r n i n g t h e t o n e s a n d t e x t u r e s o f c o l o u r s a n d s o o n ; t h e t o o l s o f

m o r a l i t y m i g h t a l s o b e d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g a b o u t d i s c e r n i n g t h e t o n e s

a n d t e x t u r e s o f t h e v a r i o u s l a n d s c a p e s w e i n h a b i t w i t h o u r s e l v e s a n d

w i t h o t h e r s .

T h e t o o l s ( o f a r t m a k i n g a n d o f e t h i c s ) a l s o l i e i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h e

i n e v i t a b i l i t y ( a n d a m b i g u i t y ) o f t h e ` g a p ' t h a t a l w a y s e x i s t s

b e t w e e n w h a t i s s o u g h t t o b e d o n e - a n d w h a t c a n b e e n d o n e . I t a l s o

m e a n s r e c o g n i z i n g - a n d h o n o u r i n g - o u r o w n p a r t i c u l a r a n d u n i q u e

s t y l e - o u r i n n e r t r u t h a n d i n t e g r i t y a s N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 9 0 ) t e r m s t h e

s t y l e o f o u r a r t . T h e s t y l e o f o u r a r t ( a n d o u r l i v e s a s w o r k s o f

a r t ) m u s t a l s o r e c o g n i z e l i m i t a t i o n s - w h a t w e c a n n o t a u t h e n t i c a l l y

B e . A t r i v i a l e x a m p l e w h i c h a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h e m o r e p r o f o u n d

a s p e c t s o f t h i s q u e s t i o n i s t h e f a c t t h a t I h a v e a l w a y s l o n g e d t o b e

a b l e t o p a i n t w i t h t h e r e a l i s t i c p r e c i s i o n o f f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y D u t c h

s t i l l l i f e m a s t e r s . I c o u l d p o s s i b l y ` c o p y ' a r e a s o n a b l e i m i t a t i o n -

b u t I h a v e h a d t o a c c e p t t h a t m y s t y l e ( m y i n n e r i n t e g r i t y a n d

t r u t h ) d o e s n o t p e r m i t m e t o p a i n t n a t u r a l l y i n t h a t D u t c h M a s t e r s

s t y l e .

172

T h e A b u s e o f A r t .

A r t a s a n e t h i c a l e n d e a v o u r m u s t a l s o t a k e c o g n i z a n c e o f a n a r t t h a t

m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d u n e t h i c a l . I h a v e e a r l i e r r e f e r r e d t o B a r z u n ' s

( 1 9 7 4 ) u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f ` a n a b u s e o f a r t ' - t h a t i s , t o a w a y o f

t h i n k i n g w h i c h s e e s a l l a r t a s u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y g o o d . T h e a b u s e o f

a r t o r a n u n e t h i c a l a r t i s s e l d o m r a i s e d i n M o d e r n t h o u g h t w h i c h

s e e s ` a r t i s t i c f r e e d o m o f e x p r e s s i o n ' a s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f

` a u t h e n t i c i t y ' . W h i l e I a m n o t a d v o c a t i n g c e n s o r s h i p o f e i t h e r

t h o u g h t s o r a r t w o r k s , I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e a r e s o m e ` h u m a n '

s u b j e c t s w h i c h m i g h t b e v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p a i n t ` e t h i c a l l y ' - a n d , i n

t e r m s o f ` a e s t h e t i c a l l y ' r e s p e c t i n g t h e a u t o n o m o u s b e a u t y o f t h e

O t h e r , p e r h a p s , o u g h t n o t b e p a i n t e d a t a l l . F o r e x a m p l e , w h i l s t I

w a s t e a c h i n g a t t h e H o s p i c e , a f r i e n d w a s d y i n g o f A I D S . H e h a d a

h u g e a n d t e r r i b l e K a p o s i o n h i s l e g t h a t w a s v e r y p a i n f u l a n d u g l y .

H o w e v e r , I w a s l o o k i n g a t i t o n e d a y a n d I s u d d e n l y r e a l i z e d t h a t I

w a s t h i n k i n g h o w b e a u t i f u l i t w a s . T h e r i p p l e s o f t h e K a p o s i

r e m i n d e d m e o f t h e l i n e s l e f t o n a b e a c h a f t e r t h e w a v e s h a v e

r e c e d e d . I t r i e d t o p a i n t t h e K a p o s i a n d I m a d e a n a p p l i q u e d f a b r i c

w o r k o f i t - n e i t h e r I c o n s i d e r e d s u c c e s s f u l . S e v e r a l r e a s o n s m a y

e x p l a i n t h e s e ` f a i l u r e s ' . F i r s t l y , I f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t e x i s t s b e t w e e n e v i l a n d b e a u t y . A I D S m i g h t b e

c o n s i d e r e d a n e v i l a s i t u n d o u b t e d l y h a r m e d m y f r i e n d . H o w e v e r , I

w a s t h e n c o n f r o n t e d b y t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t s o m e t h i n g t h a t m i g h t b e

c o n s i d e r e d e v i l w a s a l s o a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e i d e n t i t y o f m y

f r i e n d . I c o u l d n o t s a y I l o v e d h i m b u t I h a t e d h i s K a p o s i - t h a t

w o u l d h a v e b e e n a n o b s c e n e f o r m o f s a y i n g I w o u l d l i k e y o u i f i t

w e r e n o t f o r y o u r n o s e o r w h a t e v e r . S e c o n d l y , I f e l t s o m e h o w g u i l t y

173

( o r a s h a m e d ) t h a t I c o u l d f i n d t h e p a i n f u l K a p o s i b e a u t i f u l . M a r c u s e

( 1 9 7 8 ) h o w e v e r , r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s t a t u s o f a r t a f t e r A u s c h w i t z ,

p r o v i d e d a g l i m p s e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A r t , h e s a y s ;

d r a w s a w a y f r o m t h i s ( u n i m a g i n a b l e ) r e a l i t y , b e c a u s e i t c a n n o t r e p r e s e n t t h i s s u f f e r i n g w i t h o u t s u b j e c t i n g i t t o a e s t h e t i c f o r m , a n d t h e r e b y t o t h e m i t i g a t i n g c a t h a r s i s , t o e n j o y m e n t . . . . A r t i s i n e x o r a b l y i n f e s t e d w i t h t h i s g u i l t . Y e t t h i s d o e s n o t r e l e a s e a r t f r o m t h e n e c e s s i t y o f r e c a l l i n g a g a i n a n d a g a i n t h a t w h i c h c a n s u r v i v e e v e n A u s c h w i t z a n d p e r h a p s o n e d a y m a k e i t i m p o s s i b l e - t h a t i s , e v e r y a r t w o r k m u s t c o n t a i n h o p e . ( p . 5 5 )

I s u s p e c t t h a t t h i s m i g h t b e t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n a r t a n d t h e a b u s e

o f a r t . M i l l e r ( i n H j e r t e r , 1 9 8 6 , p . 1 0 3 ) s a y s t h a t p a i n t e r s m a k e i t

s e e m a s i f t h e r e i s n o t h i n g v i l e o r h i d e o u s i n t h i s w o r l d . B u t t h a t i s

n o t t r u e . A r t m a y m a k e u s t h i n k t h a t a K a p o s i i s b e a u t i f u l - a n d

i n d e e d t h e p a i n t i n g m a y b e d e s c r i b e d a s b e a u t i f u l , b u t t h e b e a u t y o f

t h e p a i n t i n g h a s n o t t r a n s f o r m e d o r t a k e n a w a y t h e p a i n t h a t m y

f r i e n d f e l t i n h a v i n g t h e K a p o s i o n h i s l e g . F u r t h e r , t h e p a i n - o r

A I D S - c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s e v i l i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t h a r m e d a n d

t h r e a t e n e d h i s s e n s e o f i n t e g r i t y a n d w e l l b e i n g . M u r d o c h

( 1 9 7 0 , p . 8 7 ) s a y s t h e a r t i s t ' s g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t s u b t l e e n e m y i s

m a s o c h i s m . P e r h a p s , t o b e b o t h e t h i c a l a n d a e s t h e t i c , t h e r e a l i t y

( t h e K a p o s i ) s h o u l d n o t b e p a i n t e d e x c e p t , f o r e x a m p l e , t h r o u g h t h e

l e n s o f t h e l a n d s c a p e .

M a r c u s e ( 1 9 7 8 , p . 7 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t ;

` u n d e r t h e l a w o f a e s t h e t i c f o r m , t h e g i v e n r e a l i t y i s n e c e s s a r i l y s u b l i m a t e d : t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t i s s t y l i z e d , t h e ` d a t a ' a r e r e s h a p e d a n d r e o r d e r e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e a r t f o r m , w h i c h r e q u i r e s t h a t e v e n t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d e a t h a n d d e s t r u c t i o n i n v o k e t h e n e e d f o r h o p e - a n e e d r o o t e d i n t h e n e w c o n s c i o u s n e s s e m b o d i e d i n t h e w o r k o f a r t ' .

A s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , a n d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f

M e d i c i n e , A r t a n d H e a l i n g , p e o p l e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a r e o f t e n

174

` n a k e d l y ' v u l n e r a b l e a n d p o w e r l e s s . B o t h t h e s i c k p e r s o n a n d t h e

h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l o f t e n e x p e r i e n c e t h e m s e l v e s a s l i v i n g a t a n

u n u s u a l l e v e l o f i n t e n s i t y . I n r e f l e c t i n g o n t h e e x p e r i e n c e s a b o v e ,

a n d t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e f a c t o r s j u s t d e s c r i b e d , I w o u l d s u g g e s t

t h a t t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o ` s l i p o v e r ' i n t o a n u n e t h i c a l a r t m i g h t b e

m o r e c o m m o n i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s t h a n i n o t h e r s .

A r t , H e a l t h a n d t h e G o o d .

A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r f i v e , a l e g a c y o f t h e M o d e r n i s a

n o t i o n o f m e d i c i n e s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m - t h e

b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f h e a l t h c a r e . T h i s m o d e l h a s o b j e c t i f i e d a n d

d e - c o n t e x t u a l i z e d t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y f r o m t h e P e r s o n w h o i s s i c k .

T h r o u g h o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h t h i s o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y t o

t h e n e g l e c t o f t h e m a n y o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e S e l f h a s e m e r g e d a s

t h e c a u s e o f s o m u c h s u f f e r i n g i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . T h e m a n y

m i s c o n c e p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e n d s o f m e d i c i n e a r e a m p l y

d e m o n s t r a t e d b y F l e w ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 1 3 ) i n a D i c t i o n a r y o f P h i l o s o p h y h e

e d i t e d w h e r e i t i s a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e e n d o f m e d i c i n e a s a n ` a p p l i e d

f i e l d o f e t h i c s ' i s ` t h e p r e v e n t i o n a n d c u r e o f d i s e a s e ' . H o w e v e r , a s

T o o m b s ( 1 9 8 8 , p . 2 2 1 ) h a s p o i n t e d o u t ;

T h e g o a l o f m e d i c i n e i s p r i m a r i l y t h e r e l i e f o f ( a ) p e r c e i v e d l i v e d b o d i l y d i s r u p t i o n - t h e r e s t o r a t i o n t o a f o r m e r o r b e t t e r s t a t e o f p e r c e i v e d h e a l t h o r w e l l - b e i n g . T h i s m a y i n c l u d e , b u t i s n o t l i m i t e d t o , c u r e o f o r g a n i c d y s f u n c t i o n . I n d e e d , i n o r d e r t o a d d r e s s t h e p a t i e n t ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f d i s o r d e r , a t t e n t i o n m u s t b e p a i d n o t o n l y t o t h e p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a d i s e a s e s t a t e b u t a l s o t o t h e c h a n g i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n b o d y , s e l f a n d w o r l d a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c h a n g e i n l i v e d s p a t i a l i t y a n d l i v e d t e m p o r a l i t y .

C a s s e l l ( 1 9 9 1 ) a s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r t h r e e , s e e s t h e e n d o r

g o a l o f m e d i c i n e a s t h e c a r e o f s i c k p e r s o n s a n d t h e a l l e v i a t i o n o f

175

t h e i r s u f f e r i n g - o f w h i c h c a r e t h e t r e a t m e n t o f p h y s i c a l

d y s f u n c t i o n s i s b u t a p a r t . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r t h r e e ,

p e r s o n s h a v e a n u m b e r o f s e l v e s w h i c h a r e l i v e d o u t i n v a r i o u s

m o d a l i t i e s - m o d e s o f b e i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , o u r s o c i a l S e l f h a s a

m o d a l i t y w h i c h i s m a d e m a n i f e s t i n t h e v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h i c h

w e m a k e a n d s u s t a i n w i t h o t h e r s - f r i e n d s , c o l l e a g u e s , f a m i l y a n d s o

o n . S u f f e r i n g , t h e r e f o r e , c a n b e e x p e r i e n c e d w h e n t h o s e s o c i a l

c o n n e c t i o n s a r e f r a c t u r e d , f o r e x a m p l e w h e n , t h r o u g h a c c i d e n t ,

i l l n e s s o r c h a n c e w e a r e u n a b l e t o a d e q u a t e l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n

a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h c r e a t e , a n d n u r t u r e t h o s e l i f e s u s t a i n i n g

r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e m a n w i t h A I D S p a i n t i n g a g i f t f o r h i s m o t h e r -

t h e e l d e r l y w o m a n t a k i n g u p p a i n t i n g w h e n s h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r

c r o c h e t - t h e s e p e o p l e a n d t h e i r a r t h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e p o w e r o f

a r t t o s u s t a i n t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e s i c k p e r s o n ( i n t h e i r v a r i o u s

m o d a l i t i e s ) d u r i n g t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s .

T o l i v e , t o e m b r a c e t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g - e s p e c i a l l y t h r o u g h t h e

e x p e r i e n c e s o f s i c k n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g - i s a t a s k t h a t r e q u i r e s a c t s o f

h i g h c o u r a g e . I n a s e n s e i t i s l i k e a d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n o f t h e d e m a n d s

t h a t G o f f m a n ( 1 9 6 1 ) a s s e r t s t h e t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n i m p o s e s o n p e r s o n s

- i e . i t d e m a n d s t h e i r a l l . T h e t a s k o f b e c o m i n g o u r S e l f a l s o

d e m a n d s o u r a l l . S e e n f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e p r i m a r y a n d

s e c o n d a r y r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e d e m a n d s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l l i f e ( a s

i d e n t i f i e d b y G o f f m a n 1 9 6 1 ) f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c a r r y i n g a r o u n d o f

t h i n g s m a d e s p e c i a l , m i g h t b e s e e n a s c o u r a g e o u s a c t s t o p r e s e r v e a

s e n s e o f a u t o n o m y i n t h e f a c e o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e m a n d s . T h e i n s i g h t s

o f G o f f m a n ( 1 9 6 1 ) r e g a r d i n g t h i n g s ` m a d e s p e c i a l ' c a n b e l i n k e d

w i t h t h e i m p o r t a n c e D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 ) a t t r i b u t e s t o t h e p r a c t i c e s o f

176

a r t a s ` m a k i n g s p e c i a l ' i e . t h e y g o t o t h e e n d s o f h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g

a n d l i v i n g . T h u s , t h e s i m p l e a n d p r e v a l e n t e x a m p l e o f w o m e n p a t i e n t s

c a r r y i n g a r o u n d b u l g i n g h a n d b a g s a n d p l a s t i c s h o p p i n g b a g s c o n t a i n i n g

t h e i r t r e a s u r e d p o s s e s s i o n s m i g h t b e s e e n , n o t o n l y a s e v i d e n c e o f

l a c k o f c a r e i n t h e i r h o s p i t a l e n v i r o n m e n t ( i e . l a c k o f a c c e s s t o a

p r i v a t e a n d s a f e s p a c e ) b u t a l s o a s e v i d e n c e o f a d e t e r m i n e d d e s i r e

t o L i v e a n d r e g a i n a s e n s e o f a u t o n o m y a n d w e l l - b e i n g .

I n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s e n a b l e s t h e s i c k

p e r s o n t o m a k e t h e m S e l v e s a n d t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s a n d

s u f f e r i n g ` s p e c i a l ' - t o p r o p e r l y r e c o g n i z e t h e s e r i o u s i m p a c t t h a t

t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s h a v e o n t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g . I n t h i s s e n s e , a r t c a n

c r e a t e a s a f e s p a c e w h e r e i n t h e n e c e s s a r y r i s k s t o l i v e - a n d t o ` m a k e

s e n s e ' o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s - c a n b e t a k e n . I t w o u l d a p p e a r ,

h o w e v e r , t h a t a s r i s k s i n c r e a s e s o d o e s t h e n e e d f o r c o u r a g e a n d a s

w e i n t r o d u c e m o r e a n d m o r e r i s k s w e g e t c l o s e r a n d c l o s e r t o

c o u r a g e ( s e e N u s s b a u m 1 9 9 0 , p . 3 7 5 ) . T h e u n s e l f i n g o c c a s i o n s ( o f

w h i c h i l l n e s s c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s o n e ) a r e e x p e r i e n c e s o f r i s k -

a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r i n g o f i n c r e a s e d c o u r a g e . S e e n i n t h i s

c o n t e x t , t h e a r t w o r k s t h a t a r e p r o d u c e d i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s i n

r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s o f r i s k , a n x i e t y , a n d u n c e r t a i n t y o u g h t

p r o p e r l y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s m a n i f e s t i n g c o u r a g e a n d h o p e - n o t a s

e v i d e n c e o f a p a t h o l o g y . I f t h e s e a r t w o r k s a r e t h e n m a d e p u b l i c i t

m i g h t a l s o b e p o s s i b l e t o s e e t h e i r e x h i b i t i o n a s d e m o n s t r a t i n g a

f u r t h e r a c c e p t a n c e o f r i s k - a n d a n a c t t h a t i s a l s o r e q u i r i n g o f g r e a t

c o u r a g e . T h e n , h o w e v e r , o u r s e l v e s a s v i e w e r s a r e a l s o i n a p o s i t i o n

w h i c h r e q u i r e s a c o u r a g e o u s s t a n c e . A n a r t w o r k m a k e s v i s i b l e a

p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f p a i n , s u f f e r i n g - o r j o y . A s v i e w e r s w e c a n

177

e n t e r i n t o t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h a t e x p e r i e n c e a n d b e c h a n g e d t h e r e b y .

O r w e c a n d i s t a n c e o u r s e l v e s f r o m i t b y c a t e g o r i z i n g t h e w o r k a s

e v i d e n c e o f a p a t h o l o g y o r b y b e c o m i n g a v o y e u r r a t h e r t h a n a

p a r t n e r i n a r e f l e x i v e d i a l o g u e . T h e c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n o f w h a t i t

m e a n s t o b e h u m a n - a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n o f a r t -

w o u l d d e m a n d t h e f o r m e r r e s p o n s e . I t c o u l d t h e n b e s a i d t h a t t h e

f o r m a t i o n o f n u r t u r i n g a n d s u s t a i n i n g c o m m u n i t i e s m u s t a l s o

e n c o m p a s s n o t i o n s o f r i s k a n d o f c o u r a g e - t h a t t o f o r m c o m m u n i t y

- e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s - i s , i n f a c t , n o t

o n l y a n a c t o f t r u s t , b u t o n e r e q u i r i n g o f c o u r a g e - a n d m i g h t b e

c o n s i d e r e d a n e t h i c a l e n d e a v o u r a s w e l l .

` T o f o r m c o m m u n i t y ' , ` t o t a k e r i s k s ' , ` t o c r e a t e a s a f e s p a c e ' - a l l

t h e s e v a r i o u s d i m e n s i o n s o f a r t e n a b l e t h e s i c k p e r s o n t o t r a n s c e n d

t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f h e a l t h c a r e a s c o n c e i v e d

u n d e r t h e l e g a c y o f a R a t i o n a l i s t n o t i o n o f m e d i c i n e . A r t i n a h e a l t h

c a r e s e t t i n g e n a b l e s t h e s i c k p e r s o n t o t r a n s c e n d t h e ` n o S e l f ' o f

o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n a n d t o ` m a k e v i s i b l e ' t h e c o l o u r s a n d t e x t u r e s o f t h e i r

u n i q u e v o i c e . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r t w o , a r t e v o l v e d t o

e n a b l e u s t o s u r v i v e p r e c i s e l y t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h t h r e a t e n t o

s h r i v e l u p o u r S e l v e s a n d s i l e n c e o u r h o p e s f o r s u r v i v a l .

A r t a l s o e n a b l e s a p e r s o n w h o i s s i c k t o t r a n s c e n d t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f

t h e h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s i t s e l f . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r o n e ,

G o f f m a n ( 1 9 6 1 ) h a s t e r m e d m a n y h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s ` t o t a l

i n s t i t u t i o n s ' w i t h a l l t h e a t t e n d a n t l i m i t a t i o n s a n d p o t e n t i a l t o c a u s e

h a r m t o t h o s e w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g . T h e c a p a c i t y o f a r t t o

178

e n a b l e t h e s i c k t o t r a n s c e n d t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s i s w e l l

i l l u s t r a t e d a s t o r y t o l d b y A d a m s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e f o l l o w i n g a n e c d o t e

a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e M o d e r n d o c t r i n e o f

i n s t r u m e n t a l r e a s o n c a n s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e p o l i c y

a n d p r a c t i c e . T h e m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e t e n s i o n t h a t i s c o m m o n l y

p e r c e i v e d t o e x i s t b e t w e e n c o m p a s s i o n a t e a n d h u m a n e c a r e a n d t h e

d e m a n d s o f e f f i c i e n c y i s h i g h l i g h t e d i n a n e x p e r i e n c e r e c o u n t e d b y

A d a m s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) w h i c h a r o s e i n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s w o r k a s a n a r t i s t i n

p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l s i n t h e 1 9 4 0 s a n d 1 9 5 0 s . A d a m s o n b e g i n s b y

s a y i n g t h a t w h e n p e o p l e w o r k t o g e t h e r o n a p a i n t i n g t h e r e s u l t s a r e

o f t e n s u r p r i s i n g - a n o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t I c o u l d a t t e s t t o f r o m

c o m m u n a l p a i n t i n g s d o n e i n a v a r i e t y o f s e t t i n g s . A d a m s o n

d e t e r m i n e d t o t r y s o m e g r o u p p a i n t i n g s w i t h p a t i e n t s i n a ` c l o s e d

w a r d w h e r e t h e r e s i d e n t s w e r e r e g a r d e d a s v e r y a n t i - s o c i a l ' - s o m e

h a d r e g r e s s e d a n d w o u l d n o t c o m m u n i c a t e . T h e p a i n t i n g s e s s i o n s

w e r e v e r y s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t i n g i n a n ` u n u s u a l l y i n t e g r a t e d p i c t u r e ' .

T h e r e a f t e r , A d a m s o n w a s h a r d p u t t o k e e p t h e s u p p l y o f c a n v a s e s u p

t o t h e r e s i d e n t s . T h e s t a f f r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e y h a d n e v e r s e e n t h e

o c c u p a n t s o f t h a t w a r d w o r k t o g e t h e r i n s u c h h a r m o n y ( e v e n t h o u g h

t h e h a r m o n y b r o k e d o w n a f t e r a t i m e ) . A d a m s o n b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e

h a r m o n i o u s b e n e f i t s m i g h t b e a b l e t o b e s u s t a i n e d f o r l o n g e r a n d

l o n g e r p e r i o d s h a d t h e p e o p l e b e e n a b l e t o k e e p o n w i t h t h e i r

c o m m u n a l p a i n t i n g s . T h e h o s p i t a l a u t h o r i t i e s , h o w e v e r , w o u l d n o t

a l l o w t h e p a i n t i n g s e s s i o n s t o c o n t i n u e b e c a u s e t h e l a r g e c a n v a s e s

w e r e t o o e x p e n s i v e ( A d a m s o n 1 9 8 4 , p . 4 4 ) . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s

o f t h i s s t o r y t h a t I w o u l d l i k e t o h i g h l i g h t a s I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t

m u c h t h e s a m e a t t i t u d e s t i l l a p p l i e s t o d a y - i n n u r s i n g h o m e s , i n

p s y c h i a t r i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n h o s p i t a l s f o r t h e c h r o n i c a l l y i l l a n d

179

d i s a b l e d a n d s o o n . A d a m s o n ' s s t o r y f i r s t l y r a i s e s t h e t y p e o f c a r e

t h a t i s d e e m e d a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h o s e c o n s i d e r e d ` t o o f a r g o n e ' f o r

c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m s o f t h e r a p y a n d t r e a t m e n t ( a l t h o u g h I v e n t u r e t o

s a y t h a t t h e r e s i d e n t s o f t h e c l o s e d w a r d w o u l d b e r e c e i v i n g l a r g e

d o s e s o f s e d a t i n g m e d i c a t i o n ) . S e c o n d l y , i n m a n y h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g l i t t l e t h o u g h t o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g i v e n t o w h a t t y p e o f

t r e a t m e n t i s g i v e n - o t h e r t h a n t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n v a r i o u s t y p e s o f

m e d i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s o r w h e t h e r o n e t y p e o f m e d i c a t i o n i s b e t t e r

t h a n a n o t h e r . T h e c o s t o f m e d i c a t i o n i s s o m e t i m e s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,

b u t n o t t h e r e a s o n n o t t o h a v e i t - a s w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e p a i n t i n g

c a n v a s e s . T h i r d l y , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e p a i n t i n g c a n v a s e s m i g h t

b e a c h e a p e r o p t i o n ( t o s a y n o t h i n g o f m o r e e n j o y a b l e ) i s n o t

c o n s i d e r e d i e . i f p e o p l e a r e h a p p i e r , t h e r e i s o f t e n l e s s n e e d f o r

h e a v y d o s e s o f m e d i c a t i o n a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e c a r e i s m o r e h u m a n e

a n d m o r e e c o n o m i c a l .

I n t h e l i g h t o f a l l t h e a b o v e , t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s r e q u i r e s u s t o r e t h i n k a n d t o c h a l l e n g e M o d e r n p e r c e p t i o n s

o f a r t - a s w e l l a s M o d e r n n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h c a r e p o l i c y a n d p r a c t i c e .

C o n t e m p o r a r y n o t i o n s o f a r t h a v e t e n d e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e

d i s p l a y o f s k i l l s a n d t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e a n d ` b e a u t y ' h a s o f t e n b e e n

d e r o g a t o r i l y d e s c r i b e d a s a ` R o m a n t i c ' i m p u l s e . W h i l e I d o b e l i e v e

t h a t p e o p l e d e s e r v e t o b e t a u g h t t h e ` t o o l s ' o r ` s k i l l s ' o f a r t m a k i n g ,

t h e a e s t h e t i c s e n s e o f ` r i g h t n e s s ' a n d o f ` b e a u t y ' i s n o t d e p e n d e n t

u p o n a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e . R i l k e ' s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f

t h e n o t i o n o f b e a u t y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r t i n e n t w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e

s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t a n d t h e n a t u r e o f b e a u t y i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s ;

180I t i s n o t o n l y t h e h e a r a b l e i n m u s i c t h a t i s i m p o r t a n t ( s o m e t h i n g c a n b e p l e a s a n t t o h e a r w i t h o u t b e i n g t r u e ) W h a t i s d e c i s i v e f o r m e , i n a l l t h e a r t s , i s n o t t h e i r o u t w a r d a p p e a r a n c e , n o t w h a t i s c a l l e d " t h e b e a u t i f u l " , b u t r a t h e r t h e i r d e e p e s t m o s t i n n e r o r i g i n , t h e b u r i e d r e a l i t y t h a t c a l l s f o r t h t h i s e x p e r i e n c e ( R i l k e 1 9 8 6 , p . 3 3 7 ) .

C h a g a l l ' s ( c . 1 9 9 1 ) u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e o f a r t a l s o d i r e c t l y

c h a l l e n g e s t h e M o d e r n c o n c e p t i o n o f a r t w h i c h w o u l d s e e i t a s t h e

p r o v i n c e o f ` t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t s ' . F o r C h a g a l l , i t i s ` c o l o u r n o t

t e c h n i q u e t h a t c o n v e y s a p a i n t e r ' s c h a r a c t e r a n d m e s s a g e . . . a n d w h a t

i n s p i r e s p a i n t i n g s , a s w e l l a s c o l o u r , i s a f t e r a l l , L o v e ' .

I n v i e w o f a l l t h e a b o v e , i t w i l l a l s o b e n e c e s s a r y t o r e t h i n k t h e w a y

i n w h i c h t h e a r t w o r k s p r o d u c e d b y p e o p l e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a r e

p r o p e r l y t o b e r e g a r d e d . T h r o u g h o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h t h e n e e d t o

r e s p e c t t h e a u t o n o m y a n d i n t e g r i t y o f t h e p e r s o n s v a r i o u s S e l v e s h a s

e m e r g e d a s o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s t d e m a n d s o f a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h c a r e .

T h i s w o u l d i n v o l v e r e s p e c t i n g t h e a r t w o r k p r o d u c e d a s a n

e x t e n s i o n o f t h e m S e l v e s - a n d a s s u c h , d e s e r v i n g o f r e s p e c t - a n d

r e v e r e n c e . T h e c l i n i f i c a t i o n s y n d r o m e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n r e f e r r e d t o

i e . a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r s o n i s b r o u g h t u n d e r a c l i n i c a l g a z e a n d

i n t e r p r e t e d i n a c c o r d w i t h m e d i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . A s A l l e n ( 1 9 9 2 )

h a s p o i n t e d o u t , t h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e a r t i s i n t e r p r e t e d t o a c c o r d w i t h

a m e d i c a l d i a g n o s i s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h i s p a i n t i n g i s e v i d e n c e o f

d e p r e s s i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , ( a n d m o r e i n s i d i o u s l y ) i f t h e p e r s o n p a i n t s

a ` d i f f e r e n t ' p i c t u r e - f o r e x a m p l e , p a i n t i n g a s u n w i t h a s m i l i n g f a c e

- t h a t p a i n t i n g i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s e v i d e n c e o f a ` d e n i a l ' o f d e p r e s s i o n .

T h e d i a g n o s i s o f d e n i a l m i g h t t h e n b e u s e d t o s u p p o r t f u r t h e r o r

d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t p l a n s ( s e e A l l e n 1 9 9 2 ) .

181

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , s u c h a s I h a v e o u t l i n e d a b o v e , a r e a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e

o f t h e e f f e c t t h a t a b i o m e d i c a l a p p r o a c h h a s i n t h e c a r e o f p e r s o n s .

T h e p e r s o n ` d r o p s o u t ' a n d w h a t r e m a i n s i s a c l i n i c a l d i a g n o s i s o f

` s o m e t h i n g l e s s t h a n n o r m a l ' . A n i n s t a n c e o f t h i s w a s t h e d i s p l a y o f

s o m e p a i n t i n g s i n a h o s p i t a l e x h i b i t i o n b y t h e e l d e r l y w o m a n I

d e s c r i b e d i n a p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r w h o h a d s u f f e r e d a n u m b e r o f

s t r o k e s a n d h a d t a k e n u p p a i n t i n g w h e n s h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r c r o c h e t .

S h e s a i d o n c e ` I d o n ' t h a v e t o t a k e s o m a n y s l e e p i n g p i l l s n o w . I

d r e a m a b o u t w h a t I a m g o i n g t o p a i n t t o m o r r o w ' . T h i s w o m a n w a s

t i n y . S h e c o u l d o n l y u s e o n e a r m a n d h a d t o p a i n t s i t t i n g d o w n . S h e

w a s w o r k i n g o n s o m e v e r y l a r g e c a n v a s e s - s o s h e ` c o u l d g e t i t a l l

i n ' w h i c h r e q u i r e d t h a t , e i t h e r t h e c a n v a s h a d t o b e m o v e d a l o n g

w h e n n e c e s s a r y , o r s h e , i n h e r c h a i r , m o v e d s o s h e c o u l d r e a c h o t h e r

p a r t s o f t h e c a n v a s . T h e s t a f f i n t h e w a r d w e r e n o t a l w a y s a t t e n t i v e

t o t h e s e n e e d s w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t s o m e c a n v a s e s h a d b l a n k s p a c e s

w h e r e s h e c o u l d n o t r e a c h . A t t h e e x h i b i t i o n , h o w e v e r , t w o

c l i n i c i a n s w e r e i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s e b l a n k s p a c e s a s e v i d e n c e o f

n e u r o l o g i c a l d a m a g e r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e s t r o k e s t h i s w o m a n h a d

s u f f e r e d . I a m n o t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a r t w o r k s c a n n o t r e v e a l t h e

p r e s e n c e o f n e u r o l o g i c a l d a m a g e - o f t e n t h e w o r k o f p e o p l e w h o

h a v e h a d s t r o k e s a n d b r a i n t u m o u r s d o h a v e b l a n k s p o t s o n t h e

o p p o s i t e s i d e t o t h e i n j u r y . I n t h i s w o m a n ' s c a s e , I d o n o t b e l i e v e

t h a t t h i s w a s s o a n d t h e c l i n i c i a n s m i s i n t e r p r e t e d a n d , t h e r e f o r e ,

m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e w o m a n a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h e r w o r k f o r h e r

f l o u r i s h i n g a n d w e l l - b e i n g .

S o m e P a r t i c u l a r E t h i c a l Q u e s t i o n s .

182

A r t m a k i n g i s t o b e c o n c e i v e d a s a n e t h i c a l e n d e a v o u r a n d c e r t a i n

s p e c i f i c e t h i c a l c o n c e r n s e m e r g e f r o m i t s p r a c t i c e i n h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s . A r t m a k i n g p r o v i d e s a s p a c e w h e r e i n t h e f u l l n e s s o f o u r

B e i n g m a y b e a s s e r t e d a n d , w h e n i t h a s b e e n r u p t u r e d o r h a r m e d ,

r e c l a i m e d a n d w h e r e i n w e m a y b e e n a b l e d t o f l o u r i s h . S o m e f u r t h e r

e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s d e s e r v e a f u l l e r , b u t b r i e f , d i s c u s s i o n . F i r s t l y , t h e

q u e s t i o n o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t w o r k s t a k e s o n a p a r t i c u l a r

s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . S e c o n d l y , t h e e t h i c a l

c o n c e r n s w h i c h a r i s e f r o m a r t p r a c t i c e a s c o m m u n a l a c t i v i t i e s w i l l

b e d i s c u s s e d .

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t w o r k s i s a v e x e d q u e s t i o n . I t m u s t b e

a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t a n e x p e r i e n c e o f a n a r t w o r k i s n o d i f f e r e n t t o

a n y o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e w e h a v e i n o u r d a i l y l i v e s i e . t h a t o u r e s s e n t i a l

h u m a n i t y e n t a i l s t h a t w e l i v e a n i n t e r p r e t i v e e x i s t e n c e . S o , i t c o u l d

b e s a i d , t o ` i n t e r p r e t ' i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a

p e r s o n . H o w e v e r , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a t a r e p l a c e d u p o n e v e n t s

( a n d a r t w o r k s ) i n c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g s c a n c a r r y v e r y d i f f e r e n t

i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e h e a l t h a n d f l o u r i s h i n g o f ` t h e a r t i s t ' t h a n t h e y

m i g h t i n n o n - c l i n i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . A s h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s l y d e t a i l e d

i n t h e c h a p t e r e x p l o r i n g t h e f i e l d o f a r t t h e r a p y , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t

w o r k s c a n b e u s e d b y m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s - a n d t h e j u d i c i a r y - t o

n o t o n l y d e t e r m i n e ` t h e s a n i t y ' o f a p e r s o n , b u t w h a t f o r m o f

` i n s a n i t y ' t h e y m i g h t h a v e a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y w h a t f o r m o f t r e a t m e n t

i s d e e m e d a p p r o p r i a t e - i n c l u d i n g b e i n g ` c o m m i t t e d ' t o a m e n t a l

i n s t i t u t i o n .

183

A s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n f r o m p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h i s c h a p t e r ,

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f a r t w o r k s i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s c a n a l s o b e u s e d

a s ` w e a p o n s ' - a s r e i n f o r c i n g a p a r t i c u l a r m e d i c a l d i a g n o s i s a n d

l e g i t m i z i n g t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m s . A d a m s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) r e f u s e d t o

` i n t e r p r e t ' t h e a r t w o r k s p r o d u c e d b y t h e p e o p l e w i t h w h o m h e

w o r k e d . I b e l i e v e t h a t t o b e t h e p r o p e r a n d e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n .

A r t a s a C o m m u n a l A c t i v i t y .

D u r i n g t h e t i m e t h a t I w a s A r t i s t i n R e s i d e n c e a t a r e g i o n a l h o s p i t a l ,

t h e p a t i e n t s a n d s t a f f d i d a n u m b e r o f c o m m u n a l p a i n t i n g s o n

c a n v a s . T h e c a n v a s w a s p l a c e d o n a n e a s e l i n t h e a r t r o o m . A

n u m b e r o f p e o p l e w e r e i n v o l v e d i n d r a w i n g a n d p a i n t i n g t h e c a n v a s -

s o m e t i m e s b r o a d l y s t i c k i n g t o t h e d r a w n o u t l i n e s - s o m e t i m e s

r a d i c a l l y c h a n g i n g t h e o r i g i n a l d r a w i n g . T h e r e w a s , h o w e v e r , n o

d e f i n e d a n d l i m i t e d g r o u p i n v o l v e d i n m a k i n g t h e w o r k o f a r t .

T h i s c o m b i n e d p r o c e s s i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m a c o - a u t h o r s h i p w h e r e t h e

c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f b o t h a r t i s t s o r a u t h o r s a r e m o r e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d i n

t h e i r a r t i c u l a t i o n a n d a t t r i b u t i o n . A n u m b e r o f q u e s t i o n s a r i s e f r o m

t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s w i t h f a r r e a c h i n g r a m i f i c a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , w h o

h a s t h e p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y t o s e t p a r a m e t e r s a n d d i r e c t i o n d u r i n g

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e w o r k ? W h o i s e n t i t l e d t o c l a i m o w n e r s h i p ? W h o

i s e n t i t l e d t o ` T i t l e ' , t o s i g n a n d p r i c e t h e w o r k ? - p r i c i n g a n d t i t l i n g

b e i n g n a m i n g a n d e v a l u a t i v e a c t s w h i c h a r e p o l i t i c a l . W h o h a s t h e

a u t h o r i t y t o s e l l t h e w o r k a n d d e r i v e p r o f i t f r o m i t s s a l e ? W h o

a t t r a c t s t h e p r e s t i g e o f a u t h o r s h i p a n d / o r t h e d i s - a p p r o b a t i o n t h a t

m a y a t t e n d e x h i b i t i o n o r p u b l i c a t i o n ? F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e c o m m u n a l

a r t a c t i v i t i e s c h a l l e n g e c o n t e m p o r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e n a t u r e

184

- a n d t h e v a l u e t h a t i s a s c r i b e d t o - i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t i v i t y , p e r s o n a l

i d e n t i t y , a n d h o w t h e s e r e l a t e t o n o t i o n s o f a u t o n o my a n d c o mmu n i t y .

W h e n I s o u g h t t o d i s c u s s w i t h t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e U n i t t h e e t h i c a l

i s s u e s t h a t I s a w a r i s i n g f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e s e c o m m u n a l w o r k s ,

I w a s g r e e t e d w i t h a b l a n k s t a r e o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n . T h e p r a c t i c e

o f s o m e h o s p i t a l s i s t o s e e a p a t i e n t ' s w o r k - c o m p l e t e d w h i l e t h e

p e r s o n i s i n h o s p i t a l - a s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e h o s p i t a l . I j u d g e t h i s t o

b e a n u n e t h i c a l p r a c t i c e b u t f r o m t h e o v e r v i e w o f a r t t h e r a p y t h a t I

h a v e c o n d u c t e d i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h i s ( r e t a i n i n g o f a r t w o r k s ) h a s

b e e n a n a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p s y c h i a t r i c s e t t i n g s . T h e

a r t w o r k s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o b e a p p r o p r i a t e d b y h e a l t h c a r e

p r o f e s s i o n a l s o r b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e c l i n i c a l c a s e n o t e s o f t h e

p a r t i c u l a r p a t i e n t .

T h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e U n i t w a s r e s o l v e d ( n o t e n t i r e l y t o m y

s a t i s f a c t i o n ) o n t h e b a s i s o f p r a g m a t i s m i e . t h e r e w e r e t o o m a n y

c a n v a s e s t o k e e p w i t h i n t h e U n i t . I t m a i n l y f e l l t o m e t o m a k e s o m e

d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t h e i r f a t e a n d I w o u l d t a k e a g r o u p o f p a t i e n t s a s

` r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ' o f t h e p e o p l e w h o p a i n t e d t h e c a n v a s a n d a s k t h e m

t o ` t i t l e ' a n d p r i c e t h e c a n v a s t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e c o s t o f t h e r a w

m a t e r i a l s . T h e s a l e p r i c e o f a c a n v a s w a s a n a t t e m p t t o f i n d a n

a c c e p t a b l e m a r k e t f i g u r e t h a t w o u l d n o t b e t o o l o w ( s u g g e s t i n g t h a t

t h e w o r k o f ` a m a t e u r ' p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s w a s n o t w o r t h v e r y m u c h )

n o r t o o h i g h a n d t h u s p r i c i n g t h e w o r k s o u t o f t h e m a r k e t . T h e

p r o c e e d s f r o m t h e s a l e o f t h e c a n v a s e s w e r e c h a n n e l l e d b a c k i n t o t h e

g e n e r a l h o s p i t a l f u n d ( t o p a y f o r t h e r a w m a t e r i a l s ) a n d i n t o a

s p e c i a l A r t F u n d t h a t h a d b e e n s e t u p t o f i n a n c e f u r t h e r a r t

185

i n i t i a t i v e s w i t h i n t h e U n i t . O t h e r c a n v a s e s w e r e h u n g i n d i f f e r e n t

a r e a s a r o u n d t h e h o s p i t a l w i t h s o m e o n l o a n t o o t h e r h o s p i t a l s a n d

m e d i c a l s e t t i n g s .

T h e c o m m u n a l c a n v a s e s m i g h t , h o w e v e r , s u g g e s t s o m e d i f f e r e n t w a y s

o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t c o m m u n i t y - p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s . I n o n e s e n s e , a s t h e y a r e p a i n t e d b y b o t h p a t i e n t s a n d

s t a f f , t h e y c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s ` m a k i n g v i s i b l e ' a d i f f e r e n t

a p p r o a c h t o c l i n i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h e r e t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n

` p a t i e n t ' a n d ` s t a f f ' a r e c h a n g e d o r , i n d e e d , s o m e t i m e s d i s a p p e a r .

T h e c l i n i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u l d t h e n b e d e s c r i b e d a s a c o l l a b o r a t i o n

w i t h t h e e n d w o r k - t h e e n h a n c e d f l o u r i s h i n g o f p a t i e n t a n d t h e

c l i n i c i a n - t h e ` h e a l t h ' o f t h e p a t i e n t a n d t h e e n r i c h m e n t o f t h e

c l i n i c i a n - b e i n g s e e n a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h a t c o l l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s b u t

n o t ` o w n e d ' e x c l u s i v e l y b y o n e o r t h e o t h e r .

H o w a n a r t w o r k a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y s e e m s t o ` c o m e t o g e t h e r ' w i t h a

l a r g e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e h a v i n g a h a n d i n i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n - w i t h l i t t l e

o r n o ` e x p e r t ' s u p e r v i s i o n , d i r e c t i o n o r c o n t r o l - i s a q u e s t i o n t h a t

h a s a l w a y s f a s c i n a t e d m e , a n d , h a s o f t e n f i l l e d m e w i t h a w e . O f t e n

d u r i n g s u c h p a i n t i n g s e s s i o n s t h e r e i s a l m o s t c o m p l e t e s i l e n c e i n t h e

a r t r o o m . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e r e w e r e s o m e t i m e s s i x p e o p l e s h a r i n g

a s p a c e o n a c a n v a s t h a t w a s o n l y 6 f t b y 4 f t . S o m e w o u l d b e

s t a n d i n g o n s t o o l s o r c h a i r s t o p a i n t t h e t o p p a r t s o f t h e c a n v a s ,

s o m e w o u l d b e w e a v i n g a r o u n d p o s i t i o n s a t t h e b o t t o m . I t w a s a s

t h o u g h , t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f ` d r o p p i n g d o w n ' i n t o a l e v e l o f

c r e a t i v i t y a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h e p a i n t e r s h a d d e v e l o p e d a n t e n n a e a l l

o v e r t h e i r b o d i e s w h i c h s o u g h t o u t a n d i d e n t i f i e d t h e l i m i t s o f t h e i r

186

` r i g h t ' s p a c e i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r s - p e r s o n i f y i n g t h e c o m m u n a l

h a r m o n y o f a r t m a k i n g a s d e s c r i b e d b y D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 ) i n

c h a p t e r t w o . T h i s s a m e a c c o m m o d a t i o n o c c u r r e d e v e n w h e n s o m e o f

t h e p a t i e n t s w e r e ` p s y c h o t i c ' a n d t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e a r t w o r k

w e r e ` i n a p p r o p r i a t e ' i n a f o r m a l p a i n t i n g s e n s e . F o r e x a m p l e , o n o n e

c a n v a s a ` p s y c h o t i c ' p a t i e n t w a n t e d t o p a i n t b o t h c l o u d s , s u n , r a i n

a n d g r e e n g r a s s o n t h e t o p o f a b u i l d i n g - w h i c h h e d i d . S o m e h o w

t h e m o t l e y c r e w o n t h e r o o f w e r e a b s o r b e d i n t o i t s u n i q u e t e x t u r e -

t h e p a i n t i n g ` c a m e t o g e t h e r ' - a n d t h e c a n v a s m a y p r o v i d e a

m e t a p h o r f o r c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t c a n a c c e p t t h e e c c e n t r i c a n d t h e

` d i f f e r e n t ' .

I t w o u l d b e n a i v e t o s u g g e s t t h a t b e c a u s e s u c h a c c o m m o d a t i o n a n d

c o - o p e r a t i o n w a s a c h i e v e d d u r i n g t h e p a i n t i n g o f a c o m m u n a l c a n v a s

t h a t i t w o u l d a l w a y s a t t e n d t h e m a k i n g o f a r t w o r k s o r w o u l d a l w a y s

b e p r e s e n t i n c l i n i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t

i n a l l m y y e a r s o f w o r k i n g w i t h a r t i n a v a r i e t y o f s e t t i n g s , d i s c o r d

i s e x t r e m e l y r a r e w h i l s t p e o p l e a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i n g -

i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d c o m m u n a l l y - a l t h o u g h , a s A d a m s o n o b s e r v e d o f t h e

` b a c k w a r d ' p a t i e n t s , t h e h a r m o n y a n d c o - o p e r a t i o n c a n , a n d d o e s ,

b r e a k d o w n . I t m i g h t b e t h a t s u c h c o l l a b o r a t i o n w a s p o s s i b l e w a s

b e c a u s e o f t h e i n t r i n s i c n a t u r e o f a r t i t s e l f - a n d b e c a u s e t h e

p a i n t e r s k n e w t h a t t h i s m e t h o d o f a r t m a k i n g w a s n o t t h e o n l y

m e t h o d - i t w a s n o t s e e n a s a c h o i c e b e t w e e n c o m m u n a l w o r k a n d a n

i n d i v i d u a l w o r k . P e r h a p s h a v i n g t h e o p t i o n s a f f o r d e d b y a n

e x t e n d e d h o r i z o n o f a p p r o a c h e s e n a b l e d t h e ` s u s p e n s i o n ' o f

i n d i v i d u a l n e e d s a n d d e s i r e s - a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t y

w a s m a d e p a r t o f a l a r g e r c o m m u n a l w h o l e .

187

F i n a l R e f l e c t i o n s .

A s w e h a v e s e e n o u r e x p e r i e n c e s o f w o r k s o f a r t c a n b e l i k e n e d t o

e x p e r i e n c e s o f f r i e n d s h i p . T h e y c a n a l s o b e d e s c r i b e d a s

e x p e r i e n c e s o f c o m p a s s i o n , t h a t i s , t h e y e n a b l e u s t o s e e a n d f e e l a s

s o m e o n e e l s e s e e s a n d f e e l s . I n t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s O u r S e l v e s a r e

e n l a r g e d a n d e x p a n d e d - w e c o m e t o B e d i f f e r e n t l y . T h i s

c o m p a s s i o n a t e e m p a t h y a n d r e c i p r o c i t y i s a n e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t o f

f r i e n d s h i p a n d o f c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s h i p a n d o f a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h

c a r e p r a c t i c e - w h i c h a s w e h a v e p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d , d i r e c t l y

c h a l l e n g e s a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a p r o p e r c l i n i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p m u s t

r e m a i n a l o o f a n d r e m o v e d f r o m t h e p e r s o n o f t h e p a t i e n t .

T h e r o l e o f t h e a r t i s t o a f f o r d p e o p l e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e f i n e

t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e y w i s h t o b e . I t i s n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h n o t i o n s o f

p a t h o l o g y b u t r a t h e r w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f b e c o m i n g ( s e e A l d r i d g e

1 9 9 3 a ) . A s F o u c a u l t h a s f o r e c a s t t h e a r t s e x i s t t o e n a b l e p e o p l e t o

m a k e t h e i r l i v e s a w o r k o f a r t - t o c r e a t e l i v e s t h a t a r e f u l l o f h o p e ,

m e a n i n g , p u r p o s e a n d v a l u e . T h e ` m e a n i n g o f l i f e ' - t h e r e d e m p t i o n

f r o m a l i e n a t i o n , m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s , f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d i s o l a t i o n - i s

d i s c o v e r e d i n c o n c r e t e a c t s o f c r e a t i o n w h e r e w e t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

f o r a n s w e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s l i f e a s k s o f u s . A s A l d r i d g e

( 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 9 ) h a s i t , t h e c r e a t i v e a c t i s t o t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o

l i v e .

A r t , h o w e v e r , i s n o t g o i n g t o d o i t a l l f o r u s . A r t i s n o t g o i n g t o

c h a n g e h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e i f i t i s m e r e l y a d d e d o n t o e x i s t i n g

s t r u c t u r e s . A r t p r a c t i c e m u s t e n t e r i n t o a r e f l e x i v e d i a l o g u e w i t h

188

h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e a n d b e e s s e n t i a l l y i n f o r m e d a n d c r i t i q u e d b y t h e

v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h o s e w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g . A r t a l o n e

i s n o t g o i n g t o s o l v e t h e s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a t a r e

p r e s e n t l y c a u s i n g s o m u c h h a r m , d e s t r u c t i o n a n d s u f f e r i n g . W h a t i t

c a n d o i s l a y b a r e t h e h a r s h r e a l i t i e s o f a p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f

i l l n e s s a n d b y s o d o i n g a r t s u b v e r t s t h e c u r r e n t i d e o l o g y t h a t w o u l d

h a v e i t , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f p o v e r t y , o f u n e m p l o y m e n t ,

o f i l l n e s s a n d d i s e a s e h a p p e n t o n u m b e r s a n d s t a t i s t i c s - n o t t o

p e r s o n s . A r t , t h e r e f o r e , i s n o t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a c o n t e m p o r a r y

` L e t t h e m e a t c a k e ' - ` L e t t h e m d o a r t ' . N o r i s i t e n o u g h t o g o t o t h e

l a t e s t b l o c k b u s t e r e x h i b i t i o n a n d t h i n k t h a t w e h a v e ` d o n e a r t ' .

W h a t i s r e q u i r e d i s t h a t w e h a v e a n e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f a r t - w e

c a n c o m e t o s e e a s t h a t o t h e r p e r s o n h a s s e e n - a n d w e , a n d o u r

p r a c t i c e s a s a r t i s t s a n d h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s , a r e c h a n g e d

t h e r e b y . T o f l o u r i s h w e a l s o h a v e t o ` d o a r t ' o u r s e l v e s . B y

w h a t e v e r m e d i u m w e m a k e v i s i b l e o u r p e r c e p t i o n s o f r e a l i t y - w e

t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s a y i n g ` S e e m y e x p e r i e n c e o f s u f f e r i n g , o f

p o v e r t y , o f j o y , t h i s w a y ' . T h e a r t o f t h e A I D S Q u i l t , f o r e x a m p l e ,

m a k e s p l a i n t h a t t h e t r a g e d y o f A I D S i s n o t r e v e a l e d i n s t a t i s t i c s - i t

i s r e v e a l e d i n t h e s u f f e r i n g a n d g r i e f o f t h o s e w h o a r e l i v i n g w i t h

A I D S a n d t h o s e w h o m o u r n t h e l o s s o f t h e i r f r i e n d s , f a m i l i e s a n d

c o l l e a g u e s . P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f a r t e n a b l e s u s t o

s u r v i v e , i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d a s a c o m m u n i t y .

A N o t i o n o f C o m m u n i t y F o u n d e d o n B e a u t y .

T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y l i e s i n s e v e r a l

d i r e c t i o n s . A s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d , a r t c a n o p e n u p a s p a c e

189

a ` n o t - a t - h o m e - s p a c e ' w h e r e r e a p p r a i s a l a n d r e v a l u a t i o n m i g h t b e

p o s s i b l e - o f w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s c o m m u n i t y , o f w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a n

e t h i c a l c a r e o f s i c k p e r s o n s a n d t h e r e f o r e w h a t d o e s i t m e a n t o b e a

h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d a n a r t i s t . I n m a k i n g u s t a k e a c c o u n t

a n d ` p a y a t t e n t i o n ' t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f a p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f

i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g , a r t c a n m a k e p l a i n t h e i m m o r a l i t y o f a n

e c o n o m i c r a t i o n a l i s m w h i c h a r g u e s a b o u t m o r a l v a l u e s b y w a y o f

n u m b e r s - a s t h o u g h o n e p e r s o n ' s s u f f e r i n g i s a f r a c t i o n o f a n o t h e r

( s e e B e c k e r 1 9 9 4 ) . A r t m u s t b e p r a c t i c a l b e c a u s e i t m u s t s e r v e

e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s w h i c h e n a b l e p e r s o n s a n d t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s

t o s u r v i v e e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t t h r e a t e n t h e s u r v i v a l o f b o t h .

A r t c a n n o t c h a n g e t h e w o r l d b u t i t c a n c h a n g e t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f

p e o p l e w h o m a y b e a b l e t o b r i n g a b o u t n e e d e d c h a n g e s ( M a r c u s e

1 9 7 8 ) . I d o n o t t h i n k t h a t s u c h c h a n g e s w i l l c o m e a b o u t e a s i l y - b u t

a s I h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d , t h e A I D S Q u i l t m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a

m o d e l o f p r a x i s - e x e m p l i f y i n g t h a t a r t c a n b e a c a t a l y s t f o r h e a l i n g

a n d c a n i n v i t e p e o p l e t o r a d i c a l l y c h a n g e t h e i r w a y s o f ` t h i n k i n g '

a n d B e i n g . I w o u l d a l s o a d o p t t h e h o p e o f C h a g a l l ( c 1 9 9 1 ) - t h a t i n

A r t a s w e l l a s l i f e , a n y t h i n g i s p o s s i b l e , p r o v i d e d t h e r e i s L o v e .

H o w e v e r , c h a n g e s i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s d o n o t h a p p e n ` o u t t h e r e ' - o r

o n l y t o ` o t h e r p e o p l e ' . A s I h a v e a r g u e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h ,

t h e r a d i c a l n a t u r e o f a r t i s t o b e f o u n d i n e a c h o f o u r e v e r y d a y

e x p e r i e n c e s - a n d I d o n o t b e l i e v e t h a t a n y ` t h e o r y o f q u a l i t y

a s s u r a n c e ' o r a n y a d o p t i o n o f a p o s i t i o n t h a t ` o u r p r o f e s s i o n i s a n

a r t ' c a n r e l i e v e u s f r o m t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r e f l e c t i n g c r i t i c a l l y o n

o u r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s .

190

I t i s i n t h i s ` n e w c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' a n d i n t h e s h a r i n g o f t h e

m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s u f f e r i n g - a n d o f h o p e - t h a t I b e l i e v e a

r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n b e f o u n d b e t w e e n a r t , h e a l i n g , e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s

t h a t w i l l s u s t a i n s o m e d i f f e r e n t n o t i o n s o f c o m m u n i t y a n d h e a l t h

c a r e p r a c t i c e . T h e n e w c o n s c i o u s n e s s h a s t o b a l a n c e t h e ` i s l a n d s o f

g o o d ' , a n d t h e ` b e a u t i f u l m o m e n t s ' - a n d t h u s n u r t u r e t h e ` m o r a l

s p a c e s ' o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a t o p e n u p a n d r e s i s t t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t

m u c h o f m o d e r n s o c i e t y i s f e a r f u l o f b e i n g c a u g h t i n a n y s o r t o f

b e l i e f t h a t s p e a k s o f a c o s m o s o f h o p e t h a t c a n c o m e a b o u t f r o m

i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t ( s e e B a r z u n 1 9 7 4 ; a n d M a r c u s e 1 9 8 6 ) . I t i s ,

p e r h a p s , p r e c i s e l y , i n t h o s e m o m e n t s o f b e a u t y w h e r e a r t m i g h t

s p e a k o f r e d e m p t i o n .

A n o t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y a n d a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h c a r e b a s e d o n s u c h

m o m e n t s o f b e a u t y i s n o t , I b e l i e v e , p u r e l y u t o p i a n . I t w i l l r e q u i r e

a r e t h i n k i n g o f n o t i o n s o f c o m m u n i t y , n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h a n d h e a l i n g ,

w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e h u m a n a n d a r e t h i n k i n g o f t h e v a l u e o f w o r k s o f

a r t . R e t h i n k i n g t h e v a l u e o f w o r k s o f a r t m e a n s r e v e r s i n g s o m e

p r e v i o u s n o t i o n s o f a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s M e r t o n ( i n

M c D o n n e l l e d . 1 9 8 9 , p . 3 8 9 ) h a s i t , a r t c a n o n l y b e a p p r e h e n d e d i n a

c o m p a r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e i e . p o e t r y c a n o n l y b e a p p r e h e n d e d b y a

f u r t h e r p o e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . A r t , t h e n , i n v i t e s - o r d e m a n d s - t h a t w e

d e v e l o p a n a e s t h e t i c , c o n t e m p l a t i v e a n d r e f l e c t i v e a t t i t u d e ( s e e a l s o

A r t s I n j e c t i o n 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 ) . S u c h a n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s a r t i n a h e a l t h

c a r e s e t t i n g w o u l d d i r e c t l y c h a l l e n g e t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e w o r k o f

a p a t i e n t c a n b e ` r e a d ' a n d i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h e s a m e w a y a s a b l o o d

t e s t o r X - r a y . T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y p l a c e d u p o n t h e v i e w e r w i l l a l s o

r e q u i r e t h a t t h e r o l e o f i n t e r p r e t e r ( m a d e n e c e s s a r y b y t h e a d v e n t

191

o f a M o d e r n a r t d i v o r c e d f r o m l i f e ) m u s t g i v e w a y t o a n e w

r e s p o n s i v e a n d r e s p o n s i b l e c o n s c i o u s n e s s b r o u g h t t o b i r t h i n t h e

i n d i v i d u a l .

I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t w e h a v e a s p i r i t u a l l o n g i n g f o r c o m m u n i t y

a n d r e l a t e d n e s s a n d f o r a c o s m i c v i s i o n ( M o o r e 1 9 9 2 , p . 2 0 8 ) . T o

a c h i e v e t h e s e t h i n g s a n e w a e s t h e t i c i s r e q u i r e d - o n e t h a t i s m o r e

e c o l o g i c a l l y b a s e d b e c a u s e , a s B a t e s o n ( i n F u l l e r 1 9 8 6 , p . 2 8 ) h a s

s u g g e s t e d , m o s t o f u s h a v e l o s t t h a t s e n s e o f u n i t y o f b i o s p h e r e a n d

h u m a n i t y w h i c h w o u l d b i n d a n d r e a s s u r e u s a l l w i t h a n a f f i r m a t i o n

o f b e a u t y .

W h e r e d o e s a l l t h e a b o v e l e a v e u s w i t h r e s p e c t t o a s e n s e o f

c o m m u n i t y f o u n d e d o n a n a e s t h e t i c s e n s e o f t h e b e a u t y o f h u m a n

i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s ? I t m e a n s a p r o f o u n d r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t n o t o n l y d o

w e c r e a t e a r t a n d p o e t r y , b u t t h a t w e a r e a l s o c r e a t e d a n d r e - c r e a t e d

b y o u r e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e a r t a n d p o e t r y o f e a c h o t h e r . B a r z u n

( 1 9 7 4 ) h a s d e s c r i b e d t h i s p r e s e n t a g e a s b e i n g c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a

` v a c u u m o f b e l i e f ' - a f e a r o f b e i n g c a u g h t o u t i n a b e l i e f . T h e n e w

c o n s c i o u s n e s s d e m a n d s , h o w e v e r , t h a t w e d o b e l i e v e , i n a r t a n d t h e

` b e a u t i f u l m o m e n t ' w h i c h c a n e n a b l e a p r o p e r c a r e f o r a l l p e r s o n s -

p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g . I f t h e s e n s e o f

i s o l a t i o n a n d l a c k o f c o n n e c t i o n f e l t b y s o m a n y i n h e a l t h c a r e

s e t t i n g s i s t o b e h e a l e d i t r e q u i r e s a b e l i e f t h a t , n o t o n l y c a n o u r

l i v e s b e w o r k s o f a r t , b u t t h a t o u r a e s t h e t i c e n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e

b e a u t y o f a n o t h e r c a n s h a r e m a n y o f t h e s a m e q u a l i t i e s a s o u r

e n c o u n t e r s w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l w o r k s o f a r t . P e r h a p s , t h e n , i t w i l l b e

p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y f o r w a r d t h e h o p e p r o m i s e d b y t h o s e ` i s l a n d s ' o f

192

g o o d n e s s a n d b e a u t y , t h o s e ` e n c o u n t e r s . . w h i c h m a k e p e r c e p t i b l e ,

v i s i b l e a n d a u d i b l e t h a t w h i c h i s n o l o n g e r , o r n o t y e t , p e r c e i v e d ,

s a i d a n d h e a r d i n e v e r y d a y l i f e ' ( M a r c u s e 1 9 7 8 , p . 7 2 ) .

T h i s r e s e a r c h b e g a n w i t h t h e l a n d s c a p e o f m y e x p e r i e n c e s w o r k i n g i n

a v a r i e t y o f h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s - n o t a b l y t h o s e w h e r e I w o r k e d w i t h

p e o p l e l i v i n g w i t h A I D S a n d w i t h t h o s e l i v i n g w i t h a m e n t a l i l l n e s s .

A c o n s t a n t t h r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n t h e n e e d t o

` s e e ' m a n y n o t i o n s d i f f e r e n t l y . W h a t m i g h t b e a l s o r e q u i r e d i n t h i s

t i m e i s t o t h i n k o f k n o w l e d g e i n t e r m s o f l o v e - a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f

M a r i t a i n ' s ( 1 9 7 2 ) t h o u g h t s w h e n h e s a y s w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e m u s t

c o m e f r o m a d e l i g h t a n d l o v i n g - t h a t w i t h o u t d e l i g h t a n d l o v e

( a n d B e a u t y ) i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o m o v e f r o m t h e a n a l y s i s o f

i n f o r m a t i o n a n d f a c t s i n t o t h e p l e a s u r e , d e l i g h t , a n d h u m i l i t y o f a

k n o w i n g w i s d o m ( s e e a l s o H a r t 1 9 9 4 ) . T h i s w o u l d b r i n g u s ` s l a p u p

a g a i n s t ' s o m e m o d e r n p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t k n o w l e d g e ( w i s d o m ) c a n b e

l e a r n e d . A s I h a v e a r g u e d p r e v i o u s l y t h e w i s d o m t h a t w e n e e d t o

e n a b l e o u r S e l v e s t o f l o u r i s h i n t h e f u l l n e s s o f o u r B e i n g s c a n n o t b e

l e a r n e d - i t m u s t b e g a i n e d ( a p p r e h e n d e d ) b y r e f l e c t i o n a n d

c o n t e m p l a t i o n . T h e l a n d s c a p e o f o u r B e c o m i n g i s l i k e M c C a h o n ' s

l a n d - k n o w i n g i t a n d l o v i n g i t i s p a i n f u l a n d t a k e s a l o n g t i m e .

T h a t k n o w i n g a n d l o v i n g m a y b e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g

w h i c h i s t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g w h o l e a n d i n t e g r a t e d b u t w h i c h

d o e s n o t a l w a y s p a r a l l e l t h e p h y s i c a l w h o l e n e s s o f o u r b o d i e s .

T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a f u r t h e r p o i n t t h a t M o d j e s k a ( 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 1 8 )

i l l u s t r a t e s ;

a n d I ' v e h e a r d i t s a i d b y o t h e r s s i m i l a r l y a f f l i c t e d w i t h i l l n e s s , o r g r i e f , o r l o s s e s o f o t h e r k i n d s , t h a t b y b e i n g f o r c e d t o l i v e w i t h a c u r t a i l m e n t n o t o f o n e c h o o s i n g , t h e r e c a n b e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g e x p a n s i o n i n t h e h e a r t ' s c a p a c i t y .

193

I f t h i s p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g w h o l e - e x p a n d i n g o u r h e a r t s - m u s t , t o a

c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t a k e p l a c e ` a l o n e u n d e r t h e s k y ' , w i t h i n o u r o w n

l a n d s c a p e , w h a t i s t o b e e x p e c t e d i n o u r o w n D e s e r t ? N o t h i n g l e s s

t h a n c a n b e e x p e c t e d i n o u r S e l v e s . T h e d i men s i o n s t h a t may b e f o u n d

i n t h a t S e l f m a y c o n f r o n t a n d c h a l l e n g e s o m e m o d e r n n o t i o n s o f S e l f

a s i s o l a t e d , a u t o n o m o u s a n d i n d e p e n d e n t a n d c a n l a y t h e f o u n d a t i o n s

f o r s o m e n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e n a t u r e o f p e r s o n i n c o m m u n i t y .

H o w c a n h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e a n d a r t p r a c t i c e c o m e t o g e t h e r t o b e t t e r

c a r e f o r t h e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g a n d h o w d o w e d e f i n e - o r a t l e a s t

c o n c e p t u a l i z e - n o t i o n s o f c o m m u n i t y f r o m w h i c h b o t h t h e s e

p r a c t i c e s s h o u l d s p r i n g - a n d b e c r i t i q u e d ? A l o n g w i t h a l l t h e o t h e r

n o t i o n s a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d - n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h , h e a l i n g , a r t , e t h i c s ,

a e s t h e t i c s , m o r a l i t y - I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o h a v e

o n e s i n g l e n o t i o n o f w h a t m i g h t c o n s t i t u t e a c o m m u n i t y . I w o u l d

a r g u e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e j u s t i c e o f c a r e w o u l d p l a c e e q u a l d e m a n d s

u p o n e a c h n o t i o n - t h a t t h e y n u r t u r e , c a r e f o r a n d s u s t a i n t h o s e

p e o p l e w h o m i g h t c o m e w i t h i n t h e m - r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t i t i s o u r

c o m m o n h u m a n i t y t h a t u n i t e s u s - n o t g e n d e r o r g e o g r a p h y .

O n e o f t h e t h e m e s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n t h e n o t i o n o f a ` t e a c h e r '

- o u r e x p e r i e n c e s t e a c h u s , n u d g e u s t o w a r d s a f u l l n e s s o f B e i n g .

O u r d i a l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r n o t o n l y

e n a b l e u s t o l e a r n o f t h e i r t r u t h s b u t t o e x p a n d o u r s a s w e l l . O u r

e x p e r i e n c e s o f a r t t e a c h u s n o t o n l y w h o w e a r e - a n d w h o w e m a y

b e c o m e , b u t i n v i t e u s i n t o a c o m m u n i t y o f s o u l s w h o , a s M a r c u s e

( 1 9 7 8 ) s a y s , i f w e a l l o w o u r c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o b e c o m e c h a n g e d , c a n

b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e s i n t h e w o r l d . O u r e x p e r i e n c e s - o f a r t , o f e a c h

194

o t h e r , o f s i c k n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g - h a v e o p e n e d u p a s p a c e w h e r e i t i s

p o s s i b l e t o c o m p r e h e n d t h a t ` B e a u t y ' a n d t h e l o v i n g t h a t i s n e e d e d

f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e f u l l n e s s o f o u r B e i n g i s r a r e l y ` g l e e f u l '

a n d c a n a t t i m e s b e t e r r i f y i n g a n d b r i n g u s t o t h e b r i n k o f d e a t h , s o

t h a t g r e a t c o u r a g e i s r e q u i r e d s o t h a t w e c a n t a k e t h e r i s k s t h a t l i f e

a s k s o f u s ( s e e D e w e y 1 9 8 0 ; M c C a h o n 1 9 8 8 ) .

M a n y w r i t e r s h a v e s a i d t h a t t h i s p r e s e n t p e r i o d i s a t i m e w h i c h i s

u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n h u m a n h i s t o r y . T h e o l d w a y s h a v e n o t p r o v e d u p

t o t h e t a s k t h a t p r e s e n t l y c o n f r o n t s u s - a s R a n k ( 1 9 8 9 ) h a s s a i d ( a n d

I w o u l d n o t p u t i t a n y l e s s o n e r o u s l y ) - w e s t i l l h a v e n o t r e a l l y c o m e

t o c o m p r e h e n d a n e w w a y o f b e i n g h u m a n t h a t i s d e m a n d e d b y t h e

p r e s e n t t i m e a n d b y t h e p r e s e n t c a p a c i t i e s t h a t w e n o w h a v e - n o t

o n l y f o r d e s t r u c t i o n b u t f o r t h e e n a b l i n g o f a n e w h u m a n i t y . W h a t i s

d e m a n d e d i s a n e w r e l i g i o u s a n d s p i r i t u a l a t t i t u d e a l t h o u g h I d o n o t

t h i n k t h i s m i g h t n e c e s s a r i l y c o m e f r o m s o m e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

f o r m u l a s ( i n t h i s r e s p e c t t h e s i t u a t i o n m a y b e a k i n t o t h e o l d s t y l e

m e n t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w h e r e t h e c u l t u r e o f o n e m i n d s e t i s s o e n t r e n c h e d

- a n d h a s b e e n f o r a n u m b e r o f g e n e r a t i o n s ) t h a t i t m i g h t p r o v e

i m p o s s i b l e t o r e t h i n k w i t h i n t h e p r e s e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d c u l t u r e .

B r a d y ( 1 9 9 5 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t o u r g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n A b o r i g i n a l

s p i r i t u a l i t y m a y b e ` a m o m e n t o f g r a c e ' b r e a k i n g i n t o o u r W e s t e r n

w a y s o f t h i n k i n g a n d w h i c h m a y p r o v i d e s o m e a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e t a s k .

I n t h i s I w o u l d a g r e e s o l o n g a s w e d o n o t m a k e t h e m i s t a k e o f

l o s i n g t h e r e s p e c t f o r t h e O t h e r - a n d t h i n k i n g o u r p r o b l e m s m a y b e

s o l v e d b y b e c o m i n g A b o r i g i n a l - a n d t h e n d e n y i n g t h e r i c h n e s s o f

o u r o w n S e l v e s . A s B r a d y ( 1 9 9 5 ) s a y s w e a r e n o t A b o r i g i n a l , w e

h a v e a v e r y d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e , a v e r y d i f f e r e n t l i f e s t y l e , s o m e v e r y

195

d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h c o n t a i n m a n y r i c h e s , a s w e l l a s m a n y

e v i l s . W h a t m a y b e d e m a n d e d i s t h a t w e h a v e t o u n l e a r n s o m e o l d

w a y s o f s e e i n g a n d t o e n d e a v o u r t o l e a r n s o m e n e w o n e s ( s e e M e r t o n

1 9 8 8 ) . W e m a y h a v e t o l e a r n a n A b o r i g i n a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a n

a b o r i g i n a l i t y o f e m b e d d e d n e s s o r e m b o d i n e s s i n t h e w o r l d . T h i s i s

w h a t I b e l i e v e R a n k ( 1 9 8 9 ) w a s s u g g e s t i n g w h e n h e s a i d t h e i m p u l s e

f o r a r t a n d r e l i g i o n w a s a i m i n g a t - a r e c r e a t i o n o f a s e n s e o f

i n t e g r a l u n i t y a n d i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h t h e u n i v e r s e t h a t w e o n c e

e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h i n t h e w o m b . T h e n e c e s s a r y d e p e n d e n c e t h a t w e

h a d a s a n u n b o r n c a n a l s o b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t o u r

s u r v i v a l i s i n t e g r a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s u r v i v a l o f o t h e r s a n d t h e o t h e r .

A r t m a k i n g , t o o , m a k e s p l a i n t h a t w e a r e o f t e n d e p e n d e n t u p o n a n

i n t e g r a t i n g f o r c e t h a t i s n o t o f o u r o w n m a k i n g - w e s e t o u t t o p a i n t

a p i c t u r e i n a c e r t a i n w a y o n l y t o f i n d t h a t a ` s u d d e n i n s p i r a t i o n '

m i g h t t u r n t h e p a i n t i n g i n t o s o m e t h i n g c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t . B u t a r t

p r a c t i c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h o s e ` i n s p i r a t i o n s ' o r ` i n s i g h t s ' c a n n o t b e

p r o g r a m m e d o r c o n t r o l l e d - a l t h o u g h w e c a n c o n t r o l w h a t w e d o w i t h

t h e m w h e n t h e y c o m e . H o w e v e r , a s m a n y a r t i s t s h a v e a t t e s t e d , i f w e

w e r e a b l e t o c o m m a n d t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s a t w i l l w e w o u l d n o t f e e l

t h e d e p t h s o f d e s p a i r a n d h e l p l e s s n e s s t h a t w e d o f e e l w h e n t h e y d o

n o t a r r i v e w h e n w e w o u l d l i k e t h e m t o . I n t h i s s e n s e w e c a n

u n d e r s t a n d t h a t o n e o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f f l o u r i s h i n g i s t o r e l e a r n

a n o b e d i e n t l i s t e n i n g - t o b e p a s s i v e b u t a t t e n t i v e , r e a d y f o r w h e n

t h e m u s e - o r G o d a p p e a r s . T h e a b i l i t y t o l i s t e n r e q u i r e s t h e

c u l t i v a t i o n o f a c o n t e m p l a t i v e a t t i t u d e o f t r u s t a n d p a t i e n c e w h i c h

e n h a n c e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t w h a t w e h a v e t o l i s t e n f o r w i l l n o t b e

d r o w n e d o u t b y a b a r r a g e o f n o i s e a n d c o n s t a n t a c t i v i t y . T h i s

c o n t e m p l a t i v e a t t i t u d e c o u l d b e c a l l e d c r e a t i n g o r e n a b l i n g a d e s e r t

196

t o e x i s t w i t h i n u s - a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e D e s e r t i n b i b l i c a l t e r m s a s

a p l a c e w h e r e w e c o m e t o t h e e n d o f o u r h u m a n l i m i t a t i o n s .

C o n c l u s i o n .

A n d t h i s m i g h t b e a w a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n o t i o n s o f a r t , t h e

` d e s e r t ' - a n d h e a l i n g . N o t a s a r e f u g e ( w h i c h i t i s ) n o r a s a n e s c a p e

f r o m o r d i n a r y l i f e ( w h i c h i t i s ) b u t a s e n a b l i n g a n d c a l l i n g f o r a

d i f f e r e n t t y p e o f l i s t e n i n g . A d y i n g m a n p a i n t e d t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f

t h i s r e s e a r c h . B e f o r e t h e a r t w o r k t h a t w a s h i m s e l f t h e p r o p e r

a t t i t u d e m i g h t b e o n e o f a w e , g r a t i t u d e , d e l i g h t a n d w o n d e r m e n t .

B a r z u n ( 1 9 7 4 ) h a s s a i d t h e l a s t w o r d o n a r t s h o u l d b e ` m y s t e r y ' - a

m y s t e r y t h a t s e e k s t o m a i n t a i n a n d n o u r i s h t h i s a w e a n d w o n d e r m e n t

- a r e c o g n i z i n g ` k n o w i n g ' a c c e p t a n c e o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n .

197

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