the epistemology of

dxt dxt

THE EPISTEMOLOGY OFIBN KHALD$N

This is an analytical examination of Ibn Khaldnrsquos epistemology centred onChapter Six of the Muqaddima In this chapter entitled ldquoThe Book ofKnowledgerdquo (Kitb al-lsquoIlm) Ibn Khaldn sketched his general ideas aboutknowledge and science and its relationship with human social organisationand the establishment of civilisation

Zaid Ahmad investigates the philosophical foundation of Ibn Khaldnrsquosconcept of knowledge the hierarchical order of science and the sociologicalcontext in which knowledge and science can be transformed into the forcethat determines the prosperity of a civilisation

Zaid Ahmad is Senior Lecturer in Philosophy and Civilisational Studies atUniversiti Putra Malaysia He lectures on various key areas in PhilosophyEthics Islamic Thought History and Civilisational Studies Among his latestpublications is ldquoEpistemology and the Human Dimension in Urban Studiesrdquoin Urban Issues and Challenges Kuala Lumpur

CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION INTHE MIDDLE EAST

Series editorIan R Netton

University of Leeds

This series studies the Middle East through the twin foci of its diverse culturesand civilizations Comprising original monographs as well as scholarly surveysit covers topics in the fields of Middle Eastern literature archaeology lawhistory philosophy science folklore art architecture and language Whilethere is a plurality of views the series presents serious scholarship in a lucidand stimulating fashion

THE EPISTEMOLOGYOF IBN KHALD$N

Zaid Ahmad

First published 2003 by RoutledgeCurzon

11 New Fetter Lane London EC4P 4EE

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby RoutledgeCurzon

29 West 35th Street New York NY 10001

RoutledgeCurzon is an imprint of the Taylor

amp Francis Group

copy 2003 Zaid Ahmad

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproducedor utilised in any form or by any electronic mechanical or other means

now known or hereafter invented including photocopying andrecording or in any information storage or retrieval system without

permission in writing from the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataAhmad Zaid 1962ndash

The epistemology of Ibn Khaldn Zaid Ahmadp cm (Culture and civilization in the Middle East)Includes bibliographical references (p ) and index

1 Ibn Khaldn 1337ndash1406 Kitb al lsquoibar al-Muqaddimah2 Ibn Khaldn 1332ndash1406mdashContributions in the theory of knowledge

3 Knowledge Theory of 4 Civilization Islamic I Title II Cultureand civilisation in the Middle East

D167I23A36 2003001rsquo092ndashdc21

2002037181

ISBN 0ndash415ndash30285ndash4

This edition published in the Taylor amp Francis e-Library 2004

ISBN 0-203-63389-X Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-63731-3 (Adobe eReader Format)(Print Edition)

To my wife Zuhira and my children AlbiyHanan Tareq and Farouq

C O N T E N T S

vii

CONTENTS

Foreword xAcknowledgements xiiAbbreviations xiii

General introduction 1Aim and justification of study 2Some notes on methodology and approach 2

1 Introductory materials to the study of Chapter 6 ofthe Muqaddima 4Introduction 4Sources and influences 6Textual variants short and long versions of the introductory remarks 11The growth of the text 18Connection of the introductory materials with the contents of Chapter 6 19Excursus 19

2 Man as thinking animal a philosophical introduction to humanpsychology and the establishment of social organisation 21The significance of fikr 21The importance of co-operation (tapoundwun) 22The process of knowledge 23The need for prophecy 24The nature of crafts and scientific instruction 25The contemporary situation 27Urban culture and the improvement of the soul 29Urban culture and political stability improve the advancement of science 31Excursus 32

C O N T E N T S

viii

3 The division of the sciences 33The basic division of the sciences 33The traditional sciences 37The sciences of the Quran and the sunna 38The law 43The science of speculative theology (lsquoilm al-kalm) 50Ambiguity in the Quran and the sunna and the dogmatic schools of

orthodox and innovators 58Sufism and the spiritual sciences 64

4 The intellectual sciences (al-lsquoulm al-poundaqliyya) 76Introduction 76The science of logic (poundilm al-man_iq) 79Metaphysics (poundulm al-ilhiyyt) 82The significance of the intellectual sciences (al-lsquoulm al-lsquoaqliyya) 86The sciences of sorcery and the use of talismans 87Refutation of philosophy (ib_l al-falsafa) 90

5 Scholarship as a science and pedagogical method 99Introduction 99Problems and obstacles 105The value of the short summary (ikhtir) and good pedagogical

method 107The character of instrumentalauxiliary sciences (al-lsquoulm al-liyya) 112Instruction ndash elementary education (tapoundl+m al-wildn) 116Perfection in knowledge and the role of language 120Scholars and politics 122Islamic scholarship the non-Arab and the role of language 124

6 Language and literature 129Introduction 129The science of the Arabic language (poundulm lisn al-poundArab) 130The science of literature (poundilm al-adab) 133Excursus 134The nature and development of language 135Linguistic taste and the position of classical Arabic 142Poetry and prose 147Excursus 154

C O N T E N T S

ix

7 Conclusions and findings 156Assessment of Ibn Khaldnrsquos theoretical foundation 156Concluding remarks and findings 158

Notes 163Bibliography 181Index 187

F O R E W O R D

x

FO REWO RD

Ibn Khaldn is a thinker it is very difficult to classify He is chiefly knowntoday as a social thinker and there is no doubt about the perspicacity of hiswritings on politics and the sorts of rules which we should employ whenanalysing the state What we notice when we examine his political thoughtis his capacity to balance his theoretical constructions with his practicalobservations on everyday life and throughout the Muqaddima we see thatsort of balance being established Here we find Ibn Khaldn in his role as thecritic of philosophy yet using philosophical methods to attack the pretensionsof what he sees as an overambitious reliance on reason In other places herepresents a form of Sufism which eschews the sort of subjectivity and esotericextravagance of which he so much disapproved For him Sufism was onlyrespectable if it was practised firmly within the context of orthodox Islam inline with the normal rules and institutions of the sunni world In fact thevery name of this text the Muqaddima implies the attempt to lay out a prole-gomenon to something more axiomatic in structure a volume of principlesbased solidly on historical fact which was in fact a text produced in duecourse by Ibn Khaldn

On the other hand we should not get too enmeshed in the title of thework which came to be called the Muqaddima since this is obviously supposedto be more than just a preparatory text In his historical work Ibn Khaldnproduces a careful balance between descriptions of fact and his explanationsof the wider principles which those facts exemplify and in his Muqaddima heexplains how that balance is to be constituted In a well-known expressionhe suggests that human reason which is appropriate to weigh gold is oftenused to weigh mountains A suspicion of theory runs throughout Ibn Khaldnrsquoswork a suspicion which is based on the idea that we often allow our enthusiasmfor a particular form of thought to run away with us The Muqaddima is intentto put everything in its place and we see this outlined in the analysis whichis presented here of Chapter 6 by Dr Ahmad It is to be hoped that similarstudies will in time be produced of other parts of this key work Only through

xi

F O R E W O R D

the systematic investigation of each aspect of Ibn Khaldnrsquos Muqaddima willwe be able to appreciate the depth of his intellectual work as a whole

Oliver Leaman

xii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a great pleasure to have this opportunity to record my thanks to severalpersons who directly or indirectly have been involved in the preparation ofthis work First and foremost among them is Professor G Rex Smith of theUniversity of Manchester for the generosity with which he shared his mostvaluable time knowledge and experience with me I must also record myindebtedness to the late Dr Norman Calder with whom I worked initiallyHis thinking was provocative especially when we were in disagreement buthis supervisory skill was remarkable His tragic departure while I was stillworking on the early stages of this book was indeed very distressing

My profuse thanks also go to Professor Oliver Leaman of the University ofKentucky Professor Ian Richard Netton of the University of Leeds and LucySwainson of RoutledgeCurzon for their invaluable assistance in making thisbook a reality

I must also extend my gratitude to Dr Colin Imber and the staff of theDepartment of Middle Eastern Studies University of Manchester for theirassistance during my academic sojourn in the United Kingdom and toProfessor Jayum A Jawan and colleagues in the Department of Social Scienceand Development Universiti Putra Malaysia for their consistent support andencouragement

Zaid AhmadApril 2002

A B B R E V I AT I O N S

xiii

ABBREVIATIONS

BDTCST The Blackwell Dictionary of Twentieth Century SocialThought

BFACU Bulletin of the Faculty of Arts Cairo UniversityBr Tr+kh al-poundAllma Ibn Khaldn Ibn Khaldn (Beirut

edition)Concordance Concordance et Indices de la Tradition Musulmane

AJ Wensinck (8 vols)EI1 The Encyclopaedia of Islam (first edition)EI2 The Encyclopaedia of Islam (new edition)EP The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (8 vols)ER The Encyclopedia of ReligionERE Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (12 vols)GAS Geschichte des Arabischen SchriftumsIC Islamic CultureIJMES International Journal of Middle Eastern StudiesIQ Islamic QuarterlyJAAS Journal of Asian and African StudiesJAL Journal of Arabic LiteratureJESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the OrientMahrajn Apoundml Mahrajn Ibn KhaldnMR The Maghrib ReviewMS(S) Manuscript(s)MSEP The Macmillan Student Encyclopaedia of PhilosophyMW The Muslim WorldOEMIW The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Modern Islamic World (4

vols)OH Orientalia HispanicaQ Muqaddima Ibn Khaldn (Arabic text) ed

EMQuatremegravere (3 vols)Qr Quran

xiv


R The Muqaddimah (English translation) tr F Rosenthal (3vols)

RDSO Rivista degli Studi OrientaliREP Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (8 vols)SUFI Journal Sufi

G E N E R A L I N T R O D U C T I O N

1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

It was about ten years ago when I first started my academic career as lecturerin the Department of Social Sciences (now Department of Social DevelopmentStudies) at the University of Agriculture Malaysia (now Universiti Putra ofMalaysia) that my interest in inquiring into Ibn Khaldnrsquos philosophical ideasbegan to arise One of my duties was to give lectures in subjects related tocivilisation culture philosophy and Islamic thought I was frequently alsoinvited as guest lecturer by the neighbouring National University of Malaysiato present lectures in Islamic thought philosophy and history It was duringthat time that I had the opportunity to become involved myself quite activelyin research activities along with intellectual discussions and academicencounters with both colleagues and my own students During that time Ialso had the opportunity to carry out some philosophical investigations intoIbn Khaldnrsquos thought particularly in connection with his theory ofcivilisation From there I soon realised that Ibn Khaldn was an extraordinaryscholar perhaps one of the most read and written-about Muslim intellectualsHis revolutionary views on several issues that appear especially in his magnumopus the Muqaddima had attracted the attentions of Muslim scholars andmany Western thinkers from various academic fields and backgrounds Theexcitement of his intellectual outlook and the freshness of his philosophicalthought had a sort of gravitational pull that attracted the interest of modernacademic communities an interest manifested in various forms lecturesseminars conferences and discourses together with a long list of titles andabundant pages of written materials1

Seeking knowledge is indeed an endless activity The deeper we go intothe subject the more we are curious to know I admit that it is this curiositythat has inspired and led me to undertake the present study Notwithstandingthe availability of abundant written materials dedicated to this greatpersonality I find that there are still many areas which are not quitesatisfactorily dealt with especially the area that will be explored in the presentwork Certainly there is a lot more to be learnt from the intellectual legacy ofthe eighthfourteenth-century genius of Islam particularly his theoretical


2

frameworks which in most cases are still very relevant to our age I take thisopportunity to make this offering with the hope that it will provide furtherinsight towards a greater understanding of Ibn Khaldnrsquos theoretical frameworkwhich lays the foundation of his philosophical ideas This research is text-based throughout the whole process the researcher will be fully occupiedwith and closely attached to the text trying to understand evaluate andfinally to determine and reconstruct and perhaps be able to draw acomprehensive picture of the foundation of theoretical framework that liesbehind the text It is also hoped that the findings of this study will stimulatefurther research of this nature

Aim and justification of study

This study is primarily aimed at understanding Ibn Khaldnrsquos theory ofknowledge The objective is to describe identify re-evaluate and finally toreconstruct the theoretical foundation of Ibn Khaldnrsquos thought theepistemology the sociology of knowledge and the classification of sciencesand its place in the general scheme of his theory of civilisation In short thisstudy seeks to describe and investigate the authorrsquos thought and his para-digmatic of reference as well as the theoretical scheme that lies behind Chapter2

6 of the MuqaddimaWhy this chapter Our preliminary study shows that of the six chapters of

the Muqaddima Chapter 6 is the most significant This is based on severalassumptions It is the last chapter and the biggest it occupies roughly onethird of the whole work Being the last Chapter 6 can also be considered asthe concluding chapter of the whole Muqaddima in which the author sum-marises and recapitulates his thought It is important to note that we assumehypothetically that this chapter must have been written based upon a certaintheoretical framework On the basis of this hypothesis the present study seeksto find out the theoretical framework that made up the mind of the authorwhen he drafted this chapter It is for these reasons that Chapter 6 has beenchosen as the subject of this study

Some notes on methodology and approach

Research of this nature may be carried out in various ways It depends verymuch upon the purpose aim and goal of the inquiry Methodologicallyspeaking there are several approaches or strategies that are conventionallyadopted in the process of understanding text descriptive exploratory orformulative analytical by theme diagnostic comparative and intertextual3 Ido not pretend that the present study will adopt a single approach to textualstudies rather my strategy is to maintain a more liberal manner of utilisingseveral methodological devices that will help us to understand the text


3

Notwithstanding this liberal approach however I admit that in carrying outthis inquiry I am also very much influenced by the basic hermeneutic theoryof textual interpretation ie to give more emphasis to understanding(verstehen) than to explanation (erklaumlren)4 While associating myself with suchan interpretative theory I should say that I am aware of some points of disputebetween the traditional hermeneutic approach set forth by Schleiermacher(d 1834) and Dilthey (d 1911) and the ldquocontemporaryrdquo approach advancedby Heidegger (d 1976) and Gadamer5 I view this dispute as creative ratherthan destructive I am also aware of certain ethical questions within the theoryitself Most importantly I am of the belief that the interpreter has a moralduty to understand his subject in such a manner that the interpretation be asclose as possible to the original meaning of the text I adopt the basichermeneutic principle that in carrying out this sort of enterprise one cannotescape from the problem of the hermeneutic circle that in order to understandthe part it is necessary to know the whole while understanding the wholedepends on understanding of every part6 All in all the methodological systemof the present research can be summarised as follows

bull Thematic textual description and analysisbull Philosophical and hermeneutical approach in textual interpretationbull Comparative and intertextual analysis (where appropriate)

The main textual source of the present study is the Arabic text of theMuqaddima li-kitb al-poundibar of Ibn Khaldn For this purpose the Quatremegravereedition that was published in Paris in three volumes in 1858 and reprinted inBeirut in 1970 will be the principal textual reference However other editionswill be consulted occasionally whenever necessary The translation guide usedthroughout this study will be the complete English translation by F Rosenthalpublished in 1958 It should be noted that to date this is the only completeEnglish translation ever to have been attempted and published In the courseof the study other secondary materials including both Arabic and Englishsources of various kinds will be consulted exhaustively insofar as they help usto sound judgement and appropriate assessment

I N T R O D U C T O R Y M AT E R I A L S

4

1

INTRODUCTO RYMATERIALS TO THE STUDY

OF CHAPTER 6 OF THEMUQADDIMA

Introduction

The real subject matter of Chapter 6 of the Muqaddima begins with the sectionentitled ldquoTeaching is a craftrdquo (f+-an al-tapoundl+m al-poundilm min jumla al-anrsquoipound) Priorto this there are some introductory remarks by the author Intertextualcomparison shows that there are two distinct versions of the introduction toChapter 6 One of these is a single short passage entitled ldquoKnowledge andteaching are natural in human culturerdquo (f+-an al-poundilm wa-rsquol-tapoundl+m _ab+pound+ f+-rsquol-poundumrn al-bashar+) The other consists of an introduction followed by six sectionsin which the author speaks about various general and particular issues ofepistemology Rosenthal notes the occurrence of these two versions in theintroduction of his translation of the Muqaddima1 The specific contents ofeach of the two versions will be discussed below (pp 6ndash18) In this section Ishall review briefly Rosenthalrsquos discussion of the manuscripts and the editionsof the Muqaddima

Manuscripts

In his notes on the textual history of the Muqaddima Rosenthal has providedsome valuable information about the manuscripts he has consulted in preparinghis translation For the purpose of the present research this information isimportant because textual variations do occur between the manuscripts Thesetextual variants and differences if not properly understood and explainedwill in one way or another affect the standard and reliability of the text Bythe same token a proper understanding of this matter will help us to understandthe actual content of the text Thanks to Rosenthal who has taken the troubleto undertake such a thorough background study of the texts and manuscriptsof the Muqaddima we are now able to make use of his notes to understand thesituation

Rosenthal informs us at the outset that the text of the Muqaddima is verywell documented This means that the original manuscripts of the book have


5

been well preserved The manuscripts are numerous In Turkey alone fourmanuscripts that were written during Ibn Khaldnrsquos lifetime were availableAnother two undated manuscripts are believed to have been written shortlyafter the authorrsquos death According to Rosenthal all the manuscripts are veryhigh in quality He describes the three copies known as MSS A B and C ashaving the same high standard textual values Although Rosenthal does notdeny the possibility of occasional mistakes he is confident that a carefullywritten manuscript is almost comparable to a printed text Thus manuscriptsof this kind can properly be considered as authentic copies of the textTherefore any factual mistakes or miswriting may well be considered for thesepurposes as the authorrsquos own work2

Now the question is if the manuscripts are evidently well preserved andhave undergone a careful process of copying which in some cases was doneunder a close personal supervision of the author himself why do there exist agreat number of considerable variations between the texts In the case of theMuqaddima the variant readings are variant not merely in the ordinary senseThey involve a considerably extended version of the text as in the case of theintroductory remarks to Chapter 6 Giving his view on this particular issueRosenthal writes

They are editions and corrections made by Ibn Khaldn at differentperiod of his life The existence of such extensive emendations demon-strates in a fascinating manner that the medieval author worked muchas his modern colleague does3

From this we may come to the simple logical conclusion that the textualvariations in this case are no doubt the work of the author himself It is under-standable that the author would make amendments corrections and additionswhere he might think necessary as he goes through the text several times

Editions

The publication of small portions of the Muqaddima started as early as before1857ndash8 and was associated with Hammer-Purgstall and Silvestre de Sacy4 Itwas during the years of 1857 and 1858 that the two basic and complete editionsof the Muqaddima came into reality The Egyptian edition also known as theBlq edition edited by Ab Nar al-r+n+ (d 1874) printed in Blq waspublished in 1857 while the first complete scholarly European edition of theMuqaddima was published by Etienne Marc Quatremegravere in Paris in 1858 Forthe modern scholarly study of the Muqaddima these two texts are consideredby many as the most authentic and considerably reliable

The r+n+ text was in fact intended as the first volume of the completeedition of the Kitb al-poundIbar While preparing this edition r+n+ apparently


6

used two manuscripts which he called the Fez and the Tunis manuscripts TheTunis manuscript was Ibn Khaldnrsquos original dedication to the Hafsid rulerThe Fez manuscript was Ibn Khaldnrsquos donation copy While editing the textr+n+ often made corrections according to his own judgement This text hassome importance of its own by virtue of the fact that it provides the earliesttext of the Muqaddima presently available in printed form5

Quatremegraverersquos edition of the Muqaddima was published in Paris in 1858 ayear after the appearance of the Blq edition by the Acadeacutemie des Inscriptionset Belles-Lettres It was printed by Firmin Didot Fregraveres and presently availablein three volumes Unfortunately this edition was published without anintroduction and thus without official information from the hand of the editorabout the manuscripts he used Based on WM de Slane the French translatorof the Muqaddima Quatremegravere based his edition on four manuscripts MSSA B C and D MS A dated 1146 is in the Bibliothegraveque Nationale whileMS B is in Munich MS C is a copy made in 18356 of the Damad IbrahimrsquosMS and is now in the Bibliothegraveque Nationale MS D the oldest among thefour used by Quatremegravere is also among the Arabic manuscripts of theBibliothegraveque Nationale6

Other than the above two editions there are editions which were publishedin Beirut and Egypt However as al-Azmeh notes most of those editions arepirated versions of the r+n+ text and therefore carry no superiority in termsof textual value7

For the purpose of the present study my main textual reference will be theQuatremegravere edition while Rosenthalrsquos translation the only complete Englishtranslation available so far will be extensively consulted For textualcomparison the Beirut edition (which reproduces the r+n+) will be referredto occasionally when necessary

Sources and influences

As an introduction the Muqaddima plays an important role in providingconceptual and paradigmatic frameworks as well as an epistemologicalfoundation of the study of human society and civilisation It is on the basis ofthese frameworks and foundation that the author establishes his new scienceof poundumrn the study of the history culture and civilisation of human society

Since the present study is mainly focused on this book particularly itsChapter 6 which deals with epistemology the sociology of knowledge andcrafts and the classification of science it would not be satisfactory to omit apreliminary discussion of the possible sources and influences that exerted aneffect upon the mind of the author We have been told elsewhere that IbnKhaldnrsquos background education and training were a mixture of religious andphilosophical science


7

Orthodoxy versus philosophy

The tension between religious orthodoxy and philosophy is an age-old problemin Islamic intellectual circles It began as early as the first penetration of theGreeks into the Arab Islamic world through the process of translation8 andlater became one of the most topical subjects of discussion Although thetension had occurred earlier with the arrival of Greek texts in translationthe actual literary battles between religious and philosophical scholars tookplace only after the publication of al-Ghazzl+rsquos Tahfut al-falsifa This is basedon the assumption that Tahfut was the first book written for the special purposeof refuting philosophy Prior to this al-Ghazzl+ had published Maqid al-falsifa in which he explained philosophy in some detail

In the Muqaddima which was published some three centuries after theTahfut the author seems to be still strongly occupied with this basic problemof Islamic thought the conflict between religious orthodoxy and philosophyin the study of man and human society Not only that it seems that thistension also greatly influenced the authorrsquos stance and arguments

Before going any further it should be recalled that the difference betweenthe two types of approach is in a way very fundamental It is between revelationon the one hand and reason on the other The orthodox believe that theultimate truth about man and society has to be referred to the Quran theprophetic tradition (|ad+th) and of course religious law The basic notion isthe primacy of revelation over reason On the other hand from the point ofview of philosophy the order is the reverse the primacy of rational inquiryover revelation in both the theoretical and the practical sciences9 This is thepoint of difference between orthodoxy and philosophy

Coming back to the Muqaddima what is the authorrsquos stance in facing thisbasic problem in Islamic thought I feel quite strongly that Ibn Khaldnrsquosstance is to some extent more inclined towards orthodoxy My judgement isbasically based upon his attempt to refute philosophy in one of the passages inChapter 6 of the Muqaddima That passage which is entitled ldquoRefutation ofPhilosophyrdquo consists of his arguments against philosophy (This issue will bediscussed later see pp 90ff) Not only that he also seems to be inclined towardsSufism This is explicitly expressed in his special discussion of Sufism

On another occasion he also attempts to reconcile orthodoxy andphilosophy This attempt can be seen in his discussion of the concept ofprophecy He explains prophecy in both philosophical and religious termsPhilosophical argument and religious dogma are mixed together in order tograsp the true nature of prophecy In this sense it would not be appropriate toconsider Ibn Khaldn as representing the ideas of pure orthodoxy in the strictestsense of the word


8

The f+

I have indicated above that Sufism is an important element in Ibn Khaldnrsquosthought To assess the strength of its influence is is not too difficult if oneglances through the Muqaddima In Chapter 6 Ibn Khaldn allocates a longpassage specifically to a discussion of the science of Sufism in all its aspectsBesides that passage we also find a number of times and many occasions whenthe author expresses his ideas in mystical terms At times he praises Sufismand even calls the Muslim to practise it One of the good examples is perhapswhen he speaks about the concept and nature of happiness (sapoundda) in IslamHe believes that true happiness can only be achieved through f+ practicesand purification of the soul Happiness in this sense is an inexpressible joyand pleasure which cannot be achieved through intellectual speculations Thisis because this state can be obtained only by removal of the veil of sensualperceptions10 This concept of happiness and the way to attain it no doubtbelonged to the f+s Although he is not as claimed by some modern writersa practising f+ in the strict sense from his writing one would easily assumethat the author is in fact very familiar with and perhaps possesses unusualknowledge of this particular science It is also a matter of fact that Ibn Khaldnwrote a special book on Sufism entitled Shifrsquo al-srsquoil li-tahdh+b al-masrsquoil11

In our study here we are not interested in Shifrsquo al-srsquoil Our concern hereis merely to see the influence of Sufism in Ibn Khaldnrsquos thought particularlyin the Muqaddima One of the earliest serious studies of this aspect of IbnKhaldnrsquos thought was perhaps an article by Miya Syrier published in IslamicCulture in 1947 entitled ldquoIbn Khaldn and Islamic Mysticismrdquo In her articleSyrier made several assumptions with regard to Ibn Khaldnrsquos attitude towardsreligion and religious knowledge theological and philosophical knowledgeand more importantly towards the spiritual and mystical side of human beingsand human culture One of the most interesting assumptions or ratherconclusions made by Syrier which is very relevant to our present study is that

helliphe (Ibn Khaldn) believed that the true road towards improvementof man is the path of mystic that the mystical experience can revealand make certain what no metaphysics prove and that when theytry to prove it they lead astray12

This is not a strange conclusion for Ibn Khaldn to have drawn since theelement of mysticism in fact played a very significant role in Ibn Khaldnrsquosthought He employs the argument of mysticism in his critique of kalm Oneneed only look at his definition of taw|+d and +mn (faith) in which he usesterms such as |l (state) and maqm (station) to describe the true sense offaith13


9

For Ibn Khaldn so far as Islamic culture and civilisation is concerned therole and function of Sufism is enormously significant He sees and recognisesSufism as one of the most important manifestations of Islamic culture It isnot only a social phenomenon or an everyday attitude to life as it was in theearly days of Islam but also a philosophical and intellectual force which latergives rise to its own unique and exclusive literary tradition

The theory of prophecy

Prophecy is one of the most significant and important phenomena that catchesthe attention of most Muslim philosophers throughout the history of theMuslim intellectual tradition Without denying that this phenomenon isuniversal in the sense that it exists in every religious tradition conceived andinterpreted in various ways prophecy in Islam has a particular conceptionrole and function in the religion-based culture of Islam A proper understandingof this phenomenon is vital if one wishes for a better understanding of Islamicculture and civilisation A modern scholar who seems to recognise this situationis Muhsin Mahdi who published an excellent philosophical study of IbnKhaldn Mahdi writes

Since the Islamic community owed its origin its law and its characterto a revelation and a prophet it is natural that the central problem ofpractical philosophy or political philosophy in Islam would be that ofunderstanding the phenomenon of prophecy ie the rationalexplanation of the nature and source of the prophetrsquos knowledge andthe nature and the source of the powers through which he performsmiracles convinces the multitude and induces them to carry out hiscommands14

Ibn Khaldn recognises that the phenomenon of prophecy in Islam is ofvital importance because ldquoit was the source of important social valuesinstitutions and attitudesrdquo15

As far as Muqaddima is concerned Ibn Khaldn deals with the question ofprophecy on at least two significant occasions He first touches on the subjectdirectly in the sixth introduction on the categories of those who possess spiritualknowledge (anf al-mudrik+n li-rsquol-ghayb min al-bashar)16 Another occasion isof course in Chapter 6 where he devotes a special section to ldquoknowledge ofthe prophetrdquo17 On these two occasions he also touches on several importantrelated issues such as the nature of revelation (wa|y) theory of knowledgethe nature of soul miracles etc In the course of the discussion it becomesclear that the author is concerned not only with the practical nature of theprophetic phenomenon ie as the source of important social values but also


10

with its theoretical and philosophical aspects ie its very nature and essenceAlthough my particular concern here is to see the impact and influence ofprophetic phenomena on Ibn Khaldnrsquos scheme it is perhaps of importanceto give a brief summary of his theory of prophecy

Basically Ibn Khaldn sees prophecy as ldquoa human phenomenon the prophetis a human being his traits are human traits his knowledge is humanknowledge his powers are human powers his acts are human acts and hispurpose is human purposerdquo18 Though prophecy is a human phenomenon thisdoes not mean that it is natural to every human being Ibn Khaldn is verysure on this point Prophecy is not in the nature of man as such Insteadprophets are individuals chosen (is_af) by God to whom God has given specialknowledge of things divine as well as of prophesying things that will happenin future The prophets are also individuals whom God sent to mankind toteach men about virtues and vices and to tell them about rewards andpunishments on the day of judgement In this sense the knowledge of theprophets is the highest form of knowledge possessed by special human beingsie the prophets

But there is something natural in the process of the attainment of thisknowledge This is because there are several other categories of knowledge ofthis kind that are obtained by human beings ie the knowledge of soothsayersof astrologers and the like Ibn Khaldn is very careful to distinguish propheticknowledge from that of the soothsayers and astrologers To him it is the prophetalone who is naturally capable of crossing the boundary of humanity As forthe soothsayers for example they cross this boundary by their own effortThey are not naturally inclined towards angelicalness therefore they cannotperceive things perfectly hence they express their knowledge oracularly aidedby Satan and try to spur on their perception by the use of rhymes thatdistinguishes them as soothsayers and so their knowledge is sometimes correctand sometimes not19

Now we can turn back to consider the significance of prophecy in thecontext of the study of civilisation Why is it necessary to include propheticaffairs in the prolegomenon of the authorrsquos newly established science of poundumrnThis question has been partly explained above where I touched on prophecyas an important source of law and social values Other than this as al-Azmehputs it it has a strong political intensity in it at that time therefore its relevanceto the science of civilisation appearss to be self-evident20 Based on this assump-tion it is understandable that prophecy became the central issue in civilisationand therefore an understanding of the phenomenon of prophecy is necessaryIt is also evident at this point that this notion has a strong impact on IbnKhaldnrsquos scheme


11

Textual variants short and long versions of theintroductory remarks

I shall begin my discussion here with some notes on the textual discrepanciesat the beginning of Chapter 6 As noted earlier there are two versions of theopening passage In one version it is a single short passage speaking very brieflyabout knowledge and education This passage is an explanation of the authorrsquostheory of knowledge and education as a natural phenomenon in the humancommunity On the basis of Rosenthalrsquos notes this short passage is consideredas the earlier version it appears only in MSS A and B21 while the otherversion which consists of six passages appears in MSS C and D and isconsidered to be the later version These passages cover extensively variousissues in connection with the human intellect and the categories of knowledgeSince the two versions serve the same purpose ie as the opening for Chapter6 it will be beneficial for us to examine both versions in our attempt tounderstand the authorrsquos ideas in the whole of Chapter 6 For this purpose Iprovide the full translation of the shorter version in the footnote22 while thelongerlater version will be summarised below

The long version consists of a short introduction and six sections Againthey are of the nature of a prefatory discussion In general the six sections tryto demonstrate the nature of human thought and the concept of knowledge

In the introduction Ibn Khaldn sketches his understanding of humanintellect It distinguishes man from the rest of the animals It enables man toobtain his livelihood to co-operate with his fellow men and to study the Masterwhom he worships and the revelation that the messengers transmitted fromHim Through the intellect God gives man superiority over many of Hiscreatures23

He continues to clarify the nature of intellect and how the process ofthinking takes place Thinking comes from perception (idrk) Perception isthe consciousness of the perceiver (shupoundr al-mudrik) in the essence of theperceptions that are outside his essence This (kind of perception) is peculiarto living beings Therefore living beings (in this category) can perceive thingsoutside their essence through external senses that God gives them ie hearingvision smell taste and touch24

The human being has the advantage of being able to perceive things outsidehis essence through his thinking ability which is beyond his senses It is theresult of power placed in the cavities of his brain With these powers man canobtain pictures of the sensibilia (uwar ma|sst) and apply his mind to themand abstract (from them) other pictures (uwaran ukhr)25

Thinking is the occupation with pictures beyond sense perception andmental wandering for analysis and synthesis This is the meaning of ldquoafrsquoidardquo(heart) in the Quranic verse ldquohellipjapoundala la-kum al-sampounda wa-rsquol-abr wa-rsquol-afrsquoidahelliprdquo26


12

At this point Ibn Khaldnrsquos idea corresponds very closely to the ideas ofthe philosophers He believes that the human intellect has several levels ordegrees as follows

1 The discerning intellect (al-poundaql al-tamy+z+) This is an intellectual under-standing of the order of things that exist in the outside world in a naturalor arbitrary order (tart+ban _ab+poundiyyan aw-wa=poundiyyan) It consists mostly ofperceptions The discerning intellect enables man to obtain things thatare useful to him and to his livelihood and repels the things that areharmful to him

2 The experimental intellect (al-poundaql al-tajr+b+) This provides man withthe ideas and behaviour needed in dealing with his fellow men and inleading them It mostly conveys apperception (tad+qt) which is obtainedthrough experience in a gradual way until it reaches a stage where itbecomes ldquoreally usefulrdquo

3 The speculative intellect (al-poundaql al-na~ar+) This provides knowledge orhypothetical knowledge of an object beyond sense perception (warrsquo al-|iss) without any ldquointerferencerdquo of practical activity It consists of bothperception and apperception (taawwur wa-tad+q) which are arrangedaccording to a special order following special conditions It thus providesother knowledge of the same kind in the form of perception orapperception Then it combines again with something else and providesother knowledge of the same kind27

The end of the process is the perception of existence (taawwur al-wujd)together with its various kinds differences reasons and causes By completingthis process man achieves perfection and becomes pure intellect and perceptivesoul (nafs mudrika) This is the meaning of human reality (al-|aq+qa al-insniyya)28

Section 2 explains the world of things that come into being as a result ofactions which materialise through thinking (f+-poundlam al-|awdith al-fipoundliyya inna-m yatimmu bi-rsquol-fikr) The world of existence comprises pure essences (dhawtma|=a) such as the elements (poundan+r) and their influences There are threethings that come into being from the elements namely minerals plants andanimals All (of them) are connected with divine power (In the case of)actions that come from animals which happen by intention they are (all)connected with the power that God has given them (al-qudra al-lat+ japoundalaAllh la-h poundalay-h) Some are arranged in order those are the actions of humanbeings (al-afpoundl al-bashariyya) Some are not arranged and not in order andthose are the actions of animals other than human (al-afpoundl al-|ayawnt ghayral-bashar)29


13

Thinking perceives the order of things that come into being by nature orby arbitrary arrangement When it intends to create something for the sakeof the order of the thing that comes into being it must understand (first ofall) the reason or cause or condition of that thing This is in general theprinciple of (that particular thing) ndash because (the first) will not exist except(followed by the existence of) the second30

It is not possible to put or arrange something that comes later to comeearlier This principle must have another principle to which its own existenceis posterior (wa-dhlika al-mabdarsquo qad yaknu la-hu mabdarsquo khar min tilka al-mabdirsquo l yjad ill mutarsquoakhkhiran) This (regression) may ascend (fromprinciple to principle) or it may come to an end31

When man (in his thought) has reached the last principle on two three ormore levels and starts the actions that bring the (planned) thing into existencehe will start with the last principle (al-mabdarsquo al-akh+r) that has been reachedby his thought That last principle will be the beginning of his action He willfollow things up to the last causes (khir al-musabbabt) in the causal chainthat had been the starting point of his thinking32

For example if a man thinks of a roof to shelter him his mind will (naturally)think of the wall to support the roof as well as the foundation upon which thewall stands Here his thinking will end and he will start the actions ie workingon the foundation then the wall then the roof with which his action willend This is the meaning of ldquothe beginning of action is the end of thinking and thebeginning of thinking is the end of actionrdquo33

A manrsquos action in the outside world will not materialise except by thinkingabout the order of things since things are ldquointerconnectedrdquo or based uponeach other Then he will start the action (of doing things) Thinking beginswith the things that come last in the causal chain and is done last A manrsquosaction begins with the first thing in the causal chain which thinking perceiveslast Because of this order human actions are done in a well-arranged mannerOn the other hand the actions of animals (other than man) are not wellarranged because of the lack of thinking that made the agent know the orderof things that governs their actions This is because animals perceive sensesonly Their perceptions are ldquodisconnectedrdquo (mutafarriqa) and lack a connectinglink because only thinking can create this link34

From this we can conclude that actions (afpoundl) are divided into twocategories actions that are arranged in an orderly manner and actions thatare not arranged in an orderly manner The first category is the actions ofhuman beings while the second is the actions of animals other than man Theactions that dominate the world of existence are those of the orderly categoryThose which are not orderly are secondary to them Therefore the actions ofanimals which are not orderly are subordinate to the orderly actions of humanbeings This quality qualifies the human being to be the viceregent of God on


14

earth In this way human actions control the world and everything becomessubservient to the human This is the meaning of ldquokhal+fardquo (viceregent) in theQuranic verse ldquohellip I am appointing a viceregent on earthhelliprdquo35

Thinking ability is special to human beings distinguishing them from otherliving beings The degree of ability to perceive things in an orderly causalchain will determine their degree of humanity (insniyya) Some are able toachieve a causal nexus for two or three levels while some are not Others mayreach five or six which indicates that the degree of their humanity is higher36

Section 3 discusses experimental intellect (al-poundaql al-tajr+b+) Theexperimental intellect is the second category of intellect coming after thediscerning intellect Among the three categories of intellect Ibn Khaldnseems to be more interested in the second ie the experimental intellectThough he does not state any particular reason it is presumed that this categoryis the most important of the three He devotes a large section to explaininghow the experimental intellect comes into being

He begins with a premise ldquoman is political by naturerdquo (al-insn madan+ bi-rsquol-_abpoundi) The philosophers cite this (statement) to establish (their doctrineof) prophecy (nubuwwa) and other things The word ldquomad+nardquo here refers tothe town (the Greek polis) which is another word for the human communityThis statement means that the human being (as a single individual) cannotlive by himself His existence cannot materialise except with the existence ofhis fellow men He is not strong enough to fulfil all the needs of his life and istherefore by nature very much in need of the co-operation of others37 Co-operation requires a certain degree of skills in the form of negotiation(mufwa=a) association (mushraka) and other skills that are needed for thispurpose of dealing with onersquos fellow men38 With these skills human beingsare able to distinguish the good from the evil as well as to maintain theirpolitical life and law and order

When there is oneness of purpose it may lead to mutual affection andfriendship (idqa) and when purposes differ this may lead to strife and enmity(poundadwa) This leads to war and peace among nations and tribes This doesnot happen among the (community of) negligent animals This happens onlyin the community of human beings in whom God has created (the ability toact) in an orderly manner by using their thinking ability With their ability tothink human beings are able to arrange their political life and maintain lawand order which guides them into avoiding detrimental things and leads themfrom the evil to the good This can be done after they recognise evil and itsdetrimental effects based on sound experience (tajr+ba a|+|a) and customs(poundawrsquoid) and thus they are different from the (community of) negligentanimals This shows that through the power of thinking the actions of humanbeings are arranged in an orderly manner and not likely to be detrimental39

These concepts are not out of (the reach of) sensual perception (|iss) andtherefore do not require a deep study All can be obtained through experience


15

and derived from it This is because they are all connected with (the world of)sensibilia Their truth and falsehood become apparent in the course of theevent and the students of this concept can simply learn them In fact everyonecan learn these concepts as much as he is able He can pick up knowledgefrom the experiences that occur in his dealings with his fellow men Eventuallyhe will be able to determine what is necessary and to be done and not to bedone By this way he will obtain the proper habit (malaka) in dealing with hisfellow men40

He who follows this procedure the whole of his life will become familiarwith every single problem but this requires a long period of time God hasmade it easy for human beings to obtain this (social knowledge) in a shorterperiod through learning and following the experience of their fathers teachersand elders and accepting their teachings (In this way) they do not need to(spend a long time) to carefully study all those events People who have noknowledge and are not willing to learn and to follow will need long and carefulstudy to become educated in this matter They are unfamiliar in this kind ofknowledge Their manners in dealing with others will be bad and defective41

This is the meaning of the famous saying ldquohe who is not educated by hisparents will be educated by timerdquo (man lam yursquoaddib-hu wlidu-hu addaba-hual-zamn)42 That is he who does not learn from his parents (including teachersand elders) has to learn with the help of nature from events that happen inthe course of time Time will teach and educate him because he needs thateducation since by nature he needs the co-operation of the others

In short the experimental intellect which is obtained after the discerningintellect is the one that provides man with proper habits in dealing with hisfellow men After the experimental intellect there is the higher degree ofspeculative intellect but it is not the subject of discussion here

Section 4 discusses knowledge of human beings and knowledge of the angelsIbn Khaldn draws the attention of the reader to the existence of three worldsthe world of sensual perception (poundlam al-|iss)43 the world of intellect (poundlamal-poundaql)44 and the world of spirits and angels (poundlam al-arw| wa-rsquol-malrsquoika)45

Man shares the first world with animals while the second and the third areshared with the angels

The higher spiritual world and its essences are often deduced by dreamingduring sleep Sleep contains visions of things that we are unaware of whenawake and (if) they are true and conform with actuality we know that theycome from the world of truth (poundlam al-|aqq) Confused dreams (a=ghth al-a|lm) are nothing but pictures of imagination stored by perception (idrk)inside us (f+-rsquol-b_in) on the thinking ability and this thinking ability operatesafter the pictures leave sense perception Ibn Khaldn notes that he has noclear proofs about this spiritual world On this assumption he concludes thathuman beings in this respect can obtain only general knowledge notparticular46


16

Further Ibn Khaldn informs us that what is claimed by the metaphysicistsor divine philosophers (|ukamrsquo al-ilhiyyn) ndash that they know the details ofthis spiritual world which they call intellects (pounduql) ndash is also not certainThis is because the method of logical argumentation (burhn al-na~ar+) asestablished in logic cannot be applied here One of the conditions of thismethod is that the propositions (qa=y) must be primary and essential(awwliyya dhtiyya) while these spiritual essences (dhawt r|niyya) are ofan unknown essentiality (majhla dhtiyya) Therefore the only means toperceive the details and particulars of these spiritual worlds is through shar+pounda(religious teachings) that is elucidated by faith Of these three worlds theone that we can perceive best is of course the world of human beings (poundlamal-bashar) because it is existential (wujdn+)47

Human beings share the world of senses (poundlam al-|iss) with animals whilethe worlds of intellect and spirits are shared with the angels They are theessences free from corporeality and matter and the pure intellect (poundaql irf) inwhich the intellect the thinker and the subject unite as if in an essence thereality of which is perception and intellect48

The knowledge of the angels always conforms by its very nature with theknown facts and there can never be any defect in it On the other hand theknowledge of human beings is the attainment of pictures of the things thathave not been attained They are all acquired (muktasab)49

The essence which contains the forms of things namely the soul is amaterial substance (mdda |aylniyya) that takes over the forms of existencewith the help of the forms of the things which are obtained graduallyEventually it reaches perfection and death confirms its existence as regardsboth matter and form (mdda wa-ra) while the objects (ma_lbt) are subjectto constant vacillation between negation and assertion (mutaraddida baynaal-nafy wa-rsquol-ithbt) seeking one of the two by means of the middle connector(al-was_ al-rbi_) between the two extremes (_arafayn)50

When that is achieved and the object has become known it must beexplained that there exists an agreement between knowledge and the thingsknown Such agreement may often be clarified by technical logicalargumentation (burhn) But that is from behind the veil It is not like thedirect vision that is found in the case of the knowledge of the angels wherebythe veil will be removed and the agreement be effected through directperceptive vision (al-poundiyn al-idrk+)51

The third world which contains spiritual essences (dhawt r|niyya) whichis an unknown essence (majhla dhtiyya) cannot be obtained through merepower of intellect Ibn Khaldn points out that the details and particulars ofthis world can only be obtained through religious teachings which areelucidated by faith Ibn Khaldn also draws the attention of the readers to theexistence of the hijb (veil) that forms a sort of divide between man and the


17

third world The removal of this veil can be achieved through remembranceof God (dhikr) prayers tanazzuh (purification) fasting and devoting oneselfto God The element of Sufism can be seen quite clearly in this particularpoint52

Section 5 discusses the knowledge of the prophets The prophets are theclass of human beings that are different from the ordinary human conditionThis is because their power of ldquoturning towards the divinerdquo (wijha al-rabbniyya)is stronger than their humanity as far as the powers of perception and desires(nuzpoundiyya) (such as shahwa gha=ab and all other conditions of the body) areconcerned This means that the prophets are free from the influences of humanconditions (a|wl al-bashariyya) except inasmuch as they are necessary forlife By virtue of having prophetic quality they turn towards divine matterssuch as worship (poundibda) and remembrance of God (dhikr) as required by theirknowledge of Him giving information from what has been revealed to themand (providing) guidance for the nation according to particular methods andin a manner known to be peculiar to them It undergoes no change in themas if there were a natural disposition which God has given them53

Above the human world there is the spiritual world known to us by itsinfluences by means of the powers of perception and volition The essences ofthis spiritual world are pure perception and pure intellection It is the worldof the angels Since revelation is a property of the spiritual world the world ofangelicality it is a necessity for all the prophets to have this disposition to beable to ldquojump uprdquo (insilkh) from humanity to angelicality in order to be ableto receive the revelation54

The prophets then come back to the world of humanity to convey themessages to their fellow human beings This is the meaning of revelation(wa|y)55 The knowledge of the prophets in this particular situation is a directobservation and vision (poundilm shahda wa-poundiyn) does not contain any mistakesor slips and is not affected by any errors or unfounded assumptions At thispoint there will be an agreement (mu_bqa) between knowledge and the thingsknown because the veil of the supernatural (|ijb al-ghayb) has been liftedand cleared and direct observation has been attained56

The last section of the prefatory remarks is on the notion that human beingsare essentially ignorant and become learned through acquiring knowledgeThis section seems to serve the purpose of recapitulating the previous sectionson human thought In this section Ibn Khaldn clarifies the three levels ofhuman intellect

The ability to think that God bestows on the human being enables him toarrange his actions in an orderly manner This is called the discerning intellectWhen it helps him to acquire knowledge of ideas and of things that are usefulor detrimental it is called the experimental intellect When it helps him tobe able to obtain perception of the existent whether that is present or absent


18

it is the speculative intellect This level of intellection is obtained after a manreaches perfection in his humanity

The ascending process of intellection begins with the first level iediscernment (tamy+z) Before coming to this level a man possesses noknowledge whatsoever and is considered as in the category of animal Hisorigin the way in which he was created is from a drop of sperm a clot ofblood and a lump of flesh and subsequently he will be given sensual perceptionand the heart that is the thinking ability as the verse of the Quran saysldquohellipand We gave you hearing vision and a hearthelliprdquo57

In his first condition before discernment man is simply matter (hayl)inasmuch as he is ignorant of all knowledge until he acquires it by means ofhis own organ and thus his human essence reaches perfection of existence(fa-kamala dhtu-hu al-insniyya f+-wujdi-h) The Quranic verse readsldquoRecitehellip in the name of your Lord who created created man out of a clot ofblood Recitehellip and your Lord the most noble who thought with the calamusthought man what he did not knowrdquo58 This means that God is the one whoallowed the human being to acquire knowledge he did not yet possess afterhe had been a clot of blood and a lump of flesh59 This very Quranic verseexplains that the human being is by nature ignorant However he is equippedwith a natural ability to be able to acquire knowledge according to the level ofhumanity he possesses while the ultimate source of knowledge is God alone

The growth of the text

The above exposition shows what great textual dissimilarities there are betweenthe two texts Though the focal point is the same ndash human thought ndash theconsiderable enlargement of the longer version must have a certain impacton the readerrsquos understanding of the text At the very least the reader whoconsults the expanded version should possess a better elaboration than thosewho read the shorter one

There is no clear explanation or any particular indication why thisdissimilarity has occurred Based on Rosenthalrsquos study it is believed that itcame about as a result of Ibn Khaldnrsquos habit of correcting and expanding hisown writings60 In understanding this situation we have to bear in mind thatIbn Khaldn was far from any large and systematic library He had to relyentirely on his memory and notes From time to time he keeps on expandingand changing the text on points that he might have thought did not expressadequately or fully the ideas he had in mind This considerable enlargementof the introductory remarks to Chapter 6 is perhaps a notable example ofthis61 Another possibility that we might suggest here is that the two versionsof introductory remarks are purposely prepared by the author for differentgroups of reader ie the general reader and the expert reader This suggestion


19

is based on the assumption that the long version is indeed very technical andmight not be easy for a general reader to understand

Connection of the introductory materials with the contentsof Chapter 6

The next question that concerns us is the significance of the extendedintroductory remarks in the context of the chapter Again on the basis ofRosenthalrsquos study these introductory remarks are in any case a late additionin the composition and textual history of the Muqaddima They recapitulateand amplify previous discussions of knowledge62 If one glances through therest of the chapter it is easy to come to an expected general conclusion thatthe central point or the basic issue is the various kinds of sciences andclassification of knowledge which to some extent has no direct relation tothe introductory remarks

Now it is our duty to try to find out the possible connection between theintroductory remarks and the rest of the chapter According to my readingthe most likely place to propose this connection is to turn to the point ofdeparture ie to see it from the point of view of epistemology which is abranch of philosophy It is a matter of fact that the human ability to think isthe centre of the theory of epistemology without which no such theory canbe built up From here we should now be able to understand why theseintroductory remarks are significant and to a certain extent become thefoundation of our understanding of the rest of the chapter Viewed in thisway these introductory remarks can be seen as the framework and referenceparadigm of Ibn Khaldnrsquos philosophy his understanding of human beingsand of course his concept of epistemology Although the explanations of thehuman mental faculty here are of Greek origin Ibn Khaldn clearly tries toinject certain Islamic values in sketching his scheme Perhaps a notableexample is the concept of heart (fursquod) which he refers to the Quranic notionof afrsquoida63

Excursus

So far as Chapter 6 is concerned the introductory remarks should be seen asthe most important This is because they provide the theoretical foundationand conceptual framework of the whole content of Chapter 6 and the body ofIbn Khaldnrsquos theory of civilisation In these introductory remarks Ibn Khaldnreveals although implicitly his thoughts on epistemology the philosophy ofman with all his abilities and potentialities as the agent of civilisation

They also show the scheme that Ibn Khaldn has in mind about the processand the product of civilisation Man is the central element of this schemeAlthough man shares with other animals the animal aspect of his life he is


20

unique in his own class with his ability to think ie his intellect With thisability he is distinguished from the rest of the animals

The ability to think enables man first to obtain his livelihood second toestablish social organisation third to receive and accept divine revelationsthrough the prophets and fourth to produce sciences and crafts It is withthese factors Ibn Khaldn builds up his theory of civilisation which he termedldquo poundumrn al-bashar+rdquo As far as Ibn Khaldnrsquos scheme is concerned the abovefactors are co-existent and associated with each other Civilisation must bebuilt upon the triumph of knowledge and sciences possessed and produced bymembers of society Knowledge can be achieved through exercise of the mentalfaculty in man learning and instruction and through the prophets of God

Philosophically speaking the role and function of the human mental facultyin obtaining and producing knowledge in the context of the development ofa civilisation is nothing new Discussions of the functions of the faculty ofintellect and the rational power in man have in fact occupied some space inthe history and development of the study of epistemology This study wasestablished as early as the time of the Greeks Aristotle for example treatedthis subject of intellectual excellence in his Nicomachean Ethic He listed fivecognitive states These are arts or crafts (techne) scientific knowledge(episteme) practical wisdom (phronesis) sophia and nous Two of these techneand phronesis are in the category of practical science while another twoepisteme and sophia are in the category of theoretical science Nous is employedin both spheres64 Ibn Khaldnrsquos treatment is in some way like Aristotlersquosalthough not exactly the same and his attempt to explore this subject maywell be considered as a continuation of what had been attempted by Aristotleie this nature of philosophical inquiry

Science or knowledge has both functions it is a tool to bring aboutcivilisation and is itself the product of civilisation In other words civilisationis established as a result of manrsquos achievement in all aspects of his life includingin sciences and crafts while new sciences and crafts are the excellent productsof civilisation Along the line there is another factor which is of no lessimportance that is the process of instruction (tapoundl+m) It is by way of instructionthat knowledge and science can be transferred and developed Members ofone generation obtain the knowledge of their ancestors through the methodof instruction besides at the same time producing new knowledge throughtheir own intellectual activities and creativity This process is considered asnatural to humans insofar as the civilisation process is concerned

M A N A S T H I N K I N G A N I M A L

21

2

MAN AS THINKINGANIMAL

A philosophical introduction to humanpsychology and the establishment of social

organisation

The following pages will be devoted to an analysis of Ibn Khaldnrsquos thoughton the concept of man as thinking animal and how it is related to the twoimportant concepts of co-operation (tapoundwun) and prophecy (nubuwwa) andmore importantly how this concept may be regarded as the foundation of theestablishment of human social and political organisation My inquiry herewill take into account both the short and the long versions of the introductoryremarks

The significance of fikr

In his introductory remarks as earlier discussed Ibn Khaldn repeatedly usesthe term fikr to describe the power that leads human beings to understandingand to be able to fulfil the needs of their lives He reiterates that by means ofthe power of fikr a human being is inspired to obtain his livelihood and toestablish co-operation which brings about the establishment of a humancommunity Also by means of the same power that human being is able toaccept divine revelation which comes through the mediation of the prophetsof God to act according to that guidance as well as to prepare for salvationfor the life of the next world1

Obviously Ibn Khaldn is attempting to establish his notion and conceptof fikr and to demonstrate its significance in human life In other words whathe is trying to establish is that the faculty of fikr is actually part of humanexistence without which human beings would fall into a status equal to thatof the other animals As we understand this psychological concept is verycentral to human life in the sense that it is the source of all other humanactivities Theoretically it is important for the author to take this concept ashis point of departure before exploring other concepts related to epistemologyand human social and political organisation

However as a point of argument I should like to express my curiosityregarding the use of the technical term here The term used by the authorhere is fikr I find that based on the authorrsquos discussion this concept is quite


22

similar or at least corresponds very closely to the concept of poundaql (nous orreason) which is widely used in theology and philosophy and perhaps religiouslaw2 Why does the author not use poundaql which is more established instead offikr We have yet to find an answer to this

Ibn Khaldn goes on to discuss the function of fikr For this he lists quiteexplicitly three major functions of fikr namely to obtain a livelihood (li-ta|+lmapoundshi-hi) to establish co-operation (al-tapoundwun poundalay-hi) and to be able toaccept divine revelation through the prophets of God (qabl m jrsquoat bi-hi al-anbiyrsquo poundan Allh tapoundl)3 This means to say that without a sound fikr thehuman being will not be able to live in a proper and organised manner as ahuman being and of course will not be able to understand the needs of his lifeto establish co-operation let alone the message of the prophets The humanbeing therefore relies entirely on his thinking ability to fulfil the needs of hislife By this Ibn Khaldn has successfully demonstrated the very core functionof the faculty of fikr in the process of formation of a society

Up to this point we have been able to understand theoretically thesignificance of the human mental faculty Equally importantly we have beenable to grasp the major functions of fikr that have been proposed by the authorIn a way the establishment of this notion has laid the theoretical foundationthat will serve as the point of departure for further discussion regarding humanpsychology and human social organisation

The importance of co-operation (tapoundwun)

The ability to think enables the human being to find ways of making a livingand to establish co-operation This is the beginning of the process ofestablishing a society (ijtimpound)4 In this Ibn Khaldn has proposed quiteconvincingly a very basic social concept which corresponds very closely tomodern social theory of the division of labour5 A more detailed explanationof this concept is found in Chapter 1 of the Muqaddima where Ibn Khaldndeals with the subject at some length6

In this passage the author explains how the concept of co-operation operatesand at the same time rationalises and relates how the thinking factor could belinked to the social process of poundumrn The main outcomes of thinking abilityare to find ways of making a living and to establish ldquoco-operationrdquo and theresult of co-operation is the establishment of a society7 In this sentencethe logical sequence of the process can be understood quite clearly howeverthe relationship of co-operation and the establishment of a society need to beexplained further As indicated earlier the term ldquoco-operationrdquo cannot simplybe taken literally to mean helping each other Co-operation at this juncturehas to be understood as representing an important social concept and of coursean important social process The logic of this concept is quite straightforwardMan cannot live without food In order to produce food he needs to undergo


23

a certain process and carry out a series of efforts However the effort of asingle individual for this matter is not sufficient to obtain food For examplewe assume a minimum of food that is enough for one day A little bread forinstance can be obtained only after much preparation including grindingkneading and baking Each of these processes requires tools that can be providedwith the help of several crafts such as the blacksmith the carpenter and thepotter Assuming that man could eat unprepared grain an even greater numberof operations would be necessary in order to obtain the grain including sowingreaping and threshing Each of these requires a number of tools and manymore crafts It is beyond the capability of one individual to carry out all thosejobs or even a part of them by himself Thus they must be carried out by acombination of abilities crafts and efforts from among his fellow members ofsociety if he is to obtain food for himself and for them This can be done onlythrough co-operation8

By nature the human being is constantly thinking of how to fulfil all hisneeds in life For this he has to exercise his mental ability in order to find waysand means to survive and continue his life As a consequence this processgives birth to new sciences and crafts According to Ibn Khaldn knowledgeor science and crafts can be obtained through several methods They can beobtained through merely mental exercise developing new science and craftsor from those who developed them earlier or from the teachings of the prophetsof God It is from these sources that knowledge can be developed into a moresystematic and specific set of science9

The process of knowledge

As mentioned the human being is busy thinking about all the things that heneeds in life by exercising his thinking faculty In this way knowledge andcrafts develop When the thinking faculty performs its function by naturethe process of knowledge takes place and subsequently knowledge and craftsdevelop This process is natural in accordance with the logical order of thelaw of causality Moreover Ibn Khaldn explains it is also in the nature ofthe thinking faculty to have a kind of desire or excitement in itself to obtainperceptions that it does not yet possess10 This means that it is a requirementof nature that the thinking faculty in man performs its role to seek and obtainknowledge as well as to produce crafts

Ibn Khaldn proceeds to demonstrate how the process of obtainingperceptions develops In order to obtain these perceptions (idrkt) man hasrecourse to those who preceded him or those who had more knowledge thanhim or he takes them from the earlier prophets (fa-yarjipoundu il man sabaqa-hubi-poundilm aw-zda poundalay-hi bi-mapoundrifatin aw-idrkin aw-akhadha-hu min-mantaqaddamu-hu min al-anbiyrsquo)11


24

The human being has to exercise his thinking ability in order to find waysand means to survive and continue his life This process results in the birth ofnew sciences and crafts Sciences and crafts develop through several methodsThey can be obtained from an earlier generation who developed certain scienceand crafts or from the teaching of the prophets of God or they could beobtained as a result of perception understanding and observation of particularrealities (|aqrsquoiq) This understanding of particular realities will be transformedinto particular systematic sets of knowledge These systematic and specificsets of knowledge are then transferred to the next generation by way ofinstruction and education which is one of the methods of the developmentof science and crafts Ibn Khaldn concludes his argument by saying that thecontinuity of this process and its interconnection show clearly that knowledgeand education is something natural in human life12

The need for prophecy

We understand that one of the special functions of human intellectual facultyis to prepare for the acceptance of prophetic message (hellipqabl m-jrsquoat bi-hial-anbiyrsquo) In fact this notion has been constituted in the authorrsquos earlierstatement that the highest and most important source of knowledge is theknowledge that comes from the prophets who transmitted it to those whomthey met13

In establishing this notion it is obvious that Ibn Khaldn has in fact placedthe prophetic factor as one of the very important elements in hisepistemological scheme Based on his remark it is certain that prophecy orrevelation in the broader sense of the term plays a significant role as thehighest source of knowledge and the ultimate guidance that leads human beingstowards prosperity in this life as well as salvation in the next

In Islamic theology we learn that prophetic knowledge or the propheticphenomenon is divine in nature and belongs to the divine world In the samevein we also understand that something divine could not be comprehendedby merely human mental exercise Revelation is of this nature Therefore itsnature too is unable to be grasped by human mental ability This means thatrevelation can only be communicated to the human community through anagent or intermediary in this case the prophets of God Based on this reasoningwe could say that the existence of the prophets of God (whose function is tobring divine messages) in the human community is something of a necessityProphecy has to operate within the human community and revelation has tobe communicated in human language It is only by this method that theprophets can carry out their functions ie to provide guidance to human beingsamongst whom they operate

It is also interesting to see how Ibn Khaldn relates the prophetic office


25

which is divine in nature with the social and historical process which ismerely human How does he reconcile the normal course of human affairswith the transcendental nature of religious belief As a Muslim Ibn Khaldnfrom the very outset stands very firmly on the basic notion that is to admit thefact of divine interference in human affairs At the same time he also recognisesthe law of nature that human affairs have to follow in orderly fashion Inrelation to this he makes an attempt to explain the rationale of propheticoffice in human terms For this matter he recognises the existence of theperfection of a chosen human being to become the transmitter of the divinemessages at a particular point in time This happens at the time when the soulof the prophet which has been prepared to ldquojump outrdquo into the angelic worldto be able to accept the divine messages receives divine revelation ie whenthe spiritual essence of the soul has become perfect in actu The methods ofthe revelatory process Ibn Khaldn explains are either that the prophet hearsa kind of inarticulate internal sound or he visibly perceives the angel14 Inboth cases the message having been received the prophet then ldquoreturnsrdquo tothe human world and the message is transformed in terms understandable byhuman beings ie in human language so that humanity at large may be ableto understand it15

At this point we can make an assessment that the author has successfullyexplained his scheme ie reconciling the relationship between the divinenature of the prophetic office and the human nature of the social and historicalprocess as well as justifying the need for prophecy We now understand whyIbn Khaldn considers the prophetic office as the most important and thehighest form of knowledge And of course as Rahman rightly suggests nothingis in the mind of Ibn Khaldn when he builds up the scheme except to declarethat the Quran is the ultimate actual recorded revelation which is certainlythe human form of the purely divine logos16

We can now see quite clearly Ibn Khaldnrsquos notion of prophecy and howthis concept is explained in the practical world of human reality In a religion-based society religion plays an important role as source of law and guidance ofmoral conduct In the case of Islam which is probably referred to here by IbnKhaldn certainly revelation the Quran and the teaching of the Prophet isthe ultimate and highest form knowledge

The nature of crafts and scientific instruction

In Sections 7 and 8 Ibn Khaldn discusses a number of issues regardingscientific instruction (tapoundl+m al-poundilm) as a craft (an+pounda) For the purpose of thisstudy we will divide the contents of these sections into five major parts Thefirst part deals with the concept and the importance of habit (malaka) thesecond portrays the contemporary situation regarding the tradition of teaching


26

and learning the third highlights some of the methods of acquiring scientifichabits the fourth deliberates on urban (sedentary ie non-nomadic)civilisation and the improvement of the soul and the fifth which is Section8 illustrates the proliferation and decay of science and crafts in relation tourban civilisation

The importance of habit (malaka)

Teaching is considered categorically as one of the crafts (anrsquoipound) Craft isidentical with habit (malaka) while habit provides the skill by means of whichknowledge and science are practised17 The nature of craft has been discussedby Ibn Khaldn previously in Chapter 5 Sections 15ndash2118 For this matter itis not out of place to cross-refer to Chapter 5 as this will help us better tounderstand the concept Regarding the concept of craft Ibn Khaldn writes

It should be known that a craft is the habit of something concernedwith action and thought Inasmuch as it is concerned with action itis something corporeal and perceptible to the senses Things that arecorporeal and perceptible to the senses are transmitted through directpractice more comprehensively and more perfectly (than otherwise)because direct practice is more useful with regard to them

A habit is a firmly rooted quality acquired by doing a certain actionand repeating it time after time until the form of (that action) isfirmly fixed A habit corresponds to the original (action after whichit was formed) The transmission of things one has observed withonersquos own eyes is something more comprehensive and complete thanthe transmission of information of things one has learned about Ahabit that is the result of (personal observation) is more perfect andmore firmly rooted than a habit that is the result of information Theskill the student acquires in a craft and the habit he attainscorrespond to the quality of instruction and the habit of the teacher19

Ibn Khaldn then summarises his theory that skill and mastery in scienceand knowledge are the result of a habit (malaka) Habit enables the personwho possesses it to understand the basic principle the methods and theprocedures and the problems as well as to deduce (istinb_) details of thatparticular science Without skill and mastery such a habit will not beobtained20 In the same context the author reminds us that habit is notsynonymous with understanding and appreciation (al-fahm wa-rsquol-wapoundy) Habitis the exclusive property of a certain category of people ie the class of scholarand person who are well versed in a certain scientific discipline On the otherhand understanding and knowing by memory especially in matters pertaining


27

to a single problem in a certain scientific discipline are equally shared bysomeone who is well versed in the discipline and the beginner or commonman who has no background in that subject21

The author continues to explain that all habits are corporeal (jismniyya)in nature Habit can be of the body or of the brain (dimgh) as the outcomeof thinking such as arithmetic All corporeal things belong to the category ofsensibilia (ma|sst) As we recognised earlier habit constitutes an element ofcraft As a craft habit can be transmitted through the process of teachingor instruction Therefore the transmission of habit depends very much uponthe process of teaching (tapoundl+m) and of course the continuity of teaching (al-sanad f+-rsquol-tapoundl+m) Ibn Khaldn lays the foundation of his argument on theevidence that all kinds of knowledge and crafts practised by the famous scholarsand authorities have their own tradition in the craft of teaching22

Another argument that teaching belongs to the category of craft can beseen from differences in technical terms used by different scholars andauthorities in their teaching tradition Ibn Khaldn points out here theimportance of technical terminology (is_il|t) in the teaching tradition23

Every scholar or authority has his own technical terms for teaching a particularscientific discipline Again this is another proof that teaching is not part ofthe science itself Ibn Khaldn argues further that if these technical terms arepart of the science they would have to be the same with all scholars but thereality is not so He cites speculative theology as one of the examples of howmuch the technical terms differ particularly between ancient and modernteaching of the subject whereas the science as such is one and the same24

The contemporary situation

Ibn Khaldn goes on turning his attention to the contemporary situation inhis own time in the Maghrib Presented in the form of a historical narrativehe portrays the state of poundumrn particularly in the field of scientific instructionHere he establishes the notion that the flourishing of scientific instructiondepends very much upon political stability and continuity of the teachingtradition (al-sanad f+-rsquol-tapoundl+m)

The fall of the civilisation of the Maghrib and the disintegration of itsdynasties results in the deterioration of scientific instruction and thedisappearance of the crafts Ibn Khaldn picks up the examples of two citiesQayrawn and Qur_ba or Cordoba25 Qayrawn and Cordoba were once twocentres of urban culture in the Maghrib and Spain (Andalusia) respectivelyThe civilisations were highly developed while scientific tradition and craftsflourished The tradition of scientific instruction was firmly rooted But whenthe two cities fell into ruin the tradition of the crafts and sciences deterioratedThe continuity of scientific tradition ceased among the inhabitants of these


28

two cities Only limited continuation was found in Murrkush or Marrakeshduring the reign of the al-Muwa||id (Almohad) dynasty However urbanculture in Marrakesh was not fully developed either Ibn Khaldn sees two mainreasons for this namely (1) the original Bedouin attitude of the al-Muwa||idsand (2) the shortness of the duration between its beginning and its fall It isfor that reason that urban culture enjoyed only very limited continuity here26

The destruction of the dynasty in Marrakesh in the middle of the seventh(thirteenth) century marked the end of urban culture and the scientific culturein the West (Maghrib) When such a situation occurs the continuity ofscientific tradition depends entirely upon the effort of individual scholars ofthe time In connection with this Ibn Khaldn highlights the role of IbnZaytn (Ab al-Qsim b Ab Bakr) (d 6911292) who travelled from Ifr+qiyya(Africa) to the East27 The East at that time was acknowledged to be thecentre of urban culture and scientific tradition There Ibn Zaytn came intocontact with the pupils of the well-known scholar Ibn al-Kh_ib (Imm Fakhral-D+n al-Rz+) (d 6061209) From them Ibn Zaytn obtained skills inintellectual and traditional matters Another scholar who followed in thefootsteps of Ibn Zaytn was Ab poundAbd Allh b Shupoundaib al-Dukkl+ (d 6641261) Ibn Shupoundaib also took the opportunity to study with Egyptian professorsBoth Ibn Zaytn and Ibn Shupoundaib then returned to Tunis and established theirtradition of scientific instruction Their tradition was inherited by their pupilsgeneration after generation28

The tradition eventually reached Muhammad b poundAbd al-Salm (d 7491348) and Ibn al-Imm (d 7431342) Through Ibn al-Imm the traditionwas transplanted to Tilmisn Therefore at this time the pupils of Ibn poundAbdal-Salm and Ibn al-Imm can be found in Tunis and Tilmisn respectivelyHowever because the number of pupils was very small the tradition was notstrong enough to ensure its continuity29

Towards the end of the seventh (thirteenth) century another personfollowed the same process He was Ab poundAl+ Na+r al-D+n al-Mashaddl+ (d7311330) Again he travelled to the East studied with the pupils of AbpoundAmr al-jib (d 6461249) together with another person Shihb al-D+n al-Qarf+ (d 6481285) Al-Mashaddl+ then returned to the West and settledin Bijya (Boogie) His scientific tradition was continued by his pupils inBijya One of his pupils poundImrn al-Mashaddl+ went to Tilmisn and settledthere However the tradition in Tilmisn and Bijya did not flourish At thesame time in Fez and other cities in the West there had been no continuationof the scientific tradition since the fall of al-Qayrawn and Cordoba30

What can we draw from this story It is worth making the point here thatthe central theme of this section is continuity of teaching (al-sanad f+-rsquol-tapoundl+m)Ibn Khaldn as I indicate above holds the notion that the flourishing ofscientific instruction (tapoundl+m al-poundilm) which is the most fundamental prerequisite


29

of the establishment of the poundumrn depends very much upon political stabilityand continuity of the teaching tradition When a city falls into ruin becauseof the collapse of the dynasty or for another reason urban culture and scientifictradition in that city will collapse also All related institutions will cease tofunction When this situation arises as Ibn Khaldn sees it the continuity ofscientific tradition will depend entirely upon individuals These individualshave to travel out of the city to other places where urban culture is establishedand scientific tradition is cultivated31 They have then to return to their originalplace to propagate and establish scientific tradition in the ruined city

In relation to this Ibn Khaldn tries to show that urban culture andscientific tradition in the West came to an end after the fall of Qayrawn andCordoba Although there was a little continuation in Marrakesh during thereign of al-Muwa||id it was not strong enough to establish a new scientifictradition and urban culture there After the fall of Marrakesh scientifictradition in the West remained as the heritage of Ibn Zaytn al-Dukkl+ al-Mashaddl+ and al-Qarf+ who travelled ldquoin search of knowledgerdquo to the EastHowever their heritage was not firm enough to guarantee the new urbanculture and scientific tradition in the West

Urban culture and the improvement of the soul

Towards the end of Section 7 Ibn Khaldn focuses his attention on urbanculture and the improvement of the soul Before this there is a discussion inregard to some of the methods of acquiring the scientific habit and the situationof scientific tradition in the East and the West

The easiest method to acquire the scientific habit in the eyes of IbnKhaldn is by acquiring the ability to express ideas in intellectual and scientificdiscourse This includes the ability to discuss and dispute scientific problems32

Such an ability cannot be obtained through merely attending scholarly sessionsThere are cases where some students spend most of their lives attendingacademic classes but are unable to talk and discuss matters Some are con-cerned with memorising more than is necessary Thus they do not obtainmuch of a habit in the practice of science although in some cases theirmemorised knowledge may be more extensive than that of other scholarsAgain Ibn Khaldn emphasises that the scientific habit is not identical withmemorised knowledge33

In relation to the continuity of scientific tradition and the education systemIbn Khaldn compares the development in the East and in the West TheWest by which he means Morocco Tunis and Spain is considered ldquobackwardrdquoin the scientific tradition and education system as compared to the East theterm he uses to refer to Khurasan Transoxania and Cairo In Morocco forexample the period specified for the residence of students in college is sixteen


30

years as a result of poor quality in the education system which makes it difficultfor students to acquire the requisite habits while in Spain the scientifictradition has disappeared The only scholarly discipline remaining there isArabic philology and literature34

In the East education is very much in demand and the scientific traditionis greatly cultivated Against the ruins of old cities like Baghdad Kfa andBasra history witnessed the emergence of Khurasn Transoxania and Cairoas centres of knowledge and scientific tradition35

In regard to urban culture and its relationship with the improvement ofthe soul Ibn Khaldn holds the view that urban culture can improve thenature of the soul He believes that the difference in cleverness between thepeople of the East and those of the West is in fact the result of urban cultureSimilarly it is quite a remarkable fact that people of the East are now (hesays) more firmly rooted in science and crafts In the same vein he rejects theviews of those who believe that the intellect of the people of the East ingeneral is more perfect than that of the people of the West Instead he insiststhere is no difference in kind between the souls of the people of the East andthose of the West The superiority of the people of the East rests in theadditional intelligence that accrues to the soul from the influence of urbanculture36

The last part of Section 7 is devoted to his comments on the intellectaptitude skills and habits of sedentary urban people Sedentary people hewrites

observe a particular code of manners (db) in everything theyundertake They acquire certain ways of making a living findingdwellings building houses and handling their religious and worldlymatters including their customary affairs their dealings with othersand the rest of their activities37

This code of manners constitutes and forms a kind of order that cannot betransgressed It comes together with certain kinds of crafts which will beinherited by later generations

In relation to this Ibn Khaldn again stresses that all crafts have their owndegree (murattaba) and influences on the soul They cause the soul to acquireadditional intelligence which prepares the soul to accept other crafts Goodhabits in teaching and crafts and other customary activities in this contextgive additional powers to the intellect and thinking abilities of man It is theinfluence of scientific activities that results in a cleverer people of the East38

The Bedouin and sedentary people differ in their level of cleverness IbnKhaldn agrees with this point of view but he does not agree with the opinionthat they differ in the reality of their humanity and intelligence To him all


31

men are on an equal level but sedentary urban people possess numerous craftsas well as the habits that go with them and good methods of teaching whichthe Bedouin do not have There are cases where the Bedouin are of the highestrank in understanding intellectual perfection and natural qualification39

Urban culture and political stability improve theadvancement of science

In Section 8 Ibn Khaldn presents a general theory of the development ofscience and crafts Science and crafts are considered as the products of sedentaryor urban culture In relation to this Ibn Khaldn says ldquoThe quality and numberof crafts depend on the greater or lesser extent of civilisation in the cities andon the sedentary culture and luxury they enjoyrdquo40 Highly developed craftscan be considered as something additional to just making a living Scienceand crafts cannot be developed or cultivated in villages and among theinhabitants of the deserts To develop them people must travel to seekknowledge in cities where the tradition of scientific instruction is stronglyestablished and civilisation is highly cultivated

The advancement of science depends very much upon political stabilityIbn Khaldn quotes examples of cities namely Baghdad Cordoba QayrawnBasra and Kfa Those cities were once centres of civilisation and urban culturePeople were widely versed in various technical terminologies in educationand in different kinds of sciences as well as in inventing new disciplines Thisachievement in civilisation is portrayed by Ibn Khaldn as greater thananything that came before or after ldquoThey exceeded (all) who had come beforethem and surpassed (all) who came after themrdquo41 However the picture wascompletely reversed when they practically suffered catastrophic diminutionand loss of civilisation Science and educational tradition then disappearedin those cities and were transplanted to others

Cairo at that time remained as centre of urban culture and civilisation Ofcourse Cairo has been well established for thousands of years Crafts are firmlyestablished there in many varieties One of them is the educational traditionCairo became the centre of education for people from Iraq and the MaghribThe history of educational tradition in Egypt goes back to the days of Sal|al-D+n al-Ayyb+ (d 5891193) onwards ie the last two hundred years underTurkish rule42 The Turkish amirs built a great many colleges hermitages andmonasteries (al-madris wa-rsquol-zawy wa-rsquol-rub_) and endowed them withmortmain endowments (awqf) which regarded as likely to be educationalfoundations43 The increase of mortmain endowments resulted in an increasein colleges and teachers and ultimately in the establishment of the educationaltradition These are the products of urban culture44


32

Excursus

To recapitulate I will now refresh our minds as to what has been touched inthis chapter Basically the issue that has been covered in this chapter can bedivided into two parts the first is an introduction to human psychology whilethe second relates to the foundation of the establishment of a civilisation

In the first part we are concerned quite extensively with human psychologywhich is centred upon the faculty of fikr Theoretically speaking the humanfaculty of fikr is the centre of human existence from which all human activitiesare generated It is this faculty that enables the human being to organise hislife and to establish co-operation with his fellows Co-operation as shownabove is the basis upon which society is established More importantly thefaculty of fikr prepares the human being to be able to accept divine revelationthrough the intermediation of a prophet In this regard religion is anotherelement that forms the foundation of a society Ibn Khaldn stresses that inreligion-based society revelation is the source of knowledge par excellence Itis the sole source of law and moral conduct

In the second part we learn about the nature of craft and habit and theestablishment of scientific instruction We have learnt that the formation ofa society rests upon the ability of its members to establish co-operation Byestablishing co-operation a simple social structure will eventually move andprogress towards a more complex and sophisticated one When this state isachieved this society is identified as sedentary Sedentary or urban culture isidentical with civilisation A civilisation is characterised by achievements incrafts and scientific habit Upon establishment of a civilisation Ibn Khaldnreminds us of the next task of the members of the society which is to maintainthat state of civilisation Here he proposes his theory that the achievementand state of a civilisation can be maintained by a strong and establishedteaching tradition

T H E D I V I S I O N O F T H E S C I E N C E S

33

3

THE DIVISION OF THESCIENCES

The basic division of the sciences

In Section 9 the author gives special attention to the important issue of thedivision of the sciences (anf al-poundulm) From the title we understand thatthe author means to tell us of the various kinds of science that exist in histime Undoubtedly such restriction would limit the coverage of the discussionto within a certain timeframe From here we might safely suggest that thisdiscussion represents only the eighth (fourteenth)-century view of theclassification of the sciences ie that which obtained in the authorrsquos timeWhat we expect is that at the end of this study we will be able to understandand draw a clear picture of how sciences were viewed and classified for thispurpose at that particular time

Coming back to the text Ibn Khaldn tells us that the sciences fall intotwo categories namely the philosophical sciences (al-poundulm al-|ikmiyya al-falsafiyya) and the traditional conventional sciences (al-poundulm al-naqliyya al-wa=poundiyya) He writes

the sciences with which people concerned themselves in cities andinstruction are of two kinds one that is natural to man and to whichhe is guided by his own ability to think and a traditional kind that helearns from those who invented it1

On the basis of this statement it seems that there were no other categoriesof science except these two available at that time Although this statementcan be argued we are not in the position at this stage to make any judgementnor draw any conclusion We will have the opportunity later to see whetherthis claim can be justified when we study the whole text and it is then wewill be able to propose a judgement

The first category of science is philosophical or intellectual science Basedon Ibn Khaldnrsquos description sciences that fall in this category are sciencesldquowith which man can become acquainted through the very nature of his ability


34

to thinkhelliprdquo2 This means that these sciences are or can be acquired throughhuman mental exercise Through mental exercise Ibn Khaldn adds humanbeings can become acquainted with the objects (maw=poundt) problems (masrsquoil)arguments and evidence (barh+n) as well as their methods of instruction3

This can be achieved through what he describes as human perceptions Inrelation to this he mentions another important point namely speculation(na~ar) and research (ba|th) These are the two methods through which humanperceptions can reach their objective The ultimate objective in this matter isto be able to differentiate between the right and the wrong Through thisprocess a man will be able to distinguish between what is correct and what isincorrect Plainly speaking this category of science is no other than the productof human mental ability Since the description of this category of science asgiven by the author here is indeed very limited we will not be able to providean extensive discussion at this stage We would expect a more detaileddiscussion in the future sections that deal directly with this particular subject

The second kind of science is seen as the traditional conventional sciences(alpoundulm al-naqliyya al-wa=poundiyya) All sciences in this category are founded orbased on the revealed authority of the given religious law4 Conventionallythis category of sciences is also seen as the religious or revealed sciences madeknown to human beings through the mediation of the prophets of God

As far as the traditional sciences are concerned Ibn Khaldn stresses thatthere is no space for the human intellect to operate in them (wa-l majl f+-hli-rsquol-poundaql+) However there is an exception that the human intellect may beused to derive particulars or to relate problems of detail to basic principles (illafi-il|q al-furpound min masrsquoili-ha bi-rsquol-ul)5

This category of science unlike the philosophical one is not the productof the human intellect There is no human interference in regard to the subjectHowever human intellect may be used in connection with these sciences asin relating problems of detail to basic principles etc Since the nature of thetraditional sciences is to provide only general principles particulars and detailswhich continuously occur in human life from time to time are not alwayscovered in them It is therefore the duty of believers to interpret and extrapolatethe meaning of the scriptural texts This may be done by way of analogicalreasoning (qiys) The method of analogical reasoning must be derived fromthe tradition or the text and not vice versa This is because the traditionitself by its nature requires practical interpretations based on the principlesset forth in the tradition Therefore qiys (analogical reasoning) as a methodof interpreting tradition plays a crucial role in manrsquos ability to understand themeaning of the religious principles set forth in the tradition In short analogicalreasoning here means that man with the power of his thinking ability canuse his life experience and events with some sort of similarity to interpret thetradition It is through this process that the traditional sciences are producedand developed


35

In the subsequent text Ibn Khaldn as expected states very clearly thatthe basis of all traditional sciences is the legal material of the Quran and thesunna or |ad+th the law that is given by God6 Since the Quran and the sunnawhich are both originally in Arabic constitute the basis of all the traditionalsciences naturally those who want to understand its meaning have to knowArabic For this matter Ibn Khaldn makes another point in regard to theimportance of the Arabic language7 By virtue of its status as the language ofIslam and the Quran knowledge of the Arabic language is considered asinstrumental or auxiliary to the other Islamic sciences

The author then continues to discuss the numerous kinds of traditionalscience Following the hierarchical order the first is the science of Quranicinterpretation (tafs+r) then the science of Quranic readingrecitation (qirrsquoa)then the science of tradition (|ad+th) then the principle of jurisprudence (ulal-fiqh) followed by jurisprudence (fiqh) and speculative theology (kalm)8

As indicated above in order to be able to understand the Quran and the|ad+th knowledge of the philological sciences (al-poundulm al-lisniyya) is requiredThese include various kinds of Arabic philology such as lexicography grammarsyntax styles and literature9

Towards the end of this section Ibn Khaldn reminds us of anotherimportant point that the traditional sciences he has just described are restrictedto Islam and Muslim religious tradition10 Although he does not deny theexistence of sciences of this sort in other traditions he admits he is not sointerested in discussing them here His argument is that these sciences haveall been discarded (nsikha) and therefore it is pointless to discuss them11

Finally Ibn Khaldn describes the development of the traditional sciencesin his time as ldquoreaching the farthest possible limitrdquo However he also expressesupset at the ldquostandstillrdquo situation in the Maghrib This situation in his opinionis caused by the decrease of civilisation and the breaking off of the scientifictradition

Excursus

The author opens this section with an explicit statement that the sciencesexisting in this civilisation are of two kinds one based upon revelation theother developed and acquired through speculation and research Both sciencesare transferred from generation to generation through instruction12 As far asthis section is concerned there are no other kinds of sciences except thesetwo Since this stage of our study is merely to understand what is going on inthe text we have no intention of trying to question this theory However asa point of thought it is perhaps not out of place to bring here the argumentsmade by A Lakhsassi In his argument against Ibn Khaldnrsquos epistemologyLakhsassi has in fact challenged the validity of this theory of the two-folddivision of science He argues that this theory does not conform with Ibn


36

Khaldnrsquos own theory of knowledge Lakhsassirsquos argument is based upon IbnKhaldnrsquos theory of soul In his theory of soul Ibn Khaldn pronounces theexistence of three types of soul (1) primary (2) spiritual and (3) angelicalLakhsassi believes that this is the foundation of Ibn Khaldnrsquos epistemologyand therefore the division of science has to be three-fold rather than two-fold This argument is strengthened by the fact that there are sciences whichdo not seem to fit into either of the two divisions ie they are neithertraditional nor philosophical This category of sciences includes dreaminterpretation Sufism and the divinatory and magical sciences These falloutside the scope of the two-fold division explicitly stated in the MuqaddimaIn view of this inconsistency Lakhsassi suggests another division a thirdcategory of sciences which he calls the spiritual sciences13

On the part of Ibn Khaldn however there is no clear evidence that heoverlooks the fact of the existence of spiritual science But quite strangely heshows less interest in it He gives the reason for this He argues that our knowl-edge in this particular category of science is only at a general level and notparticular He writes

we do not find any clearer proof than this for (the existence) of thespiritual world Thus we have a general knowledge of it but noparticulars The metaphysicians make conjectures about detailsconcerning the essences of the spiritual world and their order Theycall these essences ldquointellectsrdquo However none of it is certain becausethe conditions of logical argumentation as established in logic do notapply to it One of these conditions is that the proposition of theargument must be primary and essential but the spiritual essencesare of unknown essentiality Thus logical argument cannot be appliedto them Our only means of perceiving something of the details ofthese worlds is what we may glean from matters of religious law asexplained and established by religious faith14

As far as our reading is concerned by dividing the sciences into twocategories Ibn Khaldn has drawn a clear and distinctive line between thepurely rational sciences and the religious ones

For this matter the first category intellectual science generally refers toall societies regardless of religious beliefs while the second one traditionalscience refers specially to Islam alone The author states this explicitly and itbecomes clearer when he tells us that the basis of all the traditional sciences isthe legal material of the Quran and the sunna which is the law given to us byGod and His Messenger15 The traditional sciences derived from the Quranand the sunna are numerous First in the list is the science of Quranicinterpretation This is followed in order by the science of Quranic reading


37

recitation the science of tradition the principle of jurisprudence andspeculative theology

Since all these sciences are in Arabic one will not be able to master themwithout first mastering the Arabic language Thus the study of the Quranand the |ad+th must be preceded by mastery of the Arabic philological sciencesincluding lexicography grammar syntax and styles and literature Thesesciences are considered as instrumental or auxiliary to the traditional sciencesfor without their help one is unable to understand let alone to interpret themeaning of the Quran and the |ad+th

Both the philosophical and the traditional sciences are acquired and passedon through instruction Here I should like to make a point that the issue ofthe division of the sciences is discussed here as a part of the discussion of awider scope of poundumrn Therefore it should not be treated as an independentsubject by itself It has to be understood within the context of the widermacrocosmic view of poundumrn or civilisation

In the preceding discussion Ibn Khaldn has made it clear that lsquoumrn orcivilisation can only survive if there is an establishment and continuity of astrong teaching tradition This will ensure the flourishing of civilisation Ateaching tradition can only be established when there is a strong tradition inthe sciences both traditional and philosophical In regard to this it is importantto bear in mind that the teaching tradition and the science are two differententities The teaching is the process while the science is the subject Therelationship between these two entities is like that between drinking and waterThe act of drinking cannot be performed without water while water cannotbe drunk except by the act of drinking In the context of civilisation a strongtradition in both traditional and philosophical sciences and the establishmentof a teaching tradition and continuity have to be seen as the foundation ofthe establishment of any great civilisation without which no civilisation willsurvive

In conclusion I feel very strongly at least at this point that in this sectionIbn Khaldn has successfully presented to his reader what he means byldquosciencesrdquo in the earlier section He has made a significant contribution hereto understanding the kinds and the division of sciences especially in the contextof the Islamic sciences Sciences like crafts are the product of sedentaryurban culture They develop together with the development of the soul of asedentary people And for Muslims there is no doubt the central sources ofthe sciences are the Quran and the sunna

The traditional sciences

Of the two kinds of sciences Ibn Khaldn seems to be more interested in thetraditional than in the philosophical one This can be seen from the discussion


38

in Section 9 Explanations of traditional sciences occupy more than half ofthe section while the philosophical sciences are discussed in a relatively shortsingle paragraph

Before going any further it may be important to highlight the concept andimplication of the terminology The term used by Ibn Khaldn to describethis category of sciences is naql+ or al-naqliyya al-wa=poundiyya which meanstraditional revealed or conventional on certain occasions it may meanprophetic sciences These sciences are not as stated earlier the product ofhuman mental ability but are learnt from the One Who invented or conferredit (yursquokhadhu-hu poundan man wa=apounda-hu) All of these sciences are derived frominformation based upon the authority of the given religious law Theimplication here is that there is no room for human intellect except in theform of hermeneutic interpretation of the given principles Thereforedevelopment of this category of science depends entirely upon the level ofunderstanding of the principles and to some extent on the ability to relate theparticular problems that occur in human life to the basic principles in the text

Having understood this concept the traditional sciences presented by IbnKhaldn here can be divided into four categories the Quran and the sunnathe law the kalm and Sufism and dream interpretation

The sciences of the Quran and the sunna

This division includes the science of Quran interpretation (poundulum al-tafs+r)the science of Quran reading (qirrsquot) and the sciences of |ad+th In Section10 Ibn Khaldn writes about the sciences of Quran interpretation and Quranreading

The Quran is the sacred and the holy book of Islam It was revealed to theProphet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and written in the form of mu|afThe Quran has been transmitted from generation to generation continuouslyAlthough there is only one source of the Quran the Prophet because of thedifferent backgrounds of the companions (a|ba) or men around the Prophetthe transmission of the words of the Quran tends to vary This affects certainwords and the way the letters were pronounced This is the origin of the officialand established seven ways or techniques of reading the Quran16

The Quran reciters or readers (qurrrsquo)17 then circulate and transmit thesetechniques of reading until this becomes a science and craft in itself This isput down in writing together with other religious sciences and handed fromgeneration to generation The transmission and development of the scienceof Quranic reading follows the same process of continuity as that of othersciences In the context of the tradition in the East and in Spain Ibn Khaldnbrings into light some of the great personalities such as Mujhid (d 4361044)who later become the ruler of eastern Spain Mujhid was once a slave of the


39

Amirids (poundm+riyy+n) He acquired a good knowledge of Quranic disciplinefrom his master al-Manr b Ab+ poundmir When Mujhid became the ruler ofDenia (Dniah) and the eastern peninsula he continued to encourage thecultivation of all sciences particularly the science of Quranic reading As aresult the science of Quranic reading became established there18

The cultivation of the science of Quranic reading reached its highestpeak with the appearance of Ab poundAmr al-Dn+ (d 4441053) He producednumerous works on this subject among them was Kitb al-tays+r which laterbecame a general reference work The efforts of al-Dn+ were continued byAb al-Qsim ibn Firra (d 5901194) of Sh_iba who set out to correct andabridge the work of al-Dn+19

Another discipline that developed together with the science of Quranicreading was Quranic orthography (fann al-rasm) Quranic orthography is ascience dealing with the usage of Quranic letters (aw=pound |urf al-Qurrsquon) andits calligraphic styles (rusmu-hu al-kha__iyya) This discipline developed handin hand with the development of Arabic calligraphy This subject is discussedin some detail in Chapter 5 Section 29 where Ibn Khaldn speaks aboutcalligraphy as one of the human crafts20 He also gives the reason why thissubject is important in relation to Quranic reading There is some sort ofdivergence in the usage and norm of writing (mukhlafatu li-aw=pound al-kha__ wa-qnni-hi) Again al-Dn+rsquos contribution is significant He wrote a number ofworks on this subject Among the most important was Kitb al-muqnipound whichwas then versified by al-Sh_ib+21

The science of Quranic interpretation (tafs+r)

The Quran was revealed in the language of the Arabs Supposedly all Arabsunderstand and know the meaning of the words and verses It was revealedgradually verse by verse and word by word to explain basically the principle oftaw|+d (the oneness of God) and religious duties (al-fur= al-=iniyya) includingarticles of faith (poundaqrsquoid al-+mniyya) and the duties of the limbs of the body(a|km al-jawrih) Certain passages come earlier than others and some laterpassages abrogate (nsikh) the earlier ones22

During the time of the Prophet the Prophet himself was the primary sourceof reference (mubayyin) to explain the meaning of the Quran He explainedthe mujml (unclear statements) of the Quran the nsikh and the manskh(abrogating and abrogated statements) to his companions He also explainedthe circumstances of the revelation (sabab nuzl al-yt) The explanationsmade by the Prophet were transmitted through the authority of the companionsand those of the second generation (tbipound+n) The process continued amongthe early Muslim scholars until it came to a stage when it became an organisedand systematic scholarly discipline23 This stage is marked by the appearance


40

of a number of scholarly works in this subject Most of the scholars at thistime were committed to writing This tradition had come down to the latergenerations until it reached the prominent scholars in this subject such as al-abar+ (d 310923) al-Wqid+ (d 207823)24 al-Thapoundlib+ (d 4271053) andothers25

Another field that developed together with tafs+r was the linguistic scienceswhich then became technical discussions of the lexicographical meaning ofthe words (maw=poundt al-lugha) the rules of vowel endings (a|km al-ipoundrb)styles (balgha) and so on Although these subjects were formerly part of thehabit of the Arabs ie part of their culture as time passed they had graduallybeen forgotten People only learned them through the books of the philologistsAt the same time people had to master these subjects because they arenecessary in order to be able to understand and interpret the Quran Theymust be considered as prerequisite because the Quran is in Arabic and followsthe stylistic techniques of Arabic26

In regard to tafs+r Ibn Khaldn recognises that there are two types Thefirst type of tafs+r is naql+ (traditional) The second type is concerned withlinguistic knowledge such as balgha (stylistic form) This is particularly usefulin order to understand the appropriate meaning and method (al-maqid wa-rsquol-asl+b) of Quranic verses

The first category naql+ is traditional27 This tafs+r is based upon informationreceived from the early Muslims (salaf)28 It includes knowledge of theabrogating and abrogated verses (al-nsikh wa-rsquol-manskh) the reasons whythey were revealed (asbb al-nuzl) as well as the purpose of individual verses

Although some works had been compiled on this subject by earlier scholarsthe information they transmit contains certain unimportant and rejectedstatements29 Again Ibn Khaldn puts the blame on the lack of scholarshiptradition among the Arabs This is because they rely too much on theinformation from people of the book (ahl al-kitb) (the Jews and the Christians)who had embraced Islam Despite the fact that they were Muslims like anyother Muslims at that time these people were still very much influenced bytheir previous knowledge of certain things such as the story of the beginningof the world (badrsquo al-khal+qa) etc Among them were the Himyarites such asKapoundb al-A|br Wahb b Munabbih poundAbd Allh b Salm and the like Tafs+rtradition was then full of information transmitted on their authority30

Later scholars then came to verify and investigate critically the transmittedinformation One of them was Ab Muhammad b A_iyya (d 4811088) theMaghribi He carried out the task to abridge all the commentaries and selectthe most likely interpretations He wrote a good book on this subject whichwas then circulated in the Maghrib and Spain His footstep was followed byal-Qur_ub+ (d 6711273) who also produced work that was well known inthe East31


41

The second kind of tafs+r is concerned with linguistic knowledge and stylisticform (mapoundrifa al-lugha wa-rsquol-balgha) However this kind of tafs+r only appearsafter language and philological science have become crafts Althoughsecondary to the first it has become preponderant (ghlib) as far as certainQuran commentaries are concerned32 Among the books of this kind isZamakhshar+rsquos Kitb al-kashshf33 He is known to be Mursquotazilite in his dogmaticviews He is found using various rhetorical methods in favour of the Mursquotazilitedoctrines34 Because of the Mursquotazilite tendency the work of Zamakhshar+ (d5381144) has been rejected by orthodox scholars (al-muhaqqiq+n min ahl al-sunna) However they still praise this work in terms of linguistic informationThe work of Zamakhshar+ was later studied and abridged by Sharf al-D+n al-+b+ (d 7431343) of Iraq Al-+b+ gave his own commentary but opposedMursquotazilite dogmas and arguments35

Excursus

This section presents albeit briefly a quite comprehensive coverage of theevolution of the Quranic sciences In this context the author identifies twoldquogenresrdquo of Quranic science the science of Quranic readingrecitation (qirrsquoa)and the science of Quranic interpretationexegesis (tafs+r)

The qirrsquoa gradually developed as a result of the expansion of Islam itselfOf course this process is natural Those who converted to Islam came fromvarious cultural backgrounds and languages The Quran was in Arabic whereastheir mother tongue was not Even if they learned how to read the Qurantheir way of reading and pronunciation might vary affected by their ownlanguage Ibn Khaldn sees this factor as the origin of the then establishedseven ways of Quranic reading (al-qirrsquot al-sabpound)36 As usual he provides somehistorical account by highlighting some important figures such as Mujhidand al-Dn+ whose works were regarded as important contributions to thediscipline The development of the science of Quranic reading also had acertain impact on the development of orthography and Arabic calligraphy

Like the science of qirrsquoa the science of tafs+r developed as a result ofexpansion However in the case of tafs+r Ibn Khaldn notices that it was notonly the non-Arabs who were unable to understand Arabic but also the Arabsthemselves had lost their linguistic skills through the evolutionary process oftime This is added to by the fact that in order to understand the Quran oneneeds also to understand the abrogating and abrogated statements (nsikh andmanskh) as well as the causes of revelation (sabab nuzl al-yt) Being amessenger of God the Prophet was the one who explained the meaning ofthe verses Dogmatically the explanation and interpretation by the Prophetare the most authentic These explanations were then transmitted to the nextgeneration Ibn Khaldn sees this process as the beginning of the tafs+r traditionin Islam that was then to become a systematic scholarly discipline on its own


42

On the typology of tafs+r Ibn Khaldn makes a generalisation that thereare two types namely the traditional (naql+) based upon transmittedinformation from the early Muslims (salaf) and another one more concernedwith language lexicography and stylistic form37 In the course of his expositionIbn Khaldn also takes the opportunity to express his worry about the contentof the tafs+r works which he finds contain some rejected statements whichare mostly derived from the people of the book (ahl al-kitb) He blames theArabs who he claims rely too much on information from ahl al-kitb In tafs+rtradition this problem is known as isrrsquo+liyyt38 Among important figures inthe development of tafs+r tradition highlighted by Ibn Khaldn were IbnpoundA_iyya al-Qur_ub+ Zamakhshar+ and al-+b+

The science of prophetic tradition

In Section 11 Ibn Khaldn deals at some length with the sciences of prophetictradition At the very outset he admits that these sciences are numerous andvaried The important ones among them are knowledge of the abrogating andabrogated traditions (mapoundrifatu al-nsikh wa-rsquol-manskh) and knowledge of thechain of transmitters (mapoundrifat al-asn+d wa-rsquol-ruwt)39

Knowledge of the abrogating and abrogated traditions is important in orderto know its effect on the shar+pounda and public interest (mali|) Whenever thereare two mutually exclusive traditions (tapoundru= al-khabarni bi-rsquol-nafy wa-rsquol-ithbt)and they may be difficult to reconcile by mere interpretation (tarsquow+l) knowledgeof the nsikh and the manskh can help to determine which one is most likelyto be acceptable It is based on the principle that the later abrogates the earlier40

The |ad+th transmission

This is the knowledge of the norms (qawn+n) that are set by leading |ad+thscholars (arsquoimma al-mu|addith+n) It includes knowledge of the chain oftransmitters (asn+d) the transmitters (ruwt) and their names the way thattransmission takes place their grades or ranks (_abaqt) and their technicalterminology (i_il|t)41

This knowledge is important in determining whether information is trueor not It can be done by scrutinising (na~ar) the transmitters of the |ad+th interms of probity accuracy thoroughness and lack of carelessness (al-poundadlawa-rsquol-=ab_ wa-rsquol-itqn wa-rsquol-barrsquoa wa-rsquol-ghafla) What is described here isactually a traditional science known as al-jar| wa-rsquol-tapoundd+l (disparaging andauthenticating)42

The |ad+th scholars use this science to criticise the transmitters of each|ad+th in terms of the reliability of what they transmit This will determinethe level of soundness and acceptability of the |ad+th It will also determinethe grade of the transmitted material whether it falls into the category of


43

a|+| (sound) |asan (good) or =apound+f (weak) The status of the |ad+th is alsoidentified with other terms such as mursal (skip the first transmitter on theProphetrsquos authority) munqa_ipound (omit one link) mupound=al (omit two links) mupoundallal(affected by some infirmity) shdhdh (singular) ghar+b (unusual) and munkr(singular and suspect)43 Apart from critiques of the transmitters the |ad+thscholars also discuss the texts (mutn) of the tradition in terms of their beingghar+b (unusual) mushk+l (ambiguous) ta|+f (affected by some misreading)muftariq (homonymous) or mukhtalif (homographous)44

All these grades and terms (al-martib wa-rsquol-alqb) are used as tools to protectthe transmission from any defect (salma al-_urq poundan-dukhl al-naq) The |ad+thscholars have laid down the canon to explain all those terms Ibn Khaldnnames Ab poundAbd Allh al-kim (d 4051014) as the first to lay down sucha canon The same step was taken by other scholars including Abu poundAmr b al-âl| (Ibn âl|) (d 6431245) and Mu|yidd+n al-Nawaw+ (d 6761277)45

Excursus

This section presents a general coverage of the development of the science of|ad+th It includes studies of the transmitters the transmission and the historyof its development Through this section Ibn Khaldn has successfully detailedwhat is meant by the science of |ad+th

What is the significance of this section in the context of the overalldiscussion of Chapter 6 As is dogmatically accepted there are two primesources in Islam the Quran and the sunna|ad+th From these two sourcesother Islamic religious sciences were developed including fiqh kalm andSufism It is always meaningful to be acquainted with the root and source ofthese latter sciences before trying to understand them as individual disciplines

The law

In the previous discussion we presented the first category of knowledge withinthe framework of the traditional sciences ie the sciences of the Quran andthe sunna Here we will explore another category namely the law Ibn Khaldnpresents this subject in three distinct sections identifed as jurisprudence (fiqh)inheritance law (farrsquoi=) and the principles of jurisprudence (ul al-fiqh) Thereare also two sub-sections under the principles of jurisprudence namely thekhilfiyyt and the jadl (controversial questions and dialectics) For the purposesof this discussion each section will be looked at separately

Jurisprudence (fiqh)

Ibn Khaldn presents the historical development of fiqh in several phases Itcan be divided into at least five different phases These are (1) the phase of


44

ikhtilf (2) the pre-scientific phase (3) the phase of the three madhhabs (4)the emergence of the four madhhabs and the outgrowth of taql+d and (5) thegeography and achievement of each of the four madhhabs

He begins with an attempt to suggest a definition of this scienceJurisprudence (fiqh) is defined as knowledge of the classification of the law ofGod which concerns the actions of all responsible Muslims obligatory (wujb)forbidden (ha~r) recommendable (nadb) disliked (karha) or permissible(ibha) This knowledge is derived from the kitb and the sunna (text andtradition) as well as the evidence the Lawgiver (the Prophet) has establishedfor knowledge of the laws The laws (a|km) that evolved from the evidence(adilla) are called fiqh46

After introducing the section with a brief definition Ibn Khaldn proceedsto elaborate the historical development of fiqh Apparently when he talksabout this subject the first thing that comes to his mind is the phenomenonof ikhtilf (differences in opinion) This phenomenon seems to be the mostcentral that characterised the first phase of the development of fiqh Of coursewe understand that the fundamental duty of fiqh is to determine the legalstatus of the actions of responsible Muslims (mukallaf) In order to decide thelegal status of actions in the context of Godrsquos law or shar+pounda certain juristicjudgements are required These juristic judgements are derived mainly fromthe prime sources of the Quran and the sunna however in certain casesanalogical methods are used to determine them Here Ibn Khaldn employsthe term mushbaha (instead of qiys) to indicate cases that fall into thiscategory47 Since the evidence Ibn Khaldn says is mainly derived from thetexts (nu) which are in Arabic it requires interpretation Interpretationalthough from the same source will naturally vary due to differences in thebackground and level of understanding of the interpreter Hence differencesin opinion (ikhtilf) among scholars are considered as something natural(=arra) Ibn Khaldn gives at least four principal reasons that lead to thestate of ikhtilf among scholars They are (1) the implicit and multiplemeanings of certain words of the text (2) differences in ways of transmittingthe sunna which requires tarj+| (interpretation) (3) evidence that does notcome from the texts and (4) new realities and cases (al-waqrsquoipound al-mutajaddida)that are not covered by the text48 Moreover Ibn Khaldn adds in the earlydays of Islam not all the companions of the Prophet were well qualified togive legal decisions The legal decision he says can only be made exclusivelyby those who are acquainted with the text especially in relation to theabrogating and abrogated verses (nsikh wa-manskh) as well as the ambiguousand unambiguous (mutashbih wa-mu|km) meaning of the words49 At thattime people of this category were known as ldquoreadersrdquo (qurrrsquo)50 ldquoReadersrdquo arethose who read and understand the meaning of the Quran Of course peoplewho were able to read were then regarded as remarkable and extraordinarybecause the people of those days were mostly illiterate51


45

Here Ibn Khaldn touches the movement of the development from thereaders (qurrrsquo) to jurists (fuqahrsquo) and religious scholars (poundulamrsquo) In theearly days fiqh did not constitute a special science or a structured body ofknowledge Only when illiteracy among the Arabs gradually disappeared didthe remarkable development of jurisprudence take place Islamic jurisprudenceemerged as a new craft and science by itself Following this ldquotransitionrdquo periodthe readers were acquiring a new image and perhaps a new role as jurists(fuqahrsquo) and religious scholars (poundulamrsquo) They developed different methodsand approaches to the study of jurisprudence52 This phase may be consideredas the pre-scientific phase of the development of jurisprudence

An important consequence of this development was the emergence ofseveral schools of thought (madhhab) This phase as far as the Muqaddima isconcerned is referred to as the three-madhhab phase because three importantschools dominated the development of jurisprudence at that time They arethe Iraqi school the Hijazi school and the school of amphir+ The Iraqis werethose who gave more attention to the use of opinion and analogy (ahl al-rarsquoywa-rsquol-qiys) while the Hijazis restricted themselves to the use of tradition (ahlal-|ad+th) The third group the amph+r+s founded by Dawd b poundAl+ (d 270884)53 restricted the sources of law to the text and general consensus andreferred obvious analogy (al-qiys al-jal+) to the text According to Ibn Khaldnthese were the three most popular schools of thought that were followed bythe majority of the Muslim umma at that time

The next phase was the phase of the emergence of the four madhhabs andthe spread and outgrowth of taql+d among the Muslims Ibn Khaldnrsquos discussionof this phase is entirely based on the two remaining dominant schools of theIraq and the ijaz The four recognised schools are Hanafite Shafiite Malikiteand Hanbalite These are the four schools that are traditionally andconventionally recognised and accepted in the Muslim cities The Muslims ofthat time followed one of these four schools

The next issue is the phenomenon of taql+d (literally imitation) IbnKhaldn describes this phenomenon as the consequence of the ldquoclosing ofthe door of khilf and its methodsrdquo (wa-sadda al-nsu bb al-khilf wa-_uruqa-hu)54 As the author sees it the rapid development of the science ofjurisprudence and the diversity of its technical terminology had become majorobstacles that ldquopreventedrdquo scholars from attaining the level of ijtihd(independent judgement) Because of this taql+d had become widely acceptedup to the point that even scholars at that time came to admit their inability tomake an independent judgement All these school doctrines had become aspecial scholarly discipline among their followers This went on to the extentthat there was no room for ijtihd but reference had to be made to one of theexisting schools or authorities55


46

Excursus

In the earlier part of this study I indicated quite explicitly what Ibn Khaldnis trying to convey in this section I consider it a specific theme of this sectionThe author presents a brief historical account of the origin and developmentof fiqh in the Muslim community The origin and development of fiqh ischaracterised by its phases of development Ibn Khaldn identifies ikhtilf(difference of opinion) as the point of departure of the development of thisscience Ikhtilf occurs when scholars have different opinions concerning themeaning and interpretation of texts It is understood in fiqh tradition thatscholars of independent judgement (mujtahid) are of the same status hencetheir interpretations are equally authoritative

Before fiqh became a scientific and structured body of knowledge and anindependent science itself juristic judgement and textual interpretations weremade by a group of Muslims identified as qurrrsquo (readers) This phase ischaracterised as the pre-scientific period of fiqh development

The next development which I identify as the three-madhhab phase tookplace when the qurrrsquo had eventually been changed into fuqahrsquo and poundulamrsquoAt this time fiqh had already taken shape as a systematic and structured bodyof knowledge The three madhhabs characterised as the ijazi the Iraqi andthe amphir+ represented three distinct approaches and methods in fiqh Theirmethods and approaches also influenced the later development of madhhabs

The next phase which I identify as the emergence of the four madhhabsand the outgrowth of taql+d took place after the science of fiqh had beenestablished The four madhhabs called Hanafite Shafiite Malikite andHanbalite after the names of their founders dominated the development offiqh throughout the Muslim countries Then came the phenomenon of taql+dThis phenomenon was in fact a consequence of the ldquoclosing of the door ofkhilf rdquo This was also the outcome of a general assumption that later scholarsare inferior to earlier ones and have not achieved the necessary qualificationto be mujtahid Later scholars do not have sufficient knowledge and inter-pretative skills ndash not as good as those of their predecessors It is interesting tonote that Ibn Khaldn uses the term ldquokhilf rdquo to describe this phenomenonThis is quite uncommon in the history of fiqh We are more familiar with theldquoclosing of the door of ijtihdrdquo rather than the ldquodoor of khilfrdquo Technicallythese two terms give two different connotations In my view what concernsIbn Khaldn here is not the intellectual activities of the scholars but ratherthe social response of the diversity of opinions regarding religious mattersWe understand that the emergence of the madhhabs was a direct consequenceof the khilf The closing of the door of khilf means that Muslims have enoughwith the present madhhabs and will no longer allow the creation of a newmadhhab


47

The section ends with Ibn Khaldnrsquos assessment of the achievement of thefour madhhabs He also provides us with some information on the geographyof each of the madhhabs throughout the Muslim world

The science of inheritance law (farrsquoi=)

Although it is very brief Ibn Khaldn devotes a special sub-section to thescience of inheritance law (farrsquoi=) The purpose of this chapter is tocomplement his earlier discussion of fiqh Farrsquoi= is here introduced as a sciencethat goes together with fiqh against the opinion that considers it to be a separateand independent discipline itself

Ibn Khaldn defines this science as the knowledge of estate division (fur=al-writha) and the correct determination of proper shares (ta|+| sihm al-far+=a) with regard to the relation of the individual shares to the basic divisionsincluding readjustment of shares (munsakha)56 It therefore requirescalculation (|isbn) As far as Muslim jurists are concerned this subject isconsidered a separate subject and a discipline in its own right Although thissubject is basically part of jurisprudence it requires in addition calculation asits predominant element57

It is a noble subject (fann shar+f) Many scholars from all the four schoolshave written and produced books on this subject Among them were Ibn Thbit(d 4471055ndash6) Abu al-Qsim al-awf+ (d 5881192) and Abu al-Mapoundl+(Imm al-aramayn)

However Ibn Khaldn criticises some of the scholars of this discipline whohe finds tend to overstress (ghuluw) the importance of the mathematical sidesuch as al-jabr wa-rsquol-muqbala (algebra) and the use of roots (taarruf) and thelike whereas it is something not much used by the people58 He also criticisesthese scholars for misunderstanding the meaning of the Prophetrsquos traditionwhich says that farrsquoi= ldquoconstitutes one-third of scholarship and it is the firstto be forgottenrdquo (ann al-farrsquoi=a thuluthu al-poundilm wa-anna-h awwalu m-yuns)and another saying says it is one-half of scholarship (nif al-poundilm)59 To IbnKhaldn taking the word farrsquoi= here to mean specifically inheritance law isnot logical In the early days of Islam the word farrsquoi= did not refer to a particulardiscipline Instead it refers to the general connotation of the word which isderived from far= which refers to religious obligations (al-fur= al-takl+fiyya)The reference to inheritance laws as a branch of knowledge came later as partof the technical terminology created by the jurists and has no particularconnection to the above tradition60

The science of the principles of jurisprudence (ul al-fiqh)

In Section 13 Ibn Khaldn speaks about the principles of jurisprudence Thisbranch of jurisprudence is concerned with the evidence for the religious law


48

from which the laws and legal obligations of Muslims are derived (al-na~ar f+-rsquol-adilla al-sharpoundiyya min haythu tursquokhadhu min-h al-a|km wa-rsquol-takl+f) Thetwo prime sources of legal evidence are the Quran and the sunna61 During thetime of the Prophet transmission (naql) speculation (na~r) and analogicalreasoning (qiys) were not required The Prophet explained the meaning ofthe text through his words and deeds After the Prophetrsquos death direct expla-nation of the Quran was no longer possible General consensus (ijmpound) thentook a place after the Quran and the sunna Ijmpound was justified by the fact thatmen around the Prophet had agreed to disapprove of those who held a differentopinion (ijmapound al-ahba poundal-rsquol-nak+r poundal-mukhtlaf+-him)62 Another methodpractised by the ahba and the salaf was to compare similar cases (ashbah) anddraw conclusions by analogy This method is called qiys63 Hierarchically ittakes a position after ijmpound in religious law64

The existence and authority of four basic sources of evidence for laws inIslam have been established the Quran the sunna ijmpound and qiys65 To masterthe principles of jurisprudence mastery of several related disciplines is alsorequired Besides possessing an in-depth knowledge of the Quran and the sunnaone has to have mastery in elements of philology such as grammar (na|w)inflection (tar+f) and syntax and styles (bayn)66 The study of analogy is alsoa very important basis of this discipline It determines the principles (ul)and special aspects of laws (furpound) of matters that the methods of qiys are tobe applied to

Based on Ibn Khaldnrsquos account ul al-fiqh is of recent origin in IslamWhen the first period of Islam was over all the sciences become technicalincluding the one we are concerned with here Jurists and scholars ofindependent judgement (mujtahidn) of later periods had to acquire the normsand basic rules (al-qawn+n wa-rsquol-qawpoundid) in order to be able to derive thelaws from the textual evidence They wrote down this discipline and called itul al-fiqh (the principles of jurisprudence)67

The first scholar to write on this subject according to Ibn Khaldn was al-Shfipound+ in his celebrated work Risla68 In Risla Shfipound+ discussed commandsand prohibitions (al-awmir wa-rsquol-nawh+) syntax and styles (bayn) tradition(khabr) abrogation (naskh) and the position of ratio legis (al-poundilla al-mana)in relation to analogy69

Later the Hanafite jurists were also involved in writing on this subjectOne of their leading scholars was Ab Zayd al-Dabs+ (d 4301038 or 1039)A recent scholar Sayf al-Islm al-Bazdaw+ (d 4821089) also producedexcellent works in this discipline He was followed by Ibn al-Sapoundat+ who wrotea book called Kitb al-bad+pound70

This subject also attracted the interest of some speculative theologiansAmong the best works produced by this group of scholars were Kitb al-Burhnby Imm al-aramayn and Mu_af by al-Ghazzl+ Both scholars were Asharite


49

Other books of the same category were Kitb al-poundumd by poundAbd al-Jabbr (d4151025) and al-Mupoundtamad by Ab al-Hussayn al-Bar+ (d 4361044) Thelatter is a commentary on the former71

Controversial questions and dialectics (al-khilfiyyat wa-rsquol-jadl)

This is another sub-section in which Ibn Khaldn discusses controversialquestions and dialectics He considers this subject as part of the principles ofjurisprudence Since jurisprudence itself is based upon religious evidence andtexts and thus requires some degree of interpretative skills differences ofopinion among scholars of independent judgement (mujtahidn) areunavoidable

Controversial questions (khilfiyyt) occur when the opinions andinterpretations of scholars differ in regard to religious texts and legal principlesThe adherents of the four established schools became involved in disputationstrying to prove the correctness of their respective founders72 Amongoutstanding works in this category are Kitb al-mapoundkhidh by al-Ghazzl+ Kitbal-talkh+ by the Malikite Ab Bakr b al-poundArab+ (d 5431148) poundUyn al-adillaby Ibn al-Qassr (d 3981007 or 1008) and al-Tapoundl+qa by al-Dabs+73

Dialectics (jadl) is knowledge of the proper behaviour in disputation (dbal-mun~ara) among the adherents of legal schools It is also said that thisdiscipline is knowledge of the basic rules of proper behaviour in arguing (qawpoundidmin al-|udd wa-rsquol-db f+-rsquol-istidll) in order to maintain an opinion or demolishit whether related to jurisprudence or any other subject74 Ibn Khaldnmentions two methods practised in this subject the method of Bazdaw+ andthe method of poundAm+d+ (d 6311233)75 The Bazdaw+ method is limited to thereligious laws namely texts (na) general consensus (ijmpound) and argumentation(istidll) while the poundAm+d+ method applies quite generally to all argumentsused mostly argumentation (istidll) which is quite similar to sophisticalreasoning (sfas_rsquo+)76

poundAm+d+ claimed to be the first to write on this method in his brief book al-Irshd He was followed by al-Nasaf+ (d 7101310)77 and other scholars FinallyIbn Khaldn gives his own assessment He considers this discipline to be aluxury (kamliya) and not in the category of necessary (=arriya) as far asIslamic scholarship is concerned

Excursus

Ibn Khaldnrsquos exposition as far as this category of science is concerned canbe seen as an invitation to understand law in the context of Muslim societyLaw is constituted by its main subject fiqh and other sciences that go with it(in this case farrsquoi= and ul al-fiqh) It represents the main body of law that


50

binds the thinking and the action of all Muslims What Ibn Khaldn is tryingto convey is that the law besides its special function in the society also developsas a special body of science and crafts This science is the product of andbelongs to a particular society (in this case Muslim society) It becomes theproperty of the community studied and inherited generation after generationIt becomes the foundation of the system on which the society is built Hencein the hierarchy of his classification of science Ibn Khaldn places law nextafter the science of the Quran and the sunna

While recognising the basic notion that the shar+pounda is based on revelationthat has nothing to do with human intelligence Ibn Khaldn sees fiqh andother sciences that develop as a result of human thought as the product ofhuman mental activity These sciences develop as a result of human attemptsto interpret Godrsquos law This can be seen from the list of scholars and theliterary tradition in this discipline that have been produced in the history ofMuslim society

In conclusion this passage has demonstrated that law is part of the societyin which it is established In Islam shar+pounda is based on revelation However itsapplication rests upon the interpretation of how it is to be implementedNaturally interpretation is subject to differences in opinion It depends verymuch upon the level of understanding of the interpreter as well as on otherfactors such as socio-cultural and political backgrounds Ibn Khaldn hassuccessfully demonstrated the process whereby these sciences develop andfinally emerge as structured and systematic sciences in Muslim society

The science of speculative theology (lsquoilm al-kalm)

This section will deal with the third category of traditional science the scienceof speculative theology or poundilm al-kalm Ibn Khaldn divides his discussioninto two sub-sections a sub-section on the science of kalm followed byanother sub-section on the questions of ambiguity in the Quran which isanother branch of kalm

Ibn Khaldnrsquos exposition of kalm78 touches several general and specificissues ranging from tawh+d to the historical development of this science Heintroduces this section with a brief definition of kalm followed by someindication of the general structure of the section This section consists ofthree major components Identifying taw|+d as the core (sirr) of the disciplinehe says that he will give (1) an example (a la_+fa a subtle example) of intel-lectual demonstration related to taw|+d Only then will he return to (2) analysisof the science itself and its subject matter and (3) its emergence and the reasonsfor its development in Islam The definition of each of these components willbe dealt with separately in the following four sections


51

Definition of kalm

Ibn Khaldn defines kalm as ldquoa science which contains (1) proofs for thearticles of faith based on rational arguments and (2) refutation of the inno-vators those who have deviated in their beliefs from the paths of the earlyMuslims and Muslim orthodoxyrdquo (al-salaf wa-ahl al-sunna)79

The definition presents kalm both as a defensive and as an offensive scienceThe articles of faith (al-poundaqrsquoid al-+mniyya) which are the subject of thedefence are not themselves the result of the science but are prior to it Theprinciple of defensive argumentation is combined with offensive argumenta-tion aimed at destroying the arguments of the innovators In short the scienceof kalm emerged for the purpose of defending religious beliefs against thechallenge of the innovators using rational arguments The major role is todefend the articles of faith and to refute innovators and borrowing Anawatirsquosremarks this role ldquoof defensive apologia and apologetics attributed to thisscience has remained standard in Islamrdquo80 It is practically instrumental and atool of protection to protect the basic doctrine of faith in Islam81

The essential elements of Ibn Khaldnrsquos definition had in fact beenestablished long before and were fully present in the work of al-Ghazzl+ Hetoo stressed the defensive nature of the science in his al-Munqidh It was aimedat guarding and preserving the creed (poundaq+da) of the ahl al-sunna from thecorruption of the innovators82 The origins of the faith lay in revelation thishad been given to the Prophet and was contained in the Quran and the |ad+thBut the innovators had introduced ideas opposed to the sunna and so Godhad risen up the mutakallimn had moved them to defend the faith by orderedspeech (kalm murattab) Al-Ghazzl+ stressed that the true creed was receiveddirectly from the Prophet The mutakallimn were defending it In that sensethe science of kalm was not fully rational since its fundamental elementswere given and accepted through faith

In regard to al-Munqidh al-Ghazzl+ also stressed that the arguments ofkalm were of limited use to someone in the position he found himself ndashsomeone searching for truth based on first principles ndash for kalm does notanalyse first principles Indeed al-Ghazzl+ found that kalm was in this respecta low-level science adequate to its own purposes but not to his Even whenthe mutakallimn tried to extend their investigations to uncover the true natureof things they were unable to achieve this in a full and satisfactory manner(lam yablugh kalmu-hum f+-hi al-ghya al-qaswa)83

The sense of kalm as a deficient science as a merely ancillary one is implicitin Ibn Khaldnrsquos definition The deficiencies of the science become cleareras does his continued reliance on al-Ghazzl+ in his subsequent discussion


52

Ibn Khaldnrsquos subtle example (la_+fa) of intellectualargumentation

The nature of Ibn Khaldnrsquos la_+fa is initially not quite clear We begin with aconceit in the form of intellectual argument (la_+fa f+-burhn poundaql+) which willreveal the significance of taw|+d in the most accessible ways and methods84

The intellectual argument stretches from QIII276 to QIII356 Onlythen does Ibn Khaldn indicate a new start he turns at that point to thecontents of the creed as given by the Prophet The conceit then is fairly lengthyIt has two major components In the first of these Ibn Khaldn argues thatthe intellect alone cannot achieve an understanding of God and the nature ofcreativity (The focus of the argument is on causality) Religious truths dependon a level of perception that is higher than the intellect and accessible fullyperhaps only to a prophet When this has been established there is a transitionto the second component which distinguishes between faith as mere assent(tad+q) and faith as acquired attribute (ifat) or habit or disposition (malaka)The aim of this two-fold conceit is as follows (I analyse each of the parts ofIbn Khaldnrsquos conceit in the following argument 1 and argument 2)

Argument 1

This first argument has the negative intention of establishing that the intellectcannot apprehend God through reflection on causality It is probably to beunderstood as an argument against the philosophers though it has otherfunctions For example it establishes a reason for the emergence of innovationin the community

Ibn Khaldn first argues that all events in the world of creation whetheressences (dhawt) or actions (afpoundl) and whether human or animal actionsdepend upon prior causes and each cause has a cause or causes and so on in asequence that ends only with the Cause of all causes musabbib al-asbb wa-mjidu-h wa-khliqu-h85 These causes multiply in such a manner as to leavethe intellect confused (yu|r al-poundaql f+-idrki-h etc)86 This is particularlytrue of human and animal actions which depend on intention and will Theseare properties of the soul arising out of conceptualisations which are linkedto prior conceptualisations etc But these conceptualisations which areproperties of the soul cannot be known to the intellect they are unknowablein their origins And the human intellect will not be able to perceive mattersthat take place in the soul Therefore any attempt to understand or speculateon matters that pertain to the soul will end up nowhere Ibn Khaldn supportshis argument with a |ad+th whereby the Prophet forbade us from getting engagedin such speculation for the very reason that it is ldquoa field in which the mindwould become lost and get nowhere nor gain any real insightrdquo87

By this Ibn Khaldn means to demonstrate that human intellect is limited


53

With this limitation it does not have the ability to grasp or understand mattersexcept the natural and obvious or matters that ldquopresent themselves to ourperception in an orderly and well arranged mannerrdquo (ni~m wa-tart+b)88 Withregard to speculation about causes (which is unperceivable) Ibn Khaldnargues if we know it [beforehand] we can be on guard against it (law poundalim-nla-ta|arraz-n min-h)89 This limitation subsequently disqualifies the intellectfrom being used to weigh larger and more abstract matters such as the onenessof God the other world the truth of prophecy the real character of divineattributes or anything else that lies beyond the level of the intellect90 This isthe point where the human intellect has to stop

The limitation of human intellect is characterised by Ibn Khaldn withthe term _awr (level or stage) He employs this term to signify the ldquoperimeterrdquowithin which the human intellect can operate It can only operate withinthat ldquoperimeterrdquo and is unable to reach things beyond its _awr Based on theterm he uses again it may be presumed that Ibn Khaldn at this point is verymuch influenced by his predecessor al-Ghazzl+ In al-Munqidh al-Ghazzl+employed exactly the same terminology _awr in his attempt to explain theworld of existence (poundlam al-mawjdt) in relation to the nature of prophecyHe stated for example ldquowa-warrsquo al-poundaqli _awran khar tanfati|u f+-hi poundaynukhrhelliprdquo (and beyond the level of intellect there is another level at whichother eyes were opened)91 The term _awr here was used to indicate the level(s)that may be considered as the boundary beyond which the intellect cannotpass

The above argumentation by Ibn Khaldn implicitly puts the science ofkalm in a ldquodilemmardquo As a rational science it operates on the basis of rationalargument while the subjects it deals with are matters pertaining to faith ieoutside the level of intellect Ibn Khaldn quite explicitly shows his pessimisticattitude towards this science With that argument Ibn Khaldn may be seenas indirectly questioning the credibility and capability of this science to explainthe complications of the worlds beyond the curtain of the human intellectLike al-Ghazzl+ he is sceptical about the kalmrsquos ability to reach the truenotion of taw|+d

Certain things can be known to the intellect namely those that are a partof external or manifest nature (_ab+pounda ~hira) Ibn Khaldn is probably referringto natural sciences here These things are encompassed by the soul and at alower level than it (li-anna al-_ab+pounda ma|ra li-rsquol-nafs wa-ta|ta _awri-h)92 Incontrast the conceptualisations (taawwurt) that are the causes of humanand animal actions belong to the realm of the intellect above the level (_awr)of the nafs (human desire) They cannot be fully grasped Ibn Khaldn finisheshis argument by an appeal to the authority he quotes a verse of the QuranThis fits his argument which implies that for some things revealed authorityand not reason is the only correct method of understanding He glosses this


54

with an added remark that any effort to achieve an understanding of causalitymerely through the intellect will lead to error and perdition93

The point of Ibn Khaldnrsquos argument is that the intellect cannot achievean understanding of God (the Cause of all causes) through thinking of theworld and its causes in fact any effort in this direction will lead to error Initself this argument is not the argument of kalm nor is it the type of kalmargument At this point in the argument it is not clear why this conceit inthe form of intellectual argument should be considered to be revealing aboutthe nature of taw|+d It is however an indication of why kalm becamenecessary Man striving to understand God by rational means over-reachedhimself and fell into error thus introducing error into faith and making itnecessary to defend the true faith and attack error and innovation

Ibn Khaldn continues claiming that a concern with causality once estab-lished cannot be abandoned by choice for it affects the soul ndash it is like acolour or a dye which becomes imprinted in the soul and cannot be eradicatedThe only way to avoid this contamination is total abstention from concernwith causality (bi-qatpound al-na~ar poundan-h jumlatan)94

We have been commanded to abstain from the [study of] causalityand to destroy it utterly And [we have been commanded] to turn tothe Cause of all causes the Agent the Creator so that the attributeof taw|+d may be implanted in the soul as the Lawgiver taught ushellip95

This is the essential point of Ibn Khaldnrsquos cosmological argument thestudy of causality is either futile or it leads to error It is better to submit andfollow revelation96 In the following passages Ibn Khaldn provides Quranicand |ad+th quotations to establish his point He writes that the effort tounderstand causality is overweening It is a realm of being beyond the intellectincomprehensible to the intellect in the same way that sight is incompre-hensible to the blind or hearing to the dumb or intellectual matters to theanimals

Again Ibn Khaldnrsquos argument is reminiscent of al-Ghazzl+97 Religioustruths are not the property of the faculty of intellect It is the message of theProphet that corresponds to this high faculty

So be suspicious of your understanding and your perceptions followwhat the Lawgiver commanded in respect of faith and actions forHe is more desirous of your happiness and more of your advantage[His message] is from a level (_awr) beyond your perception from asphere broader than the sphere of your intellect98

The intellect has its limits and cannot pass beyond its own level ndash lyatapoundadd _awru-h Since this is the case the effort by the intellect to


55

understand the chain of causation can only lead to error and confusion (ya=illual-poundaql f+-bay=rsquo al-awhm etc)99 At this point Ibn Khaldn contains himselfwith a statement of faith in God (shahdatayn) and a quotation from a certainholy man failure of perception is perception100 This means that if weacknowledge that we cannot perceive the truths of the prophetic world therealm of the world which is beyond and superior to the realm of the intellectwe can also acknowledge that they are genuine truths that must be acceptedSo the failure of perception in acknowledging a realm of knowledge beyondthe limits of the intellect is the beginning of perception ie accepting thetruths that lie beyond the range of the intellect

Argument 2

Having established his stance on the limitations of the human intellect IbnKhaldn turns to the second component of his argument which relates to thecontents of the creed as constituted by the Prophet Since the human intellectis unable to grasp matters beyond its level it has to stop speculating on matterspertaining to causes that are unperceivable Such matters pertaining to faithmust be referred to God (the Cause of all causes) in order to obtain a realunderstanding of taw|+d based on the teaching of the Lawgiver (shripound) whoknows better than us regarding religious matters and ways that bring us tohappiness101 We are commanded and required to believe the absolute onenessof God (al-taw|+d al-mu_laq) The human intellect by its nature is unable toweigh matters such as taw|+d the day of judgement the nature of prophecythe attributes of God and all matters beyond the boundaries of its level becausesays Ibn Khaldn this would mean to desire the impossible102 Based on thisnotion we find that recognition of taw|+d is therefore identical with ldquoinabilityto perceive the causes and the ways in which they exercise their influencerdquoAgain the famous saying ldquoinability to perceive is perceptionrdquo (al-poundajz poundan al-idrk idrk)103 becomes significant Trying to swim in the ocean of speculationwould lead to confusion lost and cut off in the conjectures of intellectualwilderness

Faith solely founded on ldquoaffirmation based on judgementrdquo (tad+q |ukm+) isnot sufficient It has to be the ldquotalk of the soulrdquo (|ad+th al-nafs) while itsperfection is obtained by the realisation of attribute (wa-inna-m al-kaml f+-hi|ul ifatin min-hu)104 In relation to this Ibn Khaldn distinguishes betweenstate (|l) and knowledge (poundilm) in matters pertaining to religious dogmas(poundaqrsquoid) This is just like the difference between talking (about taw|+d) andhaving The perfection of faith can be achieved only when it becomes anattribute of the soul Therefore the only way to achieve this state is throughthe act of worship Here Ibn Khaldn significantly distinguishes between faithas mere assent (tad+q) and faith as acquired attribute In dealing with thissubject Ibn Khaldnrsquos argument seems to be intermingled with his discussion


56

on Sufism The element of Sufism can be seen quite obviously especially inthe use of terminology such as |l etc105

Ibn Khaldn asserts that the main objective of religious obligation is theacquisition of habit Habit (malaka) is obtained as a result of attribute (ittif)An attribute will not be attained from knowledge alone but is the result ofrepeated action Action here refers to the act of worship This is the only wayone can acquire attribute and firmly rooted habit The possession of attributewill result in a kind of knowledge [about taw|+d] According to Ibn Khaldnthis knowledge results by necessity (i=_irr+) It is a more solidly based knowledgethan knowledge attained prior to the possession of attribute ie through thehuman intellect alone Divine worship and the continuous practice thereoflead to this noble result

Here Ibn Khaldn also touches in his exposition on the degrees (martaba)of faith Faith has several degrees The first and the lowest is affirmation byheart of what the tongue says (al-tad+q bi-rsquol-qalb al-muwfiq li-rsquol-lisn) Thelast and the highest level is the acquisition ldquofrom the belief of the heart andthe resulting actions of a quality that has complete control over the heartrdquo106

This is the highest degree of faith whereby every activity and action of thelimbs will be under its command

Affirmation (tad+q) the first and lowest degree of faith distinguishesbetween the believer and the unbeliever Anything less than this accordingto this notion is insufficient

The origin of kalm

Ibn Khaldn continues turning to the original issue of kalm As mentionedearlier taw|+d is the core subject of kalm It includes discussions of the articlesof faith Believing in God means believing in the Creator as the sole source ofall actions The Prophet informed us that this belief means our salvationHowever the Prophet did not inform us about the real being or the reality ofthe Creator because it is something too difficult for our perception and aboveour level God cannot be described in any way as deficient God is the mostknowing and the most powerful He has volition He determines the fate ofeach created thing Further God sends His messengers to save us from theDay of Judgement107

Ibn Khaldn tells us that the salaf (the early Muslims) adopted these mainarticles of faith without question Nonetheless later on differences occurredconcerning details (taf+l) of these articles Most of the differences says IbnKhaldn concern ambiguous verses (mutashbiht) of the Quran In dealingwith these ambiguous verses scholars employed logical arguments in additionto the traditional materials In this way the science of kalm originated108

Ibn Khaldn believes that the issue of ambiguity in Quranic verses was themain factor that led to the dispute between scholars Although God (mapoundbd)


57

is described in the Quran as being absolutely devoid of human attributes (tanz+hal-mu_laq) there are a few verses which suggest anthropomorphism (tashb+h)of either essence or attribute The salaf give preference to the evidence forGodrsquos freedom from human attributes while another group (includingMupoundtazila Mujassima and Mushabbiha) ndash Ibn Khaldn describes them asinnovators (mubtadipounda) ndash occupied themselves with ambiguous verses whichled to anthropomorphism (tajs+m)109 (Further discussion on the issue ofambiguity will be made in the section below)

Historical development of kalm

As far as Ibn Khaldn is concerned the science of kalm developed togetherwith other sciences and crafts Its development is marked by the emergenceof speculative theologians who engaged themselves in debating and disputingtheological issues such as the attributes of God etc One of the earliest andthe most important groups was the Mupoundtazila110 The Mupoundtazila proposed severalideas and interpretations concerning several ambiguous Quranic verses Amongthe important ideas of this group are the denial of the ideal attribute (ifat al-mapoundn+) of God the denial of Godrsquos hearing vision and speech And perhapsthe most significant at this juncture was the idea of the createdness of theQuran (Qurrsquon makhlq)111

Ibn Khaldn takes this opportunity to criticise severely the ideas of theMupoundtazila Here he takes the opinion of a leading Muslim theologian Ab al-Hasan al-Ashpoundar+ (d 260873 or 874) whom he describes as the mediatorbetween different approaches in the kalm Ashpoundari disavowsanthropomorphism and recognises ideal attributes (nafy al-tashb+h wa-athbataal-ifat al-mapoundnawiyya) Following the way of the salaf he took a middle pathin perfecting the dogmas concerning the rising of the dead the Day ofJudgement paradise hell rewards and punishments He also criticised andrejected the doctrine of the ldquoimamaterdquo112 adopted by the Shipoundites The idea ofal-Ashpoundar+ then became an important school of thought in the laterdevelopment of the kalm marked by the emergence of figures such as al-Baqilln+ (d 4031013) and Imm al-aramayn Ab al-Mapoundl+ (d 4781085)113

Al-Baqilln+ for instance took a further step attacking the imamate doctrineand laid down logical premises such as arguments on the existence of theatom (jawhar al-fard) and of the vacuum (khalrsquo) and the theory of accident(poundara=)114

In the course of his discussion Ibn Khaldn also touches on the developmentof the science of logic (poundilm al-man_iq) in relation to development of kalmAlthough logic is now considered a branch of the philosophical sciencespeople who studied it at that time made a distinction between it and thephilosophical sciences Logic to them was merely a yardstick for argumentsand served to probe the arguments115 Nevertheless logical arguments which


58

were mostly derived from philosophical debates on physics and metaphysicsare not always especially applicable to theology Of course in the rule of logicif the argument is wrong the evidence proven by it will also be wrong Thisapproach was known as ldquothe approach of recent scholarsrdquo116 The aim of thisschool was to refute the opinions of the philosophers who were believed tohave deviated from the true faith

Later on scholars tended to mix theological and philosophical approachesin their works Ibn Khaldn does not seem happy with this mixture He explainsthat the two disciplines are different Although the subject matter may be thesame the approaches and objectives of those two disciplines are obviouslynot so He cites the examples of philosophical and theological studies ofphysical bodies and metaphysics The philosophers studied bodies in thecontext of motion andor motionlessness (yata|arrak wa-yaskun) while thetheologians studied them as an argument to prove the existent of the CreatorIn the same manner the philosophical study of metaphysics studied existenceas such and what it requires for its essence whereas theological study is con-cerned with existentia insofar as they serve as arguments for Him who causesexistence (al-wujd min |aithu yadullu poundal-rsquol-mawjd)117

In the hands of the later scholars the two approaches philosophy andtheology have been mixed up The mixture can be seen for example inBay=w+rsquos work al-awlipound118 Reconciliation of the belief of the salaf with thescience of kalm can be see in Kitb al-Irshd Ibn Khaldn also suggests theworks of al-Ghazzl+ and Ibn al-Kha_+b in particular to see the intellectualargumentation and refutation of the philosophers

Towards the end of this section Ibn Khaldn gives his assessment on thestatus and the importance of the science of kalm After considering severalaspects he concludes that the science of kalm is not a discipline that is requiredby contemporary students His argument is if the main purpose of this scienceis to defend the articles of faith against heretics and innovators it is in fact nolonger serving the purpose He does not see the significance of this sciencebecause in his day heretics and innovators have been destroyed He cites thestory of al-Junayd (d 297909)119 to support his argument Nevertheless IbnKhaldn acknowledges that for certain individuals and students kalm is stillconsiderably useful particularly its pattern of argumentation

Ambiguity in the Quran and the sunna and the dogmaticschools of orthodox and innovators

Ibn Khaldn presents this section as an extension of his previous discussion ofkalm Textually this section appears only in the Quatremegravere edition it is notfound in the Beirut edition120 This additional section may have been insertedlater by Ibn Khaldn possibly for the purpose of giving a clearer perspective


59

on this issue As far as the science of kalm is concerned this section hasmerit since it relates directly to the development of kalm itself In fact theissue of ambiguity may be considered one of the major contributing factors tothe later development of kalm

Basically what Ibn Khaldn is trying to show in this section is the occurrenceof ambiguous verses and words in the Quran and the sunna The expositionmay be divided into three main parts In the first the author gives considerablespace to providing a clearer picture of the issue in question In the secondpart he gives a brief account of the theological groups and their stance andopinions together with his own commentary In the third part he attemptsto explain and perhaps to justify his own stance based on his understanding ofthe psychological nature of human beings

Ambiguity in the Quran and the sunna

It is a matter of fact that ambiguous verses do occur in the Quran and thesunna Ibn Khaldn cites several examples of words and verses of the Quranthat are considered to carry ambiguous meanings These examples includeGodrsquos names and attributes (al-asmpound wa-rsquol-ift) spirit (r|) revelation (wa|y)angels (malrsquoika) Day of Judgement (yawm al-bapoundth) and the individual letters(|urf muqa__apounda) at the beginning of certain sras The existence of this kindof verse is recognised by the Quran itself (Qr37)

It is He who revealed the Book to you It contains unambiguous versesthat are the mother of the Book and other verses that are ambiguousThose who are inclined in their hearts towards deviation follow thatwhich is ambiguous in the Quran because they desire trouble andthey desire to interpret it But only God knows how to interpret itThose who are firmly rooted in knowledge say we believe in it It isall from our Lord Only those who have a heart remember

From this verse it is understood that the Quran contains two types of versesthe unambiguous and the ambiguous The unambiguous ones may not causeany problem but the ambiguous ones may According to Ibn Khaldn thesalaf from among the companions of the Prophet and the second generation(tbipound+n) understood the unambiguous verses as verses that are clear and definitewhile the jurists defined them as clear in meaning121 The problem which IbnKhaldn is trying to deliberate here relates to the ambiguous ones The aboveQuranic verse may be seen as an affirmation that there are verses which carryambiguous meanings Besides that it may also be considered a warning tothose who seek to interpret them It is very clear that the Quran considersthose who desire to interpret them as ldquodeviatorsrdquo and ldquothose who desire


60

troublerdquo122 A variant reading of this verse is also believed to be the root of thequestion and it is also believed to be the turning point of the later developmentof Quranic exegetical tradition123

The question then arises among scholars how to determine or distinguishthis kind of verse The Quran itself does not detail which verses fall into thiscategory It only indicates that it contains ldquounambiguous verses that are themother of the Book and other verses that are ambiguousrdquo Based on thisindication of course the conclusion may be drawn that the majority or largernumber of the Quranic verses are unambiguous and constitute the ldquomother ofthe Bookrdquo (umm al-kitb) The others are then considered ambiguous Ofcourse they may be small in number but to distinguish which ones are to beconsidered in this category is still the duty of the scholars Apparently somescholars according to Ibn Khaldn avoid interpreting these verses Ibn Abbsfor example took a safer stance by saying that ldquoone must believe in theambiguous verses but need not to act in accordance with themrdquo (al-mutashbihyursquomin bi-hi wa-l yupoundmal bi-hi) Mujhid and poundIkrima believed that ldquoeverythingexcept legal verses and narrative passages is ambiguousrdquo (kullu-m siw ytal-a|km wa-rsquol-qaa mutashbih) while al-Thawr+ al-Shapoundb+ and a group ofthe Salaf said ldquoambiguous is what cannot be known such as the condition ofthe doomsday (spounda) the dates of the warning signs and the letters at thebeginnings of certain srasrdquo124

The issue of ambiguity of Quranic verses obviously had a certain effect onthe later development of kalm There are disputes among scholars as towhether ldquothose who are firmly rooted in knowledgerdquo (al-rsikhn f+-rsquol-poundilm) areable to know the allegorical meaning of the ambiguous verses And if they areable to know what is then the status of their interpretation Although theQuran itself describes those who seek to interpret the ambiguous verses asdeviators unbelievers heretics and stupid innovators a certain proportion ofscholars give preference to interpreting these verses such as the Mupoundtazilaand the Mujassima These include matters such as the condition of resurrectionparadise hell the antichrist the disturbance (preceding the last day) and thelike questions125 This tendency Ibn Khaldn believes has had a certain impacton the basic dogmatic beliefs of Islam Therefore in presenting this discussionhe explicitly declares that he wants to explain ldquoand give preference to thesound ones (among them) as against the corrupt onesrdquo126

Divine attributes and the emergence of theological schools

Another issue discussed in this section is divine attributes Ibn Khaldnconsiders this as one of the issues that split theologians In various verses inthe Quran God describes Himself as the most knowing and powerful havingvolition living hearing etc God has also in several instances in the Quranasserted that He has hands eyes face etc Of course there is no dispute in


61

regard to the attributes that imply perfection However in regard to attributesthat might suggest deficiency on the part of God such as sitting hands eyesetc which are also the attributes of created things disputes among scholarsare unavoidable127 In facing this situation the attitude of the salaf and thesecond generation was clear they left to God the attributes that might suggestdeficiency and say nothing as to what the verses might mean However laterscholars held divergent opinions regarding this matter Ibn Khaldn brings tolight several important groups and individuals who emerged together withthe development of kalm

The human world

Towards the end of this section Ibn Khaldn discusses the human world (poundlamal-bashar+) in connection with the question of ambiguity He believes that aclear understanding of the world of human beings would be adequate to explainthe nature of this question He even assures his reader that upon understandingthis concept there would be no more ambiguity even if we might assume it tobe ambiguous (fa-l tashbaha wa-rsquoin qul-n f+-hi bi-rsquol-tashbuh)128 Here thenature of his religio-philosophical thinking is demonstrated quite obviouslyHe employs this religio-philosophical argumentation extensively to clarifythe matter

The human world is described by Ibn Khaldn as ldquothe most noble andexalted of the world of existent thingsrdquo129 It contains different levels (a_wr)four altogether The first level is constituted by the human world of the bodyincluding external sense perceptions thinking by which man is directedtowards making a living and all other activities granted to him by his presentexistence The second level is constituted by the world of sleep (poundlam al-nawm) ie imaginative vision (taawwur al-khayl) which involves perceptionby imagination The third level is the level of prophecy (_awr al-nubuwwa)which is restricted to the noblest of mankind by virtue of the fact that Godhas distinguished them through the knowledge of Himself and His onenessThe fourth level is the level of death (_awr al-mawt) at which human beingsleave their outward life for another existence before the Day of Judgement130

The first and the second levels are shared by all human beings and areattested by concrete intuition The third level the prophetic is attested bythe prophetic miracle ie the Quran and the condition peculiar to theprophets The fourth level the level of death is attested only by divine revela-tion to the prophets

Based on this argument it is quite understandable that the ordinary humanbeing with the help of his intellect and imagination alone can grasp only thefirst and second levels of this world while the third and the fourth levels areconsidered as beyond the comprehension of human intellect and imaginationThe only source of information that can explain these two worlds is revelation


62

Ibn Khaldn is almost saying that the question of ambiguity in the Quran issomething within the realm of revelation and cannot be understood savethrough revelation By this we can now understand why Ibn Khaldn doesnot agree with those who attempt to interpret and give allegorical meaningsof the ambiguous verses of the Quran This explanation also answers why IbnKhaldn is more inclined to hold the opinions of the Ashpoundarites and theorthodox on this issue

Excursus

In both sections Ibn Khaldn has presented an overview of the science ofkalm and its development in Muslim society In the course of his expositionIbn Khaldn has dealt with several important points and issues First heprovides a relatively brief but clear definition of the science of kalm asunderstood in Islamic tradition The core subject of kalm are matterspertaining to creed (especially taw|+d) Although it concerns matters pertainingto faith kalm may also be seen as a rational science because it employs logicalproofs in its argumentation in defence of the articles of faith

Ibn Khaldn occupies quite a lengthy space discussing the theory ofexistence and the limitation of the human intellect Based on a philosophicaltheory of causality which he apparently borrows from his Greek predecessorsIbn Khaldn explains the existence of causes as well as the Cause of all causesndash the Creator The nature of these causes can be understood only bycomprehensive knowledge The human intellectual faculty does not possessthat comprehensive knowledge therefore it is inferior

The inferior nature of the human intellect makes it impossible for it tograsp matters beyond its level By adopting this idea it is much easier for IbnKhaldn to convince his reader that matters pertaining to the soul which isbeyond the level of the intellect have to be referred to revelation Revelationis the only source of information about those matters Faith therefore has tobe based upon ldquothe talk of the soulrdquo and the state of attribute This state canbe achieved only through acts of worship

The science of kalm originated as a result of intellectual attempts tounderstand the nature of things pertaining to faith which in some cases carryambiguity There are verses in the Quran that carry ambiguous meaning suchas verses which suggest anthropomorphism Some mutakallimn engagedthemselves with these ambiguous verses Ibn Khaldn labels them as hereticsand innovators He criticises and rejects the ideas of Mupoundtazila Mujassimaand the like The appearance of Ab al-Hasan al-Ashpoundar+ in the picture isdescribed by Ibn Khaldn as merely a reaction to counter the ideas of theheretics among mutakallimn The later development of kalm was colouredby the emergence of different ideas among theological schools as well as


63

individual scholars They employed logical as well as philosophical argumen-tation in defence of their own theological stance

Ibn Khaldnrsquos exposition of kalm is quite comprehensive but his assessmentseems to be based entirely upon its temporary purpose and need He arguesthat the science of kalm is no longer required by students of his day becausethe threat of heretics and innovators no longer exists they have been destroyedNonetheless he acknowledges that this science is still useful and beneficial tocertain individuals and students because of its pattern and style ofargumentation

This is the third category of traditional conventional sciences Althoughkalm is portrayed here in some ways as a rational science like any other rationalsciences the uniqueness of this science lies in its religious nature Hence itcan be considered as rational plus religious The argument is rational andphilosophical while the nature of the subject is purely religious Ibn Khaldnpresents this science as one of the products of Muslim intellectuals in defenceof their religion This is based on his remark at the beginning of the sectionthat this science ldquoinvolves arguing with logical proofs in defence of the articlesof faith and refuting innovatorsrdquo The target of this science is innovators(mubtadipounda) They are those who deviate from the true and standard dogmaWhat he means by standard religious dogma is the belief of the salaf and ahlal-sunna

It is a matter of fact that some religious particulars are matters pertainingto the spiritual world The terms referring to these matters are difficult tounderstand Ambiguous verses in the Quran and the sunna are involvedAlthough the primary role and function of kalm is to defend religious articlesdoctrines and dogmas if it is not properly observed it may also lead todeviation as in the case of the Mupoundtazila and the Mujassima To the questionof whether rational argumentation as it is widely used in kalm is sufficientto explain and clarify these matters Ibn Khaldn seems to be quite scepticalI base this on his remark that ldquothe intellect should not be used to weigh matterssuch as the oneness of God the other world the truth of prophecy the realcharacter of divine attributes or anything else that lies beyond the level of theintellectrdquo Faith should not be based upon judgement alone but must be theldquotalk of the soulrdquo and ittif Besides recognising its usefulness Ibn Khaldnrsquosattitude towards this science is quite negative He does not recommend it tobe studied by ldquocontemporary studentsrdquo

Based on the discussion of kalm a general notion may be drawn that in asociety a science may be developed when there is a need for it In the case ofkalm the science was developed for the noble purpose of defending the purityand status quo of the beliefs of a particular society ie Muslim society and asa reaction against the heretics and innovators Its function was just to providea kind of protection not to strengthen religious belief When the threats andchallenges disappeared the science was no longer needed


64

Sufism and the spiritual sciences

Based on Ibn Khaldnrsquos order of exposition this is the fourth and last in thecategory of the traditional conventional sciences Under this category twosciences of a spiritual nature namely Sufism and dream interpretation willbe dealt with It is interesting that the two sciences are grouped togetherperhaps for the simple reason that both concern spiritual behaviour the unseenangelical realm accessible only by direct apprehension of the soul In anexplicit statement Ibn Khaldn considers these two sciences as a ldquobranchrdquo ofreligious law (min-poundulm al-sharpoundiyya) Presumably it is for this reason thatboth are discussed in an orderly fashion one after the other in the last part ofhis exposition of the religious sciences Both sciences follow the same processof evolutionary development as do other religious sciences and of course theyhave a certain degree of impact and domination in society On this basis theyalso deserve special attention especially in the context of the Muslimcommunity as well as in the history of Islamic science This inquiry will betrying to assess the significance of this so-called branch of religious sciencewithin the context of Ibn Khaldnrsquos scheme and to determine the conceptualand theoretical bases that can be drawn from this section

Before going any further it might be appropriate to introduce the basiccontent of this section It may be divided into at least four distinct parts asfollows (1) a brief introduction on the origin of Sufism (2) idrk (perception)and the nature of Sufism (3) the significance of kashf and the process of Sufism(4) a lengthy discussion and critiques on the ldquorecent f+srdquo and (5) IbnKhaldnrsquos personal assessment

The origin of Sufism

Ibn Khaldn proclaims the science of Sufism at the very beginning as a sciencebelonging to the category of religious law that originated in Islam131 He doesnot give any clear definition as he does for other religious sciencesNevertheless he explains that ldquoit is based upon constant application to divineworship ndash complete devotion to God aversion from the false splendour of theworld abstinence from the pleasure property and position to which the greatmass aspires and retirement from the world into solitude for divine worshiprdquo132

Although while dealing with this subject Ibn Khaldn tends to confinehimself exclusively to the milieu of Islam it has to be noted here that a scienceof the same nature does exist in other religious traditions This science isgenerally referred to as mysticism Despite the fact that mysticism occurs inother religious traditions Sufism (fiyya or mutaawwifa) an Arabic termcan certainly claim its origin in Islam Ibn Khaldn does not seem to agree inthis point with al-Qushayr+ (d 4651074) who believed that f+ is merely anickname (laqab) which has no etymology or analogy in the Arabic language


65

Instead Ibn Khaldn inclines more to the opinion that the word comes fromf (woollen garment) He shares this opinion with many other sf+ scholars133

This is characterised by the fact that the f+s wore woollen garments as opposedto gorgeous garments The word ldquoSufismrdquo later came to represent asceticismretirement from the world and devotion to divine worship134 In the early daysof Islam Sufism was the common practice of the first- and second-generationMuslims (the ahba and the tbipound+n) It was considered as ldquothe path of truthand right guidancerdquo135 As far as Ibn Khaldn is concerned Sufism at thattime was considered merely to represent asceticism retirement and devotionto divine worship not a science proper It was not until the secondeighthcentury that it took shape as a proper structured science136

Idrk (perception) and the nature of Sufism

The next point touched on by Ibn Khaldn is idrk (perception) in Sufism137

He employs the philosophical theory of idrk in his attempt to justify the existenceof the ldquoworldrdquo that is peculiar to Sufism Idrk says Ibn Khaldn is of two kindsthe perception of science and knowledge (al-poundulm wa-rsquol-mapoundrif) and theperception of ldquostatesrdquo (a|wl) The first kind of idrk concerns matters ofknowledge including certainty (yaq+n) hypothetical doubt (~ann) as well asimagery and doubt (al-shakk wa-rsquol-wahm) The second kind of perceptionconcerns matters pertaining to states (a|wl) such as joy and grief anxiety andrelaxation satisfaction anger patience gratefulness and similar things138 Thelatter is peculiar to the world of Sufism

The spiritual exertion and worship of the sf+ would necessarily lead him toachieve a ldquostaterdquo (|l)139 This is the result of his striving (mujhada) Accordingto Ibn Khaldn the state may be a kind of divine worship (nawpound al-poundibda)then it goes up to become a station (maqm) or stage of gnosis for the f+novice or it may not be a kind of divine worship but merely the attribute ofthe soul (ifat |ila li-rsquol-nafs) In this process the f+ will experience progressfrom station to station until he reaches the ultimate station ie the recognitionof taw|+d and mapoundrifa (gnosis)140

Ibn Khaldn explains that obedience and sincerity (al-_pounda wa-rsquol-ikhl) withthe guidance of the faith (imn) become the essential requisite for the f+novice to succeed in the process of gnosis Accordingly the novice must alsofollow the right procedure If there are any shortcomings or defects (taq+r fi-rsquol-nat+jah) the f+ novice must follow the procedure of self-scrutiny of all hisactions In f+ terms this procedure is called mu|saba141 Success in the f+path according to Ibn Khaldn depends entirely upon mu|saba The noviceperforms the mu|saba with the help of his ldquointernal tasterdquo (dhawq) which isalso a kind of mystical and spiritual experience142

Later on Sufism becomes a peculiar form of behaviour and has a peculiar


66

kind of terminology New terminology and technical terms are created andidentified to facilitate the understanding of the ideas and the conceptsGradually it forms a special discipline in its own class ndash as another kind ofreligious law It follows the same evolution as undergone by other kinds ofreligious law Hence religious law as far as Ibn Khaldn is concerned iscategorised into two kinds ndash one is special to jurists and muft+s and anotherone is peculiar to f+s

The f+s like the jurists wrote down structured and systematic works onthe subject Ibn Khaldn cites examples of the works of Muhsib+ (d 243857) Qushayr+ and Suhraward+ (d 6321234ndash5) who published among othersKitb al-Ripoundya Kitb al-Risla and poundAwrif al-Mapoundrif respectively Anotherexample which combined the two kinds of religious science was Kitb al-I|yrsquoby al-Ghazzl+143

Kashf (unveiling) and its significance in the process of Sufism

The next point dealt with by Ibn Khaldn is kashf 144 (unveiling or the removalof the veil) What makes this concept important in Sufism Based on IbnKhaldnrsquos remark kashf is experienced by the f+s as a result of their mysticalexertion or striving (mujhada) isolation or retirement (khulwa) andremembrance (dhikr)145 By achieving this state of kashf the f+ now beholdsthe divine world which the ordinary person (|ib al-|iss) cannot perceive

The author also provides some explanation of the nature and process ofkashf This experience happens he says

when the spirit turns from external sense perception to inner (percep-tion) the senses weaken and the spirit grows strong It gains predomi-nance and a new growth The dhikr exercise helps to bring that aboutIt is like food to make the spirit grow The spirit continues to growand to increase It had been knowledge Now it becomes vision Theveil of sensual perception is removed and the soul realises its essentialexistence This is identical with perception The spirit now is readyfor holy gifts for the science of divine presence and for the outpouringof Deity (al-fat| al-Ilh+) Its essence realises its own true characterand draws close to the highest sphere the sphere of the angels Theremoval of the veil often happens to people who exert themselves inmystical exercise They perceive the realities of existence as no onedoes146

This passage explains quite sufficiently how the process of kashf takes placeIn his explanation Ibn Khaldn makes quite extensive use of f+ technicalterms which of course have to be understood within their own context Terms


67

such as ldquoal-mawhib al-rabbniyyardquo (divine gifts) ldquoal-poundulm al-ladunniyardquo(esoteric knowledge or knowledge direct from God) and ldquoal-fat| al-Ilh+rdquo (theoutpouring of Deity) are among the examples

Kashf as a concept certainly has a particular importance in Sufism IbnKhaldn relates this mystical experience to the ability to prophesy futureevents The f+ who has achieved this level will be able to perceive or to seeevents in advance This experience says Ibn Khaldn was achieved by theProphetrsquos companions and the great f+s However they did not pay muchattention to it They kept these experiences to themselves without tellingothers They even considered these experiences as ldquotribulationrdquo (mi|na) andtherefore tried to escape whenever afflicted by them147

Regarding the question of the soundness of the kashf Ibn Khaldnrsquos stanceis quite clear that it cannot be considered sound or truthful unless it originatesin straightforwardness (kna nshirsquoan poundan al-istiqma) This means that theexperience of kashf can only be considered sound if it fulfils a certain set ofcriteria Perhaps this argument can be considered as Ibn Khaldnrsquos attempt todifferentiate between real actual Islamic mystical experience and other kindsof ascetic experience As far as this notion is concerned istiqma is theprerequisite for attaining the true and complete (a|+|an kmilan) experienceof the kashf However Ibn Khaldn acknowledges that the experience andexplanation of kashf by the f+s cannot be appreciated rationally (either byburhn or dal+l) because anyone ldquowho did not share their approach will not beable to understand their mystical and ecstatic experiencesrdquo Argument by proofis of no use since it belongs solely to intuitive experience148 Even the muft+shave no decisive judgement in this regard They partly disapprove and partlyaccept these experiences

What is then the significance of kashf in the whole affair of Sufism Asindicated earlier the early f+s among the ahba and the tbipound+n had not showntheir interest in kashf They had no desire to obtain kashf nor had they anyconcern with propagating their mystical or kashf experiences Only recentf+s seemed to have become more preoccupied with kashf Although IbnKhaldn does not explicitly mention why this concept is significant as a matterof analysis we may suggest some reasons First of course it is exclusivelyexperienced by those who had undergone the f+ mystical path of mujhadafollowed the right procedure and attained the maqm These experiences arepeculiar to the f+s and those who do not follow the f+ path will not be ableto obtain them Second this exclusive experience was considered a source ofknowledge and had been utilised to maintain the elitism exclusiveness statusquo and authenticity of the later development of Sufism And last but notleast it constituted one of the most important topics in the development of af+ literary tradition


68

Critiques of Sufism

Before entering into a lengthy critique of and commentary on the activities ofcertain groups in Sufism Ibn Khaldn provides some explanation of theconcept of Godrsquos transcendence Presumably with this explanation he wantsto provide his reader with background knowledge about issues that he is goingto touch on afterwards It has something to do with the beliefs of certain laterf+s who had promoted what he considers strange ideas such as tajall+(emanation) |ull (incarnation) and ideas of a similar nature

The concept of Godrsquos transcendence is coined by Ibn Khaldn in the wordal-mubyana (separateness) For him separateness has two meanings The firstmeaning implies Godrsquos location and direction while the second meaningrelates to being distinct and different149 Again it should be noted that thisparticular passage on the concept of Godrsquos transcendence does not appear inthe Beirut edition of the Muqaddima150 For Ibn Khaldn a properunderstanding of this concept is essential since it has to do with the doctrineof taw|+d Ibn Khaldn obviously put forth this point to counter the theory ofabsolute oneness (al-wa|da al-mu_laqa) proposed by groups of later f+s Theyunderstood and explained this concept in their own way based on the theoryestablished by ahl al-ma~hir people who propose the theory of manifestationIn dealing with this subject Ibn Khaldn gathers information particularlyfrom the writings of al-Farghn+ Ibn Dihq al-Harw+ Ibn S+n and others

First he takes the example of the writings of al-Farghn+151 who happenedto be the commentator of Ibn al-Fri=rsquos poems Ibn Khaldn considers theworks of al-Farghn+ as representing the school of ahl al-tajall+ wa-rsquol-ma~hirwa-rsquol-|a=rat (the people of emanation manifestation and presence)152

Basically al-Farghn+rsquos idea is based upon his understanding of the order ofthe world of existence from the Creator (udr al-wujd poundan al-fpoundil wa-tart+bi-hi) All existence according to al-Farghn+ comes forth from the attribute ofuniqueness (wa|dniyya) which is the manifestation of unity (a|adiyya) Bothwa|dniyya and a|adiyya come from al-dht al-kar+ma (the noble essence) whichis identical with oneness (poundayn al-wa|da) This process is called tajall+(emanation) The first degree is tajall+ al-dht (emanation of the essence) Thisidea is based on a tradition transmitted by the f+s ldquoI was a concealed treasureI wanted to be known Therefore I created the creatures so that they mightknow Merdquo153 Presumably it is based on this tradition that this school built upits cosmological idea explaining how the process of creation takes place Thisidea is characterised by the theory of emanation (if=a) From perfection(kaml) emanates the order of existence and particularisation of reality Thisreality is identified as the world of ideas (poundlam al-mapoundn+) and the perfectpresence (al-|a=rat al-kamliyya) and the Muhammadan reality (|aq+qaMu|ammadiyya) This ldquoworldrdquo contains realities of attributes the l| the qalamas well as prophets and messengers All these are the particularisation of


69

Muhammadan reality From these other realities come forth in the atomicpresence (al-|a=ra al-habrsquoiyya) which is in the level of ideas (martaba al-mithl) From there then come forth in succession the throne (poundarash) theseat (kurs+) the spheres (aflk) then the world of elements (poundanir) then theworld of composition (poundalam al-tark+b) All these worlds are in the world ofmending (ratq) when they manifest or emanate they are in the world ofrending (fatq)154

Another group is identified by Ibn Khaldn as those who believe in theabsolute oneness (al-wa|da al-mu_laqa) He sees the idea of this group as evenstranger than that of the first Basically this theory holds that all things inexistence possess powers in themselves that bring the realities forms andmatters of the existing things into being155 The combined universal power(al-quwwa al-jmipounda li-rsquol-kull) without any particularisation is divine powerThis power is distributed over all existing things whether they are universalsor particulars combining and comprising them in every aspect with regard toappearance and hiddenness and with regard to form and matter ndash everythingis one This is identical with divine essence (fa-kullu w|id wa-huwa nafs al-dht al-Ilhiyya) Clarifying this idea Ibn Khaldn utilises the analogy madeby Ibn Dihq156 who compares this idea with the philosophersrsquo idea of theexistence of colours The existence of colours is predicated upon light It is inthe same way that the existence of all existing sensibilia are predicated uponthe existence of the faculty of perception (al-mudrak al-poundaql+)157

The third group is identified by Ibn Khaldn as the school of incarnationand oneness (al-hull wa-rsquol-wa|da) This idea was propagated by among othersal-Harw+ in his Kitb al-Maqmt He was followed by Ibn poundArab+ Ibn Sabpound+n(d 6691271) and their pupils as well as Ibn al-Far+d and Najm al-D+n al-Isrrsquo+l+ (d 6771280)158 Of this group Ibn Khaldn uncompromisingly allegesthat they were strongly influenced by the extremist neo-Ismaili Shipounda idea ofincarnation and the divinity of the imm Also their idea of qu_b (pole)159

corresponds quite closely to the Shipoundasrsquo idea about their chiefs (nuqabrsquo) Manyjurists and muft+s reject this idea

It should also be noted here that Ibn Khaldn in giving a clearer picture ofdivine oneness has inserted a quotation from Abu Mahdi poundlts b al-Zayyt160

This quotation includes some passages of al-Haraw+rsquos Maqmt particularlyon the theory of oneness

Sufism assessed

Ibn Khaldn recapitulates that the entire discussion of Sufism can besummarised in four main topics The first topic covers mujhadt (striving)adhwq (the tastes) and muhsaba al-nafs (self-scrutiny or self-examination)in order to obtain the mystical experience The second topic is kashf (unveiling)and the perceivable spiritual realities (al-|aq+qa al-mudraka min poundlam al-ghayb)


70

such as the divine attributes the throne and so on The third topic is theactivities in the various worlds and among the various created things (al-poundawlimwa-rsquol-akwn) including the kinds of karmt (divine grace) The fourth topicis sha_a|t (ecstatic utterances)161 the expression that are suspect in theirplain meaning (alf~ mhama al-~hir)

Towards the end of this passage Ibn Khaldn draws the attention of hisreader the right and true f+ practice as he himself believes Again he remindshis reader to observe the practice and the attitude of the early f+s (salaf al-mutaawwifa) as an ideal model Those early f+s had no desire to remove theveil or to have such supernatural perception Their main concern was tofollow their models They always turned away and paid no attention tosupernatural perception They always gave priority to religious law (shar+pounda)which is more certain than any mystical experience They even forbadediscussion of those things And Ibn Khaldn advises this should be the attitudeand practice of all f+ novices (mur+d)162

The science of dream interpretation

This short passage on dream interpretation is the last part of the section onthe traditional conventional sciences Like Sufism quite strangely Ibn Khaldnconsiders dream interpretation as a science within Islamic law However unlikeSufism this science was cultivated in ancient generations as well as amongthose that came later Pre-Islamic religious groups and nations had this sciencebut according to Ibn Khaldn their tradition has not reached us163 for thesimple reason that ldquowe have been satisfied with the words of Muslim dreaminterpretersrdquo164 In short the phenomena of dream visions are common in thelife of human beings and whether we like it or not need to be interpretedProbably this is the main reason why Ibn Khaldn presents us with this passage

Supporting his claim that dream interpretation is part of the religioussciences in Islam Ibn Khaldn apparently refers to the Quranic story of theProphet Ysuf He also refers to two prophetic traditions One is from theauthority of the Prophet and Ab Bakr ldquodream vision is a kind of supernaturalperceptionrdquo (wa-rsquol-rursquoya mudrakun min madrik al-ghayb) Another traditionis ldquoa good dream vision is the forty-sixth part of prophecyrdquo165

Reality and the process of dream vision

To understand Ibn Khaldnrsquos perception of dream vision it is perhaps necessaryto cross-refer to his earlier discussion on dreams That particular discussioncan be found in his sixth passage of prefatory remarks to the first chapter ofthe Muqaddima There Ibn Khaldn gives a clearer picture of the reality ofdreaming Dream he says is ldquoan awareness on the part of the rational soul in


71

its spiritual essence of glimpse(s) of the forms of eventsrdquo (mu_lapoundat al-nafs al-n_iqa f+-dhti-h al-r|niyya lam|atun min uwar al-wqipoundt)166

Here in the present passage Ibn Khaldn also explains how dreaming takesplace He begins with sleep Sleep takes place when the spirit of the heart (al-r| al-qalbi)167 plays its part When the surface of the body is covered by thechill of night the spirit withdraws from all the other regions of the body to itscentre the heart It rests in order to be able to resume its activity and all theexternal senses are now unemployed168

As commonly known dreaming occurs only during sleep The facultiesthrough which the body perceives knowledge are all connected with the brainHowever during sleep the most active of them is the imagination Imaginationsays Ibn Khaldn

derives imaginary pictures from the pictures perceived by the sensesand turns them over to the power of memory which retains themuntil they are needed in connection with speculation and deductionFrom the imaginary pictures the soul also abstracts other spiritualintellectual pictures In this way abstraction ascends from the sensibiliato the intelligibilia The imagination is intermediary between themAlso when the soul has received a certain number of perceptionsfrom its own world it passes them on to the imagination which formsthem into appropriate pictures and turns these perceptions over tothe common sense As a result the sleeper sees them as if they wereperceived by the senses Thus the perceptions come down from therational spirit to the level of sensual perception with the imaginationagain being the intermediary169

This quotation quite sufficiently explains how dreaming operates duringsleep It is of course the common experience of all human beings but it alsolike other sciences has a particular importance as one of the formally developedand structured sciences

Types and characteristics of dream vision

Before going any further it should be noted that Ibn Khaldn reminds hisreader about the occurrence of two types of dream vision true dream visionsand false ones There are certain characteristics that may be used to identifywhether the dream is true (al-rursquoya al-li|a) or false (a=ghth al-a|lm al-kdhiba) If the pictures come down from the rational spirit of the perceiver(mudrik) they are considered true dream visions But if they are derived frompictures preserved in the power of memory where the imagination depositsthem when the individual is awake they are considered confused dreams(a=ghth al-a|lm)170


72

It should also be noted that Ibn Khaldn provides more explanation onthis particular point in an extended passage that appears in the Quatremegravereedition For the purpose of this study perhaps it would be beneficial tosummarise that passage According to Ibn Khaldn certain signs indicatesoundness and truthfulness of a dream vision At least two important signsmay be used for this purpose The first is that the dreamer wakes up quickly assoon as he has perceived it as if he is in a hurry to get back to being awake andhaving sensual perceptions The second sign is that the dream vision staysand remains impressed with all its details in the memory of the dreamer It ispresent in the mind without the need for thought or memory The visionremains pictured in the dreamerrsquos mind while he is awake It is unlike confuseddreaming which takes place in time this dreaming may require thinking andapplication to remember after the dreamer is awake and sometime many ofthe details are forgotten These signs of true dreaming particularly belong toprophetic revelation171

Some rules and examples of dream interpretation

Ibn Khaldn also provides some information on the rules and examples ofdream interpretation As a matter of fact dreaming has something to do withimagination In most cases dreams require interpretation It is at this pointthat the dream interpreter plays his part

The dream interpreter normally uses certain rules and methods to interpretdreams The most popular method as far as Ibn Khaldn is concerned is themethod of comparison (tashb+h) For example an ocean probably means aruler because an ocean is something big with which a ruler can appropriatelybe compared Likewise a serpent can appropriately be compared with an enemybecause it does great harm172

According to Ibn Khaldn the interpretation of dreams implies knowledgeof general norms upon which to base the interpretation and explanation Thesegeneral norms will be applied in such a way as to fit a particular dream visionbest A particular symbol does not always represent a particular meaning173

However there are dream visions which do no require interpretation becausethey are clear and distinct or because the idea perceived in them may be verysimilar to the pictures that represent it

Explaining the kinds of dream vision Ibn Khaldn quotes a tradition thatindicates three kinds of dream vision dream visions from God dream visionsfrom angels and dream visions from Satan The dream visions from God donot require interpretation the dream visions from angels are true dreams thatrequire interpretation while dream visions from Satan are the confused ones174


73

Historical development

Ibn Khaldnrsquos account of the history of the science of dream interpretation isquite short It is less informative than one could expect However for thepurpose of this inquiry the information provided although rather inadequatewill be fully utilised in order to gain at least a general picture of the historicaldevelopment of this science

As usual Ibn Khaldn gathers his historical information from the authorsand publications available and accessible to him Here he names five authorsaltogether two of whom are his contemporaries namely al-Slim+175 whopublished Kitb al-ishrt which Ibn Khaldn considers one of ldquothe most usefuland briefest books in the subjectrdquo176 and Ibn Rash+d177 who published al-Marqaba al-poundulya

Ibn Ab+ lib al-Qayrawn+ was mentioned as one of the Maghribi scholarswho wrote al-Mumtipound and other books Unfortunately as Rosenthal notes nofurther information on this author is available except what is given in theMuqaddima178 Another two names mentioned are Muhammad b S+r+n179 (d110728) and al-Kirmn+180 Ibn S+r+n was described as one of the most famousexperts in dream interpretation but none of his work is mentioned in thispassage The same is the case for al-Kirmn+ no further information is givenexcept for a short statement that ldquohe wrote on the subject after Ibn S+r+nrdquo181

Excursus

In this passage Ibn Khaldn basically deals with two sciences of a spiritualnature the sciences of Sufism and of dream interpretation These sciences arecategorically considered as part of religious law (shar+pounda) As a historian andphenomenologist Ibn Khaldn has in this particular passage presented theinner dimension of society which is the subject of his study Although fromthe macrocosmic point of view this phenomenon is general and even commonin almost every religion-based society Ibn Khaldn does not seem to beinterested in the variants elsewhere Instead he confines himself to the milieuof Muslim society of which he is part

It is historically evident that Sufism has formed an integral part of Muslimsociety Therefore it has had a certain historical social as well as moral andspiritual significance and impact on society Although in the early days ofIslam Sufism did not take shape as a formal structured science it was undeniablya general practice among some members of society the ahba and the tbipoundinIbn Khaldn may see the development of Sufism in the same perspective ashe sees the development and evolution process of other sciences and craftsie in the framework of his theory of poundumrn This is based on the assumptionthat the development of Sufism as a formal and structured science occurredonly with the advent of sedentary culture and the cultivation of sciences and


74

crafts For Ibn Khaldn Sufism developed as a form of religious and socialreaction to the new tendency in the society of second-century Islam thetendency towards worldly things (wa-jana|a al-ns mukhla_a al-dunya) Itdeveloped to fulfil spiritual psychological and social needs of society

Also of interest here may be to see the theoretical basis of Ibn Khaldnrsquosunderstanding of Sufism On the basis of this passage alone it is not difficultto see that the theoretical foundation of his conception of Sufism is hisepistemology and his concept of man and the human soul In the previousdiscussion he provided us with full information about the thinking ability ofman Man differs from his fellow animals by his ability to perceive not onlyknowledge but also ldquostatesrdquo (a|wl) Ibn Khaldn coins the power of perceivingknowledge in the term idrk (perception) Idrk is of two kinds The firstconcerns matters of knowledge by means of the intellect while the secondone concerns matters of states (a|wl) The latter is peculiar to Sufism A|wlis a mystical experience that can be achieved only through serious devotionto divine worship and spiritual struggle (poundibda and mujhada) The achievementof the highest state can bring about the realisation of taw|+d which as discussedearlier will not be achieved through kalm

Ibn Khaldn may not be a practised f+ at least in the specific and strictsense of the word He never claims to speak on the basis of his actual personalmystical experience He speaks merely as a social observer However he hasobviously shown his interest sympathy and even appreciation of Sufismrecognising its moral and spiritual as well as its social significance Histreatment of it shows his deep understanding in the subject He even admitsthat the supernatural experience of the f+s is an ldquoirrefutable truthrdquo As anorthodox Muslim he gives no room to ideas that are not in agreement withthe attitude and beliefs of the early Muslims He finds it necessary to safeguardand ensure the purity of his religion and again he never fails to remind hisreader of the dangers of the deviationists He gives considerable space torevealing the ldquopseudo-f+rdquo teachings of the ldquoheretics and innovatorsrdquo Theyshould not be allowed to develop

In the case of dream interpretation Ibn Khaldn considers it to be of thesame nature as Sufism ie perceived through the power of idrk However itdiffers in process since dreaming is experienced during sleep while mysticalstates are experienced during the moment of ecstasy Ibn Khaldn basicallydivides dreams into two those that are true (rursquoya li|a) and those that areconfused(a=ghth a|lm al-kdhiba) Regarding its order of reliability IbnKhaldn categorically divides dream visions into three levels dream visionsfrom God (special to the prophets only) dream visions from the angels anddream visions from Satan As far as Ibn Khaldn is concerned the science ofdream interpretation was developed because there were religious psychologicaland social needs for it It also became necessary since the phenomenon ofdreaming is experienced by and common to all human beings


75

In conclusion by placing these spiritual sciences among the traditionalsciences in his classification Ibn Khaldn recognises and at the same timeappreciates the importance of the inner dimension of society These sciencesdeveloped because society or at least part of it needed them The dominationand influence of these sciences in the context of Muslim society should notbe ignored It is evident that Sufism has played a significant role in manyaspects of Muslim society Nonetheless Ibn Khaldnrsquos claim that these sciencesare in the category of religious science or religious law and originated fromreligious teaching is not quite firmly based Theoretically these sciences unlikeother traditional sciences are universal in nature ie they do not exclusivelybelong to the Muslim community Although it may be argued that Sufism inits strict sense originated in Islam mysticism and dream interpretation in thewider sense did not Also to claim that they belong entirely to traditionalscience is not quite reasonable In fact they consist of some elements of thephilosophical sciences At this point I am more inclined towards Lakhsassirsquossuggestion that these sciences should be in another category namely thecategory of spiritual science182 This point will be taken into account in ourattempt to sketch the theoretical foundation of Ibn Khaldnrsquos epistemologylater in this study

T H E I N T E L L E C T U A L S C I E N C E S

76

4

THE INTELLECTUALSCIENCES

(al-poundulm al-poundaqliyya)

Introduction

The intellectual or rational sciences are the second category in contra-distinction to the previously discussed traditional conventional sciences IbnKhaldn discusses these sciences under fourteen major topics (Rosenthalrsquostranslation) with various headings and sub-headings Out of the fourteeneleven topics deal directly with various individual sciences while the remainingthree focus on refutation and criticism of philosophy astronomy and alchemyrespectively

In general Ibn Khaldnrsquos exposition of the intellectual sciences may bedivided into two parts In the first part Sections 19ndash29 he outlines each ofthese individual sciences following his usual method ie (1) an introductionto the subject matter and the structure of the sciences followed by (2) a shortaccount of their historical development and literature In the second partSections 30ndash2 Ibn Khaldn goes into attack and criticism and providesarguments why these sciences should be rejected

At this particular point of my study I have no intention of discussing eachof the individual sciences separately This is to avoid redundancy and anunnecessary extension of the present work Instead they will be touched uponwhere necessary while trying to see the linkages of Ibn Khaldnrsquos argumentHowever certain individual sciences will be focused on for they have aparticular paradigmatic importance and direct significance as far as this studyis concerned More importantly this study is trying to see the value of thesesciences in the context of Ibn Khaldnrsquos theory of epistemology and humancivilisation

Prior to this section is another entitled ldquof+-rsquol-poundulm al-poundaqliyya wa-anfi-hrdquo(On various kinds of intellectual sciences) This section may be considered asintroductory to his discussion of the intellectual sciences In this section IbnKhaldn sets out his paradigm sketching his thought and understandingregarding the division as well as the hierarchical order of the sciences He alsoin this section provides some historical information about the origin and


77

development of the intellectual sciences as far as human civilisation isconcerned

For Ibn Khaldn the intellectual sciences are natural to man (_ab+poundiyya li-rsquol-insn) as a result of his ability to think They are not restricted or peculiar toany particular religious groups thus they are universal by nature They begintogether with the beginning of human history Ibn Khaldn classifies them asthe sciences of philosophy and wisdom (poundulm al-falsafa wa-rsquol-|ikma) Thephilosophical sciences are basically divided into four major categories namelylogic (poundilm al-man_iq) physics (poundilm al-_ab+pound+) metaphysics (poundilm al-ilh+) and thestudy of quantities which are called mathematical sciences (tapoundl+m) Themathematical sciences are four geometry (poundilm al-handasa) arithmetic (poundilmal-artam_+q+) music (poundilm al-ms+q) and astronomy (poundilm al-hayrsquoa) Accordingto Ibn Khaldn these seven basic sciences form the principles of thephilosophical sciences (ul al-poundulm al-falsafiyya)1

Another important point in this introductory passage is that in it IbnKhaldn states explicitly the hierarchical order of the philosophical sciencesLogic is the first in the list followed by the mathematical sciences of whicharithmetic is the first followed by geometry then astronomy and then musicThese are then followed by physics and finally metaphysics2

The hierarchical order of the seven philosophical sciences is as follows

1 Logic(Mathematical sciences)

2 Arithmetic3 Geometry4 Astronomy5 Music6 Physics7 Metaphysics

The second part of the introductory section is devoted to a historical accountof the origin and development of the philosophical sciences Before the adventof Islam the cultivation of the intellectual sciences was dominated by thetwo great nations of the Persians and the Romans Ibn Khaldn refers to thesetwo great nations because they possessed an abundant civilisation at that timeOn the other hand the Chaldeans the Syrians and the Copts were muchconcerned with sorcery astrology and talismans In relation to this Ibn Khaldnrecalls the Quranic story of Hrt and Mrt3 When Islam came these scienceswere declared forbidden because they are against the religious teaching andare to be avoided

The Persiansrsquo legacy was destroyed following a directive letter from poundUmar(the second Caliph) to Sapoundd b Ab+ Waqq during the Muslim occupation of


78

Persia It was said that poundUmar had directed Sapoundd to ldquothrow them into the wateror burn them in the firerdquo when asked about what to do with the large numberof Persian books The reason for destroying them was that poundUmar did notwant Persian tradition to ldquocorruptrdquo the Muslim mind It was said ldquoIf theycontain right guidance God has given us better guidance If it is error Godhas protected us against itrdquo4

It was also said according to one opinion that the Persian sciences weretransmitted to the Greeks through Alexander The Greeks according to IbnKhaldn claimed that their tradition goes back to Luqmn the sage FromLuqmnrsquos pupils the tradition reached Socrates then Plato AristotleAlexander of Aphrodisias Themistius and others Aristotle was the teacherof Alexander the ruler of the Greeks who defeated the Persians and deprivedthem of their realm5

When the Romans seized power over the Greeks they adopted Christianityand abandoned rational sciences The tradition was then taken over by theArabs and highly cultivated in the hands of thinkers such as al-Frb+ IbnS+n Ibn Rushd al-^rsquoigh (d 5331139) and others while mathematics andits astrological and magical cognates were still practised by figures such asMajr+_+ (d 3981007) and Jbir b Hayyn (d 200815)

Towards the end of this passage Ibn Khaldn tells us the situation in theMaghrib Like the traditional sciences the situation of the intellectual sciencesin the Maghrib at that time was poor because of the diminution of civilisationIn contrast these sciences flourished in Eastern Iraq Persia and WesternEurope

This introductory passage by Ibn Khaldn has given us some thoughts abouttwo important issues (1) the division and hierarchical order of the intellectualsciences and (2) the origin and some historical account of their developmentOf the two issues the first ndash the divisions and the hierarchical order of theintellectual sciences ndash is identified as being of particular importance as far asthis study is concerned This is in view of the main focus of the followingpassages which deal directly with each individual science It is particularlyimportant to see the point of departure as well as the frame of reference withinwhich Ibn Khaldn lays his foundation when he builds up his theory ofscientific tradition in the context of human civilisation To fulfil this task Iwill first deal with logic because it is the first in the hierarchical order of theintellectual sciences Second I will deal with metaphysics which is the lastof the order of the intellectual sciences I miss out the other sciences betweenthe two extremes of logic and metaphysics since they have no directsignificance or paradigmatic importance at least at this particular point ThirdI will focus on sorcery and talismans and the sciences of that nature IbnKhaldn discusses these sciences in Sections 27 and 28 However this is quitestrange on the part of Ibn Khaldn for he never placed sorcery and talismans


79

in any part of his divisions much less in the hierarchical order of theintellectual sciences Nonetheless he recognises that this kind of science hasa particular importance as one of the crafts inherited and practised throughoutthe history of human civilisation

The science of logic (lsquoilm al-man_iq)

There is a clear statement by Ibn Khaldn repeated on a number of occasionsthat the science of logic is in the first rank among the intellectual sciencesLogic according to his definition is a science that gives protection to themind from error (kha_arsquo) and its purpose is to distinguish the true from thefalse6

Although in his expository order Ibn Khaldn deals with logic after hediscusses the science of numbers this does not in any way indicate that logicis inferior to the latter This can be seen from his own statement that logiccomes first followed in sequence by the science of numbers In the samecontext al-Frb+ one of Ibn Khaldnrsquos predecessors called man_iq the mistress(rrsquoisa) of sciences on account of its efficacy in the practice of them Howeveral-Frb+rsquos view is slightly different from that of Ibn S+n another of IbnKhaldnrsquos predecessors Ibn S+n called logic the servant of the sciences becauseit is not a science in its own right but a means (wa+la) of acquiring science7

The importance of logic according to Ibn Khaldn lies in the fact that itruns parallel to the nature of the mind8 In his earlier statement Ibn Khaldnestablished the notion that what draws the line between human and animal isthe mind ie the ability to think And it is the nature of the mind to reasonout every single case in human life based on the principles of logic In thiscontext the significance of logic can be seen quite clearly

Although from a traditional point of view logic has been divided into thestudies of deduction and induction throughout its long history the principlesof logic have played a central role in theology and they have influenced eachother in significant ways9

As far as the Muqaddima is concerned Ibn Khaldnrsquos description of logic isentirely based on Aristotlersquos eighth book of Organon He recognises Aristotlein the same manner as did his Muslim predecessors such as al-Frb+ and IbnS+n as the first teacher (al-mupoundallim al-awwal) ndash the famous nickname ofAristotle Ibn Khaldn admits that in the hands of Aristotle the problemsand details of logic had been systematised and improved10

Aristotlersquos Organon comprises eight books three on the forms of analogicalreasoning (rat al-qiys) and five on the subject matter (mdda) to whichqiys is applied Quatremegraverersquos edition reads ldquofourrdquo on the ra and ldquofiverdquo onthe mdda while the Beirut edition reads ldquofourrdquo and ldquofourrdquo11 Rosenthalcomments that this was an error on the part of Ibn Khaldn who was thinking


80

of the Eisagoge and including it in his count12 Perhaps it would be beneficialto summarise here each of the eight books

1 Kitb al-maqlt (Categories) deals with the highest genera (al-ajns al-poundliya) the highest level above which there are no more universal genera

2 Kitb al-poundibra (Hermeneutics) deals with various kinds of apperceptiveproposition (al-qa=ya al-tad+qiyya)

3 Kitb al-qiys (Analytics) deals with analogical reasoning and the form inwhich it is produced (This is the last book as far as logical study from thepoint of view of its form is concerned)

4 Kitb al-burhn (Apodeictica) deals with the kinds of analogical reasoningthat lead to certain knowledge (al-qiys al-muntij li-rsquol-yaq+n)

5 Kitb al-jadl (Topics) deals with the kinds of analogical reasoning and theway to cut off a troublesome adversary and silence onersquos opponent

6 Kitb al-safsa_a (Sophistici Elenchi) deals with sophistic kind of analogicalreasoning that teaches the opposite of truth and enables a disputant toconfuse his opponent

7 Kitb al-khi_ba (Rhetoric) deals with the kind of analogical reasoningthat teaches how to influence the great masses (targh+b al-jumhr) and toget them to do what one wants

8 Kitb al-shipoundr (Poetics) deals with the kind of analogical reasoning thatteaches the invention of parables and similes13

It was in the hands of the Muslim philosophers ndash Ibn Khaldn particularlymentions al-Frb+ Ibn S+n and Ibn Rushd ndash that these works of logic werethoroughly studied commented on and abridged Further transformation oflogic in the Muslim world may be seen says Ibn Khaldn in the works ofImm Ibn al-Kha_+b (d 6061209) and al-Khunj+ (d 6461248)14

It should be noted here that there is an extended passage in Quatremegraverersquosedition which is not found in the Beirut where Ibn Khaldn discusses theattitudes of the early Muslim thinkers and theologians towards logic In thisextended passage Ibn Khaldn provides a clearer picture of the relationshipbetween logic and speculative theology The following paragraphs are asummary of this passage

The science of speculative theology was originally invented for the purposeof supporting the articles of faith The approach was to use some particularevidence such as the creation of the world etc to prove the existence ofGod (For specific methods of argument in speculative theology reference maybe made to our previous discussion on kalm see pp 50ff) Some prominentearly theologians put this method of argument which relies entirely on logicalproofs under severe theological criticism Ibn Khaldn particularly mentionsal-Ashpoundar+ al-Baqilln+ and al-Asfiry+n+ Their rejection was based on the


81

reverse argument presumption ldquoif the argument is wrong the thing provenby it will also be wrongrdquo15 This is a great danger for the element of dogma Al-Ashpoundar+ for example came to the point of writing a treatise entitled ldquoAgainstthe people of logicrdquo16

Another point raised by Ibn Khaldn is the rejection of universals andcategories particularly the five universals (al-kulliyt al-khamsa) which is oneof the important pillars of logic ie the genus (jins) the species (nawpound) thedifference (fal) the property (khssa) and general accident (al-poundar= al-poundmm)17

The early theologians according to Ibn Khaldn rejected these five universalson the basis that the universals (kull+) and essentials (dht+) are merely a mentalconcept (ipoundtibr dhihn+) and do not have a correspondence outside the mind18

Later theologians ndash Ibn Khaldn refers to the opinions of Ibn al-Kh_iband al-Ghazzl+ ndash took a more accommodative attitude towards logic19 Theyconsidered correct the opinions of the logicians concerning intellectualcombination (al-tark+b al-poundaql+) and the outside existence of natural quidditiesand their universals20 They held the opinion that speculation and analogicalreasoning are not against the orthodox articles of faith

To recapitulate I shall now highlight the two main components of IbnKhaldnrsquos exposition of logic The first component is the overview giving ageneral understanding of what logic is all about and more importantly itsrelation to the basic concept of man as a thinking animal The secondcomponent which I think is not less important is the exposition of the eightbooks of Aristotlersquos Organon and logic as a scientific tradition and itsrelationship with the Islamic tradition of speculative theology I shall discussthese two components in the excursus below

Excursus

Ibn Khaldn introduces logic as a science that enables a person to distinguishbetween right and wrong Logical argument requires logical proof and mustconform with the law of logic (qnn al-man_iq) Knowledge or cognition isclassified into two kinds taawwur (perception which does not requirejudgement) and tad+q (apperception which requires judgement)

The purpose of logic to distinguish right from wrong rests solely upon itsreliance on the human intellect This is the point where logic as an intellectualscience could be related to the basic premise that man is a thinking animal(al-hayawn al-n_iq) And in fact the word man_iq has its roots from n-_-qwhich implies thinking

The superiority and usefulness of logic compared with other intellectualsciences must be seen from the point of view of its purpose in providing canonsby which we can distinguish the true from the false the certain from theuncertain Logic provides all the rules whose sole business is to set the intellect


82

straight and to direct man towards what is correct and what is true Regardingthe nature of the science of logic Ibn Khaldn mentions on more than twooccasions the relationship between this science and the human thinking ability

The second component of the exposition is the eight books of AristotlersquosOrganon Ibn Khaldn here seems to rely for his conception and understandingof logic entirely on Aristotlersquos Organon as well as Aristotlersquos Muslim followersal-Frb+ Ibn S+n and Ibn Rushd He seems to accept without reservationthe logical treatises of Aristotle (with the addition of Porphyryrsquos Eisagoge)together with the commentaries of al-Frb+ Ibn S+n and Ibn Rushd21

Based on Ibn Khaldnrsquos description the Organon is the basis of the logicaltradition In the context of the Muslim world the Aristotelian tradition wasvery much admired by the Muslim philosophers particularly al-Frb+ IbnS+n and Ibn Rushd and others Al-Frb+ for instance was recognised in theMuslim world as the ldquosecond teacherrdquo (after Aristotle) Later on logic wasstudied as a discipline in its own right by the Muslims Ibn al-Kha_+b and al-Khunj+

Aristotelian logic despite being much admired by the Muslim philosopherswas also the target of theological criticism by the early Muslims andtheologians particularly al-Ashpoundar+ al-Baqilln+ and al-Asfiry+n+ Howeverlater scholars al-Ghazzl+ and Ibn al-Kha_+b took a different stance somewhatmore accommodative towards logic They decided that logic is not incontradiction with the articles of faith

Nonetheless as far as Islamic theology is concerned the contribution oflogic must not be ignored It was on the basis of logic that speculative theologybuilt its argumentation It is a matter of fact that theological argumentationwas based on speculation and analogical reasoning On the other handalthough Ibn Khaldn only relates logic to speculative theology it should alsobe understood that logic as a discipline has also been adopted in other Islamicdisciplines such as ul al-fiqh etc

The tradition of logic in the Muslim world may also be seen as a continuityof the Aristotelian tradition despite going through a series of modificationsby the Muslim philosophers perhaps to accommodate the basic values of IslamHowever it is still relevant to speak of the influence of the Greeks in Muslimcivilisation

Metaphysics (poundulm al-ilhiyyt)

Metaphysics22 is the last in Ibn Khaldnrsquos hierarchical order of intellectualsciences Although it has particular importance in the context of his schemehe deals with this subject in a relatively short passage He presents metaphysicsas a science within the realm of philosophy whose area of operation is beyondthe world of physics Many consider this subject as one of the most complex


83

but important aspects of philosophy23 Based on his own account metaphysicsas a science a branch of philosophy which embodies the study of existence assuch covers overall at least four major areas First it studies general mattersthat affect corporeal and spiritual things such as the quiddities (mhiyyt)oneness (wa|da) plurality (kathra) necessity (wujb) possibility (imkn) andso on Second it studies the principles of existing things (mabdirsquo al-mawjdt)which are spiritual (r|niyyat) in nature Third it studies the method by whichexisting things come into being out of spiritual things and their hierarchiesFourth it studies the conditions of the soul after its separation from the bodyand its return to its beginning24 These are the four areas constituting thewhole science of metaphysics as Ibn Khaldn understands it

As can be seen here Ibn Khaldnrsquos reliance on Aristotle in this particulararea is obvious and of course to some extent he is also heavily indebted toAristotlersquos Muslim followers particularly Ibn S+n and Ibn Rushd Bothscholars he tells us abridged the writings of the First Teacher which wereavailable at that time This fact can be seen particularly in Ibn S+nrsquos Kitb al-shifrsquo and al-Najt In relation to this it is strongly presumed that Ibn Khaldnrsquosunderstanding of Aristotlersquos metaphysics is in most parts based on the Muslimcommentators notably Ibn S+n and Ibn Rushd It is a matter of fact that inthe history of Muslim philosophy the Muslim philosophers despite all theirvariations and trends were heavily influenced by certain major figures amongthe Greeks particularly Aristotle and in fact the logic and metaphysics ofthe Muslim philosophers were based on one or more of these Greek traditionsThe interest of these scholars in Greek philosophy particularly Aristotlersquosmetaphysics ndash which is an important fascinating but very difficultphilosophical treatise ndash may be seen for example in Ibn S+n who tells us thathe repeatedly read this work up to forty times without grasping its meaning25

However it should be noted that since these scholars were living in a societywhose laws and beliefs were based on revealed scripture they had to developa means or method by which to reconcile their philosophical ideas withrevelation

Metaphysicians claim that metaphysics is a noble discipline (fann shar+f)for it gives them a knowledge of existence as such (mapoundrifat al-wujd poundal m-huwa poundalay-hi) and more importantly it is identical with happiness (poundayn al-sapoundda) Ibn Khaldn does not seem to agree with this claim In fact he rejectsit He promises here to refute these ideas in the following discussion26 As faras the Islamic intellectual tradition is concerned he is not alone in this Priorto him al-Ghazzl+ had also taken up the cause of refuting many of the ideasof the metaphysicians and philosophers particularly in his Tahfut al-falsifaand al-Munqidh min al-=all labelling them as ilhiyyn and dahriyyn

Another issue raised by the author of the Muqaddima in relation tometaphysics is the merger between philosophy and theology (kalm) He


84

describes this situation as ldquokhala_ardquo and ldquomukhtali_ardquo which literally meansldquomixrdquo (wa-ra poundilm al-kalm mukhtali_an bi-masrsquoil al-|ikma) As far as he isconcerned such a mixture is not acceptable in fact it is wrong (awb) Heargues that the two sciences are different despite having a common subjectmatter Both employ the human intellect but for different purposes The formeruses the intellect for the purpose of supporting traditionally established truthand to refute innovators while the latter utilises it for the purpose of investi-gating truth by means of rational evidence A good example given by IbnKhaldn to represent this kind of literature (ie the mixture of theology andphilosophy) is Ibn al-Kha_+brsquos al-Mab|ith al-mashriqiyya27

To get a clearer picture of the state of affairs between theology andphilosophy perhaps it would be beneficial to look more closely at Ibn Khaldnrsquosargumentation regarding this matter As he points out clearly the maindifference between these two sciences is that theology unlike philosophydeals with the articles of faith which are derived from religious law Thesearticles of faith have no reference to the human intellect whatsoever and donot depend on it whereas philosophy (in this case ldquophilosophyrdquo meansspecifically ldquometaphysicsrdquo) on the other hand relies entirely on the humanintellect in investigating the truth It seems that the major difference is themain purpose of using the human intellect Ibn Khaldn makes it pretty clearthat in speculative theology (kalm) unlike in philosophy rational argu-mentation is employed merely to support the articles of faith and does notinvolve investigating truth28

Ibn Khaldn continues to argue that it is part of religious belief that thearticles of faith can stand without support from rational evidence All Muslimshave to accept the truth transmitted through the Prophet as a religiousobligation and there is no need to seek proof of its correctness by rationalmeans even if it sometimes contradicts rational intelligence

What was the root of this confusion According to Ibn Khaldn it lies inthe common subject matter of both theology and philosophy Their subjectmatter is the same Theological argumentation was misunderstood and regardedas though it were inaugurating a search for faith through rational evidenceThis is for Ibn Khaldn a clear misinterpretation It has to be made clear thatspeculative theology was invented not to investigate the truth but merely tosupport it and refute innovators

Another discipline that also contributes towards this confusion is SufismAccording to Ibn Khaldn the recent extremist f+s who speak about ecstaticexperiences have confused the problem of metaphysics and speculativetheology with their own discipline regarding the questions of prophecy unionincarnation oneness and other things

The fact is that according to Ibn Khaldn the three disciplines are distinctand different from each other The f+srsquo perceptions are the ones that are


85

least scientific They claim intuitive experiences in connection with theirperceptions and shun rational evidence But intuitive experience is far removedfrom scientific perception and ways and the things that go with them29

Excursus

As I indicate above Ibn Khaldnrsquos passage on metaphysics is relatively shortNot much information but a series of argumentation is put forward defendinghis own stance as well as clarifying certain controversial issues That is thecentral message of this passage As far as I can see the passage has three maincomponents First the author tries to demonstrate his understandingperception and conception of metaphysics as it is traditionally understoodFor this first component he appears to be very much reliant on Aristotle andhis Muslim followers

The second component is defending his own stance It seems that IbnKhaldn in this passage tries to convey his message that the meaning ofmetaphysics has to be correctly understood in order to avoid misconceptionsThis is because it may be misunderstood as being the same as speculativetheology in Islam whereas the two disciplines are very different Ibn Khaldntries to convince his reader that what he understands is the correctunderstanding of these disciplines

The third component is his argumentation in clarifying certain controversialissues The most important issue perhaps is the mixture or rather confusionbetween philosophy (in this case metaphysics) speculative theology andSufism The three disciplines have been confused by some of their proponentsFor Ibn Khaldn the root of the problem is that these three disciplines addressa common subject matter Speculative theologians for example talk aboutexistence in relation to the articles of faith The difference between them forIbn Khaldn lies in the cause and the purpose of investigation Metaphysicsas a branch of philosophy employs rational argumentation in a search for theanswers of existence beyond the physical world In other words it employsrational argumentation in search for truth Unlike speculative theologyrational argumentation and evidence are used solely for the purpose ofdefending the articles of faith and refuting innovators They do not in anyway affect the truthfulness of the articles of faith for these are derived fromthe Lawgiver and the tradition Their function is merely to bolster the articlesof faith and the opinions of the early Muslims concerning them

As regards the sf+s who claim intuitive experience in connection withtheir perceptions and shun rational evidence Ibn Khaldn does not seem topay much attention to them He sees intuitive experience in this context asfar removed from scientific perception


86

The significance of the intellectual sciences(al-poundulm al-poundaqliyya)

This section aims at identifying the theory as well as the importance andsignificance of the intellectual sciences within Ibn Khaldnrsquos theory of humancivilisation To help achieve this aim I will at a certain point recall some ofthe important premises that have been previously established especially thoserelated to the basic division of the sciences This is necessary in order to seethe foundation of Ibn Khaldnrsquos thought and the major premises upon whichhis ideas are based

He has already established his basic notion regarding the two types ofsciences traditional conventional sciences and philosophical intellectualsciences We have dealt with the former in our previous discussion We arenow dealing with the latter which like the former constitute a majorcomponent of civilisation

The intellectual sciences are natural as far as the human beingrsquos thinkingability is concerned Unlike the traditional sciences they have nothing to dowith religion in the sense that they are not affiliated to any particular religionThey belong to everyone every society and every religion at all times In thisrespect Ibn Khaldnrsquos idea is nothing more than the repetition of Aristoteliantradition

The philosophical intellectual sciences cover all the kinds of sciences thatmay be generated and reached by human mental faculty Their area extendsfrom logic to metaphysics This is based upon understanding that these twosciences ndash logic and metaphysics ndash represent two extremes within theintellectual sciences the former dealing with the purely physical and rationalwhile the latter deals with something beyond the physical world

Up to this point Ibn Khaldnrsquos theory of philosophical intellectual sciencesmay be seen quite clearly He believes in the naturalness of these sciences as aresult of the human ability to think They have nothing to do with religionIn this sense they are neutral by nature30

The significance of the intellectual sciences in Ibn Khaldnrsquos scheme maybe seen from the point of view of their function as the foundation of civilisationwithout which no civilisation could be achieved The achievement of theintellectual sciences therefore is the primary indicator that determines theachievement of a civilisation Scientific traditions and scientific culture mustbe firmly established in order to reach the status of civilisation This concepthas been clearly and successfully demonstrated by Ibn Khaldn in theMuqaddima particularly in his discussion of the scientific and teaching traditionin human history

In relation to Muslim civilisation he places the intellectual sciences nextto the traditional sciences The history of Muslim civilisation as narrated byIbn Khaldn has witnessed achievement in both the traditional and the


87

intellectual sciences This can be seen from Ibn Khaldnrsquos account of who iswho in Muslim intellectual tradition

The sciences of sorcery and the use of talismans

It is a matter of fact that the practices of sorcery and the use of talismansoccur in almost every human society Although they may not be included orlisted in terms of formal scientific crafts the fact remains that no sane personwill deny that in reality they exist and sometimes form a significant sub-culturein the society Ibn Khaldn is convinced that no intelligent person doubts theexistence of sorcery because of the influence afore-mentioned which sorceryexercises The only thing is that they (sorcery and the use of talismans) havenever been ldquoofficiallyrdquo accepted as part of the high culture of the people Onthe whole Ibn Khaldn considers these sciences as non-Islamic in natureTheir origin was non-Islamic The Copts the Babylonians the Chaldeansand the Indians are all examples of nations who widely practised sorcery andthe use of talismans In Islam these sciences despite their non-Islamic naturedid occur and were practised in society Among those involved in writing onthese subjects were Jab+r b ayyn and al-Majr+_+

Regarding magical practices Ibn Khaldn records his own firsthandexperience with the practice of a magician He tells us ldquowe have also observedhow people who practice sorcery point at a garment or a piece of leather (kasrsquoaw jild) and speak (magical words) over it and the object is cut and torn intoshredsrdquo31 He also informs us about the current situation regarding magicalpractices in India Jordan and among the Turks

Before going any further it would be best to understand the nature of sorceryand the use of talismans as the author understands it Ibn Khaldn throughoutthis passage not only records the historical fact of magic and sorcery but alsoprovides ample explanations of the nature of this social phenomenon togetherwith examples First he relates this phenomenon to the nature of human soulsHuman souls Ibn Khaldn says although one in terms of species differ as totheir particular qualities Explaining this concept again he recalls his theoryof prophecy with which we have previously dealt In his theory of prophecyhe recognises that the Prophetsrsquo souls possess a particular quality that enablesthem to receive divine knowledge This particular quality provides the prophetswith the ability to ldquojump uprdquo (insilkh) from the realm of human souls (al-r|niyyt al-bashriyya) to the realm of angelic souls (al-r|niyya al-malakiyya)and become ldquoangelicalrdquo at that particular moment (|att ya+ra malakan f+-tilka al-lam|a) This is the meaning of revelation32

The souls of sorcerers for this matter also have a certain quality or abilityThis quality enables them to exercise influence upon created things (al-tarsquoth+rf+-rsquol-akwn) The only difference between the souls of the prophets and the


88

souls of the sorcerers is that the souls of the prophets exercise their influencewith the help of God and divine quality (khiyya rabbniyya) whereas thesouls of the sorcerers or soothsayers observe supernatural things by means ofsatanic powers (quwwa shai_niyya)33

Ibn Khaldn assigns souls that have magical ability (al-nufs al-s|ira) amongthree categories as follows

1 Sorcery (si|r)2 The use of talismans (_almist)3 Prestidigitation (shapoundwadha or shapoundbadha)34

The first category sorcery exercises influence through mental power alonewithout any instrument or aid (al-mursquothira bi-rsquol-himma fa-qa_ min-ghayri latwa-l mupound+n) The second the use of talismans exercises influence with theaid of the temper of the spheres and the elements or with the aid of theproperties of numbers (bi-mupound+n min-mizj al-aflk aw-al-poundanir aw-khaw al-apounddd) This category of soul is weaker than the first one The third categoryexercises its influence upon the powers of imagination (tarsquoth+run f+-rsquol-quwwaal-mutakhayyila)35

It should be mentioned here that Ibn Khaldn also discusses another scienceof a similar nature the science of the secrets of letters known as s+miyrsquo Thisparticular passage appears only in Quatremegraverersquos edition It is a long passagewhere Ibn Khaldn provides extensive information together with exampleson how this science operates This science as Ibn Khaldn tells us has a closerelationship with f+ tradition especially the extremists These f+s claimthat the secrets of the letters cannot be obtained by way of logical reasoninginstead they are obtained with the help of visions and divine aids (al-mushhadawa-rsquol-tawf+q al-ilh+)36

From the point of view of the shar+pounda there is no difference between sorcerythe use of talismans and prestidigitation They are all in one basket since allhave the same effect They are grouped in one class of forbidden things IbnKhaldn also distinguishes between the different characteristics of sorceryand miracles In this case he refers to the opinions of the theologians andphilosophers The theologians believe that the difference between miraclesand sorcery lies in the ldquoadvance challengerdquo (ta|add+) while the philosophersbelieve that the fundamental difference is the difference between the twoextremes of good and evil37

Excursus

In his expository order Ibn Khaldn discusses the sciences of sorcery and theuse of talismans after he deals with metaphysics Although his expository orderdoes not always represent or indicate the superiority or priority of a science in


89

terms of hierarchical order as in the case of logic the exposition of the sciencesof sorcery and the use of talismans here seems to have some connections withthe previous section on metaphysics At the very least the connection betweenmetaphysics and the sciences of sorcery and the use of talismans may beconsidered as their having a common nature ie both deal with somethingbeyond the physical world ndash the spiritual world However the place and statusof sorcery and talismans in Ibn Khaldnrsquos order of sciences particularly hisintellectual sciences is not quite certain Of course metaphysics as a branchof philosophy can be well fitted into Ibn Khaldnrsquos epistemology as the fourthcategory of intellectual sciences The sciences of sorcery and the use oftalismans on the other hand cannot be placed in any of the four categories ofintellectual sciences

The significance of Ibn Khaldnrsquos passage on sorcery and talismans may beviewed from two aspects One is to see it in relation to his epistemology theother is to see it in relation to his theory of civilisation

From the point of view of Ibn Khaldnrsquos epistemology the sciences of sorceryand the use of talismans as I indicated above cannot be easily fitted intoeither the traditional or the intellectual sciences both of which as Ibn Khaldnis concerned are well defined and well framed They cannot belong to thetraditional sciences because they do not have a religious or revelational originOn the other hand they cannot be listed among the intellectual sciences forthe simple reason that they do not come from the human intellect Lakhsassialso dealt with this problem extensively In his thesis he describes this situationas the problem of spiritual science The basis of Lakhsassirsquos argument is thatsorcery and the use of talismans are sciences which could not be classified ineither of the two categories of sciences because from an epistemological pointof view they are neither religious nor rational He found a possible way tosolve this Khaldnic epistemological problem is to suggest another categorywhich could be considered a third category of knowledge This third source ofknowledge is called spiritual science Lakhsassi also takes this opportunity tocriticise Ibn Khaldn for his ldquohesitancy in enumerating each of the kinds ofsciencesrdquo He even describes Ibn Khaldn as being ldquonot clear about this issuerdquo38

This is perhaps a fair judgement on the part of Lakhsassi Nonetheless sincethe main focus of my analysis here is to see Ibn Khaldnrsquos explanation of thisparticular phenomenon I will not take this debate further Instead my interestis to acknowledge the fact that Ibn Khaldn has provided us in this passagewith a valuable historical record of the history and practice of sorcery and theuse of talismans in relation to human civilisation It is a category of sciencethat has long been practised and appears in every human society throughouthistory It has never been recognised as a craft of high culture and thereforeremains a craft of the sub-culture

Throughout this passage Ibn Khaldn has tried and tried successfully togive scientific and philosophical explanations of the phenomena of magic


90

sorcery and talismans As far as philosophy is concerned it is not common togive scientific and logical explanations of this kind of strange and unexplainedphenomena

Refutation of philosophy (ib_al al-falsafa)

Section 30 is devoted specifically to criticising and attacking philosophy Thevery title of the passage reveals its message clearly and can be plainly translatedas ldquoThe refutation of philosophy and deviation of its studentsrdquo (F+-ib_l al-falsafa wa-fasd munta|ili-h) The message is expressed in two strong words ndashib_l and fasd The whole passage consists of a considerably long series ofarguments and assessments where Ibn Khaldn makes clear his stance andattitude against philosophy ndash whatever it might mean The order of theargument is arranged nicely beginning with a general introduction to thesubject followed by a short demonstration of the Aristotelian process ofabstraction which constitutes the basic notion of the philosophical processof knowledge This is followed by a short explanation of ethics as a part ofphilosophy in relation to the attainment of happiness and some highlights onAristotle as the first teacher and his Muslim followers Ibn Khaldn thenenters the main body of this passage ie the refutation of philosophy focusinghis arguments on the role of the human intellect in relation to the questionsof physics and metaphysics This is followed by an explanation of the dualnature of man in the context of happiness and critiques against the attitude ofMuslim philosophers

The section ends with some remarks on the benefits of philosophy(particularly logic) as an academic subject together with a passage setting outprerequisites for those who intend to study this subject The central focus ofmy study here is to see the foundation of Ibn Khaldnrsquos notion as well as to seethe context in which he proposes this idea In performing this task I will alsorecall his previous discourse and relevant statements in order to help usunderstand and get a clearer picture of this situation

The philosopher and the nature of philosophy

The author begins with a brief explanation of the philosopher and philosophyPrior to this in a relatively plain statement he tries to explain and justify hismove in bringing up this subject As a discipline much cultivated in the citiesthe ideas of philosophy are of course influential However Ibn Khaldn isparticularly concerned about their harmful effect on religion This is the mainreason why it is necessary to bring up this subject The main objective is tomake it clear what philosophy is about and to suggest the right attitude indealing with it


91

Who are the philosophers Based on Ibn Khaldnrsquos account thephilosophers to whom he refers here are those who believe that the essencesand the conditions of the whole of existence including those beyond sensualperception their reasons and causes can be perceived by human mentalspeculation and intellectual reasoning39 They even put the articles of faithunder mental judgement and claim that they belong among the intellectualperceptions True and false are distinguished based entirely on research (na~ar)The method that enables the philosophers to reach this mental judgement iscalled logic (man_iq) These people are known as falsifa meaning ldquolovers ofwisdomrdquo40

Ibn Khaldn explains the mental process through which mental speculationcan reach the state that makes it possible to distinguish between true andfalse This process goes as follows

The quintessence of it is that mental speculation which makes itpossible to distinguish between true and false concentrates on ideasabstracted from the individual existentia From these (individualexistentia) one first abstracts pictures that conform to all theimpressions that the existentia would make in clay or wax Theabstractions derived from the sensibilia are called ldquoprimary intelligibiliardquoThese universal ideas may be associated with other ideas from whichhowever they are distinguished in the mind Then other ideas namelythose that are associated (and have ideas in common) with (theprimary intelligibilia) are abstracted from them Then if still otherideas are associated with them a second and third abstraction is madeuntil the process of abstraction reaches the simple universal ideaswhich are common to all ideas and individual (manifestations of theexistentia) No further abstraction is possible They are the highestgenera All abstracts (ideas) that are not derived from the sensibiliaserve if combined with each other to produce the sciences They arecalled secondary intelligibilia41

The above demonstrates what Ibn Khaldn has in mind about thephilosophical process of knowledge The explanation is based entirely onAristotle The process begins with the abstraction of primary intelligibilia (al-mapoundqlt al-awrsquoil) and ends up at the highest genera (al-ajns al-poundliya) atwhich stage no further abstraction is possible while all the abstractions notderived from sensibilia that serve to produce sciences are called secondaryintelligibilia (al-mapoundqlt al-thawn+) Through those abstract intelligibilia manrsquosthinking ability will now function in perceiving the nature of existence Thismust be done by way of ldquocombining one with another as well as keeping oneapart from another based on sound rational evidencerdquo42 This method is knownas ldquotad+qrdquo (apperception) in logic43


92

Ibn Khaldn cites the opinions of the philosophers based on ldquothe books ofthe logiciansrdquo regarding the status of taawwur and tad+q (perception andapperception) Philosophers he says give tad+q precedence over taawwur atthe end whereas at the beginning or during the process of instruction theygive taawwur precedence over tad+q He claims this opinion as that ofAristotle

The author of the Muqaddima then moves on to discuss the concept ofhappiness (sapoundda) as seen with the eyes of the philosophers Happiness tothem ldquoconsists in arriving at a perception of all existing things both thesensibilia and the (things) beyond sensual perception with the help of (rational)speculation and argumentationrdquo44 The process begins with a conclusion basedon observation and sensual perception that there is a lower substance (al-jismal-sufl) This perception then progresses to the next stage perceiving theexistence of motion and sensual perception of animals This makes them (thephilosophers) conscious of the existence of the soul while the powers of thesoul make them aware of the dominant position of the intellect Theirperception stops here while they draw their conclusions with regard to thehighest celestial body in the same way they drew their conclusions with regardto the human essence45 They claim that happiness can be attained in thisway if it is combined at the same time with improvement of the soul (tahdh+bal-nafs) and acceptance of virtuous character (wa-takhalluqu-h bi-rsquol-fa=rsquoil)46

The philosophers believe according to Ibn Khaldn that with the help ofhis intellect a human being is able to distinguish between virtues and viceseven if there is no revealed religious law They also believe that a humanbeing has a natural inclination towards performing praiseworthy actions andnot vice versa Actual happiness in the eyes of the philosophers is attainedwhen the soul becomes virtuous at which point it attains joy and pleasurewhile eternal pain (al-shaqrsquo al-sarmad) is in their view the result of ignoranceof moral qualities To them this is the meaning of bliss and punishment in theother world47

In relation to this Ibn Khaldn also gives some facts and figures regardingphilosophical tradition He brings into the picture Aristotle known as thefirst teacher (al-mupoundallim al-awwal) as well as the teacher of logic He was thefirst to systematise the norms of logic and deal with all its problems In Islamthe most famous followers of Aristotle were al-Frb+ and Ibn S+n It wasduring the Abbasid period that the works of ancient philosophers weretranslated from Greek into Arabic

Up to this point Ibn Khaldn has provided us with a wide range ofinformation about philosophers and their philosophical ideas It seems to acertain extent that that information is provided for the purpose of preparinga more solid ground and justification for his later refutation This is apparentfrom the issues raised which include among others the philosophical process


93

of knowledge the use of logical norms and procedures ethics as part ofphilosophy and the concept of happiness For our purpose this information isparticularly important in order to allow us to determine the group againstwhich this attack is directed We now understand that Ibn Khaldn here isnot speaking about philosophy in general but he is concerned about a specificset of philosophical ideas propagated by a specific group of philosophers Inpreparing the ground for his criticism he is selective giving the criteria of thephilosophical ideas on trial These criteria tell us obviously that he is referringto neo-Platonism as Lakhsassi rightly spots

Ibn Khaldn selects the neo-Platonic thesis according to which thereis a hierarchy of being from the sensible (particulars) to thesuprasensible culmination (God) and the idea that the human mindis capable of arriving at knowledge without the aid of revelationMoreover to the knower knowledge produces happiness48

Ibn Khaldnrsquos refutation of philosophy

It must be remembered that the main objective of this passage is to refutephilosophy Ibn Khaldn now enters into a series of attacks beginning withthe strong statement that the opinions of the philosophers are wrong in everyrespect49 This strong statement invites several questions the most importantof which is perhaps the basis upon which this statement is made on whatgrounds must all aspects of the philosophersrsquo opinions be invalidated To obtaina better picture of the questions at stake we shall here examine closely thearguments and points raised by Ibn Khaldn in his refutation

First he turns to the philosopherrsquos theory of the first intellect (al-poundaql al-awwal) The philosophers refer all the existentia to the first intellect and aresatisfied with this theory in their progress towards the necessary One (al-Wjib)50 This belief implies that they neglect everything beyond it There aretwo categories of existentia corporeal existentia and the existentia beyond sensualperception (al-mawjdt al-lat+ warrsquo al-|iss) The science of the first categoryof existentia is known as the science of physics while the science of the secondcategory is known as the science of metaphysics

The philosophersrsquo attitude towards these categories of existentia is quiteclearly described by the author As regards the science of physics thephilosophers use logical norms in making their judgement As for the scienceof metaphysics whose essences are completely unknown the philosophersadmit that they ldquocannot perceive the spiritual essences and abstract furtherquiddities from them because the senses constitute a veil between us andthemrdquo They also admit that they have ldquono logical arguments for themrdquo andhave ldquono way whatever of affirming their existencerdquo51 Ibn Khaldn supports


94

his argument here with a statement by the great philosopher Plato who saysldquono certainty can be achieved with regard to the divine and one can stateabout the divine only what is most suitable and properrdquo52

Another point is happiness The philosophers believe that happiness canbe attained by means of logical arguments ie when a human being comes toperceive the nature of existence as it is Ibn Khaldn rejects this notion at thevery outset He gives a considerable space to explaining the concept ofhappiness based on the principle of the dual nature of man ndash corporeal andspiritual He admits that anyone who has perceptions will greatly enjoywhatever he perceives be it corporeal or spiritual He gives an example of achild having his first corporeal perception although through an intermediaryeg the eyes and greatly enjoying the light he sees Based on this analogy IbnKhaldn argues that no doubt the soul will find even greater joy and pleasurein perceptions that come from its own essence without an intermediary53 Thisperception by the soul cannot be achieved by intellectual speculation andscience It can be achieved only by the removal of the veil of sensual perceptionand forgetting all that is corporeal54 He refers in this connection to the f+swho are very much concerned with achieving this great joy through havingthe soul achieve that kind of perception

Here Ibn Khaldn directs his criticism at the Muslim philosophers Heexpresses disagreement with the philosophersrsquo belief that logical argumentsand proofs which can bring about perceptions will result in great joy This isbecause arguments and proofs belong to the category of corporeal perceptionThey are produced by the power of the brain which consists of imaginationthinking and memory According to Ibn Khaldn the first thing we want toattain this kind of perception is to kill all the powers of the brain In thisrespect the powers of the brain are considered as obstacles whereas thephilosophers believe that those who have attained the perception of the activeintellect and are united with it in their life in this world have attained theirshare of happiness The active intellect (al-poundaql al-fapoundpoundl) to them is the first ofthe degrees of the spiritualia from which the veil of sensual perception isremoved They assume union with the active intellect to be the result ofscientific perception and believe that the joy which is the result of thisperception is identical with the actual promised happiness (poundayn al-sapoundda al-mawpoundd)55

Another point of dispute is that the philosophers believe that man is ableby himself to refine and improve his soul by adopting what is praiseworthyand avoiding what is blameworthy This is based on the premise as mentionedabove that man is naturally inclined towards the good This is apparentlyagainst the basic teaching of Islam that such matters must be referred toreligious law


95

Towards the end of this passage Ibn Khaldn gives his general assessmentof the science of logic or philosophy Despite attacking it on many points IbnKhaldn admits that this science has only ldquoa single fruit namely it sharpensthe mind in the orderly presentation of proofs and arguments so that thehabit of excellent and correct arguing is obtainedrdquo56 However he reminds usthat those who intend to study this science should be aware of its dangerSuch students must first be well equipped with acknowledge of religious law(sharpoundiyyt) tafs+r and fiqh

Having described the content of this passage we may now be able to drawsome conclusions in relation to the foundation and the context in which theauthor of the Muqaddima proposes his ideas of refutation From the very outsetwe can see that he is very concerned about the essences and the condition ofexistence The main issue here is whether the nature of existence bothcorporeal and spiritual can be perceived or grasped merely by the power ofmental speculation and intellectual reasoning The philosophers believe soMental speculation and intellectual reasoning have the ability to grasp thenature of existence This includes the articles of faith The method they usein this operation is the procedure of logic Based on this major premise thephilosophers go on to assume that happiness can also be achieved throughthe same method A human being through his power of intellect is able todistinguish virtue and vice and is by nature inclined towards what ispraiseworthy and away from what is blameworthy even without religiousguidance

It is on these issues that Ibn Khaldn launches his rebuttal In this contexthe perhaps sees the larger implication of these philosophical ideas for theestablishment of religion The danger is clear These notions will invalidatethe role and function of religion therefore they are fundamentally againstbasic religious teaching Here he is probably referring to Islam As acounterattack he urges that these matters must be referred to religious lawIbn Khaldnrsquos criticism may also be considered partly as an attempt to protectthe establishment and the status quo of religion as the true and ultimateguidance for mankind

Excursus

This passage on the refutation of philosophy is in fact the first of Ibn Khaldnrsquosthree orders of refutation those of philosophy astrology and alchemy Sincephilosophy is one of the main concerns of the present research I shall examinethis passage thoroughly and in order to see Ibn Khaldnrsquos actual standpoint ifpossible This is in order to determine (1) whether his rejection of philosophyis total or in part (2) the basis of his rejection and (3) the reason for puttingphilosophy on trial I will skip over his refutation of astrology and alchemy


96

because the discussion is of the same nature and has been well represented inthis passage

Philosophy as a product of the human thinking ability has been recognisedin the history of the Muslim intellectual tradition In the Islamic intellectualmilieu philosophy particularly logic has become one of the subjects of interestand has been adopted in several religious subjects such as kalm and ul al-fiqh History has witnessed figures such as al-Kind+ al-Frb+ and Ibn S+n (toname a few) among its great proponents Although the publication of Tahfutal-falsifa by al-Ghazzl+ in the late fiftheleventh century created a certaindegree of awareness among Muslims towards philosophy it did not at all stopthe development of a Muslim philosophical tradition In the same vein thisparticular passage by Ibn Khaldn published in the eighthfourteenth centuryas part of his larger Muqaddima may also be considered as a continuation ofal-Ghazzl+rsquos project in Tahfut57 As a part of the Muqaddima this passagemay also well be considered as representing the official stance of the work Ifit represents the official stance of the Muqaddima I feel that there isinconsistency on the part of Ibn Khaldn in dealing with this subject58 Howcan he reject philosophy when he admits elsewhere that philosophy (in thebroadest sense of the word) is a part of human civilisation without which nocivilisation will exist I will give my argument in the following paragraphs

On the basis of this passage we have been made to understand that IbnKhaldn totally rejects philosophy and all its products He states ldquoit shouldbe known that the opinion held by the philosophers is wrong in all aspectsrdquo(b_il bi-jam+pound wujhi-hi)59 The question is what does such a strong statementimply Does it mean that all products of philosophical inquiries are wrong Ifit does that will deny all the products of human mental ability according tothe authorrsquos earlier account that all intellectual sciences are categorised underphilosophy al-poundulm al-falsafiyya wa-rsquol-hikma (sciences of philosophy andwisdom)60 This is impossible for the simple reason that intellectual scienceconstitutes a part and parcel of civilisation To assume that the author hasunintentionally contradicted himself is also impossible because he has shownconsistency in his stance throughout his work both in judgement and inargumentation

Now the most likely option to solve this problem I would suggest is to goback to recall Ibn Khaldnrsquos general notion of the sciences of philosophy andwisdom Only then will we be able to see whether the rejection of philosophyhere implies total or partial rejection

In his earlier discourse we have been made to understand that the sciencesof philosophy and wisdom cover all the intellectual sciences that are theproducts of manrsquos ability to think These sciences are natural to man Theyinclude logic metaphysics physics and the four divisions of mathematicalsciences They are neutral by nature in the sense that they are not restricted


97

to any particular religious group They have existed since civilisation had itsbeginning in the world61 Based on this notion it is simply understood that allkinds of sciences other than traditional conventional sciences should beconsidered as in the category of philosophy and wisdom And in this contextit would not be possible for Ibn Khaldn to reject all these sciences in thename of the rejection of philosophy Furthermore the major implication oftotal rejection if that is what it is is the destruction of the whole theory ofcivilisation that has been established by the author and constitutes the maintheme of the Muqaddima

Now we come back to the present passage As far as I can see the refutationof philosophy here is based on several assumptions centred primarily on theissue of the essences and the condition of existence It should be emphasisedat the very outset that Ibn Khaldnrsquos rejection is entirely focused on thephilosophersrsquo basic premise that the whole of existence its essences andconditions including those beyond sensual perception as well as their reasonsand causes can be perceived by mental speculation and intellectual reasoningwhich he regards as potentially harmful to religion62 The philosophers havealso transgressed the limit of human mental ability by assuming that the veryarticles of faith belong to intellectual perception They go even furtherassuming that happiness (sapoundda) can also be achieved by way of rationalspeculation and argumentation They believe that virtue and vice can bedistinguished by means of intellect and speculation even if there is no religiouslaw This is because a human being is naturally inclined towards praiseworthyactions and shuns blameworthy ones63 In this sense philosophy has violatedthe nature of mind because it claims to transcend it It also posits an impossibleproject ndash knowledge of the beyond ndash and seeks to achieve it by impossiblemeans abstraction and discursive reason64

Based on this passage the essential fault of philosophy as pointed out byIbn Khaldn is that it attempts to perceive the whole of existence includingthat of the beyond by way of discursive reason Up to this point we can besure that what worries Ibn Khaldn throughout the passage is the violation ofthe nature of the mind by philosophy This is the main issue His message isclear ndash philosophy must operate within its limits It must not go beyond itsboundaries If it does it has not only trespassed beyond its limits but is alsoharmful to religion

Following the above argumentation I may be able now to conclude thatIbn Khaldnrsquos rejection of philosophy in this particular passage should not betaken to mean that he rejects philosophy in total It is important to understandand to differentiate between philosophy as a principle of science and philosophyas a craft practised in the history of civilisation The philosophy that is underattack here is philosophy as a principle of science its epistemology and notphilosophy as a craft practised at all times In all his criticism Ibn Khaldn


98

never touches upon the crafts and the products of the sciences Instead hisdiscussion is centred on the ldquoperceptionsrdquo or ldquoprinciplesrdquo regarding existentiaand intelligibilia It is in this area that philosophy has violated the nature of thehuman intellect and therefore violated basic religious dogma

S C H O L A R S H I P A S A S C I E N C E

99

5

SCHOLARSHIP AS ASCIENCE AND

PEDAGOGICAL METHOD

Introduction

It is a generally accepted notion that education in all its inclusive meaningsis one of the basic necessities of human society Throughout the ages thisaspect of human necessities has caught the imagination of scholars andintellectuals alike It has been made a great deal of in their discourse IbnKhaldn is no exception Education has become an integral part of his socialphilosophy In Chapter 6 of the Muqaddima from Section 33 to Section 43Ibn Khaldn engages at a considerable length with this issue In these tensections he touches on various general and particular aspects and facets ofeducation As a matter of fact education in all its aspects has never beenperipheral in Ibn Khaldnrsquos scheme These ten sections of the Muqaddimawill be the focus of this present chapter of mine

The importance of education has been noted earlier namely in Section 7right after his six preliminary remarks when he says ldquoscientific instruction isa craftrdquo (f+-anna tapoundl+m al-poundilm min jumlat al-anrsquoipound) From that section it may belearned that he develops his philosophy of education based upon the firstprinciple ndash education is a social phenomenon and teaching and instructionare social crafts man is a social animal and his prosecution of learning isconditioned by the nature of the material intellectual and spiritual forces ofthe civilisation in which he lives1 The concept of man is based upon hisability to think Ability to think distinguishes man from the rest of animals2

This special ability enables man to think of how to maintain his life how toact and behave as a member of social order and how to receive and obey whathas been revealed by God through His prophets in order to achieve success inthis world as well as in the next world This is basically the main idea ofSection 7 In the light of the present discussion this particular section couldbe viewed as a preliminary section in which Ibn Khaldn tries to outline thegeneral framework of his philosophy In it he sets out the paradigm uponwhich his philosophy of learning and education is based The central factor issurely the human ability to think Thinking is the origin of all kinds of learning


100

without which no transmission of knowledge is possible while methods andways of transmission or acquisition of learning become a craft (inpounda) of societyIt should be noted that knowledge and craft are two different entitiesKnowledge of science is something that results from understanding (fahm)Understanding a single fact in a certain discipline is always equal regardless ofwhether the person concerned is well versed or just a beginner On the otherhand craft is a result of habit (malaka) and belongs solely and exclusively tothe person who is well versed in a scientific discipline3 Therefore the differencebetween the two concepts is the difference between the concept of fahm andthe concept of malaka It is natural that crafts should vary depending uponthe style of the actors or teachers or transmitters even though knowledge orscience itself is one and the same entity4

In these ten sections Ibn Khaldn outlines his ideas on education coveringscholarship as a tradition and science and the pedagogical method of educationThe aim and purpose of literary composition (which forms an integral andessential part of education) is the first issue discussed by the author followedby some considerations on the problems that occurred in the educational systemin his time After criticising the system he gives his own views and somesuggestions on what he claims to be a better and more effective pedagogicalmethod This is followed by a discussion of the character of the auxiliarysciences (al-poundulm al-liya) and their purposes Elementary education or childeducation is discussed here in two consecutive sections The remaining foursections are devoted to discussing the scholarly tradition in the authorrsquos timeAmong the issues touched upon are the concept of perfection in knowledgescholars and politics as well as the tradition of Islamic scholarship amongArabs and non-Arabs alike

Aims and purposes

In Section 33 Ibn Khaldn gives special attention to the purpose of literarycomposition (tarsquol+f) This particular passage does not appear in the Beirutedition of the Muqaddima Rosenthal notes that this section is a later insertionby the author5 Basically the central theme of this passage is to outline theaims and purposes of literary composition as part of the process of educationin the wider sense of the term

Here Ibn Khaldn has systematically and successfully built up his theory ofcommunication based on first principles ie the basic process ofcommunication Literary composition is nothing but the product of humanthought The process of communication begins with the power of idrk(perception) in man which brings about perception of realities (taawwur al-|aqrsquoiq) This process is followed by a judgement either positive (ithbt) ornegative (nafy) either directly or through an intermediary (was_) The processeventually goes far in solving a problematic situation either negatively or


101

affirmatively until a certain scientific picture is established (in the mind of aperson) (ra poundilmiyya f+-rsquol-=am+r) When this state is achieved (ie a scientificpicture in the mind) it is necessary that this scientific picture be communicatedto others This can be done either through instruction (tapoundl+m) or throughdiscussion This is carried out according to Ibn Khaldn in order to polishthe mind by trying to show its soundness6 This is the beginning of the processof communication

Ibn Khaldn divides the process of communication into two levels Thefirst level is through sound or verbal expression or speech Through the processof speech one personrsquos thoughts can be communicated to others This levelof communication takes place if two persons can meet each other physicallyor personally The second level is written communication This level takesplace if the two persons are out of sight of each other bodily far apart or notcontemporary In this situation a personrsquos thoughts can be communicatedonly through written works In this way also the thoughts of an earliergeneration can be understood and studied by a later generation It is throughthe same process that science and knowledge are communicated to latergenerations

Scholars throughout the ages record their thoughts and findings in theform of written works They author numerous works and their works are handeddown to all races of all ages As regards written works Ibn Khaldn categorisesthem into two religious and philosophical The reason for this categorisationhe explains is that these two types of literature are quite distinct in natureLiterature in the religious sciences naturally differs among them as a result ofdifferences in religious laws and organisation as well as differences in theinformation available about nations and dynasties This is not the case in thephilosophical sciences The philosophical sciences have developed uniformlyas is required by the very nature of human thought which is based on percep-tion (taawwur) of existing things regardless of whether they are corporealspiritual celestial elemental abstract or material Therefore the literaturesof these sciences show no differences in this respect7

Some background history of writing

Ibn Khaldn takes up considerable space describing the existence anddevelopment of pen and script (qalam wa-kha__) among several nations Thisincludes the scripts of the Himyarites and the ancient inhabitants of Yemenknown as musnad The musnad is different from the later script of the Mu=arthough all of them are Arabs while the Syriac script is the writing of theNabateans and Chaldeans As usual Ibn Khaldn takes this opportunity tocriticise what he describes as the wrong view of the ignorant who believethat the Syriac script is the natural script (al-kha__ al-_ab+poundi) of the Nabateansand the Chaldeans for the simple reason that these two nations were the most


102

powerful nations in antiquity and the Syriac script is of great antiquity ToIbn Khaldn this view is wrong Instead he argues that this situation occursas a result of choice (ikhtiyr) and is not natural (_ab+poundi) the result of a choicecannot be considered natural The actual fact is that the Syriac script was soold and had been used for so long that it became a firmly rooted habit Thatwas the reason why the ignorant believe it to be natural Similarly some believethat the Arabs express themselves in good Arabic by nature which is also nottrue

Other scripts mentioned by Ibn Khaldn are Hebrew and Roman Hebrewis the writing of the Israelites while Roman is the script of the Romans Ingeneral each nation has its own particular form of writing and languageHowever there are only three scripts that have particular significance for IbnKhaldn

1 The Syriac script because of its antiquity2 Arabic and Hebrew because the Quran and Torah were revealed in these

languages respectively3 Roman the script of the Romans The Torah was translated into Latin

The seven purposes of literary composition

Now Ibn Khaldn turns to the main issue of this passage the purposes ofliterary composition As far as he is concerned there are only seven types orpurposes or perhaps more appropriately ldquogenresrdquo in the modern sense ofliterary composition which are academically recognised and valid I summariseeach of those as follows

1 New invention the invention of a science with its subject its divisioninto chapters and sections and the discussions of its problems

2 Interpretational the interpretational approach to books or written worksalready published in the intellectual and traditional sciences

3 Correction worked out when a scholar finds errors and mistakes in theworks of earlier scholars

4 Elaboration a genre carried out when a scholar finds some problems whichhave not been adequately treated or lack explanation

5 Rearrangement or improvement published when a scholar finds thatearlier works were not properly arranged or were without proper order forinstance the Mudawwana of Sa|nn which was transmitted on theauthority of Ibn al-Qsim

6 Literary criticism a type of literature which brings about a new disciplineout of earlier texts It addresses certain scientific problems that may havebeen scattered in other sciences


103

7 Abridgement some important scholarly works may be too long and prolixThey need to be abridged and summarised8

These are the only seven literary genres recognised by Ibn Khaldn in histime Others are not considered valid and lie outside his interest In a fewlines towards the end of the passage Ibn Khaldn takes the opportunity tocriticise what he describes as ldquounwantedrdquo and ldquomistakenrdquo in literarycomposition He gives the example of certain types of plagiarism committedby an author who tries to ascribe the work of an earlier author to himself withthe aid of certain tricks such as changing the wording and the arrangement ofthe contents9

Excursus

In this passage Ibn Khaldn apparently shows his interest in communicationand literary theory as part of his writing on education It is interesting to seehow he builds up his theory of communication then tries to link it with histheory of literary composition as well as its educational implications As Iindicated in the introduction this chapter as a whole concerns scholarlytradition and education It is also clear that these elements have a particularsignificance in the theory of culture and civilisation The achievements of acivilisation in this context should not be measured by merely an upgrade inthe standard of living or physical development in the cities or urban areasbut more importantly by scholarly tradition and science as well as ineducation10 Perhaps it is for this reason that Ibn Khaldn regards educationas an integral part of his philosophy

Communication is an essential part of human life upon which human societyis established Ibn Khaldn begins his theory of communication by going backto the very nature of the human ie his soul It is in the soul of man that Godhas implanted the ability of idrk to enable him to perceive and to think of hisown self and outside his own self It begins with taawwur and eventuallyengages with problematic situations and ends up with some kind of scientificpicture11

This scientific picture of necessity needs to be communicated to someoneelse How does this communication take place Ibn Khaldn tells us that thisprocess takes place in two ways or at two levels verbal expression and writtenworks At this point we must note that knowledge of language plays a part forwithout it no communication will take place Therefore knowledge of languageis essential in this process The issue of language will be treated later in aspecial section Parallel to the process of communication the process ofeducation or knowledge transmission takes place This is in fact the process ofcommunicating scientific pictures to others It takes place either directly or


104

through an intermediary In relation to this it seems fairly clear that IbnKhaldn recognises the superiority of written works over verbal expressionThe answer is quite simple In the process of transmitting or spreading infor-mation written work naturally has a larger audience than does verbalexpression It is not limited in time and space whereas verbal expression islimited to face-to-face communication Rosenthal in his book on The Techniqueand Approach of Muslim Scholarship has made some important notes regardingthe tradition of written works He asserts that Muslim civilisation as much asany higher civilisation was a civilisation of the written word12

The process of education will bring about a scholarly tradition It is throughcommunication and the process of education and knowledge transmissionthat scholars can learn exchange views and study from each other Scholarswho equip themselves with a certain discipline will record their thoughts andopinions as well as their new findings in the form of scholarly works Theyproduce written works of several kinds and genres These written works arethen studied by their contemporaries and bequeathed and transmitted to thenext generation In the history of Muslim scholarship the important roleplayed by written texts is enormous The immense numbers of manuscriptsthat survive testify to the significant role of written texts in knowledgetransmission by medieval Muslims13

For Ibn Khaldn scholarship andor authorship itself has its own disciplineIn relation to this he establishes his theory of literary composition generalisingand classifying all kinds of literary genres available in his time He concludesthat there are only seven literary genres that should be considered asrepresenting scholarly works at that time Having engaged in this literarytheory Ibn Khaldn has already gone beyond the basic issue of education andcommunication He has now entered into a more specific discussion of thetheory of literary composition Of course it is his investigation of the processof communication and education that has inevitably led him to engage informulating such a theory I have indicated above that literary composition isthe product of intellectual creativity and the mental activity of a member of asociety In the same way literary composition should also be considered areflection of the intellectual achievement and scholarship of that society Inthe context of Muslim society before and during the time of Ibn Khaldnscholarship and authorship became a specific culture among scholars andintellectuals which certainly made a significant contribution towards the laterdevelopment of Muslim civilisation Scholarship and authorship became oneof the most important benchmarks in Muslim intellectual history The floodof all kinds of literature religious and non-religious alike made the Muslimregions at that time an important centre of learning and education Literaryproduction among scholars became a characteristic feature of medieval IslamThis historical fact needs no specific reference since it has been recorded inmost historical works14 The richness of literature on various subjects has


105

certainly widened the scope and perspective in knowledge and science as wellas new fields of study

It is in this context that we can see the significance of Ibn Khaldnrsquos theoryof literary production We can imagine the difficulties of students at that timein studying and mastering a certain subject when there were various kinds ofliterature written on it For this reason the formulation of such a theory wasvery much needed Such a theory certainly enables a student to identify thetype and nature of a work of literature and more importantly its academicmerit This could of course help the student to choose the literature whichwas right and best for him

From my point of view the authorrsquos theory of literary genre is doubtless anexcellent contribution to the development of Islamic scholarship The natureof this theory is interesting It is quite distinct from the formal discipline-based theory proposed by his predecessors As we know the discipline-basedtheory of literary production is more concerned with the subject matter thanwith the typology of literary works As a result literary productions arerecognised on the basis of the subjects they contain such as tafs+r |ad+th fiqhkalm etc On the other hand Ibn Khaldnrsquos theory here is not based ondisciplines but across disciplines He is more concerned with the typology orldquogenusrdquo of a work of literature than with the subject it discusses On this groundthis theory is applicable to all disciplines Moreover on the basis of itsuniversalistic nature this theory might be regarded as not only relevant to histime but also to modern scholarship especially on the subject of Arabic andIslamic civilisation

Another point that captures my interest is the issue of plagiarism IbnKhaldn uses the term inti|l to describe those who try to ascribe the works ofothers to themselves At this point Ibn Khaldn implicitly underlines hisconcept of scholarship To him scholarship is a noble profession As a nobleprofession it has to be bound by certain ethical principles Plagiarism is oneof the most unethical deeds in academic circles Modern scholarship considersthis action as a serious academic crime Ibn Khaldn makes it clear that thosewho involve themselves in plagiarism are ignorant pseudo-scholars Hedescribes the plagiarists as ignorant and impudent

Problems and obstacles

In Section 34 Ibn Khaldn speaks of the problems or obstacles to attainingscholarship He identifies the greatest obstacle to attaining scholarship is theabundance of scholarly works To become an accomplished scholar a studentis required to master or have ready knowledge of every discipline He mustknow all works or most of them and observe all the methods used in themThis process will certainly take a long time perhaps the whole lifetime of aperson will not be sufficient for him to know all works that exist in a single


106

discipline To support his argument Ibn Khaldn gives an example of howdifficult it is to master a single sub-discipline when a student has to go througha long process of study For example if one seeks to master only the Malikiteschool of jurisprudence based on the Mudawwana one has to look at its legalcommentaries such as the book of Ibn Ynus al-Lakhm+ and Ibn Bash+r aswell as the notes and introduction to it In addition one may have to look atthe sister work of the Mudawwana the poundUtbiyya and the book written on it byIbn Rushd entitled al-Bayn wa-rsquol-ta|+l or the book of Ibn al-jib as well asthe work written on it Besides that the student must be able to distinguishbetween the Qayrawn+ method and the Cordoban the Baghdadi and theEgyptian These are the variations within just one and the same subject15

Another example is Arabic philology In Arabic philology there is thebook of S+bawayh and all the works on it There are methods of the Basransthe Kufans the Baghdd+s as well as the Andalusians Besides there are alsothe methods of the ancients and the moderns Because of the wealth of thematerials on this subject no one can aspire to complete knowledge of it Itwould take a long time whereas the lifespan of a person is very short For IbnKhaldn this certainly proves that the great number of scholarly works hasbecome a major obstacle to the mastery of a science in modern times16

Excursus

In the light of the Muqaddima this view is apparently paradoxical This isbecause Ibn Khaldn on the one hand acknowledges the abundant number ofscholarly works as the sign of scholarly achievement that has led him toformulate his literary theory while at the same time he views this phenomenonnegatively as an obstacle to the attainment of scholarship To study this passageI feel it is necessary to find out what lies behind this ldquopositiverdquo versus ldquonegativerdquoview of the author Is there any particular reason why he should leave such aparadox in the mind of the reader of the Muqaddima

Having examined this passage I admit that I can see no particular cue thatmight help me to suggest what lies behind this paradox Anwar Chejne suggeststhat Ibn Khaldn is very much influenced by the existence of an abundantand overwhelming literature in the Arabic language most of which comprisescompendia commentaries and commentaries on commentaries17 The searchfor knowledge knows no boundaries However my possible suggestion inrelation to what I have indicated above is that Ibn Khaldn here is very stronglyinfluenced by the concept of ldquothe encyclopedic scholarrdquo I create this term todescribe a kind of versatile scholar whose knowledge talent and power ofmemory are extraordinary Ibn Khaldn seems to be very attached to this oldnotion of the encyclopedic scholar who claims to be a master of all kinds ofdisciplines at one time This can be seen from his appreciation of S+bawayh a


107

master of Arabic philology However as science and knowledge develop sorapidly the notion of an encyclopedic scholar has certainly become more andmore irrelevant Our modern system of education has gone so far as to divideknowledge into disciplines and sub-disciplines Todayrsquos scholarship has becomevast complicated and over-specialised No one would be able to be anencyclopedic scholar or claim to master or know all the literature in a singlediscipline let alone in different disciplines It is therefore not realistic to speakof or uphold this concept in modern time Perhaps we could consider IbnKhaldnrsquos time as a period of transition from the traditional notion ofscholarship to the modern one To reconcile this paradox I would presumethat if he had realised that to produce an encyclopedic scholar is impossiblein the rapid development of science and knowledge he would not have worriedtoo much about the increasing number of scholarly materials On this basisperhaps it is not out of context to assume that Ibn Khaldn here presents theold notion of scholarship rather than the modern one Besides this practicallyirrelevant notion Ibn Khaldnrsquos passage here certainly has a significance inthe context of the history of the scholarly tradition especially the phases ofits development from traditional to modern

The value of the short summary (ikhtir) and goodpedagogical method

In Sections 35 and 36 Ibn Khaldn discusses a number of issues regarding anikhtir in a scholarly subject and good pedagogical method He begins bydealing with the problems of the brief summary of the methods and contentsof the sciences

Some of the scholarly works in various disciplines are very lengthy Theyneed to be interpreted and explained Some scholars make an effort to abridgethem in order to make it easier for the student to acquire an expert knowledgeof them Based on several instances such as the work of Ibn al-jib injurisprudence and the principles of jurisprudence Ibn Mlik in Arabicphilology and al-Khnj+ in logic Ibn Khaldn argues that this method (ieusing short summaries) did not help students very much On the contrarythis method is considered to have a corrupting influence on the process ofinstruction and it is detrimental to the attainment of scholarship Ibn Khaldnbelieves that it is a bad method because it confuses the beginner The reasonis that it only presents the final results of a discipline to the student but he isnot prepared for them and does not have enough background in the discipline

Ibn Khaldnrsquos point of argument also lies on the inferiority of this methodto the complete work Among its deficiencies is that this kind of work requireslaborious study Naturally such works are complicated because they are crowdedwith ideas in trying to find out the problems of the discipline18 Ibn Khaldn


108

believes that the scholarly habit (malaka) that results from this method is farinferior to the habit resulting from the study of more extensive and lengthyworks

In Section 36 Ibn Khaldn speaks of the theory of instruction in generaland good pedagogical method This section which is relatively long may bedivided into three parts This could facilitate our understanding and give us aclearer picture of the authorrsquos ideas of education particularly teaching orinstruction An understanding of this section is essential for it is directlyconnected with his basic idea of education which is paramount and centralto his theory of culture and civilisation

In the first part Ibn Khaldn lays out his general theory of education andmethod as well as the roles and functions of teachers In the second he tells usabout the roles and functions of teachers In the third in which he addressesstudents he gives some general advice about how to develop good habits andthe process of knowledge as well as the right attitude of students towardsscience and knowledge

The author begins this section by giving some general ideas about methodand the process of education The first basic principle of effective education isthat it should be in gradual stages (tadr+j) Ibn Khaldn explains what he meansby gradual There are three stages of instruction First the teacher presents tothe student the basic principle of the given discipline At this stage the teacherwill give a commentary in a summary fashion At the same time the teacherwill observe the intellectual potential and preparedness of the student Thestudent at this stage can only acquire a habit that is ineffective approximateand weak The objective of this stage is only to enable the student to understandthe discipline and to know its problems19

Then comes the second stage At this stage the teacher goes back over thediscipline a second time The teacher will no longer give a summary but fullcommentaries and explanation explaining the existing differences of opinion(khilf) The result of this stage is that the studentrsquos scholarly habit is improved

In the third stage the teacher leads the student back again for a third timeThe student is now solidly grounded The teacher at this stage will leavenothing that is complicated vague or obscure unexplained He bares all thesecrets of the discipline As a result the student is now able to master andacquire the habit of the discipline

This is the effective method of instruction according to Ibn Khaldn Wecan now understand that a gradual process (tadr+j) here means repetition(tikrr) Although it requires two repetitions it might be less in some casesdepending on the studentrsquos natural ability disposition and qualification

In the second part of this passage Ibn Khaldn focuses his discussion onthe role of the teacher He criticises some of the teachers of his time for beingignorant of the effective method of instruction Those ignorant teachers do


109

not follow the right procedure in instruction Some confront the student withobscure scientific problems some expose them to the final result of the givendiscipline (ghyat al-funn) at the beginning of the lesson This is not theright way to effective instruction Ibn Khaldn reminds his reader again thatpreparing oneself for scientific knowledge and understanding grows graduallyand therefore the process of instruction should follow the same procedure Heis worried about the backlash of the wrong approach in instruction Forexample if the students are exposed to the final result when they are stillunable to understand the basic principle of the disipline they are far fromprepared and their minds are not acute enough to grasp such understandingthey may get the impression that scholarship is too difficult and try to avoidit This happens because of poor instruction

Ibn Khaldn lists some important points regarding good pedagogicalmethod Among those points are

bull Teaching should be based upon and according to age groupbull Instruction should be continuous repeated and avoid prolonging the

period of instruction or any long intervalbull Students should not be exposed to two disciplines at one time20

The third part of the passage in which he addresses the student givessome general advice to the student who is in the process of learning IbnKhaldn declares at the beginning that he is going to give some useful adviceto the student He begins by recalling his theory of man and the process ofthinking and follows this with a discussion of the roles and functions of logicLogic helps man to distinguish correctness from error He describes logic as atechnical procedure (amr inpound+) that parallels manrsquos natural ability to thinkSince it is only a technical procedure scholarly results do not always dependon it In fact many of the worldrsquos best thinkers achieve scholarly results withoutemploying the craft of logic This happens to thinkers whose intention issincere with the help of the mercy of God (mapounda adaqat al-niyya wa-rsquol-tapoundarru=li-ra|mat Allah tapoundl) In the case of these thinkers they can proceed with theaid of their natural ability to think to find the middle term and knowledge oftheir objective21

Besides logic there is another introductory discipline which it is necessaryfor students to know namely knowledge of words and the way in which theyindicate ideas in the mind22 Knowledge of words is divided into the writtenand the spoken Ibn Khaldn describes this knowledge as a veil (|ijb) Thosewho want to reach a scholarly objective must pass through this veil The firststage of the veil is writing which indicates spoken words followed by spokenwords which indicate ideas Further the student should also be able to masterthe rules for arranging the ideas in their proper mould by using the craft of


110

logic Those ideas that are abstract (mujarrada) in the mind are used to achievethe desired objective with the help of onersquos natural ability to think and ofcourse by the mercy and generosity of God

The author reminds us that not everyone can easily pass through theseveils in the process of instruction In some cases dispute can cause the mind tostop at the veil of words (|ijb al-alf~) Only certain individuals who are guidedby God succeed in overcoming and passing these veils

Towards the end of this passage Ibn Khaldn advises the student who isafflicted by such difficulties or who has doubt in his mind to entrust himself toGodrsquos aid By doing this says Ibn Khaldn Godrsquos helpful light will shine uponhim and show him His objective In this way inspiration (ilhm al-was_) whichis granted by God will indicate the middle term This inspiration is a naturalrequirement of the process of thinking23

Excursus

In Section 35 which is relatively short Ibn Khaldn presents a picture ofscholarship in his time in relation to education and the tradition of scholarshipWhen writing becomes common and forms a new culture among intellectualcircles it is natural for it to result in a plethora of books and literature In thissituation there are also natural tendencies among scholars to work towards abrief presentation of the method and content of a particular science Some ofthem are presented systematically in the form of a brief summary Ibn Khaldndoes not deny the good intention of the authors of such literature but hismain concern is basically the perfection of intellectual habit (al-malaka al-tmma) Perfection is necessary for an excellent scholar For this he allows noroom for compromise He severely criticises and condemns this abbreviatedkind of scholarly works which he believes instead of making it easier for thestudent to acquire knowledge make it more difficult complicated andconfused

Leaving Ibn Khaldnrsquos criticism aside for a moment my assessment is thathis idea of rejecting the tradition of ikhtir in the context of Muslim intellectualtradition needs to be clarified Does he mean to invalidate the significance ofthis type of literary genre in Muslim scholarship tradition If so what is itsimplication for his theory of education and scholarship On the surface itseems that this idea is a little strange The tradition of ikhtir or mukhtaar inMuslim literary history has been phenomenal established long before andcontinuing after the time of Ibn Khaldn Therefore I feel that the significanceof this tradition should not be bluntly denied or simply rejected Since IbnKhaldn has given his justification for why he is not in favour of this traditionmy task here is of course to evaluate the relevance and context of his argumentThe question before us is whether this rejection implies total invalidation of


111

this kind of literature or whether it applies only in a certain context ndash possiblyteaching or instruction in the formal and limited sense of the word

In relation to this my inclination is of course to look at the latter ie thepossibility of a limited context of this rejection I believe that this rejectionapplies in the context of instruction (tapoundl+m) in the specific sense of the wordBy specific sense of tapoundl+m I mean a kind of formal method of instruction aspractised at that time I have every reason to believe that Ibn Khaldn is notrejecting the tradition of ikhtir as part of the scholarly tradition This isobvious in the previous section where he mentions ikhtir as one of thecategories of recognised and valid literary genre Although looking at thesequential order (if this is considered as showing priority) this genre is placedin the last category it should be understood as less important rather than notimportant at all

Taking the above argument into consideration I am now able to suggestthat Ibn Khaldnrsquos criticism here has more to do with the curriculum in theformal method of instruction (tapoundl+m) rather than with total invalidation Ofcourse we would agree that abridged works cannot be used as textbooks Thesekinds of work have many deficiencies compared to the complete detailed worksPerhaps I can now explain why Ibn Khaldn is so worried that the studentmay become confused because he is not fully prepared with the generalbackground of the discipline

In Section 36 Ibn Khaldn continues with the theory of instruction andpedagogical method It is not my intention here to see the relevance of thistheory in the context of modern times It is the task of modern educationiststo make use of whatever is relevant and useful in Ibn Khaldnrsquos theory inrelation to todayrsquos educational problems Instead my primary concern here isto see how Ibn Khaldn builds up his theory its context and rationale itsinterconnection with other concepts and theories and more importantlyhow it can be fitted into his general theory of civilisation and culture

I have indicated above that education which includes instruction has neverbeen peripheral in Ibn Khaldnrsquos scheme Here in this passage he gives specialfocus to instruction and good pedagogical method The argument is presentedin three parts beginning with basic theory and the principle of instructionfollowed by some advice to the teacher and then some guidelines for thestudent

It is interesting to highlight here the basic principle of effective instructionproposed by Ibn Khaldn ie the principle of tadr+j (gradual) Instructionshould be carried out little by little In other words instruction has to begraduated As we indicated above gradual means repetition (tikrr) Goodand effective instruction means that a subject should be repeated twicebeginning with a preliminary exposure and ending with extensive detailedand comprehensive discussion including all matters of obscurity and


112

controversy in the discipline At this stage it can be said that the student hasbecome acquainted with and mastered the discipline This is the meaning ofgradual and this is the right and effective educational method according toIbn Khaldn24

If my understanding of Ibn Khaldnrsquos line of educational thought is correctI am now able to suggest that in the process of education besides the knowledgeand skill of the teacher and the preparedness of the student the most importantelement is the methodology ie having a good pedagogical method This isclear when the author frequently reminds us about the dangers of poorinstruction The result of poor instruction is not only a confused and ignorantstudent but worse it results in the false impression that scholarship is toocomplicated and difficult The student will then have no desire to pursue hisstudy further

The character of instrumentalauxiliary sciences(al-poundulm al-liyya)

In a relatively short Section 37 Ibn Khaldn invites the reader to share hisview on the instrumental or auxiliary sciences (al-poundulm al-liyya) What arethe auxiliary sciences To give a clearer picture Ibn Khaldn first groupssciences customarily known among civilised people into two basic divisionsThe first are the sciences that are wanted per se (poundulm maqda bi-rsquol-dht)This category of sciences is defined as the sciences that are studiedindependently for their own sake ie not as prerequisite or auxiliary to othersciences The sciences included in this category according to Ibn Khaldnare religious sciences (sharpoundiyyt) such as Quranic exegesis (tafs+r) prophetictradition (|ad+th) jurisprudence (fiqh) speculative theology (kalm) and thephysical and metaphysical sciences of philosophy25 The second category ofsciences is identified as the instrumental or auxiliary sciences (al-poundulm al-liyya) Among the sciences included in this category are Arabic philologyarithmetic and other sciences which are auxiliary to religious sciences andlogic which is auxiliary to philosophy in some cases to speculative theologyand the principles of jurisprudence (usl al-fiqh)26

For the sciences that fall into the first category Ibn Khaldn pronouncesthat there is no harm in studying them in great detail In fact this is stronglyencouraged for it will give the student a firmer habit in the respective sciencesFor the sciences that are auxiliary in nature Ibn Khaldn is of the opinionthat it is not required to study them in great detail except insofar as they areneeded as aids to the other sciences27 In this particular case Ibn Khaldngives the example of Arabic philology and logic Neither of these sciencesneed be studied in great detail since to do so would divert the attention of thestudents and lead them away from the actual purpose of those sciences It is


113

for this reason that the study of such sciences should be confined within thescope of their need and purpose ie to facilitate the studentrsquos understandingof the sciences to which they are auxiliary Any attempt to divert from thispurpose is considered as abandoning the purpose Such attempts are consideredas an idle pastime (laghw) ie away from the actual purpose28

Ibn Khaldn continues to argue that these auxiliary sciences are actuallydifficult to master They are large subjects with many details These difficultiesoften become obstacles to acquiring the sciences of the first category It takesa long time to master them Therefore it is a waste of onersquos lifetime to studythem since our life is too short to acquire a thorough knowledge of everything

As usual Ibn Khaldn takes the opportunity to criticise the group whom headdresses as the recent scholars for being too much occupied with grammar(na|w) and logic (man_iq) and even with the principles of jurisprudence Theyare not only occupied with these sciences by transmitting more materials andadding to these materials through deductive reasoning but are also increasingthe number of details and problems This attempt has made the instrumentalsciences no longer instrumental in nature ndash they have become independentdisciplines For Ibn Khaldn this situation has diverged from what is supposedto be the original function of the auxiliary sciences This situation will causeoutright harm to the students29 Ibn Khaldn again emphasises that it is thetask of the teachers to tell the students where to stop dealing with theseinstrumental sciences However towards the end of the chapter as we shouldexpect he gives some room to those who feel that they are capable of goingdeeper in the instrumental sciences that they may choose to do so bythemselves

Excursus

This section presents Ibn Khaldnrsquos view on the instrumental or auxiliarysciences He generally divides sciences that prevail and are customarily knownto the civilised peoples into two categories the sciences that are wanted per seand the sciences that are instrumental and auxiliary in nature So far asscholarship is concerned there is no question about the importance and needto study the sciences that are wanted per se as deeply and in as much detail aspossible For the purposes of scholarship those especially who have the energyand capability should be encouraged to acquire these sciences as much as theycan

The group of sciences in question here however is the category ofinstrumental or auxiliary Ibn Khaldn sees this category of sciences as merelyinstrumental and they should not be studied over and beyond the restrictedpurpose that they are required for The reason he gives is that if these sciencesare over-studied it will divert the attention of the student whose main task is


114

to study the sciences that are wanted per se This argument is reinforced bythe fact that human life is too short to be able to master all things

Up to this point Ibn Khaldn does not seem to be giving convincing answersto the basic questions of the nature of the auxiliary sciences Among the basicquestions to be posed are the following can we take this explanation as clearenough to formulate the typology of the so-called instrumentalauxiliarysciences Is this clarification lucid enough to enable us to draw the demarcationline between the category of sciences that are studied per se and the sciencesthat are auxiliary in nature I pose these questions because Ibn Khaldn hasnot clarified this matter He only gives us some indications of the character ofthe sciences and some examples namely Arabic and logic Based on theindication and example alone it is not quite possible to draw a generalformulation of the typology of these sciences let alone to itemise them

To deal analytically with these questions let us examine the order ofargument in this section This is particularly important in order to acquire aclearer picture of what this author seeks to convey First the grouping ofsciences into two categories As far as our understanding goes Ibn Khaldnrsquosattempt at grouping the sciences in this fashion is rather obscure I have reasonto be curious This type of grouping has not been attempted by anyone beforehim I cannot find it in any of the prominent works by Muslim scholars whoalso dealt with this subject neither for example in I|rsquo al-poundulm of al-Frb+(d 339950) nor in Martib al-poundulm of Ibn Hazm (d 4561064)30 Anotherwork worth mentioning which treats the same subject is Mafti| al-poundulm byal-Khwrizm+ who lived during the second half of the fourthtenth centuryIn Mafti| which was considered the oldest Islamic encyclopedia31 thegrouping of sciences into two was made but in a different context The twomajor groups of sciences namely religious sciences (al-poundulm al-shar+pounda) andforeign sciences (al-poundulm al-poundajam) were made purely in the context ofscholarly tradition32

However Ibn Khaldnrsquos explanation of his instrumental sciences seems tohave some common points with Ibn S+nrsquos explanation in his Kitb al-najtAlthough Ibn S+nrsquos explanation is also in a different context on the basis ofits common points I think it is still worth comparing it with that of IbnKhaldn In al-Najt Ibn S+n explains that sciences are either different(mubyina) from one another or related (mutansiba) to one another33 As Iindicated earlier this explanation or rather grouping by Ibn S+n is made in adifferent context His clarification here is actually part of his discussion of theconcept of evidence (burhn) which is an important element of logic (man_iq)The sciences that are different from one another (mutabyina) are those whosesubjects or objects are not interdependent and have nothing to do with eachother in respect of their essence (dht) or their genus (jins)34 They areconsidered as separate independent disciplines This concept seems tocorrespond somewhat to Ibn Khaldnrsquos concept of sciences that are wanted


115

per se (poundulm maqda bi-rsquol-dht) The sciences that are related to one anotherare either of equal rank (al-mutaswiya fi-rsquol-murattaba) or some are containedin others (bapound=u-h f+-bapound=) or some are subordinate to others35 This secondgroup of sciences described by Ibn S+n is in some way different from that ofIbn Khaldn Ibn S+n neither uses the term liya (auxiliary or instrumental)nor any other term to that effect What Ibn S+n was trying to explain waspurely the relationships between each of the sciences in terms of subjets andobjects as well as in terms of essence and genus nothing to do with therelationship of one being instrumental and auxiliary to the other AlthoughIbn S+n does mention a group of sciences that are subordinate to the othersit is still in the context of genus ldquoSubordinaterdquo in Ibn S+nrsquos sense does notcarry the meaning of instrumental or auxiliary in Ibn Khaldnrsquos sense oranything to that effect

Coming back to Ibn Khaldn what is the purpose of this grouping So faras I can see the purpose is nothing but to prepare the ground for his theorythat auxiliary sciences are not required to be studied in detail Based on thisassumption sciences that fall into this category will be less studied or at leaststudied in a restricted manner Restriction means that sciences in this groupwill not have the same opportunity to be studied as other sciences This inone way or another narrows the perspective on these sciences and preventsthem from further development Arabic for instance is considered as one ofthe sciences in this category According to this theory Arabic like logic forphilosophy is studied and mastered as an aid or instrument for those who seekto master Islamic disciplines My point here is why should Arabic be viewedfrom such a narrow perspective It is true that Arabic has its role as an aid forthose who seek to understand the Quran for example but beyond that Arabichas also emerged as an independent intellectual discipline par excellence I amconvinced that Ibn Khaldn is more than aware of the fact that Arabic as adiscipline has become a significant part of Islamic civilisation This can beseen from his referring to S+bawayh as an excellent grammarian in historyAnother point is that Ibn Khaldnrsquos view of language here at least on thesurface is inconsistent with his original stance that language should becomethe habit and craft of civilised people it is needless to mention the position ofthese sciences in his educational scheme36

Second is the character of the instrumental sciences Since thecategorisation of the sciences for this matter as mentioned above is obscurethe typology of the auxiliary sciences is also unclear Ibn Khaldn mentionsquite explicitly the character and function of the auxiliary sciences ie asaids and instruments to facilitate the study of other sciences If we were toaccept this character as a general rule I would say that all sciences needed forthe purpose of understanding other disciplines should be considered as auxiliaryin which case all kinds of sciences should be included This is based on theassumption that as far as human knowledge is concerned no single discipline


116

or science can be declared completely independent and free from anyconnection with other disciplines Tafs+r for example could be auxiliary tofiqh in the sense that it facilitates and provides the ground for understandingthe Quran in order to formulate religious law The same applies to other scienceswhich in one way or another are interdependent On these grounds we wouldconclude that Ibn Khaldnrsquos typology of the instrumental or auxiliary sciencesis theoretically unjustifiable If this theory is to be made valid some amendmenthas to be made so that certain sciences can be placed in both the first and thesecond categories at the same time according to the needs and purposes of thestudy

Leaving this paradox for a moment what we would expect from Ibn Khaldnis clarification of the context in which this idea applies which he has notdone throughout this section While he does not explicitly tell us we maystill come to a conclusion based on understanding and assumption In thiscase I would presume that to make this theory workable ndash and it should ofcourse be made workable and justifiable ndash it should be understood in the limitedcontext of the educational curriculum and pedagogical method rather thanscholarship in general On the basis of the principle of this theory it is thespecific educational curriculum that determines the typology of the sciencesie which are to be considered as auxiliary in its curriculum hierarchy Wewould still agree with the idea that those who seek to master a certain disciplineshould not be allowed to engage too much in instrumentalauxiliary sciencesthat may lead them away from the original purpose of their study It is basicallythe task of the teacher and curriculum designer to determine the limit towhich auxiliary sciences should be studied and at what level they should bedropped

Instruction ndash elementary education (tapoundl+m al-wildn)

In Sections 38 and 39 Ibn Khaldn speaks quite extensively about elementaryeducation As a whole these two sections seek to provide a closer look at theconcept principles and methodology of elementary learning and instructionAs far as the process of education is concerned elementary or child educationis of primary importance because it is the beginning of the long educationaljourney of the individual Therefore education at this early stage must beproperly carried out for it will provide the ground and foundation for furtherprogress as the child grows up It is perhaps for this reason that Ibn Khaldngives special treatment to this particular component in his educational schemeFor the purpose of this analysis I shall divide my discussion here into twoparts according to the authorrsquos division into two sections

Instructing children in the Quran is one of the symbols (shapoundrsquoir) of IslamIbn Khaldn begins by reiterating the importance of a Quranic education Itis of primary importance that the children be instructed in the Quran at an


117

early age The Quran should constitute the basis of instruction and the sourceand foundation of all habits that may be acquired later on This premise showsquite explicitly the Islamic paradigm of Ibn Khaldnrsquos educational schemeOf course he derives this idea from the Quran itself as well as from the teachingof the Prophet The theory is clear that knowledge obtained in onersquos early lifeis the most effective It constitutes the foundation of all scholarly habit thatmay be obtained later in life37 Although there is no dispute concerning thebasic concept that the Quran must be the first element in the process ofeducation the method of instruction varies according to the varieties ofopinion as to the habit that is to result from this instruction On this issueIbn Khaldn gives us some important historical information regarding themethods of instruction practised in different areas at the time He mentionsparticularly the methods of the Maghribi the Andalusians and the people ofIfriqiya (modern Libya Tunisia and Algeria) as well as the people of the East

In part two of his discussion ie Section 39 Ibn Khaldn speaks particularlyabout approach and the way in which the elementary education should becarried out The title of the section gives the impression that severity orharshness in the process of educating the young can result in undesired harmto them Severe punishment in the course of instruction harms the studentsespecially the little ones because it belongs among the things that may resultin bad habit38 This statement also seems to show that Ibn Khaldn is wellaware of the psychological impact of severity on the mental development ofchildren He explains that students or slaves or servants who are brought upwith harshness and severity will always feel oppressed will lose their energywill become lazy and insincere and will be induced to lie These will becometheir habits These students will lose the very quality that is supposed to beproperly developed through education and the worst part is that they will fallto the level of lowest of the low39 In supporting this idea Ibn Khaldn invitesthe reader to observe what happened to every nation that fell under the yokeof tyranny and learned through the means of injustice It is on this accountthat he suggests that a teacher must not be too severe towards his pupil nor afather towards his son in the process of educating him Here Ibn Khaldncites some important quotations from Ab Mu|ammad b Ab+ Zayd (d 386996) his predecessor who wrote on the laws governing teachers and pupilsldquoif the children must be beaten the educator must not strike them more thanthree timesrdquo40

Towards the end of this section Ibn Khaldn introduces what he describesas one of the best methods of education This method was suggested by Caliphal-Rash+d to Khalaf b A|mar the teacher of his son Muhammad al-Am+nAmong the important points made by al-Rash+d were to teach his son to readthe Quran to instruct him in history to transmit poems and to teach thesunna of the Prophet and to teach his son the art of speaking Other pointswere to forbid him from trivial laughing (=a|k) except at appropriate times


118

and to accustom him to honour Hashimite dignitaries and military leadersldquoDo not waste time without teaching him something useful Do not sadden(tu|zin) him thus killing the studentrsquos mind Do not be too lenient the studentwill get to like leisure and become used to it Do correct him kindly and gently(al-qurb wa-rsquol-mulyana) and only if he disobeys use severity and harshnessrdquo41

Excursus

As indicated above Ibn Khaldn speaks about child education in two partsIn part one (Section 38) he touches on various preliminary issues from thebasic concept of child education to historical records of the practices of variousnations It is a common belief that instructing children in the Quran is thesymbol of Islam It is for this reason that the Quran must be the first in thecurriculum of child education Children should be exposed to the Quran beforethey come into other subjects42 In this sense this might well be considered asrepresenting an Islamic concept of preliminary education The foundation ofthe concept is obvious The Quran is the most important part of the life of theMuslim It is the primary source of knowledge and guidance Furthermore itis the foundation and the origin of the culture Therefore it must be the firstthing in the process of education especially for children That was the basicidea of the Muslims at that time as regards preliminary education

However unanimity in basic concept does not always ensure uniformity inmethod and approach Muslims have in common a belief that the Quran shouldbe the central part of education Nevertheless the approaches and methodsadopted by different people in different places certainly show some varietyNaturally some of the methods practised are inferior to others while othershave certain elements of weakness As Ibn Khaldn sees it the method ofinstructing children strictly in the Quran without exposing them to othersubjects as practised by the majority of Muslims has its weakness He agreeswith the point made by Ibn al-poundArab+ that Arabic and poetry should be taughtfirst in order to familiarise the children with their basic norms Only thenshould the children go on to study the Quran This background knowledge isan important preparation for them to understand the content and teaching ofthe Quran Ibn al-poundArab+rsquos point however was not acceptable to the majorityof the people Customary practice at that time did not favour this idea It isnatural of course no matter how good the idea if it does not agree with thecustomary practice of the people it will not prevail As a matter of fact wecan see that these two views the customary practice of the people on the onehand and the point made by Ibn al-poundArab+ on the other are somehowcontradictory We have yet to find the answer to this contradiction

As far as we can understand the central point of variation lies in thedifference in the aim and purpose of Quranic instruction irrespective of thespiritual value of the Quran itself It does not involve the basic concept that


119

the Quran is the central element of education Customary practice whichgives preference to the teaching and learning of the Quran is well understoodthe Quran is the primary source of knowledge and guidance it is the HolyBook People desire it for blessing and reward After all reading or recitingthe Quran even if without understanding its meaning is considered an act ofworship and it will be rewarded

Ibn al-poundArab+ on the other hand is concerned very much with the value ofunderstanding Of course he has strong reasons for this Since the Quranfrom an Islamic point of view is the source of knowledge par excellence itshould be read and understood Without an understanding of its meaninghow can it be the source of knowledge and guidance For this reason it isessential that students be well equipped with the necessary backgroundknowledge so that when they read the Quran they have no difficulty inunderstanding its meaning

In part two of his discussion (Section 39) Ibn Khaldn speaks morespecifically on how instruction should be carried out In this section whichwe may describe as a general guide to child education we find Ibn Khaldnconcerned about severity and harshness towards students Here we find thatthe basic element of educational psychology is dominant in his thought At atime when psychology had not yet been constituted as a separate academicdiscipline let alone educational psychology it is interesting that he shouldcome up with the theory that ldquoseverity to students does them harmrdquo Severepunishment of children especially little ones will bring about bad habits as aconsequence Obviously students who are brought up with severity andharshness will always feel oppressed and worse will become lazy and insincereThis is the undesirable result of education Thus child education has to becarried out in a proper systematic way Certain rules must be followed in orderto achieve the best result In his quest for the best and most practical methodof child education Ibn Khaldn shares the view of Caliph al-Rash+d derivedfrom al-Rash+drsquos advice to Khalaf b A|mar his sonrsquos tutor In his advice theCaliph told Khalaf the right way or approach to teach a little child whatshould be taught how to adopt good behaviour and more importantly howwhere and when to use severity and harshness

My concluding remark on this point is that Ibn Khaldn significantlyhighlights the importance of the psychological aspect of the process ofeducation He draws the attention of the reader to the paramount importanceof child psychology and the worst result of neglecting this aspect of the humanbeing Thus it is perhaps not an exaggeration to consider him as the forerunnerof the modern educational psychologist


120

Perfection in knowledge and the role of language

Education is a lifelong process while knowledge is limitless No one can claimperfection in knowledge no matter how intelligent he is how many teachershe meets and how long his life Nonetheless education in the specific senseof structured teaching and the learning process certainly has a beginning andan end The achievement of a person can appropriately be measured by certaincriteria43 Education has aims and objectives which are specifically set up tomeet desired goals As mentioned earlier the general aim of education is toobtain mastery or habit (malaka) Hence the best education is indicated by astudent obtaining the best habit

In the four remaining sections on education namely Sections 40 to 43 IbnKhaldn speaks on various issues particularly of perfection in knowledge andthe role of language Perhaps it would be beneficial before going into detailto glance at what these sections contain In Section 40 he speaks of howscholarly habit can be improved or perfected in the educational process InSection 41 he speaks about the nature of the relationship between scholarshipand politics In Section 42 he presents his sociological observations in regardto the role of non-Arabs in Islamic scholarship In Section 43 he focusesparticularly on the role of language in scholarship Since the sections are quitediverse in focus except for Sections 42 and 43 which are quite closely relatedto each other I shall deal with each of them separately Sections 42 and 43will be dealt with together

Travel in the quest of knowledge

In this section Ibn Khaldn speaks about how scholarly habit can be improvedand perfected by travelling and meeting authoritative teachers Inasmuch asthe basic process of education involves study receiving instruction or lecturesor imitating a teacher there are differences in the quality and grade ofknowledge obtained by a student depending very much on which method isused and how the knowledge is obtained In relation to this Ibn Khaldnexplicitly indicates that habit or mastery of knowledge obtained by way ofpersonal contact is of better quality than knowledge obtained withoutpersonally meeting the person or teacher44 The heading of this section readsvery clearly ldquotravelling in the quest of knowledge and meeting the authoritativeteachers will improve perfection in educationrdquo The best quality of educationand knowledge is what is obtained through personal contact (talq+nan bi-rsquol-mubshara) Ibn Khaldn reiterates that habit obtained through this methodis of higher quality than habit obtained through other methods Naturallythe greater number of teachers (shaykh) met by a student the better and firmerthe habit he acquires Thus in order to acquire better and firmer habit it is


121

important for a student to meet and study under as many authoritative teachersas possible

In the same context Ibn Khaldn also observes on some of the weaknessesof knowledge obtained without personally meeting the teacher He finds thatthe level of understanding is clearly lower It is quite obvious that those whohave the opportunity to meet the teacher personally will obtain deeperunderstanding and better and firmer habit The reason is simple the studenthas direct access to the teacher Those who do not have the opportunity tomeet the teacher in person will find it difficult to understand As an extremecase Ibn Khaldn cites the example of students possessing a wrong conceptionof the technical terminology used in scientific instruction They are unable todifferentiate between the terminology of scientific instruction and the subjector body of the science itself Some of them are confused and mix them uptogether whereas in fact the technical terminology used in scientificinstruction and the science itself are two different components This happenedbecause different teachers use different terminology For Ibn Khaldn thebest way to avoid and overcome this problem is to meet the teacher in personThus meeting scholars and having many authoritative teachers will enablestudents to note the differences in the terminology used by different teachersand to distinguish among them45 Other than this the benefit of personalcontact with the teacher will strengthen the habit of the student improvethe knowledge he obtains and more importantly enable him to distinguishthe differences between technical terminologies as well as between the sciencesFor this matter Ibn Khaldn suggests in order to obtain perfection inknowledge it is absolutely necessary to travel and meet as many authoritativeteachers as possible46

Excursus

Travelling in search of knowledge is an educational concept that has longbeen established in Islam The origin of the idea may well be traced to theQuran itself as well as to the Prophetic injunctions Several authors beforeIbn Khaldn have touched on this concept Al-Ghazzl+ for example devotesconsiderable space to this matter in his I|yrsquo poundulm al-d+n He quotes the Quranicverse which clearly encourages a portion (_rsquoifa) of the Muslim community todevote themselves to the activity of seeking knowledge47 From the injunctionsof the Prophet we find several traditions which directly urge Muslims tojourney for the sake of knowledge For instance there is a tradition whichsays ldquoWhoever goes out seeking knowledge will be walking in the path of Goduntil his return and whoever dies while travelling for learning will be regardedas martyrrdquo48 Another tradition says ldquoSeek knowledge even as far as Chinardquo49

This tradition about travelling to China has been among the famous


122

injunctions of the Prophet encouraging Muslims both men and women tojourney for the sake of knowledge Whether or not this tradition is genuine50

as Berkey comments it accurately reflects the principle generally held in theMuslim world which forms a common theme of medieval literature namelythat the pursuit of knowledge is an activity always worthy of approbation andencouragement51

Based on the above argument we may say that in this particular sectionIbn Khaldn is not producing any new ideas It is almost an extension of al-Ghazzl+rsquos earlier discussion in I|yrsquo although presented in a different formNonetheless this does not mean that Ibn Khaldnrsquos discussion here is at allinsignificant The significance of this section has to be seen from the point ofview of Ibn Khaldnrsquos educational scheme as a whole We should not forgetthat he is here discussing education as a social phenomenon which involvessocial mobility and social interaction Education should not be seen as a merelylocal enterprise and knowledge should not be seen within the confines of asingle socio-cultural perimeter Hence the activity of seeking knowledge shouldpass socio-cultural and geographical borders The best method of education isthrough personal contact with authoritative scholars Scholars emerge fromvarious geographical backgrounds and different socio-cultural environmentsTaking all these factors into consideration Ibn Khaldn formulates that theperfection or the best outcome for students can only be achieved by travellingand meeting scholars in different places It is from this point of view that wecan see the importance and value of journeying in quest of knowledge andmeeting authoritative teachers We can now understand the reason why IbnKhaldn intentionally includes this principle in his educational scheme

Scholars and politics

The heading of this section gives the impression that scholars are those whoare least familiar with the ways of politics We understand that scholars onthe one hand and politicians on the other constitute among the most dominantgroups in society It is interesting to see why Ibn Khaldn chooses to highlightthese two groups in this manner as part of his discussion on scholarship Moreimportantly as we know Ibn Khaldn himself by career and profession wasboth a scholar and a politician52 It is evident that Ibn Khaldn apart frombeing a scholar also performed public duties as a politician With thisbackground he is in a good position to give his opinion on this matter Ofcourse we would expect that he would provide us with a right perspective anda fair view concerning the nature of the relationship between these twodominant groups in society

Ibn Khaldn reminds us that there are great differences between the twoprofessions of scholar and politician Scholars he says are those who exercisetheir mental speculation in study and research They deal with ideas that


123

they abstract from sensibilia (ma|sst) and conceive in their mind generaluniversals These universal ideas which are still in the minds of the scholarsare made to conform to facts in the outside world They also compare thesephenomena with others by way of analogical reasoning (qiys) The facts ofthe outside world are merely particular cases of the ideas or conclusions in themind Thus it can be safely concluded that all intellectual activities of scholarsdeal with matters of the mind and thoughts53 Politicians on the other handdeal with the facts of the outside world They must pay attention to situations(a|wl) that are determined by and dependent upon political circumstancesThese phenomena in reality are obscure (khafiyya) in the sense that they maycontain some elements which it may not be possible to refer to somethingsimilar They may contradict the universal idea to which one would like toconform54

Now we can see that the subject on which Ibn Khaldn is focusing here isthe situations of the outside world (al-a|wl al-khrijiyyt) It is in this respectthat Ibn Khaldn sees that scholars and intelligent people cannot be trusted(l yursquomin poundalay-him) His reason is that these people ie scholars and theintelligentsia when they look at politics always press their observation intothe mould of their own views and their own ways of making deductions55

Thus they are apt to commit errors (ghala_)Ordinary people who have a healthy disposition and mediocre intelligence

on the other hand can be trusted and are more sensible when they reflectupon their political activities These people according to Ibn Khaldn havethe right outlook in dealing with their fellow men This is because they haveno mind for speculation as scholars do Therefore they restrict themselves toconsidering every matter as it is Their judgement is not infected by analogyand generalisation

Excursus

Again it is quite clear Ibn Khaldn is trying to establish his theory on thebasis of generalisation and possibly his own observation In the case of scholarsand politics it seems that Ibn Khaldn is trying to make a conclusion basedupon the paradox between the ideal and reality or between theory and practiceScholars are described as those who possess a higher level of intelligence andare always dealing with abstracts and theoretical matters Those who areengaged in politics are described as those who possess lower and mediocreintelligence and this enables them to make more sensible objective andpractical judgements in particular situations

Theoretically speaking Ibn Khaldnrsquos view here is still obscure It isimportant to note that theory must be built upon generalisation Of courseIbn Khaldn has rightly followed this procedure However such generalisationmust be carefully done in order to avoid a certain element of obscurity and


124

more importantly to avoid elements that might weaken or invalidate thetheory In this case Ibn Khaldn seems to be caught in making an arbitraryjudgement in his generalisation It is quite improper for him in this situationto put scholars in one basket and politicians in another as if these twoprofessions cannot be combined Such a blanket generalisation may not betheoretically acceptable As Ibn Khaldn himself teaches us scholars are thosewho possess the best quality of intellect Even if they possess the best qualityof intellect they are not at the same level or in the same category They maydiffer in level or kind as these differences are natural in the context of humanbeings One may also ask why Ibn Khaldn in this particular case givespreference to politicians rather than scholars in the sense that scholarsrsquo viewscannot be trusted whereas elsewhere he unreservedly agrees that the idealruler (ie politician) must be a scholar who possesses wide knowledge excellentpenmanship and sharpness of intellect56 On the basis of this notion it is notunusual that scholar and politician may be combined in one person57 Thenearest example is Ibn Khaldn himself If this argument can be accepted wecan no longer see the significance of his project here to draw a distinct linebetween scholarship and politics

However if we are to accept this assumption as it is we have no option butto impose a certain limitation on the context in which it might be applicableBy imposing this limitation we are assuming that the author may havesomething in mind which he does not explicitly tell us His assumption thatscholars are those who are least familiar with the ways of politics should beunderstood in a more specific context The nearest context possible here isthat he is addressing a group of scholars who are engaged only in theoreticaland abstract matters They are the category of philosophers who spend theirlife dealing with abstract theoretical and universal matters It is historicallyevident that most of the time this group of philosophers do not bother aboutwhat happens in society We have discussed Ibn Khaldnrsquos attitude towardsthis category of philosophers in a special section above

Islamic scholarship the non-Arab and the role of language

Sections 42 and 43 raise two major issues concerning Islamic scholarshipnamely the role of the non-Arab (poundajam) and the difficulties of the non-Arabnative in attaining scholarship In Section 42 Ibn Khaldn discusses thephenomenon that most of the scholars in Islam are non-Arabs He describesthis phenomenon as a ldquostrange realityrdquo58 Again this is based on his historicaldata and sociological observation He recognises the reality that most of thecarriers of knowledge have been non-Arabs with few exceptions This includesthose who are Arab by origin but non-Arab by language and study under non-Arab teachers59


125

Since the reality is so the task of Ibn Khaldn here is to try to explain thephenomenon and possibly to find answers reasons and factors that led to thissituation We can now turn to the rest of Section 42 to find out what IbnKhaldn has to say about this phenomenon On the whole his explanationsare confined to two major approaches historical and sociological

Historically speaking no sciences or crafts occur in the period of thebeginning of Islam60 Society was simple and Bedouin People at that timewere Arabs who did not know anything about scientific instruction or thewriting of books and systematic works61 Being in a simple society with theProphet and authorities around people did not see the need for such activitiesReligious laws regarding commands and prohibitions could be obtained directlyfrom the Prophet and those around him This was the situation during thefirst and second generation of Islam The only ldquoinstitutionrdquo of that nature wasthe Quran readers (qurrrsquo)62 They were the people who were literate and knewthe Quran Illiteracy was common at that time

It was during the reign of the Abbasid Caliph al-Rash+d that the oraltradition of the qurrrsquo became more and more obsolete The tradition was outof date in the sense that it was no longer a practical and effective method ofknowledge transmission This was due to the rapid development of knowledgeand sciences as well as the expansion of Muslim lands It was thus necessary towrite commentaries on the Quran and to establish the tradition in writingbecause it was feared that it might be lost63 People found it necessary to protectreligious knowledge from corruption thus inventing methods of knowing andassessing chains of transmitters They found it necessary to refer an increasingnumber of actual cases to the Quran and the sunna hence the need to masterthe Arabic language Moreover Arabic itself was also subject to corruptionhence the need for grammatical rules This scenario shows clearly the historicalprocess and how the need for these activities developed

For sociological observation we can now turn back to Ibn Khaldnrsquos theorythat crafts (in the widest sense of the word) are the property of sedentary orurban culture It is only sedentary people who cultivate crafts Since the peopleof the Arabs are Bedouin they are the least familiar with crafts The onlysedentary people at that time were non-Arabs mainly Persians The foundingArabic grammarians were for instance S+bawayh followed by al-Fris+ andal-Zajjj all of Persian descent It was the same situation for Qurancommentators |ad+th scholars and those involved in other religious sciences

Another point emphasised by Ibn Khaldn is that there was a group ofArabs who liberated themselves from the Bedouin culture Unfortunately thisgroup were also not so keen on scholarship and study64 They were mostly theAbbasid politicians who held leading positions within the dynasty They werebusy with their political activities Moreover they considered it a contemptiblething to be a scholar because scholarship is a ldquocraftrdquo65 Political leaders arealways contemptuous of the crafts and professions and everything that leads


126

to them Thus they allowed the crafts to be developed in the hands of non-Arabs or mixed Arabs of partly non-Arab parentage (muwallad) At the sametime the Arabs still considered it their right to cultivate them for the veryreason that it was their religion (d+n) and their science The same situationobtained in the intellectual sciences which were mostly cultivated by arabisednon-Arabs (al-mupoundarrabn min al-poundajam)66

To sum up this discussion what Ibn Khaldn has achieved here is to showthe historical and sociological process of how the non-Arabs emerged topredominance as the carriers of knowledge in Islam Being an Arab himselfthough by remote descent67 he notes without bias the fact (and thephenomenon) reluctantly accepted by the Arabs themselves Ibn Khaldn iswell aware of this reluctance when he writes ldquothey [the Arabs] alwaysconsidered it their right to cultivate them as they were their customs andtheir sciences and never felt complete contempt for the men learned inthemrdquo68 In dealing with this matter Ibn Khaldn has again successfullymatched his theory of craft and urban culture It explicitly gives the answer towhy the non-Arabs mostly dominated as carriers of knowledge in Islam theBedouin culture of the Arabs does not allow them to cultivate crafts Craftsare the property of urban sedentary culture

In Section 43 Ibn Khaldn explains the difficulties of the non-Arabs whosenative language was not Arabic to acquire the Islamic sciences This is becausethe sciences which were developed and cultivated in Islam were in themedium of Arabic the language of the Quran and the sunna Although thisdiscussion is presented within the scope of Arabic as the medium of Islamtheoretically it can also be applied to other languages Ibn Khaldn is in facthere speaking about the role of language in scholarship in general

He is almost recalling his theory of communication previously discussedin Section 33 However he is more concerned here about language as a meansto attaining scholarship Linguistic expression is the interpretation of the ideasthat are in the mind The idea of one person can be transferred or transmittedto another by way of oral discussion instruction and constant scientific research(bi-rsquol-mushfaha f+-rsquol-mun~ara wa-rsquol-tapoundl+m wa-mumrisat al-ba|th f+-rsquol-poundulm)69

The purpose is ultimately to obtain mastery or habit Words and expressionsare considered as media and a veil between ideas and their expression Ideasare expressed by means of language It is therefore necessary for the student ofideas to be firmly rooted in linguistic meaning He has to have a good linguistichabit without which he will find it difficult to understand the ideas let aloneto investigate their problems70 This is the first stage of knowledge transmissionie instruction by personal contact

The second stage is when the student has to rely on books or writtenmaterials He will then face another veil that separates the handwriting fromthe spoken words found in the imagination In this situation it is also necessary


127

to know the ways of written letters indicating the spoken words Imperfectknowledge of written expression will result in imperfect knowledge of what isexpressed When the student has firmly established this habit the veil betweenhim and the ideas is lifted His only remaining problem is to understand theproblems inherent in that idea71

Having explained this linguistic theory Ibn Khaldn continues with somesociological observation about the situation at that time The spread of Islamwas not limited to one nation Islam gained royal authority and power Religioussciences which had been traditional were turned into a craft (inpounda) Manysystematic works were written Foreign sciences were translated into ArabicThe original language of those sciences was gradually forgotten That waswhy in order to acquire scholarship it was necessary for the student to have afirmly rooted habit in the Arabic language72

At this point Ibn Khaldn establishes his theory that a non-Arab will findit difficult to acquire scholarship The reason was obvious all scientificmaterials and sciences were written in Arabic It is difficult for those who aredeficient in Arabic to derive ideas from Arabic words and Arabic writingsIbn Khaldn believes that only native Arabs or non-Arab children who growup with Arabs will have a good habit in Arabic They can master the knowledgewithout much constraint However intensive study and constant practice ofthe language and of writing may also develop a good habit This is the case ofmost non-Arab scholars who can achieve this state but it occurs quite rarely73

At this point one may pose a question is this view contradictory to theidea that most of the Islamic scholars are non-Arabs Ibn Khaldn clarifieshere that there is a significant difference between the two connotations ofldquonon-Arabrdquo In the previous section ldquonon-Arabrdquo meant non-Arab by descent(poundajam al-nasab) while what he means here in this section is non-Arab bynative tongue (poundajam al-lugha)74

Excursus

As mentioned the two sections we have just analysed deal with two differentissues within Islamic scholarship The first is the role of the non-Arabs ascarriers of knowledge in Islam Ibn Khaldn provides historical as well associological data to prove that most scholars are non-Arabs However as heclarifies at the end of the discussion the term poundajam here has a contextualmeaning It should not be taken to mean non-Arab by native tongue Thesepeople are non-Arab by descent but mostly use Arabic as their first languageOnly non-Arabs whose first language was not Arabic will find it difficult toattain scholarship through the medium of Arabic

The second issue is the difficulties of the non-Arab in acquiring scholarshipThe reason is obvious all literature is in Arabic Those who are not firmly


128

rooted in this language will find it difficult to master the sciences This refersto the non-Arab whose first language is not Arabic Since language is theonly medium in the process of the transmission of ideas and knowledge it isnecessary for those who wish to study and understand knowledge and thesciences to master first of all the language in which these sciences were written

L A N G U A G E A N D L I T E R AT U R E

129

6

LANGUAGE ANDLITERATURE

Introduction

The last part of Chapter 6 of the Muqaddima deals quite extensively withvarious aspects of language and literature particularly Arabic Before goingany further perhaps it is important to recall that language in Ibn Khaldnrsquoseducational scheme as we discussed earlier is placed among the auxiliarysciences vis-agrave-vis the sciences that are wanted per se Since the author is herereferring to Arabic as a case study in the specific context of the culture andcivilisation of Islam it is proper for us to restrict our view of language accord-ingly ie to the limited perspective of a language within the scope of cultureand civilisation of Islam And we must not ignore the fact that Arabic andIslam are in many ways almost identical Arabic plays a very significant rolein the physical and spiritual life of the Muslims On this basis we would presumethat Ibn Khaldn must have a strong reason that leads him to take up thisissue as the final part of his Muqaddima

From Section 44 onwards Ibn Khaldn takes us exploring deep into theldquovast worldrdquo of the Arabic language He touches almost every important aspectof the language from the simple definition to the complicated abstract conceptand from the basic spoken language to the luxury crafts of literary productionof poetry and prose More important however are the theoretical and socialaspects of the language that we may derive from his discussion

My study here will be generally divided into five parts following IbnKhaldnrsquos order of presentation The first part will deal with the science ofthe Arabic language which includes grammar lexicography syntax and stylesand literature The second part will focus on the nature and development oflanguage particularly Arabic The third part will deal with the developmentof linguistic taste (dhawq) The fourth will discuss the literary composition ofpoetry and prose while in the fifth the last part I will give my assessmentand commentary of Ibn Khaldnrsquos view of language

The author begins by telling us that the Arabic language consists of fourpillars (arkn) Those pillars are lexicography (lugha) grammar (na|w) syntax


130

and style (bayn) and literature (adb)1 As the language of Islam in whichthe Quran was revealed Arabic plays a vital role and is of paramountimportance in the life of the Muslim We know that the Quran and the sunnaare two major sources of religious laws Both are transmitted and written inArabic The transmitters from among the Prophetrsquos companions and followers(the second generation) are Arabs or Arabic-speaking non-Arabs It seemsthat this reality (the importance of Arabic) is self-explanatory and justifiesthe claim above that those who desire to become religious scholars need tomaster the Arabic language

The science of the Arabic language (poundulm lisn al-poundArab)

The science of grammar (lsquoilm al-na|w)

Of all the pillars Ibn Khaldn recognises that grammar is the most importantpart of the Arabic language2 or perhaps of all languages Ibn Khaldn openshis discussion on grammar with an introduction to the theoretical aspect oflanguage Language in his view is the expression of the intention of a speaker(mutakallim) It involves the act of the tongue which interprets the intentionto convey the meaning of speech From this point of view language is anestablished habit in the part of the body that produces it namely the tongue(lisn)3 This is the basic theory of language Though this opening statementis very brief it is significant because it gives a clear point of departure fromwhich Ibn Khaldn sets the frame of his thought We may presume that IbnKhaldn at this juncture may not be interested in engaging much in the debateabout the theory of language expression What he means to do is to show aclear frame of reference for the physical psychological and sociological aspectsof language4

The next point that catches the authorrsquos attention is the specialness orrather superiority of the Arabic language over other languages Every nationhas its own peculiar language The formation of language takes place accordingto the nationrsquos own terminology For Ibn Khaldn of all the languages Arabicis the best The very reason is the unique character of Arabic itself He claimsthat Arabic most clearly expresses intended meaning He gives the examplein which Arabic needs only one letter (|arf) to indicate the intended meaningin a definite manner whereas other languages need a word So also with thevowels of inflection (|arakt) and positions (al-aw=pound aw al-hayrsquot)5 Thesespecial features are peculiar to Arabic only In this respect Arabic is morecomprehensive and shorter [in speech and words] than other languages Thisargument as Ibn Khaldn states it is in agreement with a prophetic traditionwhich says ldquoI was given the most comprehensive words and speech was madeshort for merdquo6


131

Ibn Khaldn moves to another issue the process of corruption in the Arabiclanguage He sees political and intercultural factors as the prime cause leadingto this situation His argument is that in the course of time Islam expandedbeyond the geographical and cultural boundaries of the Arabs in search ofroyal authority7 The process gave the Arabs the opportunity to come intocontact and interact with other non-Arab nations This process graduallyresulted in a change of linguistic habit The Arabic language began to becorrupted This phenomenon is detrimental It made cultured people worrythat linguistic habit among the Arabs would become entirely corrupted andthe Quran and the tradition would no longer be understood in their originalform It is for this reason they felt that norms and rules of the Arabic languageneeded to be formulated As a result they came up with certain general andbasic principles such as the subject with the u-ending (al-fpoundil marfpound) andobject with a-ending (al-mafpoundl manb) and the subject in a nominal sentencewith the u-ending (al-mubtadrsquo marfpound)8 The meaning of the words changesin accordance with the vowel change The technical term for these rules isipoundrb Things that necessitate a change of meaning are called poundmil (agent)and so on and so forth This has been set down in writing and has become aparticular craft which is known as na|w (grammar)9

In the last part of this passage Ibn Khaldn gives a brief account of thehistorical development of Arabic grammar The first to write on this subjectwas Ab Aswad al-Dursquoal+ (d 69688)10 of Ban Kinna Other greatcontributors towards the establishment of Arabic grammar were al-Khal+l bA|mad al-Farh+d+ (d 175791)11 S+bawayh Ab poundAl+ al-Fris+ (d 377987)and Ab al-Qsim al-Zajjj (d 337949) Grammatical discussion becamegradually more and more divergent Differences of opinion occurred betweenthe grammarians such as between the Kufans and the Basrans12 The subjectbecame lengthy The next generation of grammarians occupied themselves informulating a brief method of studying grammar Ibn Khaldn mentions IbnMlik (d 6721274) who wrote Kitb al-tash+l al-Zamakhshar+ (d 5391144)who wrote al-Mufaal and Ibn jib (d 6471249)13 who wrote al-Muqaddima14 Finally Ibn Khaldn concludes that all grammatical works arenumerous and indeed innumerable They cannot all be known The methodsvary among the Kufans and the Basrans the Baghdadis and the SpaniardsIbn Khaldn praises the work of Jaml al-D+n b Hishm (d 7611360) whowrote al-Mughn+ f+-rsquol-ipoundrb He describes this work as an outstanding andremarkable work that shows the authorrsquos powerful linguistic skill and abilityand his acquaintance with the subject15

The science of lexicography (poundilm al-lugha)

Like the science of grammar the science of lexicography has also developedas a reaction to the corruption of the Arabic language Ibn Khaldn defines


132

this science as the one concerned with explaining the meaning of the wordsof language16 The process of corruption of the Arabic language continues as aresult of intercultural contact between Arabs and non-Arabs which eventuallyaffects the meaning of the words This situation has resulted in many of theArabic words being no longer used in their original and proper meaning17

In response to this situation many leading philologists have taken up thetask of writing systematic works in the subject Based on Ibn Khaldnrsquos accountthe leading figure in this area was al-Khal+l b A|md al-Farh+d+ who wroteKitb al-poundayn In this book al-Khal+l deals with all possible combinations ofletters of the alphabet from the words of two three four and five consonants18

The arrangement follows the sequence of the positions in throat and mouth(tart+b al-makhrij) beginning with the laryngeals (hurf al-|alq) which arefollowed in sequence by velars (|unuk) dentals (a=rs) and labials (shaffa)Among the laryngeals al-Khal+l started with the letter poundayn because its soundis farthest back in the throat The name of the book is taken from this letterIbn Khaldn praises the work of al-Khal+l and credits it with being wellcomposed and exhaustive in content

The science of syntax and styles (poundilm al-bayn)

The science of syntax and styles (poundilm al-bayn) is also considered among thephilological sciences It is concerned with words and ideas that are to beconveyed and indicated19 Ibn Khaldn reminds us of the uniqueness of theArabic style of expression The Arabic language is vast (wsipound) and the Arabshave a particular type of expression for a particular situation in addition tothe perfect use of vowel endings and clarity He cites the example of twodifferent expressions which are of two different types and give two differentimpressions ldquoZayd came to merdquo (zayd jrsquoan+) does not carry the same impressionas ldquoThere came to me Zaydrdquo (jrsquoan+ zayd) Zayd in the first example has greaterimportance in the mind of the speaker while in the second example the speakeris more concerned with the coming than with the person who comes20 Thesame principle applies to another example where three sentences carry differentmeanings although they are alike in terms of vowel ending (_ar+q al-ipoundrb)These examples are (1) Zayd is standing (zaydun qrsquoimun) (2) behold Zayd isstanding (inna zaydan qrsquoimun) and (3) behold Zayd is indeed standing (innazaydan la-qrsquoimun) All these sentences carry different meanings and of coursedifferent purposes (dilla) The first sentence (without the emphatic particle)informs a person who has no previous knowledge (yuf+du al-khl+ al-dhihn)The second sentence informs a person who hesitates (yuf+du al-mutaraddid)The third sentence informs a person who denies (yuf+du al-munkir)21

Certain types of expression should not be understood literally The meaninghas to be understood implicitly In a sentence such as ldquoZayd is a lionrdquo (zaydunasadun) does not mean that Zayd is an actual lion The word ldquolionrdquo here


133

represents bravery The same principle applies to the sentence ldquoZayd has a lotof ash in his potrdquo (zaydun kath+ru ramdi al-qudr) which is intended to indicatethe implied quality of generosity and hospitality22 This figure of speech iscalled a metaphor (istipoundra)

Ibn Khaldn explains that Arabic syntax and style consists of three sub-sciences namely the science of rhetoric (poundilm al-balgha) the science of style(poundilm al-bayn) and the science of rhetorical figures (poundilm al-bad+pound)23 The scienceof rhetoric deals with the investigation of forms and conditions of speech invarious situations The science of style deals with metaphor and metonymy(al-istipoundra wa-rsquol-kinya) ie what a word implies or is implied by while thescience of rhetorical figures deals with the artistic embellishment of speech24

The author also presents some historical facts concerning the developmentof the discipline He highlights several important figures who have madesignificant contributions such as al-J|i~ (poundAmr b Ba|r d 256869) andQudma (d 347958)25 He also mentions the significance of the work of al-Zamakhshar+ the Quran commentary This commentary is based on theprinciple of bayn Unfortunately this work by al-Zamakhshar+ cannot gainthe recognition and is therefore not recommended by orthodox Muslims Thereason is that this work is very much influenced by the ideas of theMulsquotazilites26

Finally Ibn Khaldn reiterates that the fruit of this discipline is theinimitability of the Quran (ipoundjz al-Qurrsquon) The inimitability of the Quranas far as the Arabic language is concerned cannot be challenged This is thehighest stage of speech It may only be understood by those who possess thetaste (dhawq) and therefore this is the discipline needed most by Qurancommentators

The science of literature (poundilm al-adab)

Ibn Khaldn explains that this subject is a vague one It is vague in the sensethat it has no particular subject (hdh al-poundilm l maw=pound la-hu yun~aru f+-ithbtpoundawri=i-hi aw nafy-h)27 So far as philologists are concerned the fruit of thisscience is identical with its purpose Its fruit is the acquisition of a good abilityto handle prose and poetry according to the methods and ways of the Arabs(asl+b al-poundArab) This state can be achieved by way of collecting andmemorising documents of Arabic speech (kalm al-poundArab) in order to acquireskill It includes high-class poetry good prose and the like From thesedocuments a student will be able to derive the rules of Arabic28

In order to understand poetry and prose one must first understand thehistorical and cultural background of these literary productions Therefore itis important for example to have some knowledge of the ancient battles (ayymal-poundArab) so as to know something about the famous pedigrees (al-ansb al-shah+ra) In other words one needs to have general historical information


134

about important events in order to understand these literary productions29

Linguistic habit in this sense cannot be achieved by merely memorisingwithout first understanding the background of poetry and prose

Therefore based on the philologistsrsquo definition as Ibn Khaldn says thescience of literature is ldquohellipexpert knowledge of the poetry and history of theArabs as well as the possession of some knowledge of every sciencerdquo30 Whatis meant by ldquoevery sciencerdquo here is the linguistic sciences as well as religiousand other sciences

Ibn Khaldn suggests four works which he considers constitute the basicprinciples and pillars of this discipline namely Adab al-ktib by Ibn Qutayba(d c 271884) Kitb al-kmil by al-Mubarrad (d 285898) Kitb al-bayn wa-rsquol-taby+n by al-J|i~ and Kitb al-nawdir by Ab poundAl+ al-Ql+ al-Baghdd+ (d356967) Works other than these four books though numerous are regardedas secondary because they are based on these four31

At the beginning of Islam singing and music also belonged to this disciplinebecause singing and poetry were dependent on each other The early HijaziMuslims in Medina cultivated them Ibn Khaldn mentions a book which heconsiders the most important work in this genre Kitb al-aghn+ by Ab al-Faraj al-Ifahn+ (d 356967) To him this work constitutes the archive (d+wn)of the Arabs It deals with the whole of the history poetry genealogy battle-days and the ruling dynasties of the Arabs32

Excursus

This section gives us a wide range of the important aspects of the Arabiclanguage It is like a general introduction by the author to the history anddevelopment of the Arabic language as an academic subject with all its contentsand varieties Before continuing with our commentary perhaps it is importantto note here the important aspect of this passage which is the authorrsquos viewand attitude towards Arabic language An understanding of this importantaspect is particularly necessary for a better grasp of his argumentation and itsimplications It is equally important for our ability finally to see the relationshipas well as the importance of language within the framework of culture andcivilisation which is the main concern of the present research

First Ibn Khaldn believes that Arabic is a great language and in manyaspects superior to other languages33 It is unique in the sense that it is morecomprehensive and capable of expressing ideas clearly with a minimum ofwords The author being an Arab Muslim this attitude regarding superiorityof Arabic is well understandable for this view is in line with the Islamic orrather Quranic view of Arabic itself Arabic is the language of the Quran andthe official language of Islam Ibn Khaldn justifies his attitude by reiteratingthat Arabic is the one ldquohellipmost clearly expressing the intended meaning sincemany ideas are indicated in it by something other than wordsrdquo34 However


135

the objectivity of his view that Arabic is comprehensive and unique as far aslinguistic expression is concerned may be seen in his attempt to explainaspects contents and varieties of the Arabic language including the fourimportant pillars of the language itself Perhaps Ibn Khaldn would like us tobear in mind the general notion that language is the medium for knowledgetransmission par excellence while at the same time knowledge is the pre-requisite for the advancement of civilisation and the formation of urban cultureIn this respect Arabic as an established language may be seen as one of theprime factors of the advance of Islamic civilisation

On the whole this section may be seen as general introductory remarks bythe author about the science of the Arabic language It presents almost allaspects of the language including the four major pillars lexicography grammarsyntax and style and literature Of the four pillars Ibn Khaldn sees grammaras the most important followed in order by lexicography syntax and stylesand literature Mastering this language is necessary for religious scholars sinceall the religious sources are in this language

Perhaps Ibn Khaldn is not a linguist nor is he a grammarian But hisinterest in the study of human culture and civilisation leads him to recogniseabove all the important role of language in society The phenomenon oflanguage is a part of civilisation itself It starts from the basic function as atool of communication When society advances and reaches the height ofcivilisation language plays its role in providing the literary embellishment ofpoetry and prose The artistic embellishment of language as a form of luxuryexists only when civilisation reaches its height

We find Ibn Khaldnrsquos summarised presentation here to be full of insightsthat show his extraordinary mastery of this vast and complicated subject Moreimportant however is the theoretical assumption that can be derived fromthis passage Perhaps the most important theoretical aspect of the passage isthe establishment of the phenomenon of language as an important elementin human society Language is part of human society and human civilisationIn a simple society it functions as a basic tool for communication amongst itsmembers Language advances together with the advance of the society Froma mere tool for communication language in urban society becomes a mediumof knowledge transmission At the height of civilisation language emerges asa social luxury providing literary embellishment of prose and poetry AlthoughIbn Khaldn takes the Arabic language as the model for his case study itstheoretical assumption can be extended beyond the limited scope of Arabicand Islamic civilisation

The nature and development of language

This is the second part as far as our study is concerned of Ibn Khaldnrsquostreatment of language and literature In this part Sections 45 to 49 he speaks


136

about various aspects of the nature and development of the Arabic languageBefore taking a closer look perhaps it is beneficial to glance at and highlightsome of the contents or major themes of these sections Section 45 speaks ofthe theory and nature of language as a technical skill and the process ofacquiring it Sections 46 and 47 give us information on the situation of theArabic language contemporary Bedouin and urban Arabic respectively InSection 48 Ibn Khaldn discusses the method of studying Arabic while inSection 49 he clarifies the difference between theory and practice in languageie linguistic skill and philology

Linguistic skillhabit

Language according to Ibn Khaldn is in the category of skills similar tocrafts It is located in the tongue and serves the purpose of expressing ideasThe value of such expression depends on the perfection or efficiency of theskill Thus the concept of eloquence (balgha) is understood as the ability tocombine individual words in the process of expressing ideas35 A skillhabit isacquired as a result of repeated actions It begins with action (fipoundl) From actionit becomes an attribute to the essence By repetition it then becomes acondition (|l) which is an attribute but it is not firmly established Withmore repetition it will become a habit that is a firmly rooted and establishedattribute36

In the case of the Arabic language Ibn Khaldn observes that the processof acquiring the habit takes place in a quite natural way ldquoNaturalrdquo here meansthat the Arabs did not learn it in any formal way It was acquired naturally asa result of hearing and practising the language until it finally became a habitand a firmly established attribute37

In the course of his exposition Ibn Khaldn again discusses thephenomenon of corruption (fasd) in the Arabic language He finds thissymptom occurs particularly in the language of the Mu=ar which has beencorrupted as a result of contact and interaction with the non-Arab nationsThe new generation hear how both the Arabs and the non-Arabs expressthemselves This situation has naturally made them confused They adopt thelanguage and way of expression from both sides which results in a new habitwhich is of course inferior to the original Mu=ar38 Of all Arabic dialects IbnKhaldn still believes that the purest is the dialect of Quraysh because it is farremoved from the lands of the non-Arabs

On the whole there are at least two major points the author is trying toconvey through this passage The first relates to the nature and process oflanguage acquisition and the second to the influences that result in languagecorruption On the nature and process of language acquisition Ibn Khaldnrsquosassumption is entirely based on the case of Arabic Arabic is acquired througha natural process of hearing and practising without needing to follow through


137

a formal process of learning and instruction Nevertheless as we can see fromIbn Khaldnrsquos observation language acquisition through this natural processdoes not seem to be best This is evident when he implicitly maintains thatthis natural process of acquisition is partly to blame for the later corruption ofArabic as in the case of the Mu=ar He discusses this in the second part of thepassage

Contemporary Bedouin Arabic

In Section 46 Ibn Khaldn speaks quite extensively about the situation ofthe contemporary Bedouin Arabic Again based on observation he finds thatthe Arabic language at that time follows the way of Mu=ar in their linguisticpractices The only aspect which is not maintained is the vowel systemindicating the distinction between the subject and the object Instead ofvowels the meaning is determined by position within the sentences (ie earlierand later position) and the indicators (qarrsquoin) Indeed the words themselvesindicate the ideas However ideas do not stand on their own All ideas arenecessarily surrounded by certain particular situations Therefore in order todetermine the meaning one has to have knowledge of the situations thatsurround the ideas Ibn Khaldn calls this the ldquospread of situationrdquo (bist al-|l) It is important before determining the meaning to consider every aspectof the circumstantial situation positions and vowel endings Again this isone of the special and unique characters of Arabic as compared with otherlanguages39

The author continues to speak about the originality of the Arabic languageDespite the phenomenon of corruption he finds that the originality of Arabicin terms of eloquence and stylistics is still maintained as part of Arab customsand methods He disagrees with those who claim that eloquence no longerexists and that the Arabic language has been entirely corrupted To him theiropinion is based solely on one aspect the corruption of vowel endings Hehimself finds instead that most Arabic words are still used in their originalmeaning The Arabs can still express ideas and they still employ old methodsof prose and poetry The only aspect which is no longer in existence is thevowel endings (ipoundrab)40

Ibn Khaldn further notes that concern about maintaining the originalityof the Arabic language was felt when the Mu=ar language which was regardedas the original Arabic in which the Quran was revealed became corrupt Thiscame about as a result of expansion with newly acquired provinces such asIraq Syria Egypt and the Maghrib It was found that the original Arabic hasbeen ldquotransformedrdquo into another language This situation would in one wayor another affect the function and status of the Quran and the |ad+th as theprime source of law and jurisprudence41 We understand that to derive law it


138

is necessary to understand its sources in their original form What will happenif the sources are no longer understood in their original meaning From thispoint of view maintaining the originality of the Arabic language should beseen as important not only to protect the language but also to protect thestatus of religious sources In this sense it is understandable why Ibn Khaldnalso sees religious factors as among those that finally contribute to thedevelopment of various aspects of Arabic disciplines Such religious needshave undoubtedly contributed to the development of the systematic sciencesof the Arabic language with all its sub-divisions and branches Scholars calledthis discipline grammar and Arabic philology42

The relationship between the Mu=ar and the Himyarite43 language isanother issue brought into the picture It seems that this matter is discussedhere as a matter of clarification in which the author tries to explain thedifferences between these two Semitic languages He clarifies that languageof the Mu=ar and the Himyarite are not the same Thus the Himyarite languagecannot be interpreted according to Mu=arrsquos rules He cites an example of theword qayl (leader) in Himyaritic which some believe is derived from qawl(speaking)44

This passage ends with a lengthy technical discussion about thecharacteristic feature of contemporary Bedouin Arabic Ibn Khaldn observesthat the distinguishing feature of contemporary Bedouin Arabic is thepronunciation of qf It is noticeable that there is difference in thepronunciation of qf between the Bedouin and the urban Arabs This concernsthe place or part of the tongue that articulates the sound As Ibn Khaldnsees it this difference occurs partly as the natural process of transformationHe is unable to suggest any particular cause of this change in pronunciationexcept the fact that the Bedouin have less contact with the non-Arab urbanpopulation45 He finds that the pronunciation of qf by the contemporaryBedouin is the same as the pronunciation of the ancient speakers In thissense it can be said that the way the Bedouin pronounce qf is the originalone

To recapitulate we find that this passage taken as a whole treats severalimportant aspects of the Arabic language ie its history origin developmentand transformation Needless to say all these aspects are important to gainthe right picture about the Arabic language However since our present inquiryis focused mainly on another aspect language as a socio-cultural phenomenonof a civilisation we are interested in questioning neither the sensibility of IbnKhaldnrsquos point of view nor the validity of his historical sources in matters ofthe Arabic language What is more important for us is to draw a conclusionbased on the authorrsquos observation of to what extent language as a socialphenomenon plays a role in society and to what extent language determinesthe level and achievement of a civilisation


139

Contemporary urban Arabic

This section continues the preceding discussion The author observes thephenomenon of urban Arabic practised by the urban (sedentary) populationIn a way the language of the urban Arabs is different from that of the Mu=arand the Bedouin According to Ibn Khaldn it is another independent languageby itself remote from the language of the Mu=ar and from the language of theBedouin46

With regard to the language practised by the urban population Ibn Khaldnadmits that there are varieties of language in the various cities The languageof the inhabitants of the East differs from that of the inhabitants of the WestHowever he finds that these people despite corruption of their originallanguage can still express and explain their ideas47 In this sense he isoptimistic that the original purpose of the language is still functioningeffectively

The reason that leads to this situation of corruption is as previously notedcultural contact with non-Arabs The situation is more noticeable in majorcities such as in Ifriqiya the Maghrib Spain and the East In Ifriqiya and theMaghrib for example cultural contact with the non-Arab Berbers occursThrough cultural interaction the non-Arab elements have gradually mixedwith the language of the Arabs to eventually form another kind of languageremote from the origin of the latter The author considers this new form oflanguage in some ways as ldquono longer Arabicrdquo in its original sense but a differentlanguage remote from the language of the original Mu=ar and the Bedouin48

This passage as mentioned earlier is a continuation of the previousdiscussion It is about the emergence of a new language as a result ofintercultural contact with non-Arabs Based on the authorrsquos description wemay now understand that this process of corruption is something that cannotbe avoided Perhaps this is the price of urbanisation expansion and interactionWe can also sense the feeling of regret about this on the part of the authorHowever he is still optimistic that despite corruption the urban populationcan still express their ideas rightly through the medium of the ldquonewlyrdquo emergedlanguage

Method of studying classical Arabic

In the last two sections Ibn Khaldn has presented the scenario of the Arabiclanguage He notes regretfully that the original language of Mu=ar hasundergone a process of corruption Its original form has faded away as a resultof absorption of non-Arab elements Although he partly puts the blame onsocio-cultural and political factors ie interaction urbanisation and expansionit seems that he implicitly admits that this process is something natural and


140

presumably unavoidable Perhaps on this basis he offers the present passage asa partial solution to this situation

Since language is in the category of habits Ibn Khaldn believes that it ispossible to learn a language like any other habit49 In this case the authorrefers to his previously established theory of instruction In language educationit is necessary for those who wish to acquire expert knowledge to learn thelanguage from its original source In the case of Mu=ar Arabic he suggeststhat the best and most authentic sources are the linguistic documents revealedand written in that language ie the Quran the |ad+th speeches and rhymedprose and poetic material of the ancients50 In this way one can obtain expertknowledge from authentic classical material in its original form of languageexpression Obtaining this expertise one can then try to express oneself onersquosown thought in that style Practical use of these materials will give one thehabit or skill of that language51

This passage though quite short also has a particular theoreticalimportance In it Ibn Khaldn suggests a necessary solution to the phenomenonof language corruption This solution is necessary not only to maintain theoriginality of the language but more importantly to understand the HolyBook and of course to derive law In this respect maintaining the originalityof the Arabic language is also seen as part of religious duty In the same veinwe can see there is an element of a religiously motivated solution to the problemof language corruption The suggested solution is proper language educationThis is of course within the scope of the theory of education which haspreviously been discussed

Linguistic habit and Arabic philology

In Section 49 the author speaks in particular about the theory of languageand language instruction Unlike in the previous section in which he focuseschiefly on the method and approach to language education here he emphasisesmore the theoretical aspect of language education For this purpose he devotesconsiderable space to clarifying and defining the distinction between linguisticphilology and habit This clarification is important particularly to allowdetermination of the right method to adopt in language education

Philology according to Ibn Khaldn is merely a knowledge of the rulesand forms of the linguistic habit it is not the habit itself It is knowledge ofthe quality not the quality itself Ibn Khaldn gives the analogy of someonewho might have knowledge of tailoring but not possess the habit of it Thatperson might be able to explain every aspect of tailoring but he is not a tailorif asked to do it himself he might be unable52

The same situation also applies in language One has to be able to distinguishbetween linguistic habit and philology A person who is a master of philology


141

might be able to explain the rules of vowel endings (ipoundrb) and know whenand how to use them but this does not mean he has the ability to practise orto use them practically53 Some people might be good at theory (philology)but unable to practise (habit) while some might have a good habit but beunable to explain the rules of philology54

As far as the Arabic language is concerned Ibn Khaldn finds very fewwho are masters of both theory and practice He specifically mentions thatthose who are masters of both aspects are those who are familiar with thebook of S+bawayh55 He recognises that S+bawayhrsquos book is the best of its kindand most effective in language instruction

In terms of an education system Ibn Khaldn finds the Spanish methodbetter His reason is that the Spanish use Arab verse examples (shawhid al-poundArab) as their teaching materials In this way the students are exposed tooriginal material and acquire a good deal of linguistic habit The inhabitantsof the Maghrib and Ifriqiya on the other hand emphasise more the philologicalaspect of the language so that Arabic philology has come to be an intellectualscience like any other intellectual science and thus they do not obtain thehabit Again Ibn Khaldn maintains that the habit of the Arabic languagecan only be obtained through constant practice and expert knowledge ofauthoritative documents56

In conclusion we now understand that linguistic philology and linguistichabit are two different matters Philology concerns theory and knowledge ofrules and norms while linguistic habit concerns its practical aspect The latteris a firmly established attribute acquired through constant repetition It isimportant to take into account this difference especially to determine themost suitable method of language education

Excursus

In this part the author discusses various aspects of the nature and developmentof language In general he covers at least three major aspects the theory andprocess of language acquisition the situation that leads to corruption of theArabic language and last but not least the possible methods of languageeducation

At the very outset Ibn Khaldn remarked that language is considered inthe category of habit that is similar to craft Being a habit it is acquired as aresult of repeated actions until it becomes a firmly established attribute Thishabit can be acquired in two ways through the natural process of hearing andpractising and through proper formal instruction In the case of classical Arabicthe habit is acquired through the natural process of hearing and practising Inthis way the language and dialect of the Arabs have passed from generation togeneration


142

The problem occurs when the language of the Mu=ar the original Arabichas been found to be corrupted This is the result of intercultural contact withforeign nations This process is unavoidable because of expansion and theprocess of urbanisation Although Ibn Khaldn is optimistic that the urbanArabs can still express their ideas in proper Arabic expression he voicesconcern about the danger of corruption especially in relation to understandingreligious sources It is this concern that leads to the formulation of norms andrules so that later generations will be able to understand Arabic in its originalform

The possible solution to the problem of corruption Ibn Khaldn suggestsis to encourage proper learning in language Like any other habit languagecan be acquired through a proper learning process However this can only bedone after the rules and norms have been formulated The learning processmust be based on classical authoritative materials such as the Quran the |ad+th(tradition) speeches poetry and the like It is equally important to take intoaccount the difference between philology and habit for this will determinethe skills that are going to be achieved in language education

Linguistic taste and the position of classical Arabic

This is the third part of the authorrsquos deliberations on language and literatureThis part contains two sections numbered 50 and 51 These two sectionsspeak of various linguistic issues ranging from the concept process anddevelopment of linguistic taste to the contemporary position of classical ArabicFor this study our discussion will be divided into two parts following theauthorrsquos order of presentation in which important aspects of his argumentwill be examined closely

Development of linguistic taste

In Section 50 Ibn Khaldn gives special focus to the concept process anddevelopment of linguistic taste (dhawq) Taste in linguistic terms is definedas ldquothe tonguersquos possession of the habit of eloquencerdquo57 The concept ofeloquence (balgha) is the ability of the speaker to express his ideas with goodcombination of words and conformity of speech to the intended meaning inevery respect58 This level is the highest and the most ideal state of eloquenceas far as linguistic habit is concerned

Explaining the process of achieving this state of eloquence Ibn Khaldnagain takes us back to his theory of habit As clarified earlier habit can beachieved through constant linguistic practice until it eventually reaches sucha level that it becomes a firmly established attribute In the case of the Arabiclanguage as previously noted the habit is obtained by way of hearing and


143

practising A person who has achieved this state of eloquence will be able toexpress his ideas and arrange his speech according to the right methods stylesand ways of the Arabs (aslib al-poundArab) For the person who has reached thisstate combination of words becomes simple Since linguistic taste has becomehis habit this person will be able to sense spontaneously even the slightestmistake in speech without the need for formal thinking activity or mentalreflection59

Ibn Khaldn then once again recalls his previous thesis that linguistichabit is not something that comes naturally to the Arabs60 It is the result ofconstant practice of speaking Arabic and repeated listening to it and ofunderstanding the peculiar qualities of its word combinations It is not obtainedthrough knowledge of the scientific rules that have been developed by thosewho are masters of literary criticism61 It is important to note here that thepurpose of scientific rules according to Ibn Khaldn is not as an aid toacquiring habit but merely as a tool for understanding the language

Ibn Khaldn then moves on to describe the characteristics of the personwho has achieved the state of eloquence The habit that he has achieved willnaturally guide him to combine words correctly and arrange them in the rightway when he speaks No improper speech will come from his tongue Surelyas a result of this any form of deviation in speech will not be acceptable tohim62 This eloquence when it is firmly established in a person ismetaphorically called ldquotasterdquo (dhawq) Ibn Khaldn devotes some space toexplaining the word dhawq in linguistic habit It is in fact a technical termthat has a special connotation in literary criticism Although originally itreferred to the sensation caused by food since linguistic habit is also locatedin the tongue the term is used metaphorically to describe something that isalso sensually perceived by it63

The rest of the section is devoted to sociological observation on the socio-historical aspects of Arabic linguistic habit On the basis of observation IbnKhaldn comes up with a general picture about the categorisation of peoplein matters pertaining to Arabic linguistic habit It is a matter of fact that thenon-Arabs who include Persians Byzantines Turks and Berbers were strangersto the Arabic language However they adopted Arabic and were forced tospeak it because of social cultural and political contacts with the Arabs Thesepeople did not have such a taste for Arabic64 As mentioned above taste isthe highest state of eloquence To achieve this state one must undergo certainprocesses which require time and effort Therefore it is not possible for peoplewho use the language merely as their communication tool to achieve thathighest state of eloquence The same situation also pertains in urban areaswhere the original Arabic has been lost as the author previously discussed Itis also the result of contacts with non-Arabs According to this view it seemsthat non-Arabs can never master Arabic Moreover contacts with non-Arabshave caused corruption of the original Arabic


144

On the argument that refers to people such as S+bawayh al-Fris+ (d 377987) al-Zamakhshar+ (d 5381144) and the like who were non-Arabs byorigin and yet had an excellent habit in Arabic Ibn Khaldn has this to sayldquohellipyes these people were non-Arab by descent but they grew up among theArabs who possessed the habit of Arabic Because of this they were able tomaster Arabic so well that they cannot be surpassedrdquo65 The same argumentalso applies to the situation where non-Arab children grew among Arabs andobtained the habit of Arabic

The position of classical Arabic

Section 51 is devoted mainly to portraying the position of classical ArabicIbn Khaldn again reminds us of the loss of the original Arabic language amongthe urban population He criticises the popular method of teaching childrenArabic in his day through the learning of grammar For him this method willnot help children to achieve the habit of Arabic By contrast he suggests thatthe habit of Arabic be obtained through direct contact with Arabic languageand speech66 He specifically mentions the situation of Arabic in Ifriqiya andthe Maghrib in which their speech habit is far remote from the originallanguage of the Mu=ar He finds neither famous poets nor good literarycomposition that could be considered as representing literary achievement inIfriqiya with the exception of Ibn Rash+q (d 4631071) and Ibn Sharaf (d4601068)67

The author goes on to discuss the fluctuation of Arabic linguistic habitamong the Spaniards (Andalusians) The Spaniards were greatly interestedin poetry and prose Among them emerged great figures such as the CordobanIbn ayyn (d 4601070) Ibn poundAbd Rabbih (d 327940) al-Qas_all+ (AbDarrj d 4201030) and others68 There also emerged among them the poetsof mulk al-_awrsquoif (reyes de taifas)69 Language and literature flourished Thissituation remained for hundreds of years until the dynasty was overthrown bythe Christians After that civilisation decreased and language and literaturelike all other crafts also diminished This situation remained until theemergence of another generation of great litteacuterateurs such as Ibn Shibr+n (d7471346) Ibn Jbir (d 7801378) Ibn Jayb (d 7491349) and others whenthe habit came to exist and flourish again70

In terms of literary achievement the position of the people of the East atthat time was not very much different from the situation in Spain Excellentpoets and writers existed in abundant numbers Ibn Khaldn here refers tothe period during the rule of the Umayyads and the Abbasids They reachedtheir peak when poets and litteacuterateurs were often superior to their pre-Islamicpredecessors71

However when the Arabs eventually lost their royal authority or politicalpower the dynasty came to an end and the original quality of their language


145

was also wiped out Their speech began to be corrupted The non-Arabs seizedpower and gained royal authority People eventually became remote from theoriginal Arabic This situation happened under the dynasty of Daylam (latesecondfifth to late eightheleventh century) and the Seljuqs (fiftheleventhto sixthtwelfth century)72

Excursus

The primary concern of this passage is the concept of ldquotasterdquo (dhawq) in theArabic language In Arabic tradition the term dhawq relates to several differentcontexts To avoid the possibility of getting confused with this technical termI shall discuss briefly the connotation which it commonly has Although inthe literal or perhaps general sense ldquotasterdquo in most cases refers to sensationcaused by food its technical or metaphorical meaning varies according to thesituation or context in which it is used Metaphorically taste refers to at leastthree different contexts philosophy Sufism and aesthetics (particularlyliterature)73 In the passage under consideration the term refers particularlyto a concept of literary aesthetics in which it is considered to represent thehighest level of literary eloquence

My analysis of this passage will centre upon three important points thetheory of literary taste the concept of the native speaker and the socio-historical aspect of the Arabic language As regards the concept of literarytaste Ibn Khaldn seems to be of the opinion that it develops as part of theprocess of the development of the Arabic language itself It follows the sameprocess as habit and in fact is part of the habit On the basis of this passagethe concept of literary taste and the concept of habit go together withoutclear distinction Both seem to be the same concept The only difference isperhaps that taste is the highest level of perfection of habit Taste is a firmlyrooted and established habit that enables the person who possesses it tocompose his literary productions by instinct and natural aptitude withoutneeding deep or long mental reflection Moreover according to this view theperson who possesses taste has no background knowledge of grammatical rulesbut relies only on his taste and perception74 This person will have a power ofaesthetic appreciation that enables him to distinguish spontaneously betweenproper and improper speech without needing mental reflection or speculationThis is of course the highest level of eloquence in Arabic This person mightnot be able to support his literary stance by argument like the person who ismaster of grammatical and stylistic rules his stance is justified only by hisinstinct It is quite clear that the centre of this concept is naturalness andspontaneity It is an instinct an innate quality that needs no effort or formalmental reflection75

The second point is the concept of the native speaker or the native languagePerhaps it would be proper to consider this concept as a sub-theory that supports


146

and strengthens the theory of linguistic taste The development of this theorycan be seen when the author speaks about the process of acquiring linguistichabit Those who are strangers to a language cannot obtain that linguistichabit Even if they were forced to speak that language as a result of culturalinteraction according to this view they would still be unable to acquire thelinguistic habit let alone linguistic taste In modern times we recognise thisas the concept of the native speaker or native language or perhaps the conceptof the mother tongue There is also the concept of first and second languageandor in some cases the concept of foreign language which refers to nativeand foreign speakers To quote from Ibn Khaldn

If this is clear it will make one realise that non-Arabs such as PersiansByzantine and Turks in the east and Berbers in the west who arestrangers to the Arabic language and adopt it and are forced to speakit as the result of contact with the Arabs do not possess such tasteThey have too small a share in the (linguistic) habit the significanceof which we have established They formerly had another linguistichabit ndash their own languagehellip76

On the basis of the above argument it might not be possible for a person topossess perfection of habit in two or more languages at one time Howeverone has to remember that the concept of native speaker here does not relateto nation or race or ethnic or blood group or even descent but merely to theprocess of acquiring habit In other words this concept refers to the social andcultural milieu in which a child happens to grow up This is clear from theexample given by Ibn Khaldn in the case of S+bawayh Zamakhshar+ and thelike who were non-Arab by descent Those who grew up among the Arabseven though non-Arab by descent may acquire habit

The third point is the socio-historical aspect of the Arabic language Thedevelopment of the Arabic language was particularly coloured by its socio-historical background As mentioned earlier the Arab nation went through along history of social and cultural as well as political transformations Allthese changes in one way or another left a certain impact on the quality ofthe Arabic language We can see this in Section 51 where Ibn Khaldndescribes the fluctuating situation of Arabic as a result of these transformationsHe expresses his regret regarding the situation of Arabic among urbanpopulations which he describes as deficient and remote from the originalArabic It is interesting that Ibn Khaldn here places sole blame on culturalcontacts and social interaction Arabic was corrupted because of interactionwith foreign nations As a sociologist he sees this phenomenon as part ofsocial process that is natural and unavoidable This is part of civilisation itself

From his description we take it that mastery of language in the context ofArabic depends very much on achievement in civilisation the existence of


147

great poets writers secretaries or litteacuterateurs and a good system of educationThe existence of an abundant number of great poets men of letters andoutstanding craftsmen will bring about a high standard of linguistic habit asin the case of the Andalusians77 By contrast linguistic habit will diminishwith a decrease in civilisation and the absence of excellent poets and writers

Poetry and prose

The division of speech into poetry and prose

Sections 52 and 53 are devoted to discussing the two divisions of Arabic speechrhymed poetry and prose (na~m wa-nathr) These are the basic divisions ofArabic speech78 That is it is divided into metrical (mawzn) and non-metrical(ghayr mawzn) speech This division is made because the former ischaracterised by metre (wazn) and rhyme (qfiya) while the latter is not79

Each of the two genres comprises various artistic styles themes and ways ofspeech (funn wa-madhhib) Among popular themes of poetry are mad| (thelaudatory) shajpounda (the heroic) and rathrsquo (the elegiac) Prose also has itsdivisions based on composition type There is a type called rhymed prose(musajjapound) while another type is known as straight prose (murassal) Rhymedprose consists of cola ending (qfiya w|ida) on either the same rhymethroughout or on sentences rhymed in pairs Straight prose is not divided intocola but is continuous without any division of rhyme or anything else80 Proseis mainly used for sermons prayers and speeches to encourage or frighten themasses

According to Ibn Khaldn the Quran is in a different category of proseThe Quran is unique in the sense that it does not belong to either of thecategories of prose mentioned above It is neither rhymed nor straight proseIt is divided into verses where only taste (dhawq) can tell where the speechstops It is then repeated and resumed in the next verse This characteristic isdescribed in the Quran as mathn+ (repeated verses)81 Another characteristicof the Quran is the divider (fawil) However it is neither the same as rhymedprose nor rhymed like poetry Quranic verses are not characterised by rhymesIt is for this reason says Ibn Khaldn that the very first sra is known as al-sabpound al-mathn+ (the seven repeated verses)82

Each of the branches of poetical speech has its own particular methods(asl+b) which have been established in Arabic literary tradition A particularmethod is used for a particular genre It cannot be fixed to other genres thatare not peculiar to it Nas+b83 for instance was used in ancient Arabic poetrywhile praise and prayer were used solely for sermons (khu_ba) and so onHowever in the course of time these established methods and characteristicseventually underwent significant changes In portraying this situation IbnKhaldn blames recent authors and the writers or secretaries (kuttb) in the


148

hands of whom different methods have been mixed up Prose has become likepoetry without metre Secretaries use this method in their governmentcorrespondence Others employ the method of prose-with-rhyme84 which iscertainly a new method

Ibn Khaldn seems to be very unhappy with this kind of enterprise Hesuggests that government correspondence be kept free from it To him thismethod is not good for this purpose His argument is that the method of poetryadmits wittiness (ldhipounda) the mixing of humour with seriousness (khala_ al-jadd bi-rsquol-hazl) long descriptions (i_nb f+-rsquol-awf) frequent similes andmetaphoric expressions (kathrat al-tashb+ht wa-rsquol-istipoundrt)85 This method forIbn Khaldn is not suitable for the purpose of government correspondencewhich requires firm clear and straightforward speech This method is also notvery effective for the task of encouraging or frightening the masses Anotherpoint is that a good speech is judged not only by its sound linguistic base butalso by the fact that it must properly conform to the requirements of a givensituation This is the main purpose of balgha

Section 53 is entitled ldquoThe ability to write both good poetry and goodprose is only very rarely found together in one personrdquo Unfortunately thispassage does not discuss the thesis announced in the heading at all Instead itspeaks of the theory of habit According to this theory habit is located in thetongue The tongue in this respect is capable of developing only one habit tothe level of perfection Therefore it is difficult for a person if one habit hasalready occupied the place If this happens a subsequent habit will have notenough room to develop Moreover the previous habit which has alreadyoccupied the tongue prevents the new habit from being quickly accepted Insuch a situation it is quite impossible for the new habit to develop toperfection86

The craft of poetry

Section 54 deals with various issues of Arabic poetry Although Ibn Khaldnbelieves that a similar craft exists in all other languages as well he chooses torestrict his discussion to Arabic poetry alone because ldquoall languages havetheir own particular laws concerning eloquencerdquo87 Therefore every languagehas to be treated individually This section covers at least four important aspectsof Arabic poetry its characteristics its methods of learning its definitionsand its process of production

Arabic poetry88 has its own notable manners and characteristics IbnKhaldn describes it as

hellipspeech that is divided into cola having the same metre and heldtogether by the last letter of each colon each of these cola is called aldquoverserdquo The last letter which all the verses of [a poem] have in


149

common is called the ldquorhyme letterrdquo The whole complex is called aldquopoemrdquo (qa+da or kal+ma)89

On the basis of this description we will now be able to identify and furtheranalyse the important characteristic features of Arabic poetry Among itsimportant characteristics are colon (qi_pounda) verse (bayt) metre (wazn) andrhyme letter (qfiya) The function of the cola is to divide the verses Theverse must have the same metre (mutaswiya f+-rsquol-wazn) and must be ldquounitedrdquoby the last letter (mutta|ida f+-rsquol-|arf al-akh+r) These basic characteristicsdistinguish poetry from prose

Another characteristic is the particular meaning of each verse Every singleverse can be considered as a statement by itself and can stand independentlywithout direct connection to what precedes and what follows In this senseevery single verse is a meaningful unit by itself In composing poetry thepoets normally change over from one topic to another by preparing ideas insuch a manner that they become related to the next topic while at the sametime maintaining the similarity of the metre

In ancient times particularly before the coming of Islam poetry wasrecognised as the highest form of speech among the Arabs They made it thearchive (d+wn) of their science and their history90 Poetry was not only ascience by itself but also developed other related disciplines such as the scienceof qfiya (rhyme letter)91 and the science of poundar= (prosody)92

The second aspect of poetry discussed in this section is uslb (method) Bythis the author refers to the mental form (ra dhihniyya) of metrical wordcombinations93 We understand that word combinations are essential in thecraft of poetry in fact the beauty of poetry is not judged by the ideas it conveysbut rather by the beauty of its word combinations Good expertise in wordcombination (al-tark+b al-munta~ama) will enable a poet to express correctlywhat he wants to say Ibn Khaldn cites several examples showing differentform of addresses used by the poets to describe their subjects One of theexamples is quoted from Imr al-Qaysrsquo Mupoundallaqa94

In fact there are many forms and ways of word combination in poeticalspeech They may not be whole sentences they may be commands orstatements nominal (ismiyya) or verbal (fipoundliyya) sentences followed or not byopposition (mutbipounda wa-ghayr mutbipounda) separate or connected and so on95 Thisskill in combination can only be learned and acquired through constantpractice in producing Arabic poetry Limited knowledge of certain aspects ofthe Arabic language such as the rules of vowel endings or syntax and styles isinadequate in this respect The poetical method that the author is trying toestablish here is the attribute that is firmly rooted in the soul as a result of thecontinuous practising of word combinations in Arabic poetry until the tonguegets used to them


150

The third aspect of poetry discussed here is definition The author has madean attempt to come up with a good definition of poetry despite admittingthat it is a difficult task which any other previous scholars have not attemptedAnother reason that leads him to make this attempt is that he is not satisfiedwith the definition given by the prosodists (poundar=iyyn) who define poetrymerely as metrical and rhymed speech (al-kalm al-mawzn al-muqaff+)96 ForIbn Khaldn this definition does not represent the real concept of poetryInstead he gives his own definition as follows

Poetry is eloquent speech built upon metaphoric usage anddescriptions divided into cola agreeing in metre and rhyme lettereach colon being independent in purpose and meaning from whatcomes before and after it and using the method of the Arabs peculiarto it97

He then elucidates by giving some detailed explanations of every aspect ofhis definition

The fourth and the last aspect of poetry touched on in this section is theprocess of production According to Ibn Khaldn the production of poetry issubject to a number of conditions (shur_) He sets out at least five conditionsthat will help poets to compose good poetry The first is to have expertknowledge of its genus (jins) ie the genus of Arabic poetry Possession ofexpert knowledge of genus will eventually create a habit in the soul Thisincludes memorising selected good-quality material for this purpose Herecommends particularly Kitb al-aghn+98 by Ab al Faraj al-Ifahn+ (d 356967) which he recognises as the best work and collection of Arabic poeticmaterial99 The second condition is to practise making his own rhyme and toforget memorised material This is important because the external literal formsof the memorised material will prevent a poet from practising his real poeticalhabit Therefore they have to be wiped out of the memory so that the poetcan work with his real poetical habit However this must be done after thepoetic materials have conditioned the soul

The third condition is that the poet needs solitude (khulwa) by being alonein a beautiful place with water and flowers This situation will stimulate hisimagination and talent to compose good poetry The fourth condition is thatthe poet must be rested and energetic (jimm wa-nash_) In relation to this itis also suggested that the best time for this sort of activity is in the morningafter waking up when the stomach is empty and the mind is energetic and inthe atmosphere of the bath100 The fifth condition is that the poet must havethe rhyme in mind (binrsquo al-bayt poundal-rsquol-qfiya)101

After a poem is finished Ibn Khaldn suggests it must be revised verycarefully and critically using the most correct word combinations Last but


151

not least the poets must keep away from far-fetched and pretentious words(al-hawsh+ min al-alf~ wa-rsquol-maqpoundar) They deprive poetry of the eloquence ofspeech The poet should also keep away from ideas that have becomehackneyed or meaningless because they are generally known (al-mapoundn+ al-mubtadhila bi-rsquol-shahra) such as ldquothe fire is hotrdquo which does not give anysignificant meaning102 Finally Ibn Khaldn suggests those who wish to learnpoetry should study Kitb al-poundUmda by Ibn Rash+q (d 4631071) which hebelieves is the best corpus of its kind

Words versus ideas and the importance of memorising in poetryand prose

Sections 55 and 56 basically deal with two interrelated linguistic issues namelythe importance of words in literary composition and memorising as a methodof acquiring a good-quality linguistic habit As literary products poetry andprose work mainly with words rather than ideas In this sense ideas have becomesecondary to words as far as literary composition is concerned103 This is becausewords and ideas are two different matters Again Ibn Khaldn reminds us ofhis theory that language is a technical habit The technical habit of languageas discussed earlier is located in the tongue while ideas are located in themind As the technical habit the purpose of language is to express ideasEveryone has ideas or at least the capacity to grasp whatever ideas he likesTo grasp ideas does not need any particular techniques However when itcomes to the expression or composition of speech certain techniques arerequired in order to be able properly to express ideas in the mind Ibn Khaldngives a good analogy to illustrate the situation It is just like the vessel and thewater The vessel or container of water might be made of gold silver glass orclay but the water is one and the same ie drawn from the sea It is obviousthat judgement is made based on the vessel not on the water The quality ofthe vessel differs according to the material from which it is made and notfrom the water it contains In the same vein the quality of language composedto express the ideas differs according to the level of eloquence or command oflanguage and not the ideas because the ideas are one and the same104

The second issue is the importance of memorising in the process of acquiringgood linguistic habit Ibn Khaldn establishes his thesis that those who desireto obtain good linguistic habit must memorise a lot of literary materials Perhapsthis is the only effective method to obtain eloquence and good linguistic habitThis is why one has to choose the finest materials in poetry and prose in orderto be able to acquire a better habit and a higher order of eloquence105 IbnKhaldn mentions some recommended poetry and prose which he categorisesas of higher quality such as the poetry of Ab Tamm (d 231845) al-poundAttb+(d c 220835) Ibn al-Mupoundtazz (d 296908) Ibn Hn+ (Ab Nuws d 362


152

973)106 etc or prose works such as the Rasrsquoil of Ibn Muqaffapound (d c 138786)Sahl b Hrn (d 215830) Ibn al-Zayyt (d c 233847) etc

The rest of the section is devoted to an explanation of how the linguistichabit arises in connection with the memorising method Poetical habit (malakaal-shipoundriyya) originates with the memorising of poetry while the skill or habitof penmanship (malaka al-kitba) originates from the memorising of rhymedprose and prose correspondence107 The process takes place in the same way aswith scientific habit from contact with the sciences and with variousperceptions research and speculation or juridical habit which takes placefrom contact with jurisprudence comparing problems and deriving specialcases from general principles or the mystical habit which develops fromworship and dhikr exercise and the inactivation of the outward senses by meansof solitude (khulwa)108 In this respect we understand that the good or badquality of a particular habit depends very much upon the condition underwhich the habit originated Therefore a high-class habit of eloquence resultsonly from memorising high-class language material

Natural and contrived speech

As the author discussed earlier the main purpose of speech is to express ideasThis is the ultimate secret (sirr) and spirit (r|) of speech And the perfectway of conveying ideas is eloquence (balgha) Section 57 deals mainly withnatural (ma_bpound) and contrived (manpound) speech The author defines naturalspeech as the type of speech that ldquoconveys the intended meaning and thus isperfect in its nature and geniusrdquo109 This means that the speaker who usesnatural speech wants to convey what is in his mind to the listeners in a com-plete and definite fashion It is a kind of speech that contains perfect expressionwith word combination of genius and high-value artistic embellishment It isa brilliance of perfect and correct speech with ornamental use of rhymed prosewith successive cola (muwzana) and allusion (tawriyya)110 Ibn Khaldndescribes it as giving brilliance to speech and pleasure to the ear and sweetnessand beauty in addition to indicating the meaning The ultimate example ofsuch speech as far as the Arabic language is concerned is the speech of theQuran111

Contrived speech does not have these characteristics because it is inferiorIt is inferior to natural speech because it has little concern for what is basic toeloquence However it is not easy to determine what is natural and whatcontrived speech without a perfect linguistic habit In fact the differencebetween natural and contrived speech can only be sensed by onersquos taste(dhawq) As we learned earlier literary taste is the attribute of those whopossess the perfect or highest state of literary habit


153

Appreciation of poetry

It was established earlier that poetry is the archive (d+wn) of the Arabs112

From poetry they learn their sciences their history and their wisdom Therecitation of poetry became one of the major events held in the market placeof poundUk~113 In Section 58 Ibn Khaldn gives a very brief picture of theevolution of poetry and the appreciation of poetry throughout the history ofthe Arabs He divides the period of the evolution of Arabic poetry into fourmajor periods the pre-Islamic period the early Islam period the period of thegreat dynasties and the period of non-Arab leaders (poundumarrsquo al-poundajam)114 Itneeds no saying that during the pre-Islamic period poetry became part of theArabsrsquo life and culture The Arabs had among them great poets Imr al-Qaysal-Nbigha Zuhayr b Ab+ Sulm and the others who were the authors of theseven Mupoundallaqt115

The coming of Islam remarkably reduced the influence of poetry The Arabsalmost gave up this custom116 Ibn Khaldn gives two main reasons for thisFirst the coming of Islam preoccupied the Arabs and Muslims most of theirtime with the struggle and the affairs of Islam (amr al-d+n) prophecy (nubuwwa)and revelation (wa|y) Second there was the new linguistic style methodand form of the Quran (uslb al-Qurrsquon) which puzzled them for some timeThey were unable to produce a literary composition of equal standard117

However the later part of the early Islamic period witnessed the revival ofpoetry appreciation among the Arabs This is marked by the emergence ofpoets such as poundUmar b Rab+pounda

In the third period the period of the great dynasties the Arabs came backto their old custom of poetry appreciation They composed laudatory poemsand presented them to the caliphs for rewards These poems contain remarkablestories history lexicography and noble speech118 The Arabs encouragedchildren to memorise them This situation remained during the days of theUmayyads and the early days of the Abbasids

The fourth period was the period when the non-Arab leaders came to powerThey had a deficient knowledge of Arabic The poets composed laudatorypoetry and presented it to these rulers not for the sake of literary appreciationbut to win favour In this category of poets Ibn Khaldn mentions for exampleAb Tamm al-Bu|tur+ al-Mutanabb+ Ab Nuws etc The purpose ofliterary composition at that time was no longer literature for its own sake butbegging and winning the favours of rulers

Contemporary Arab poetry

Section 59 is the last and perhaps the longest section of the Muqaddima Itspeaks basically of the situation of poetry among contemporary Arabs Bedouin(nomadic) and urban (sedentary) It is a long section because it is occupied


154

mostly with a number of long poetical texts representing various themes andgenres In our analysis here we cannot deal directly with these long poeticaltexts for two reasons First our main purpose is to gain a general picture of thesituation in order then to be able to relate it to the general framework of thisresearch This does not require a deep detailed analysis of these poetical textsSecond detailed analysis of these texts will prolong the present inquiry anddeviate from the main theme We will therefore omit the long poetical textsalthough highlighting important aspects whenever necessary

At the beginning of the section the author repeats his earlier remark thatpoetry exists not only in Arabic but also in other languages As has beenargued the original language of the Mu=ar has been corrupted as a result ofcultural contact with non-Arabs However the change in the original languagedoes not necessarily affect the tradition of poetry The status of poetry hasnever faded away as a result of those changes119 The Arabs still composedpoetry and appreciated it in the same manner as their ancestors did Thisincluded certain popular poetical themes such as nas+b (the erotic) mad| (thelaudatory) rathrsquo (the elegiac) and hijrsquo (the satirical) which were part of theancient qa+da Ibn Khaldn then goes on to quote from several poetical textsby such poets as Ibn Hshim Ab Supoundd al-Yafran+ and others This poetrywas cultivated greatly among the contemporary Arab Bedouin

Apart from the above situation Ibn Khaldn also gives us a picture of thesituation in contemporary Spain The Andalusians created another kind ofpoetry called muwashsha|120 This type of poetry is special because of itssmoothness and its artistic language The common people like them very muchBesides that the Andalusians also invented another new form which theycall zajal121 Muwashsha| and zajal become two important genres of poetry inSpain The urban population of the Maghrib also cultivated the muwashsha|in several forms such as muzawwaj kz+ malpoundaba and ghazal122

Besides this Ibn Khaldn also outlines the condition of popular poetry inthe East The people of Baghdad for example developed a poetical genrecalled mawliy Mawliy has several sub-divisions such as |awf+ malpoundabakn-wa-kn and dh baytayn Most of them were couplets of four branchesthat rhymed with each other The Egyptians followed the Baghdadis in thisrespect

Excursus

This part of my study covers Sections 52 to 59 Being the last part of Chapter6 these seven sections in fact constitute the last part of the Muqaddima Inthese sections the author has provided wide ranging coverage of matterspertaining to Arabic poetry and prose touching on various aspects from itscanon and the acquisition of skill to an exposition of poetry appreciation and


155

the contemporary situation In the course of his discussion Ibn Khaldn insertsmany quotations from long poetical texts which he brings forth as examplesto back up his arguments As I indicated earlier this analysis will not dealwith these long poetical texts but will focus on aspects directly relevant tothe present study ie the social aspect of poetry as a phenomenon that reflectsthe achievement and status of a civilisation For present purposes thesignificance of these phenomena lies in how far they contribute towards abetter understanding of human culture and civilisation

Since this part covers seven sections it will perhaps be best to sum up herethe general contents of these sections so that we have a better picture of whatthey are all about Ibn Khaldnrsquos discussion of poetry and prose begins with apassage explaining the two divisions of speech poetry and prose This isfollowed by a passage on the theory of poetical habit In the next passage hediscusses the craft of poetry followed by a passage stressing the importance ofword combination in literary production This is followed by a discussion ofthe theory of habit and the importance of memorising and a passage explainingthe meaning of natural and contrived speech The last two passages are theexposition of the contemporary situation regarding poetry appreciation andthe evolution of poetry as well as the emergence of new poetical genres as amanifestation of social and cultural transformations

As we established above linguistic or literary embellishment is one of themost important indications of the achievement and status of a civilisation Inthe case of Muslim civilisation as well portrayed by the author Arabic literatureplays a pivotal role it can be regarded as the manifestation of the intellectualcultural and the civilisational achievement of the Muslim people It is in thisrespect that we find Ibn Khaldnrsquos discourse of poetry and prose intimatelyrelevant to this study In relation to this without doubt the last two passagesin which he gives considerable coverage of the evolution of poetry appreciationand the contemporary situation of Arabic poetry particularly serve this purposeFrom these two passages we understand that the achievement of literaryembellishment (in this case poetry and prose) depends very closely upon thesituation and status of civilisation This is from the point of view of literaryembellishment as a manifestation of human appreciation of aesthetic valuesrepresented through the form of artistic productions and crafts Poetry andprose emerge as a manifestation of the mental achievement of Muslim civilisa-tion123 Indeed theoretically there is no difference between poets and paintersor craftsmen in terms of producing artistic crafts Of course it may be arguedthat their materials differ but their forms their activities and their intentionare certainly the same ie manifestation of the embellishment of life124 Thisbeing the last part of the Muqaddima the authorrsquos discussion here may beconsidered as the completion of the decoration of his civilisational structure

C O N C L U S I O N S A N D F I N D I N G S

156

7

CONCLUSIONS ANDFINDINGS

Assessment of Ibn Khaldnrsquos theoretical foundation

As noted above this study is particularly aimed at understanding andreconstructing Ibn Khaldnrsquos epistemology his sociology of knowledge andclassification of science as portrayed in Chapter 6 of the Muqaddima In thepreceding chapters the whole content of the chapter has been studied ndash tryingto understand describe and at times critically analyse its content and structureOur subsequent task is to assess and evaluate what has transpired from thisstudy We feel that we are now in the position to undertake this exercise Thisassessment is important in order to be able finally to reconstruct Ibn Khaldnrsquostheoretical scheme

From the very outset in our statement of intent we made clear that theaim of this study is to find out the authorrsquos theoretical foundation ofepistemology and sociology of knowledge within the framework of his theoryof poundumrn This is based on the earlier hypothesis that Ibn Khaldn whilepreparing this work must have been under the influence of a certain theoreticalframework that made up his mind It has been agreed by many that theMuqaddima in itself contains his general theory of poundumrn1 For this matter ourtask now is to reconstruct his theory of epistemology and put it in place withinthe scope of poundumrn Since our study here is entirely based on the text allaspects of the text including its content structure sequential order andorganisation as well as pattern of argument will be taken into account

Structurally Chapter 6 begins with philosophical and psychologicalexplanations of the nature of the human being The author emphasises theimportance of the faculty of fikr (thinking ability) Certainly the faculty offikr is the exclusive characteristic that places the human being in a differentclass to the rest of all other animals It is this faculty that plays the centralpart in the life of the human being determining the patterns and modes of allactions It is this faculty also that inspires the human being to form a socialstructure through the process of co-operation and the division of labour(tapoundwun) It is this faculty that leads the human being to be able to generate


157

and develop knowledge and the sciences It is also this faculty that enableshuman beings to understand and accept revelation sent to him through theintermediary of the prophets of God In short it is this faculty that enablesthe human being to organise his life in all its aspects and facets ndash spiritualintellectual physical and social as well as political

The next process is the mastery of crafts (inpounda) and habit or skill (malaka)This is the natural outcome of the faculty of fikr This process takes place afterthe human being has established a social unit It is from his experience indaily life and interaction that he learns how to improve his standard of livingIt is on this understanding that Ibn Khaldn sees the level of achievement incrafts and habit as representing the level of achievement in civilisation Heviews it as another important indicator that determines the level of civilisationachieved This process takes place simultaneously with the process oftransformation from nomadic culture (poundumrn badaw+) to sedentary culture(poundumrn |a=ar+)

Once sedentary ie urban culture is established it is the duty of eachmember of society to ensure and maintain its stability and improveachievements in knowledge sciences and crafts On the basis of Ibn Khaldnrsquosdiscussion some sort of symbiotic relationship is seen between the formationof sedentary culture and achievement in the sciences and crafts Sedentaryculture and political stability will ensure better achievement in the sciencesand crafts

Another point of theoretical importance here is the establishment of educa-tional tradition (tapoundl+m) and its continuity (al-sanad f+-rsquol-tapoundl+m) The authordevotes a special section to discussing this subject He sees that the only wayto maintain and improve the standard of an established urban culture is forthe achievements of the earlier generation to be fully inherited by the nextgeneration For this he sees that the only method is through the establishmentof an educational tradition and continuity of the tradition Ibn Khaldnmaintains that educational tradition and its continuity is another importantaspect of his epistemological theory in particular and his theory of poundumrn ingeneral Certainly without a strong established educational tradition and thecontinuity of tradition it would be very difficult for the next generation tomaintain and reproduce the achievement of the past generation let alone toimprove it

The next point of concern is the division of the sciences Perhaps for thepurposes of the present study it should be noted that this is the most essentialpart for it serves as a catalyst for better understanding of his epistemologicalscheme He divides sciences into two major groups the traditional and thephilosophical or natural Traditional sciences as explained earlier are thesciences which originate in revelation while the philosophical or intellectualsciences are sciences achieved and developed through human thinking ability


158

Both categories comprise sciences that exist in human civilisation at the timeof Ibn Khaldn As a point to be taken into account we must note here thetheoretical discrepancy that occurs while he attempts to sketch and categorisethe genera of knowledge and sciences that exist in his time As we have arguedabove there are certain genera of sciences he enumerates that are not quitecompatible with the criteria he sets for either of the categories of sciences Inorder to accommodate these sciences another category has to be proposedWe mentioned earlier that Abdurrahmane Lakhsassi has suggested that thiscategory be the spiritual sciences Lakhsassi convinces us that structurallythese sciences have quite a vague relationship with the two major groupsestablished by Ibn Khaldn The genera of sciences that fall into this categoryinclude Sufism magical sciences and the use of talismans Also we must notleave out that there are other categories identified as instrumentalauxiliaryto all sciences namely the sciences of languages and literature As instrumentalor auxiliary to all other sciences they also play essential roles in thisepistemological scheme

The search for a general indicator that can be used to measure theachievement of a civilisation leads the author to enter into a series of discoursesin connection with the concept and achievement of scholarship As we havedescribed in Chapter 5 above his discussion of scholarship ranges from thebasic concept of scholarship to its highest ethical aspect His discussion includesproblems methods obstacles perfection and the importance of language Heeven goes on to discuss the relationship between scholars and politics

Finally he turns to a wide-ranging discussion of language and literatureencompassing discussions from the very basic knowledge of language as merelya means of communication to the highest level of linguistic taste It alsoincludes some lengthy discourses on the linguistic and literary embellishmentof poetry and prose From the discussion we learn that achievements in thelinguistic sciences can be used as another measure of the achievements of acivilisation We know that language at its most basic is used as merely a meansof communication However as civilisation grows language is no longer usedmerely as a means of communication but also for the highest level of scientificworks and literary productions as well as for the purpose of embellishmentand entertainment Language and literature emerge as the luxury crafts ofsociety This can be seen in the literary heritage in the form of poetry andprose Based on this conception it is theoretically acceptable that theachievement of a literary tradition may be taken as another indicator of thelevel of achievement of a civilisation

Concluding remarks and findings

On the basis of the study we have undertaken we can now recapitulate andsuggest several conclusions


159

First it should be reiterated again that our earlier hypothesis assumes thatthis chapter of the Muqaddima is written very thoughtfully and scrupulouslybased on a certain pattern and within a particular framework or theoreticalfoundation We have proved this hypothesis in our assessment above It canbe seen from the structure and sequential order of the chapter which showsquite clearly the reflection of his theory of civilisation It begins with thepsychological and philosophical description of the human being the functionof the faculty of fikr and the basic formation of human society The formationof a simple society the fulfilment of basic human needs is in fact the beginningof civilisation This stage is manifested in the concept of poundumrn badaw+ Themovement of society into a more complex and sophisticated society is reflectedby achievements in the sciences and crafts the establishment of an educationaltradition and of course the embellishment of life This is manifested in theconcept of poundumrn |a=ar+ It is very clear that the organisation of Chapter 6 isa reflection of the movement of civilisation from poundumrn badaw+ to poundumrn|a=ar+ This is precisely sketched in Figure 71

We can certainly claim that we will be able see the theoretical frameworkand possibly to sketch and reconstruct this theory at the end of this study Ourstudy also shows that the author while presenting his discourse about thecontemporary sciences has never divorced himself from historical and socialreality ie the position of these sciences in human history He remains

poundumrn ha=ar+

poundumrn badaw+

Basic concepts and formation of a society

Development of knowledge science habit and craft

Luxury crafts as manifestation of civilisation

Sections 1ndash6 (prefatory) Sequential order

Sections 52ndash59 poetry and prose (embellishment)

Civilisational process

Figure 71 The sequential order of the text reflects Ibn Khaldnrsquos theory of civilisation


160

essentially an historian and sociologist with an observant empiricist outlookThis is very clearly seen in the pattern of presentation in which we can alwayssee the cast of historical characters manifest in his exposition This is what ismeant by the sociological element which becomes the theatrical stage andthe background of the theory

Second comes the human ability to think as the centre of the theory Inany process of theory making the most crucial part is to determine where tostart ie to decide the actual point of departure To undertake this sort ofenterprise is not a simple task By taking the human mental faculty as hispoint of departure the author of the Muqaddima is stepping off on the rightfoot to develop such a theory Indeed it is apparent that he is successful inthis attempt He has successfully developed his scheme namely his epistemol-ogy sociology of human knowledge and classification of sciences and locatedit within the wider scope of his theory of culture and civilisation This isshown in Figure 72

Third comes the division of the sciences into two categories Analyticallyspeaking as we also indicated earlier we find that this categorisation requires

GOD

Human mental faculty

Prophetrevelation

Scienceknowledge

Crafthabit Co-operation (tapoundwun) Division of labour

Social organisation

Civilisation

Educationcontinuity (sanad)

Figure 72 Human mental faculty (fikr) as the centre of Ibn Khaldnrsquos theory of civilisation


161

some modification This is related to the problem of the spiritual sciences asraised by Lakhsassi After considering many aspects of Ibn Khaldnrsquos argumentswe incline to agree with Lakhsassirsquos suggestion that another category needs tobe added The spiritual sciences do not fit comfortably into either of the othertwo categories We admit that this is inconsistent with Ibn Khaldnrsquos ownclaim However we must stress that this does not in any way change theepistemological scheme that has been established We take this pointparticularly into account in our attempt to sketch Ibn Khaldnrsquos theory asrepresented in Figure 73

Fourth we learn from this study that achievement in scholarship is anindicator of achievement in a civilisation This has consistently been upheldthroughout Chapter 6 and considered as one of the most accurate indicatorsfor the purpose In relation to his civilisation theory Ibn Khaldn stronglybelieves that the strength of a civilisation depends very much upon theestablishment of a tradition of scholarship and the continuity (sanad) of thistradition This includes achievement in knowledge and the sciences as wellas in habits and crafts

GOD

Prophet (intermediary)

Human mental faculty (fikr)

Knowledgesciences

Intellectualphilosophical

Traditional prophetic revealed

Spiritual

Auxiliary sciences The sciences of the Qurrsquon and the sunna tafs+r qirrsquot

|ad+th fiqh kalm etc

Language literature poetry prose Sufism dream interpretation

talisman etc

Logic arithmetic geometry astronomy music physics

metaphysics etc

Figure 73 Ibn Khaldnrsquos theory of knowledge (epistemology) and classification of thesciences


162

Fifth we also learn that Ibn Khaldn uses the language factor as anotherindicator of achievement in civilisation Achievement in literary compositionis seen as another manifestation of achievement in civilisation Developmentin language skill goes in parallel with the process of civilisation As we haveobserved language at the lowest level is basically employed as a means ofcommunication but at its highest level in speech and literary composition itis the manifestation of the embellishment of life If in the case of knowledgeand science the highest level of achievement is manifested in the number andquality of scholars and their scientific literary productions in language andliterature achievement is represented by the highest quality of literarycompositions of all kinds both poetry and prose This is what transpires inthe last part of this chapter

N O T E S

163

NOTES

General introduction

1 Thanks to al-Azmeh who has prepared a quite comprehensive bibliographicallist on studies related to Ibn Khaldn in his Ibn Khaldn in Modern Scholarship231ndash317 See also eg Ghazoul ldquoThe Metaphors of Historiographyrdquo 48

2 Though kitb in conventional terms means ldquobookrdquo here I prefer the wordldquochapterrdquo Throughout this study Book 6 will be referred to as ldquoChapter 6rdquo

3 See eg al-Buraey Administrative 214 See Newton Twentieth Century 1035 It is beyond the scope of the present work to expand this discussion For a better

picture of this dispute I suggest Palmerrsquos Hermeneutics in which he speaks parti-cularly about the basic ideas of Schleiermacher Dilthey Heidegger and GadamerSee also Newton Twentieth Century 103ndash4 and Ricoeur Hermeneutics and theHuman Sciences 43ndash62

6 See Newton Interpreting the Text 45

1 Introductory materials to the study of Chapter 6 ofthe Muqaddima

1 R1cvi2 R1lxxxviii3 R1lxxxviii4 R1c5 R1ciindashciii6 R1ci7 See al-Azmeh Ibn Khaldn An Essay in Reinterpretation 1668 See for example Walzer Greek into Arabic 6ndash89 See for example Mahdi Ibn Khaldnrsquos Philosophy 36ndash7

10 See R3253ndash411 See Ma|md ldquoIbn Khaldnrdquo in BFACU 26 9612 Syrier ldquoIbn Khaldnrdquo in IC 27113 See QIII31ndash314 Mahdi Ibn Khaldnrsquos Philosophy 84ndash515 Mahdi Ibn Khaldnrsquos Philosophy 85

N O T E S

164

16 See QI165ff17 See QII372ndash418 Mahdi Ibn Khaldnrsquos Philosophy 8519 See al-Azmeh Ibn Khaldn An Essay 6720 See al-Azmeh Ibn Khaldn An Essay 6821 R241122 R2411ndash12

Science and instruction is natural to human civilisationThis is because all animals share with man his animality as far as sensualperception motion food shelter and other things are concerned Man isdistinguished from them by his ability to think This enables him to obtain hislivelihood to co-operate to this end with his fellow men to establish the socialorganisation that makes such co-operation possible and to accept the divinerevelations of the prophets to act in accordance with them and to prepare forhis salvation in the other world He thinks about all these things constantlyand does not stop thinking for even so long as it takes the eye to blink In factthe action of thinking is faster than the eye can see

Manrsquos ability to think produces the sciences and the afore-mentioned craftsIn connection with the ability to obtain the requirements of nature which isengrained in man as well as indeed in animals his ability to think desires toobtain perceptions that it does not yet possess Man therefore has recourse tothose who preceded him in a science or had more knowledge or perceptionthan he or learned a particular science from earlier prophets who transmittedinformation about it to those whom he met He takes over such things fromthem and is eager to learn and know them

His ability to think and to speculate then directs itself to one of the realitiesHe speculates about every one of the accidents that attach themselves to theessence of (that reality) He persists in doing so until it becomes a habit of hisalways to combine all its accidents with a given reality So his knowledge ofthe accidents occurring in connection with a particular reality becomes aspecialised knowledge Therefore they repair to the people who know about itThis is the origin of instruction It has thus become clear that science andinstruction are natural to human beings And God knows better R2411ndash12

23 Cf R241124 See QII364 R2411ndash1225 QII364 R241226 Q167827 QII364ndash5 R2412ndash1328 QII365 R2412ndash329 QII365 R241430 QII366 R241431 QII3666 R241432 QII366 R241433 QII366 R2414ndash1534 QII367 R241635 Qr230 see QII367 R241636 QII367 R2416

N O T E S

165

37 Co-operation (tapoundwun) literally ldquohelping each otherrdquo is in fact a social concepthere which corresponds very closely to the modern social theory of division oflabour This concept will be discussed further in a later section (pp 22ff)

38 QII368 R241739 QII368ndash9 R2417ndash1840 QII369 R241841 QII369 R241842 QII369 R241943 QII370 R341944 QII370 R2419ndash2045 QII370 R242046 QII371 R2420 cf RI21147 QII371 R242048 QII371 R242149 QII372 R242150 QII372 R242151 QII372 R2421ndash252 QII372 R2421ndash253 QII373 R242254 QII374 R242355 The concept of revelation can be referred back to the earlier discussion on the

perceivers of spiritual world (al--mudrik+n li-rsquol-ghayb)56 QII374 R242457 Qr1678 see also QII375 R242558 Q961ndash559 QII375 R242560 See R1cv61 See R1cvndashcvi62 See R241163 See QII364ndash564 See Taylor ldquoAristotlersquos Epistemologyrdquo 117ndash18

2 Man as thinking animal

1 See QII364 and 4072 In general terminology poundaql and fikr carry slightly different connotations poundAql

usually translated as ldquointellectrdquo or ldquointelligentrdquo is equivalent to the Greek nous(see EI2 1 341) while fikr is usually translated as ldquothoughtrdquo or ldquoreflectionrdquo(see EI2 2 891) Conceptually however both terms refer to the same subjectie the intellectual faculty of man except perhaps that the latter denotes theintellectual faculty in the act of thought or reflecting upon an object ofintellection (Cf for example Rahman Avicennarsquos Psychology 50) In Islamicintellectual tradition particularly in the science of kalm poundaql is used as the pairof naql The former refers to mental exercise or speculation the latter torevelation Comparatively the term fikr is used particularly in sf+ tradition asthe pair of dhikr

3 See QII4074 See QII407 R2411

N O T E S

166

5 ldquoDivision of labourrdquo is the term originally used by economists to denote theprocess by which people come to perform more and more specialised tasks inthe life of their society Under names such as ldquorole differentiationrdquo the processis familiar in many non-economic contexts but more obvious in the growth ofmore and more complex occupational structures Division of labour is one ofseveral interconnected social processes (urbanisation state formationbureaucratisation population growth and of course industrialisation) which ledto the emergence of the large-scale industrial state societies of the modern worldMSEP97 cf BDTCST 162ndash5 For a classic Western (European) discussion ofthe concept see Adam Smith The Wealth of Nations first published in 1776and Emile Durkheimrsquos Division of Labor in Society first published in 1893

6 See QI69ndash73 R189ndash937 QII4078 See also QI69 R1899 QII407ndash8

10 QII40711 QII40712 QII40713 QII407ndash814 QII373ndash4 R2422ndash415 See Rahman Prophecy 106ndash716 See Rahman Prophecy 107 and R242417 QII376 R242618 See QII306ndash16 R2346ndash5519 QII306 R234620 QII376 R242621 QII376 R242622 QII376ndash7 R2426ndash723 QII377 R242724 QII377 R242725 QII377 R242726 QII377 R242727 QII378 R2427ndash828 QII378 R242829 QII378 R242830 QII379 R242931 Cf Tritton Materials 6932 QII379 R242933 QII379 R2429ndash3034 QII380 R243035 QII380 R243136 QII381 R243237 QII381 R243238 QII381ndash2 R2432ndash339 QII382ndash3 R243340 QII383 R243441 QII384 R243442 EI2 VIII 910

N O T E S

167

43 Cf Nakosteen History of Islamic Origin 70 see also Makdisi The Rise of Colleges42

44 QII384 R2435

3 The division of the sciences

1 QII385 R24362 QII385 R24363 QII385 R34364 QII385 R2436 The reading al-wa=pound al-sharpound+ in the text seems inappropriate

Therefore I would suggest the reading al-w=ipound al-sharpound+ which carries theconnotation of lawgiver See QII3859ndash10

5 QII385 R24366 QII385 R24377 QII385 R24378 QII386 R24379 QII386 R2438

10 See QII387 R243811 See QII387 R243812 QII385 R243613 Lakhsassi Epistemological Foundation 29 also Lakhsassi ldquoIbn Khaldunrdquo 2414 QII385 R243715 QII385 R243716 QII388 R2439ndash40 a fuller account may be obtained from EI2 V 127ndash8

also Ibn Mujhid Kitb al-sabpounda 7 and Watt Bellrsquos Introduction 4917 Cf EI2 V 49918 QII389 R244119 QII389 R244120 QII338ndash349 R2377ndash9121 QII390 R244222 QII391 R244323 QII391 R2443ndash424 Sezgin GAS 1 21 cf Hitti History 38825 QII392 R2444 cf Young The Cambridge History 4326 QII392 R244427 QII392 R244428 ldquoEarly Muslimsrdquo (salaf) here refers to the authority of the a|ba (the Prophetrsquos

companions) and the tbipound+n (the second generation)29 QII392 R244530 This tradition is commonly known as isrrsquo+liyyt in which sources of information

were gathered from either converted Jews or perhaps Arabs who had hadcontacts with Jews or Christians before their conversion to Islam EI2 IV 211

31 QII394 R244632 QII394 R244633 Al-Kashshf poundan |aqrsquoiq al-tanz+l wa-pounduyn al-aqw+l f+-wujh al-tarsquow+l now available

in three volumes34 Cf Gatje The Quran 3535 QII395 R2447

N O T E S

168

36 Cf Mu|aysin al-Qirrsquot 35 also Ibn Khalaf Kitb al-poundUnwn 16ndash1737 Cf EI2 X (f) 83ndash538 Cf EI2 IV 211ndash2 a further account is given by Calder ldquoTafsirrdquo 13739 QII395 R244740 QII395 R2448 cf Burton Sources esp 39ndash41 also EI2 VII 1009ndash1241 QII396 R2448ndash942 QII397 R2449 cf N+sbr+ Mapoundrifa 52ndash343 QII397 R245044 QII397 R245145 QII397ndash8 R245146 QIII1 R33 cf EI2 II 886 also Schacht Islamic Law 147 QIII2 R33 The term mushbaha (similarity) is actually not very common in

fiqh terminology Qiys is the more commonly used term for this48 QIII2 R33 cf EI2 III 1061ndash2 also al-Turk+ Asbb 10ndash1249 QIII2 R3350 Cf n 17 above51 QIII2 R3452 QIII2 R3453 Cf Schacht Islamic Law 6354 QIII67 R3855 QIII6 R3956 QIII14 R32057 QIII15 R320ndash158 QIII16 R32259 QIII16 R32260 QIII16 R322ndash361 QIII17 R32362 QIII17 R323ndash463 Cf EI2 V 238ndash4064 QIII18 R32465 See QIII18ndash19 R324ndash566 QIII19 R325ndash667 QIII20ndash1 R327ndash868 QIII21 R32869 QIII21 R32870 QIII22ndash3 R328ndash3071 QIII22 R32972 QIII23ndash4 R330ndash173 QIII25 R33274 QIII25ndash6 R332ndash375 Rosenthalrsquos suggestion that the al-poundAm+d+ referred to here was Muhammad b

Muhammad who died in 6151218 is quite inappropriate The person who wasmore probably the one referred to here by Ibn Khaldn was poundAl+ b Ab+ poundAl+ bMuhammad al-Taghlab+ Sayf al-D+n who died in 6311233 This is based onthe assumption that he was the one known to be notably involved in this subjectSee EI2 I 434

76 QIII26 R333

N O T E S

169

77 Again Rosenthalrsquos suggestion of poundUmar b Muhammad who died in 5371142earlier than poundAm+d+ is not logical He is supposed to be the follower of poundAm+d+not his predecessor I would suggest Hafi~ al-D+n Ab al-Barakt poundAbd Allh bA|mad b Ma|md who died in 7101310 See EI2 VII 969

78 A good general overview of this subject may be obtained from a recent articleby Parves Morewedge in OEMIW 4 214ndash24

79 See QIII27 R33480 See ER 8 23181 Cf lsquoAbduh Risla 582 See al-Ghazzl+ al-Munqidh 3583 See al-Ghazzl+ al-Munqidh 3684 QIII27 R33485 See QIII27 R33486 QIII27 R33487 QIII28 R33588 QIII28 R33589 QIII29 R33690 QIII30 R33891 See al-Ghazzl+ al-Munqidh 7992 QIII28 R33593 QIII38 R33594 QIII29 R33695 QIII29 cf R33696 Cf Shehadi ldquoTheism Mysticism and Scientific Historyrdquo 27797 See al-Munqidh on |aq+qat al-nubuwwa98 QIII30 R33799 QIII31 R338

100 QIII31 R339101 QIII29 R336102 QIII30 R338 cf Schleifer ldquoIbn Khaldnrdquo 94103 QIII31 R339 cf Syrier ldquoIbn Khaldnrdquo 271104 QIII31 R339105 QIII33 R340 cf also section on Sufism below pp 64ff106 QIII33 R342107 See QIII36 R344ndash5108 See QIII36 R345109 QIII37 R346ndash7110 A good overview of the history and the ideas of this theological group may be

obtained from a recent article by D Gimaret in EI2 VII 783ndash93111 QIII39 R349 Controversy over the pre-existence and the createdness of the

Quran has been the focus of a number of studies see eg Madelung ldquoThe Originrdquo504ndash25

112 The point of rejection was that the Imm+ Shipound+ believed that the imamate wasone of the articles of faith while the sunn+ believed the contrary A generaloverview of this doctrine may be obtained from a recent article by Sachedina inOEMIW 2 183ndash5 A more detailed discussion has been an article by WMadelung in EI2 III 1163ndash9

113 See QIII39 R348ndash9

N O T E S

170

114 poundAra= (accident) has become a technical term of the mutakallimn referring totransient phenomena in connection with the atom Al-Baqilln+rsquos statementthat ldquoan accident cannot sustain another accident and cannot persist at twomomentsrdquo (al-poundara= l yaqmu bi-rsquol-poundara= wa-anna-hu la-yabq zamanain) shouldbe understood in that context Cf Dhanani The Physical Theory 15ndash54

115 QIII41 R351116 This approach differs in technical terminology from the older one It often

includes refutation of the philosophers where their opinions are found to havedeviated from the articles of faith The philosophers are considered as enemiesof the articles of faith because their opinions in most respects have a relationshipwith the opinions of the innovators However Ibn Khaldn gives no clearexample of this particular school See QIII41 R352

117 QIII42 R353118 QIII43 R354119 Al-Junayd was once passing a group of theologians discussing the problem (of

the freedom of God from human attributes) He asked who they were He wastold that they were people who by the aid of arguments were trying to freeGod from the attributes of createdness and from the qualities that indicatedeficiency Whereupon al-Junayd said ldquoThe denial of a fault where (the existenceof) a fault is impossible is (in itself) a faultrdquo (nafy al-poundaib haithu yusta|+l al-poundaibpoundaibun) QIII43 R354

120 Cf BrI838121 QIII44 R356122 The verse calls those persons ldquodeviatorsrdquo ndash that is people who turn away from

truth unbelievers heretics stupid innovators The verse says that they act soin order to cause trouble ndash that is polytheism and confusion among the believersndash or in order to be able to interpret the ambiguous verses to suit their desiresand to use their interpretations as a model for their innovations QIII45 R357

123 See for example al-Suy_+ al-Itqn 2 2ndash13 see also al-abar+ Tafs+r al-abri6 201ndash11 This concerns the verse that praises scholars for simply believing theambiguous verses It says ldquoThose who are firmly rooted in knowledge say hellipWebelieve in them They are all from our Lordrdquo The early Muslims consideredthis statement as the beginning of the new sentence They did not consider itto be coupled with the preceding statement in which case it would mean ldquohelliponlyGod knows how to interpret them and so do those who are firmly rooted inknowledge who sayhelliprdquo See QIII45ndash6 R357 also Wansborough QurrsquonicStudies 149

124 QIII45 R356125 QIII47 R360126 QIII47 R360127 Cf eg Goldziher Introduction 96128 QIII54 R369129 QIII54 R369130 See QIII55 R370 cf al-Munqidh 79131 QIII60 R376132 QIII60 R376133 Eg al-Sarrj The derivation of the name f+ has in fact long been a subject of

dispute among scholars and researchers A number of words have been suggested

N O T E S

171

as the possible origin of suf+ such as afrsquo (purity) aff (rank) and uffa (bench)See for example ERE XII 10 for a more detailed account see also Bisyn+Nashrsquoat 9ndash11 cf al-Qushayr+ Risla 8 and Ansari Sufism 31ndash2

134 QIII60 R377135 QIII60 R376136 Cf al-Azmeh Ibn Khaldun An Essay107137 QIII6016 R377 The concept of idrk is set out by Ibn Khaldn in his prefatory

remarks to Chapter 6 of the Muqaddima particularly in the first topic on manrsquosability to think See QII363 ff R2411 ff Cf Casewit ldquoThe mystical siderdquo173

138 See QIII60ndash1 R378139 Cf Ansari Sufism 108ndash9140 QIII61 R378141 See QIII626ndash7 R379 cf Baldwin ldquoMohasabardquo 32ndash6 Although the f+

concept of muhsaba may be traditionally associated with Hrith b Asad al-Muhsib+ (d 243857) through his al-Ripoundya the most detailed study of itsconcept and practice is by al-Ghazzl+ in his famous Ihyrsquo See Deladriegravere EI2VII 465

142 QIII61ndash2 R378ndash9143 See QIII63 R380144 This word has a special connotation in Sufism Terminologically it means ldquoto

make appear in a complete and actual realisation the mysterious senses and therealities which are behind the veilrdquo See EI2 IV 696

145 See QIII63 R381146 QIII63ndash4 R381147 QIII 64 R381148 QIII65 R383149 QIII66ndash7 R383ndash5150 This additional extended passage covers from QIII6519 to 6818151 Sapound+d al-D+n Muhammad b Ahmad (d 6991300) the author of Muntah al-

Mudrik which is referred to here by Ibn Khaldn The full title of the work wasMuntah al-Mudrik wa Muntah Lubb kull Kmil wa poundrif wa Slik Unfortunatelythis work has not yet been published the manuscript is now available inmicrofilm form at Maktabat Ahmad al-Thlith Istanbul See Homerin FromArab Poet to Muslim Saint 143

152 See QIII69 R387153 QIII69 R387ndash8154 QIII69 R388ndash9155 QIII70 R389156 In the Beirut edition this reads ldquoIbn Dahqnrdquo157 QIII71 R390158 QIII72 R392 cf R2188159 Qu_b is a f+ concept (of pole or axis) referring to the chief gnostic (rarsquos al-

poundrif+n) The f+s assumed that no one can reach this station in gnosis until Godtakes him unto Himself and then gives his station to another gnostic who willbe his heir However this theory of successive poles is not confirmed by logicalarguments or evidence from religious law It is a sort of rhetorical figure of speech(inna-m huwa min anwpound al-khi_ba) QIII73 R392ndash3

N O T E S

172

160 This quotation only appears in Quatremegraverersquos edition Based on Rosenthalrsquos notewe have no further information about who Ab Mahd+ was Ibn Khaldn tellsus that Ab Mahd+ was his shaykh and chief saint in Spain See QIII74 R394

161 Sha_aht is a technical term in Sufism meaning ecstatic or theopathic expressionand commonly used for mystical sayings that are frequently outrageous incharacter EI2 IX 361 For a more comprehensive treatment of this matter seeErnst Words of Ecstasy passim cf Schimmel Pain and Grace 106 For theopathiclocution see Schimmel Mystical Dimensions 41 This subject has been speciallystudied by Dr lsquoAbd al-Rahman Badaw+ in his Sha_a|t al-fiyya 1 passim

162 QIII80 R3102ndash3163 Rosenthal has questioned this statement In his note he argues that Greek

works on dream interpretation such as Artemidorus were translated into ArabicA fourteenth-century copy of his work containing the first three books ispreserved in Istanbul University (Arabca Yazma 4726) Artemidorus is alsoquoted by al-gtmir+ Oacuteayawn See R3103 n554

164 QIII80 R3103165 QIII81 R3103166 Q1185 R1207167 Ibn Khaldn explains that the spirit of the heart is ldquothe fine vapour coming

from the cavity in the flesh of the heartrdquo R3104168 QIII81 R3104169 QIII82 R3105170 QIII83 R3105171 See QIII83ndash4 R3106ndash7172 See QIII84ndash5 R3107ndash8173 See QIII85ndash6 R3108ndash9174 QIII85 R3108175 Ab poundAbd Allah Muhammad b poundUmar lived around 8001397 See Lakhsassi

The Epistemological Foundation 190 n176 QIII86 R3110177 Muhammad b poundAbd Allah al-Qafs+ one of Ibn Khaldnrsquos shaykhs in Tunis d

7361335 See LakhsassiThe Epistemological Foundation 190 This name is foundin Quatremegraverersquos edition only

178 R3110 n572179 Ab Bakr Muhammad Ibn S+r+n (d 110728) He was the first renowned Muslim

dream interpreter as well as a traditionalist and also well versed in jurisprudenceSee Fahd EI2 III 947ndash8

180 Al-Kirmn+ lived under the Abbasid caliph al-Mahd+ (158ndash169775ndash785) Hiswork al-Dustr which is now lost was known by Ibn al-Anbr+ See LakhsassiThe Epistemological Foundation 191 n 1

181 QIII86 R3110182 See Lakhsassi The Epistemological Foundation passim

4 The intellectual sciences

1 QIII88 R31122 QIII88 R31123 QIII89 R389 Qr2102

N O T E S

173

4 QIII90 R31145 QIII90 R31156 QIII108 R31377 See EI2 VI 4428 See al-Azmeh Ibn Khaldn An Essay 1099 See ER 9 6

10 See R313911 QIII110 R3139 Br191012 See R3139 n 691a13 QIII110ndash12 R3140ndash114 QIII113 R3142ndash315 QIII114 R314416 See Gyekye Arabic Logic 217 Cf Ibn S+n al-Ishrt 1 233ndash4418 QIII115 R314519 Cf Marmura ldquoGhazalirsquos attituderdquo in Hourani Essays 100ff20 QIII116 R314621 See Mahdi ldquoIbn Khaldnrdquo in Sharif History 2 888ff22 The Greek phrase ldquota meta ta phusikardquo means what comes after the physics23 See for example al-Azmeh Ibn Khaldn An Essay 11124 QIII121 R3152 cf EP 5 291ndash225 See Verbeke ldquoAristotlersquos Metaphysicsrdquo in OrsquoMeara Studies10726 We shall see his argument of refutation when we come to study his passage on

ldquothe refutation of philosophyrdquo27 QIII122 R315328 QIII122 R315429 QIII123ndash4 R315530 By this statement I do not mean to refer to scientific traditions that have

developed within the milieu of a certain religion which resulted in inculcationof some religious values or have been affiliated to a certain religion such asIslamic and Christian sciences

31 QIII129 R316132 See QIII125 R315733 QIII126 R315834 QIII126 R3158ndash935 See QIII126 R3158ndash936 See QIII140 R317437 See QIII136 R317038 Lakhsassi The Epistemological Foundation 239 QIII210 R3246ndash740 QIII210 R3247 cf Hodgson The Venture 1 41841 QIII210 R324742 QIII21143 For more explanation of the philosophersrsquo theory of intellect see also Davidson

al-Frb+ especially 44ndash7344 QIII21145 QIII211ndash12 R3248

N O T E S

174

46 For a clearer definition of the philosophersrsquo concept of happiness see eg al-Farb+ Risla 14ndash16 see also al-Farb+ Kitb rrsquo 85ndash7

47 QIII212 R324948 Lakhsassi ldquoIbn Khaldunrdquo in Nasr and Leaman History 35849 QIII213 cf Ma|md Mawqif 144ndash850 QIII213 R325051 R325252 R325253 R325354 QIII216 R3253ndash455 QIII218ndash19 R3255ndash656 R3 p25757 Cf eg Rosenthal ldquoIbn Jaldunrdquo 77 and Macdonald The Religious Attitude

13158 Cf Mahmud ldquoMawqif Ibn Khaldnrdquo 144ndash5159 QIII213 R325060 QIII87 R311161 R311162 See R3246ndash7 cf REP 4 62663 See R324964 See al-Azmeh Ibn Khaldn An Essay 116 cf al-âgh+r al-Tafk+r 18ndash19

5 Scholarship as a science and pedagogical method

1 See Tibawi Islamic Education 422 On the categories of thinking see QII364ndash53 See R24264 See Tibawi Islamic Education 195ndash65 See R3281 n6 R32817 See R32828 See QIII245ndash7 R3284ndash79 R3287

10 For a general picture of the history of education before the time of Ibn Khaldnsee for example Semaan ldquoEducation in Islamrdquo 188ndash98

11 A comparative view of medieval Arabic theories of communication may beobtained from Haddad Alfarabirsquos Theory passim

12 See Rosenthal The Technique 613 See also Berkey The Transmission of Knowledge esp 24ndash514 See for example Sibai Mosque Libraries esp 35ff15 QIII248 R3288ndash916 QIII249 R328917 See Chejne Muslim Spain 18018 QIII250 R329119 QIII251ndash2 R3292ndash320 QIII253ndash4 R3293ndash421 QIII254ndash5 R3295ndash6

N O T E S

175

22 QIII255 R329623 QIII256ndash7 R3296ndash724 Cf Tritton Materials 68ndash9 and Fat|iyya ldquoal-Ittijht al-Tarbawiyyardquo 454ndash725 QIII258 R3298ndash926 QIII258 R329927 QIII258 R329928 QIII258 R329929 QIII259 R330030 See al-Frb+ I|rsquo al-poundulm passim and Ibn Hazm Rasrsquoil 4 passim A good

survey and summary of the classification of sciences by medieval Muslim scholarsmay be found in Rosenthal The Classical Heritage 52ndash63 cf also Levy TheSocial Structure especially Chapter X on Islamic cosmology and other sciences

31 EI1 IV 91332 See al-Khwrizm+ Mafti| al-poundulm passim cf EI2 IV ldquoal-Khwarazmirdquo 1068ndash

9 and Rosenthal The Classical Heritage 5433 Ibn S+n Kitb al-najt 10934 Ibn S+n Kitb al-najt 10935 Ibn S+n Kitb al-najt 10936 Cf Irving ldquoLanguagerdquo in Kritzeck and Winder The World of Islam 185ndash9237 QIII260 R330138 QIII264 R330539 QIII265 R330540 QIII265ndash6 R330641 QIII266 R330742 Cf Dodge Muslim Education 2 also Abdullah Educational Theory 42ndash343 In a modern system of education the level and achievement of a student can

simply be measured by his paper qualifications in the form of degrees andcertificates In medieval times especially medieval Islam the achievement of astudent in education and knowledge could be recognised by a kind ofauthorisation to teach The term used for this purpose was ijza Ijza was a formof authorisation given to a person who in the opinion of his teacher had qualifiedand was capable of transmitting knowledge Those who were qualified to givelegal opinions were issued with ijza bi-rsquol-fatw (or iftrsquo) and those who havequalified both to teaching and to give legal opinions were issued with ijza bi-rsquol-tadr+s wa-rsquol-fatw (or iftrsquo) The best description so far of the process anddevelopment of this system may be obtained from Makdisi Rise of Collegesparticularly 147ndash8

44 QIII266ndash7 R3307ndash845 QIII267 R330846 QIII267 R330847 QSIX122 See also al-Ghazzl+ I|yrsquo 15 Although this verse emphasises

religious knowledge (li-yatafaqqah f+-rsquol-d+n) Muslim scholars take it positivelyto mean every kind of knowledge Muhammad Asad a modern Quranicinterpreter suggests in his commentary that although this injunction mentionsspecifically religious knowledge it has a positive bearing on every kind ofknowledge and this in view of the fact that the Quran does not draw any dividingline between spiritual and the worldly concerns of life but rather regards themas different aspects of one and the same reality See Asad The Message 285

N O T E S

176

48 This tradition is quoted by Shalaby in Muslim Education 18149 See al-Ghazzl+ I|yrsquo 1550 Al-Ghazzl+ notes that the chain of transmitters of this tradition is weak (=apound+f)

See I|yrsquo 1551 Berkey Transmission 152 See for example Fischel Ibn Khaldn in Egypt esp 1ndash653 See QIII268 R3308ndash954 See QIII268ndash9 R330955 QIII269 R330956 See Issawi Arab Philosophy 12857 Perhaps the best conceptual discourse regarding the ideal ruler and the

combination of scholar and politician is al-Frb+rsquos concept of philosopher-kingSee al-Frb+ Kitb rrsquo passim

58 QIII270 R331159 QIII270 R331160 QIII270 R331161 QIII270 R331162 Juynboll mentions two contradictory interpretations of qurrrsquo The conservative

meaning of the term refers to Quran reciters A new interpretation suggested byShaban is that the term qurrrsquo is not a derivation from qf-rrsquo-hamza Instead itis derived from qf-rrsquo-ya and means villagers synonymous with ahl al-qurUnfortunately Juynbollrsquos study does not make any reference to Ibn KhaldnOn the other hand the article in the Encyclopeadia of Islam (new edition)relates the term qurrrsquo to political organisation We have no intention ofbecoming involved in this dispute Since Ibn Khaldn clearly explains what hemeans we take it plainly to refer to those who can read (especially the Quran)and those who are not illiterate See Juynboll ldquoThe Qurrrsquordquo 113ndash29 cf EI2 V499ndash500 cf also Shaban Islamic History 50 and Hinds ldquoKufan PoliticalAlignmentrdquo 346ndash67

63 QIII271 R331264 Ibn Khaldnrsquos statement that carriers of knowledge in Islam were mostly non-

Arab was not shared by the early scholars in Islam See Makdisi Rise of Colleges153

65 QIII273 R331466 QIII273 R331467 He was a Yemenite via a remote ancestor68 QIII273 R331469 QIII275 R331670 QIII275 R331671 QIII276 R331772 QIII276 R331873 QIII277ndash8 R331974 QIII278 R3319

6 Language and literature

1 QIII279 R33192 QIII279 R3320

N O T E S

177

3 QIII279 R33214 Cf Rousseau and Herder On the Origin 5ff also Beattie and Smith Theory of

Language 1ndash75 QIII280 R33216 QIII280 R3321 cf Concordance 1 3657 See QIII280 R33218 QIII281 R33229 QIII281 R3322 cf Goldziher On the History passim

10 Goldziher On the History 311 Al-Khal+l b Ahmad al-Farh+d+ also known as al-Bar+ was among the second

generation the teacher of S+bawayh and wrote Kitb al-poundayn which was said tobe the first Arabic dictionary of its kind and to have constituted the basis of alllater development in dictionary making See Versteegh Landmarks 7 and 23ffsee also Bakalla Arabic Linguistics p xxxiii

12 Detailed treatment on the grammatical dispute between the Kufans and theBasrans may be obtained from al-Anbr+ al-Insf passim see also GoldziherOn the History 32ndash7 and Versteegh Arabic Grammar 9ndash16

13 For a recent research on Ibn jib see al-Janb+ Ibn al-jib al-Na|w+ passim14 QIII282 R3323ndash415 QIII283 R332516 QIII283 R332517 QIII283 R3325 see also Owens The Foundation of Grammar 2018 QIII284 R332619 QIII289 R333220 QIII290 R333321 QIII290 R3333ndash422 QIII291 R333523 This division is slightly different from for example that of al-Qazw+n+ (d 739

1338) whose divisions were poundIlm al-bayn poundIlm al-mapoundn+ and poundIlm al-bad+pound Seeal-Qazw+n+ al-lt=| fi-poundulm al-balgha 12

24 QIII291ndash2 R3335ndash625 Versteegh Arabic Language 7026 Relevant information about Zamakhshar+rsquos background career and works may

be obtained from a lengthy editorial note by M Ab al-Fut| Shar+f in hisedition of Zamakhshar+rsquos Nakt al-apoundrb f+-ghar+b al-ipoundrb

27 QIII294 R333928 QIII295 R333929 QIII295 R334030 QIII295 R334031 QIII296 R3340ndash132 QIII296 R334133 See Versteegh Landmarks 16434 QIII279 R332135 QIII297 R334236 QIII297 R334237 QIII297 R3342ndash338 QIII298 R3343 cf Cooke ldquoIbn Khaldn and Languagerdquo 182ndash339 QIII299 R3344

N O T E S

178

40 QIII300ndash1 R3345ndash641 See QIII301 R334642 QIII301 R3347 see also pp 129ff above43 Some valuable information on the Himyarite language may be obtained from

Versteegh The Arabic Language 3844 QIII302 R334745 QIII303 R334946 QIII306 R335147 QIII306 R335148 QIII307 R335249 QIII308 R335350 QIII308 R335351 QIII308 R335352 QIII309 R3354ndash553 QIII310 R335554 QIII310 R3355ndash655 QIII310 R335656 QIII312 R3357ndash857 QIII313 R335858 Cf al-Rz+ Nihya 4059 QIII313 R3358ndash960 The concept of ldquonaturalnessrdquo (_abpound) in language has been dealt with previously

at some length under the heading ldquoThe nature and development of languagerdquo(pp 134ff)

61 QIII313 R335962 QIII314 R336063 QIII315 R3360ndash164 See QIII315 R336165 QIII316 R336166 QIII317ndash18 R336367 See QIII319 R336468 See Monroe ldquoHispano-Arabic Poetryrdquo 125ndash5469 Mulk al-_awrsquoif Hispanised as reyes de taifas refers to the rulers of the states in

al-Andalus between the fall of the Mansurid who dominated the Umayyadcaliph Hishm II of Cordoba in 3991009 and the invasion of Almoravids atthe end of the fiftheleventh century The taifas were known to be very activein literary production especially poetry In the hands of the taifas the new populargenres of poetry muwashshaht and zajal emerged in which they broke new groundintroducing strophic structures and also non-classical Arabic linguistic formsas well as romantic expressions into the standard repertory of Arabic literarycanons and tastes EI2 VII 552ndash3

70 QIII320 R336571 See QIII320ndash1 R3366ndash772 QIII321 R3367 see Bosworth The New Islamic Dynasties 145 and 18573 See EI2 vol2 ldquoDhawqrdquo 221 cf Ma|md Fi-rsquol-falsafa al-naqd 25ndash4074 See Adunis An Introduction 2175 See for example Adunis An Introduction 3676 QIII315 R3361

N O T E S

179

77 See QIII319 R336478 Ibn Rash+q in his poundUmda divides Arabic speech (kalm al-poundarab) into two man~r

(joined) and manthr (loose) See Ibn Rash+q poundUmda 1 19 see also CantarinoArabic Poetics 141

79 QIII322 R3368 In the same vein Ibn Sinn al-Khafj+ (d 4661074) a Syriancontemporary of Ibn Rash+q defines poetry as rhymed metrical speech (kalmmawzn maqf+) which indicates meaning (yadullu poundala-rsquol-mapoundn) This meansthat besides rhyme and metre the element of meaningfulness is a vital elementthat characterises poetry see Zyid Kitb sirr al-faha 159 see also van GelderThe Bad and the Ugly 72

80 QIII322 R336881 See Quran 392382 See QIII322ndash3 R3368ndash983 Amatory poetry of the Arabs in praise of a woman the erotic part of the ancient

Arabic qa+da See Ibn Manzr Lisn al-poundarab 1 706 and Wehr A Dictionary1126 A comprehensive view of the meaning and evolution of this term may beobtained from a recent article by Jacobi EI2 VII 978ndash983 see also JacobildquoTime and Reality in Nas+b and Ghazlrdquo 1ndash17 and Kafrw+ Tr+kh 2 54f andHamori On The Art 17ff

84 QIII223ndash4 R3369ndash7085 QIII324 R337086 QIII325ndash6 R3371ndash287 QIII327 R337388 For a full scale explanation of Arabic poetry (shipoundr) see EI2 IX (f) 448ndash6589 QIII327 R3373 cf van Gelder Beyond the Line 19190 QIII328 R337491 See EI2 IV 411ndash1492 See EI2 I 667ndash7793 QIII330 R337694 The Mupoundallaqa of poundImru al-Qays is one of the most famous among the seven

golden odes See eg Arberry The Seven Odes 31ff95 QIII332 R3378ndash996 QIII334 R3381 cf n 2 above97 QIII335 R3381 see also n 12 above cf van Gelder Beyond the Line 19198 Kitb al-aghn+ (Book of Songs) by Ab al-Faraj al-Ifahn+ (or al-Ibahn+) is a

huge corpus presently available in 24 volumes (based on the 1963 editionpublished in Cairo) This great work is very much praised for its comprehen-siveness Apart from a collection of songs the compiler provides rich informationabout the poets who were the authors of those songs giving an account of theirlife and quoting many of their verses as well as writing about the composers oftheir melodies Furthermore he gives many details about the ancient Arab tribestheir ayym their social life the court life of the Umayyads society at the timeof the Abbasid caliphs especially of Harn al-Rash+d and the milieu of musiciansand singers In a word in the Aghn+ we pass in review the whole of Arabiccivilisation from the pre-Islamic era down to the end of the thirdninth centuryEI2 1 118ndash19 Al-Ifahn+ claimed that he spent fifty years in completing thiswork which was then presented to Sayf al-Dawla b Hamadn from whom hereceived 1000 dinars as honorarium See al-Ifahn+ Kitb al-aghn+ 1 32

N O T E S

180

99 QIII336 R3383100 Cf Ibn Rash+q al-poundUmda I 185101 QIII336ndash7 R3383ndash5102 QIII339 R3386103 QIII344 R3391104 QIII345 R3392105 QIII346 R3392ndash3106 See Young et al Religion Learning and Science 239107 QIII347 R3394108 QIII347 R3394109 QIII353 R3401110 For a more detailed clarification of tawriyya see for example al-Rz+ Raw=a al-

fa|a 114111 QIII353 R3401ndash2112 See also for example Johnson The Seven Poems vii113 QIII357 R3410 see also Huart A History of Arabic Literature 27 An annual

fair of twenty-one days which was held between rsquoif and Nakhla opened onthe first day of the month of Dhu al-Qapoundada at the commencement of threesacred months See Hughes Dictionary of Islam 649

114 Cf Ibn Rash+q poundUmda I 113115 Cf for example Farrkh Tr+kh al-adab al-poundarab+ 74ndash5116 QIII358 R3410117 Cf Montgomery The Vagaries of the Qa+da 219 also Kinany The Development

of Ghazal 115ff and al-Kafrw+ Tr+kh al-shipoundr al-poundarab+ 1 1ff118 QIII358 R3411119 QIII360 R3412ndash3120 QIII390 R3440 see also van Gelder The Bad and the Ugly 125ndash6 and Monroe

ldquoHispano-Arabic Poetryrdquo 131ndash3 For characteristic features of the muwashsha|see Haykal al-Adb al-Andals+ 140ff

121 Cf van Gelder The Bad and the Ugly 126ndash7 see also poundAbbs Trsquor+kh al-adb al-andals+ 252ff

122 QIII404 R3454123 Will Durant one of the most prominent figures in modern civilisational studies

describes this artistic aspect as part of mental element of civilisation See DurantThe Story of Civilisation 1 72

124 See Arberry ldquoFrb+rsquos Canon of Poetryrdquo 278

7 Conclusions and findings

1 See for example Mahdi Ibn Khaldn 193ff also Rab+pound The Political Theory 23ndash47

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

181

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

lsquoAbbs Ihsn Tr+kh al-naqd al-adab+ lsquoinda al-Arab Ammn 1986poundAbduh Mu|ammad Risla al-taw|+d Beirut 1986Abdullah Abdul Rahman Saleh Educational Theory A Quranic Outlook Mecca

1982Apoundml Mahrajn Ibn Khaldn Cairo 1962Adunis An Introduction to Arab Poetics Catherine Cobham (tr) London 1990al-Anbr+ Ab al-Barakt al-Inf f+-masrsquoil al-khilf bayna al-na|wiyy+n al-Bariyy+n

wa-rsquol-Kf+yy+n Mu|ammad Mu|y al-D+n al-amid (ed) Cairo 1945Ansari Muhammad Abdul Haq Sufism and Shariah A Study of Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindirsquos

Effort to Reform Sufism Leicester 1986Arberry Arthur John The Seven Odes The First Chapter in Arabic Literature London

1957Asad Muhammad The Message of the Quran Translated and Explained by M Asad

Gibraltar 1980al-Azmeh Aziz Ibn Khaldn in Modern Scholarship A Study in Orientalism London

1981mdashmdash Ibn Khaldn An Essay in Reinterpretation London 1982Badaw+ poundAbd al-Ra|mn Sha_a|t al-fiyya j1 Kuwait 1976Bakalla Muhammad Hassan Arabic Linguistics An Introduction and Bibliography

London 1983Barral JM (ed) Orientalia Hispanica Leiden 1974Beattie James The Theory of Language and Considerations Concerning the First

Formation London 1993Berkey Jonathan The Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval Cairo New Jersey 1992Bisyn+ Ibrah+m Nashrsquoat al-taawwuf al-islm+ Egypt 1969The Blackwell Dictionary of Twentieth Century Social Thought Oxford 1993Bosworth Clifford Edmund The New Islamic Dynasties Edinburgh 1996al-Buraey Muhammad A Administrative Development An Islamic Perspective London

and New York 1985Burton John An Introduction to the Had+th Edinburgh 1994mdashmdash The Sources of Islamic Law Islamic Theories of Abrogation Edinburgh 1990Calder Norman ldquoTafs+r from abar+ to Ibn Kath+rrdquo in Hawting et al (eds) Approaches

to the Quran London 1993


182

Cantarino Vicente Arabic Poetics in The Golden Age Selection of Texts Accompaniedby a Preliminary Study Leiden 1975

Chejne Anwar Muslim Spain Its History and Culture Minneapolis 1974Corbin Henry History of Islamic Philosophy Liadain Sherrad (tr) London 1993Davidson HA al-Farabi Avicenna and Averroes on Intellect Oxford 1992Dhanani Alnoor The Physical Theory of Kalam Atoms Space and Void in Basrian

Mupoundtazili Leiden 1994Dodge Bayard Muslim Education in Medieval Times Washington 1962Durant Will The Story of Civilisation New York 1953Durkheim Emile The Division of Labor in Society 1969E J Brillrsquos First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913ndash1936 MT Houtsma et al (eds) Leiden

1987Enan Muhammad Abdullah Ibn Khaldn His Life and Work Lahore 1946Encyclopaedia of Islam new editions CE Bosworth et al (eds) LeidenLondon

1960ndash2000The Encyclopedia of Philosophy Paul Edwards (ed in chief) 8 vols New York

1967The Encyclopaedia of Religion New York 1987Ernst Carl W Words of Ecstacy in Sufism Albany 1985al-Frb+ Ab Nar Mu|ammad b Mu|ammad I|rsquo al-poundulm text published

with Spanish translation entitled Catalogo de las Ciencias Madrid 1953mdashmdash Kitb rrsquo ahl al-mad+na al-f=ila Albir Nasr Nadir (ed and intro) Beirut

1959mdashmdash Risla al-tanb+h poundal sab+l al-sapoundda Dirsa wa-ta|q+q Shahbn Khal+f Amman 1987Farrkh poundUmar Trsquor+kh al-adab al-poundarab+ 2 vols Beirut 1965ndash8Fischel Walter J ldquoIbn Khaldunrsquos lsquoAutobiographyrsquo in the Light of External Arabic

Sourcesrdquo in Studi orientalistici in onore de GLevi Della Vida 2 vols Rome 1956mdashmdash Ibn Khaldn in Egypt His Public Function and His Historical Research 1382ndash

1406 Berkeley 1967Flint Robert History of the Philosophy of History Edinburgh 1893Freeman-Grenville GSP The Islamic and Christian Calendars AD 622ndash2222 (AH

1ndash1650) Reading 1995Gatje Helmut The Quran and its Exegesis Selected Text With Classical and Modern

Muslim Interpretations Alford T Welch (tr) London 1976al-Ghazl+ Ab mid Mu|ammad Ihyrsquo poundulum al-d+n 16 vols Cairo 1937ndash8mdashmdash al-Munqidh min al-=all Mu|ammad Mus_af Ab al-poundAl (ed and intro) Egypt

1973Ghazoul Ferial ldquoThe Metaphors of Historiographyrdquo in AH Green (ed) In Quest of

an Islamic Humanism Cairo 1986Goldziher Ignac Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law Hamori et al (tr) New

Jersey 1981mdashmdash On The History of Grammar Among The Arabs An Essay in Literary History

Amsterdam 1994Gyekye Kwame Arabic Logic Ibn Tayyibrsquos Commentary on Porphyryrsquos Eisagoge Albany

1979Haddad Fuad Said Alfarabirsquos Theory of Communication Beirut 1989Hamori Andras On The Art of Medieval Arabic Literature Princeton 1974Haykal A|mad al-Adab al-andalus+ min al-fat| il suq_ al-khilfa Cairo 1967


183

Hitti Philip K History of the Arabs (10th edn) New York 1991Hodgson Marshall GS The Venture of Islam 3 vols Chicago and London 1977Homerin T Emil From Arab Poet to Muslim Saint Ibn al-Far+d His Verse and His

Shrine Columbia 1994Hourani George F (ed) Essays on Islamic Philosophy and Sciences New York 1975Huart Cleacutement A History of Arabic Literature London 1903Hughes Thomas Patrick A Dictionary of Islam Being a Cyclopaedia of the Doctrines

Rites Ceremonies and Customs Together with the Technical and Theological Terms ofthe Muhammadan Religion London 1935

al-ul poundAbduh Ibn Khaldn muassis poundilm al-ijtimpound Beirut 1969Ibn Hazm Ab Muhammad Rasrsquoil Ibn azm al-Andalus+ I|san poundAbbs (ed) 4 vols

1980Ibn Khalaf Ab+ hir Ismpound+l Kitb al-poundunwn fi-rsquol-qirrsquot al-sabpound Beirut 1986Ibn Khaldn poundAbd al-Ra|mn Trsquor+kh al-poundallma Ibn Khaldn 7 vols (2nd edn)

Beirut 1967Ibn Manzr Mu|ammad b al-Mukarram Lisn al-poundarb 15 vols Beirut 1975Ibn Mujhid Kitb al-sabpounda fi-rsquol-qirrsquot Shawq+ gtayf (ed) Egypt 1972Ibn Rash+q Ab poundAl+ al-asan al-poundUmda f+-ma|sin al-shipoundr wa dbi-hi wa-naqdi-hi

Mu|ammad Mu|y al-D+n poundAbd al-am+d (ed) 2 vols Beirut 1972Ibn Sina Ab poundAl+ Kitb al-najt f+-rsquol-|ikma al-muna~~ama wa-rsquol-_ab+poundiyya wa-rsquol-ilhiyya

Majid Fakhri (ed) Beirut 1985mdashmdash al-Ishrt wa-rsquol-tanb+ht Sulaymn Duny (ta|q+q) 3 vols Egypt 1960al-Isfahn+ Ab al-Faraj Kitb al-aghn+ 24 vols Cairo 1963Issawi Charles An Arab Philosophy of History Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn

Khaldn of Tunis (1332ndash1406) London 1950al-Janb+ riq poundAbd al-poundAwn Ibn jib al-Na|w+ Atharu-hu wa-madhhabu-hu

Baghdad 1974Johnson FE The Seven Poems Suspended in the Temple at Mecca FE Johnson (tr)

London 1894al-Kafrw+ Mu|ammad poundAbd al-poundAz+z Tr+kh al-shipoundr al-poundArab+ 4 vols Cairo 1961al-Khwrizm+ Ab poundAbd Allh Mu|ammad b A|mad b Ms Maft+| al-poundulm

poundAbd al-La_+f Mu|ammad al-poundAbd (ed) 1978Kinany AK The Development of Ghazal in Arabic Literature Pre-Islamic and Early

Islamic Period Damascus 1951Kritzeck James and Winder Bayly The World of Islam Studies in Honour of Philip K

Hitti London 1959Lakhsassi Abdurrahmane The Epistemological Foundation of the Sciences in Ibn Khaldunrsquos

Muqaddima unpublished PhD thesis Manchester 1982Levy Reuben The Social Structure of Islam Cambridge 1957Macdonald DB The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam np 1909The Macmillan Student Encyclopaedia of Philosophy Basingstoke1983Mahdi Muhsin Ibn Khaldnrsquos Philosophy of History A Study of The Philosophic

Foundation of The Science of Culture London 1957Ma|md Zak+ Naj+b F+-rsquol-falsafa al-naqd Beirut 1979Makdisi George The Rise of Colleges Institutions of Learning in Islam and The West

Edinburgh 1981Monroe JT ldquoZajal and Muwashsha|a Hispano-Arabic Poetry and the Romance

Traditionrdquo in The Legacy of Muslim Spain Salma Khadra Jayyusi (eds) 2 volsLeiden 1992


184

Montgomery James E The Vagaries of the Qas+da The Tradition and Practice ofEarly Arabic Poetry Cambridge 1997

Mu|aysin M Slim al-Qirrsquot wa-atharu-h f+-poundulm al-poundArabiyya 1 Cairo 1984Nakosteen Mehdi History of Islamic Origin of Western Education AD 800ndash1350 with

an Introduction to Medieval Muslim Education Colorado 1964al-Nashr poundAl+ Sm+ Nashrsquoa al-fikr al-falsaf+ fi-rsquol-Islm 1 Cairo 1977Nasr Seyyed Hossein Science and Civilisation in Islam Cambridge MA 1968mdashmdash and Oliver Leaman (eds) History of Islamic Philosophy 2 vols London and New

York 1996Newton KM Interpreting the Text A Critical Introduction to The Theory and Practice

of Literary Interpretation New York 1990mdashmdash Twentieth Century Literary Theory A Reader Newton (ed and intr) London

1988al-N+sbr+ Ab+ poundAbd Allh Kitb mapoundrifa poundulm al-had+th Mupounda~~am ussayn (ed)

Beirut ndOrsquoMeara Dominic J (ed) Studies in Aristotle Washington 1981Owens Jonathan The Foundation of Grammar An Introduction to Medieval Arabic

Grammatical Theory Amsterdam 1988Oxford Encyclopaedia of The Modern Islamic World John L Esposito (ed in chief) 4

vols New York 1995Palmer Richard E Hermeneutics Interpretation Theory in Schleiermacher Dilthey

Heidegger and Gadamer Evanston 1969mdashmdash Prophecy in Islam Philosophy and Orthodoxy London 1958al-Qazw+n+ Jall al-D+n Mu|ammad b poundAbd al-Ra|mn al-lt=| f+-poundulm al-balgha

al-Mapoundn+ wa-rsquol-bayn wa-rsquol-bad+pound Cairo 1416al-Qushayr+ Ab al-Qsim b Hawzin al-Risla al-Qushayriyya Egypt 1940Rab+pound Muhammad Mahmoud The Political Theory of Ibn Khaldn Leiden 1967Rahman Fazlur Avicennarsquos Psychology An English Translation of Kitab al-Najat London

1952mdashmdash Islamic Methodology in History Karachi 1965al-Rz+ Fakhr al-D+n Mu|ammad Nihya al-+jz f+-dirya al-ipoundjz Ibrh+m al-Smirrsquo+

et al (ta|q+q wa-taqd+m) Oman 1985al-Rz+ Mu|ammad b Ab Bakr Ibn poundAbd al-Qdir Raw=a al-fa|a Dirst wa-

ta|q+q wa-tapoundl+q A|mad al-Nd+ Shapoundla et al (ta|q+q) al-Azhar Egypt 1982Ricoeur Paul Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences John B Thomson (ed and tr)

Cambridge 1981Rosenthal Franz (ed) The Classical Heritage of Islam London 1975mdashmdash The Technique and Approach of Muslim Scholarship Rome 1947Rousseau Jean-Jacques and Herder Johann Gott On The Origin of Language Essays

New York 1966Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy 8 vols Edward Craig (gen ed) London

1998al-âgh+r ibn poundAmmr al-Tafk+r al-poundilm poundinda Ibn Khaldn Jazrsquoir 1969Schacht Joseph An Introduction to Islamic Law Oxford 1964Schimmel Annemarie Mystical Dimensions of Islam Chapel Hill 1975Sezgin Fuat Geschichte des arabischen Schrifttums 9 vols Frankfurt 1967ndash84mdashmdash Pain and Grace A Study of Two Mystical Writers of Eighteenth-Century Muslim

Leiden 1976


185

Shaban Muhammad Abdulhay Islamic History A New Interpretation 2 volsLondon 1976

Shalaby Ahmad History of Muslim Education Beirut 1954Sharif MM History of Muslim Philosophy 2 vols Wiesbaden 1966Shehadi Fadlou ldquoTheism Mysticism and Scientific History in Ibn Khaldnrdquo in

Michael Marmura (ed) Islamic Theology and Philosophy Studies in Honor of GeorgeF Hourani New York 1984

Sibai Mohammad Makki Mosque Libraries An Historical Study London 1987Smith Adam The Wealth of Nations 1776al-Suy_+ Jall al-D+n al-Itqn f+-poundulm al-Qurrsquon Cairo 1941al-abar+ Ab Japoundfar Mu|ammad Ibn Jar+r Tafs+r al-abar+ Jmipound al-bayn poundan tarsquow+l

y al-Qurrsquon Mu|ammad Ma|md Shkir (ta|q+q) 30 vols Cairo 1957ndash72Taylor Thomas ldquoAristotlersquos Epistemologyrdquo in Stephen Everson (ed) Epistemology

Cambridge 1990Tibawi Abdul Latif Islamic Education Its Traditions and Modernisation into the Arab

National London 1972Toynbee Arnold J A Study of History 12 vols London 1934Tritton Arthur Stanley Materials on Muslim Education in the Middle Ages London

1957mdashmdash Muslim Theology London 1947al-Turk+ poundAbd Allh b poundAbd al-Mu|sin Asbb ikhtilf al-fuqahrsquo Riyadh 1977van Gelder GJH Beyond the Line Classical Arabic Literary Critics on the Coherence

and Unity of the Poem Leiden 1982mdashmdash The Bad and The Ugly Attitudes Towards Invective Poetry (hijrsquo) in Classical

Arabic Literature Leiden 1988Versteegh CHM Arabic Grammar and Quranic Exegesis in Early Islam Leiden 1993Versteegh Kees Landmarks in Linguistic Thought III The Arabic Linguistic Tradition

London 1997mdashmdash The Arabic Language Edinburgh 1997Walzer Richard Greek Into Arabic Essays on Islamic Philosophy Oxford 1962Wansborough John Quranic Studies Oxford 1977Watt William Montgomery Bellrsquos Introduction to the Quran Edinburgh 1970mdashmdash Islamic Philosophy and Theology An Extended Survey Edinburgh 1992Wehr Hans A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (ArabicndashEnglish) J Milton Cowan

(ed) Wiesbaden 1979Wensinck Arent Jan Concordance et Indices de la Tradition Musulmane 8 vols Leiden

1936ndash88Wolfson Harry Austryn The Philosophy of Kalam Cambridge MA and London 1976Young MJL et al (eds) Religion Learning and Science in the Abbasid Period (The

Cambridge History of Arabic Literature) Cambridge 1990Zamakhshar+ Ab al-Qsim Ma|md b poundUmar Nakt al-apoundrb f+-ghar+b al-ipoundrb f+-rsquol-

Qurrsquon al-Kar+m Mu|ammad poundAbd al-Fut| (ed and intro) Cairo 1985mdashmdash al-Kashshf lsquoan haqlsquoiq al-tanz+l wa lsquouyn al-aqw+l f+ wujh al-talsquow+l Qahira

1972Zyid poundAbd al-Rziq Ab Zayd Kitb sirr al-fa|a li-Ibn Sinn al-Khafj+ Dirsa

wa-ta|l+l Cairo 1976


186

Articles

Arberry AJ ldquoFrbirsquos Canon of Poetryrdquo in RDSO 17 1938Baldwin C ldquoMohasaba The Sufi way of Self-examinationrdquo in SUFI 17 1993Casewit Stephen ldquoThe Mystical Side of the Muqaddima Ibn Khaldnrsquos View of

Sufismrdquo in IQ 29(3) 1985Cooke Miriam ldquoIbn Khaldn and Language From Linguistic Habit to Philological

Craftrdquo in JAAS 18(3ndash4) 1983Fat|iyya Sulayman ldquoal-Ittijht al-tarbawiyya f+-Muqaddima Ibn Khaldnrdquo in

Mahrajn Cairo 1972Hinds Martin ldquoKufan Political Alignmentrdquo in IJMES 2 1971Jacobi R ldquoTime and Reality in Nas+b and Ghazalrdquo in JAL 16 1985Juynboll ldquoThe Qurrarsquo rdquo in JESHO 16 1973Lakhsassi Abderrahmane ldquoIbn Khaldn and the Classification of Sciencerdquo in MR

4(1) 1979Madelung Wilfred ldquoThe Origin of the Controversy Concerning the Creation of the

Koranrdquo in JM Barral (ed) Orientalia Hispanica Leiden 1974Mahmud Zaki Najib ldquoMawqif ibn Khaldn min al-falsafardquo in Mahrajn Cairo 1972Ma|md poundAbd al-Qdir ldquoIbn Khaldn wa-rsquol-taawwuf al-Islm+rdquo in BFACU 26

1969Morewedge Parves ldquoKalamrdquo OEMIW 4 214ndash24Rosenthal EIJ ldquoIbn Jaldunrsquos Attitude to the Falasifardquo in al-Andalus 20 1955Schleifer Aliah ldquoIbn Khaldnrsquos Theories of Perception Logic and Knowledgerdquo in

IQ 34(2) 1990Semaan KH ldquoEducation in Islam from Jahiliyya to Ibn Khaldunrdquo in MW 56 1966Syrier Miya ldquoIbn Khaldn and Islamic Mysticismrdquo in IC 21 1947

I N D E X

187

Abbasid 92 125poundAbd Allh b Salm 40poundAbd Allh b Shupoundaib al-Dukkl+ 28ndash9poundAbd al-Jabbr 49Ab poundAbd Allah al-kim 43Ab al-Barakt 169nAb al Faraj al-Ifahn+ 134 150 179nAb al-Hussayn al-Bar+ 49Abu al-Qsim al-awf+ 47Ab al-Qsim al-Zajjj 131Ab al-Qsim b Ab Bakr (see Ibn

Zaytn)Ab al-Qsim ibn Firra 39Ab poundAl+ al-Fris+ 131 144Ab poundAl+ al-Ql+ al-Baghdd+ 134Ab poundAl+ Na+r al-D+n al-Mashaddl+

28ndash9Ab poundAmr b al-jib (Ibn al-jib) 28

106ndash7 131Abu poundAmr b al-âl| (Ibn âlh) 43Ab poundAmr al-Dn+ 39Ab Aswad al-Dursquoal+ 131Ab Bakr 70Ab Mahd+ poundlts Ibn al-Zayyt 69 152Ab Mu|ammad b Ab+ Zayd 117Ab Muhammad b A_iyya 40 42Ab Nar al-r+n+ 6Ab Supoundd al-Yafran+ 154Ab Tamm 151 153Ab Zayd al-Dabs+ 48ndash9active intellect (al-poundaql al-fapoundpoundl) 94ahl al-kitb (people of the book) 40 42ahl al-ma~hir 68ahl sunna 51 63poundajam 127poundlam al-|iss 16alchemy 95Alexander of Aphrodisias 78

INDEX

ambiguous verses (mutashbiht) 56al-lsquoAm+d+ 49 168nAmirids (poundAm+r+yy+n) 39analogical reasoning (qiys) 34 44 48 79

81 123Analytics 80Anawati G 51anthropomorphism 57 62Anwar Chejne 106Apodeictica 80poundaql 22 165n see also nousArabic calligraphy 39 41Arabic philology 30 48 106ndash7 112 136

138 140ndash1poundarash 69Aristotle 20 78ndash9 82ndash3 85 90ndash2arithmetic (poundilm al-artam_+q+) 77Artemidorus 172nasbb al-nuzl 40al-Asfiry+n+ 80 82al-Ashpoundar+ Ab al-asan 57 62 80ndash2Ashrsquoarite(s) 62anf alpoundulm 33astrologer 10astrology 77 95astronomy (poundilm al-hayrsquoa) 77al-poundAttb+ 151auxiliary sciences 100 112ndash15 129Avicenna see Ibn S+nawqf 31al-Azmeh 6 10 163n

Babylonian(s) 87Baghdd 30ndash1balgha 40 148al-Baqilln+ 57 80 82 170nBasra 30Bay=w+ 58

I N D E X

188

Bedouin 28 30ndash1 125 153ndash4 Arabiclanguage 137ndash8 language of the 139

Berber(s) 139 143Berkey J 122Bijya (Boogie) 28al-Bu|tur+ 153Byzantine 143

Cairo 30ndash1Caliph al-Rash+d 125Categories 80Chaldean(s) 77 87 101child education 100 118China 121civilisation 6 9 20 26 30 32 35 37

104ndash5 146ndash7 157ndash8 162 164nculture 111 135 155 diminution of78 epistemological foundation of 6human 76 86 89 96 135 Islamic115 language 138 paradigmaticframeworks 6 the product of 19theory of 1 19 89 97 111 159

communication the process of 101103ndash4 theory of 100 103 126 158tool of 135 143

conventional science 33co-operation (tapoundwun) 14 21ndash3 32

156 165nCopts 77 87craft(s) 6 20 23ndash7 30ndash2 37 50 89 97

99ndash100 109 125 127 141 157 159artistic 155

Dawd b poundAl+ 45dhikr 17 66 165nDilthey W 3 163ndiscerning intellect (al-poundaql al-tamy+z+) 12

15 17divine logos 25division of labour 156 166ndream interpretation 38 64 70 72

imagination 71 vision 71ndash2Durant Will 180nDurkheim Emile 166n

education 11 24 99 120 140 aims andpurposes 100 educational tradition31 159 elementary 116 generaltheory of 108 language 140ndash1modern system of 107 philosophy of99 process of 103 112 psychologicalaspect 119 punishment 117 Quranic116 social phenomenon 122

transmission of knowledge 100 126104

Egypt 31Eisagoge 80 82embellishment of life 162encyclopaedic scholar 106epistemology 2 4 6 19ndash21 76 89 97

156erklaumlren 3existentia 91 93 98experimental intellect (al-poundaql al-tajr+b+) 12

15 17

Fakhr al-D+n al-Rz+ see Ibn al-Kh_ibfann al-rasm see orthographyal-Frb+ 78ndash80 82 92 96 114al-Farghn+ 68al-Fris+ 125al-fat| al-Ilh+ 67Fez 6 28fikr 21 faculty of 32 156ndash7 165nfive universals the (al-kulliyt al-khamsa)

81fursquod 19

Gadamer HG 3 163ngeometry (poundilm al-handasa) 77ghazal 154al-Ghazzl+ 7 48ndash9 51 53 58 66 81ndash3

96 121ndash2Greek(s) 7 19 78 82ndash3 92

Hrt and Mrt 77habit (malaka) 15 25ndash7 32 56 100 102

120 140 145 148 157 of the Arab40 of the body 27 importance of 25intellectual 110 linguistic 131 140142ndash3 146ndash7 151ndash2 scientific 26scholarly 107ndash8

|l (pl a|wl)8 55ndash6 65 74Hanafite 46 48Hanbalite 45ndash6happiness (sapoundda) 90 92ndash4 97 dual

nature of man 94|aq+qa insniyya 12al-Harw+ 68ndash9|ayawn al-na_iq 81hayl 18Hebrew 102Heidegger M 3 163nhermeneutic(s) 80 interpretation 38

theory 3Hijazi 46

I N D E X

189

Himyarites 40 101human intellectual faculty 62human psychology 21 22 32human reality see |aq+qa insniyya

Ibn poundAbbs 60Ibn poundAbd Rabbih 144Ibn Ab+ lib al-Qayrawn+ 73Ibn al-poundArab+ 118ndash19Ibn al-Fri= 68Ibn al-Far+d 69Ibn al-Imm 28Ibn al-Kh_ib 28 58 80ndash2 84Ibn al-Qassr 49Ibn al-Sapoundat+ 48Ibn Bash+r 106Ibn Dihq 68ndash9Ibn Hn+ Ab Nuws 151 153Ibn Hazm 114Ibn Jbir 144Ibn Jayb 144Ibn Mlik 107 131Ibn Muqaffapound 152Ibn Qutayba 134Ibn Rash+d 73Ibn Rash+q 144 151Ibn Rushd 78 80 82ndash3 106Ibn Sabpound+n 69Ibn Sharaf 144Ibn Shibr+n 144Ibn S+n 68 78ndash80 82ndash3 92 96 114ndash15Ibn Sinn al-Khafj+ 179nIbn Thbit 47Ibn Ynus 106Ibn Zaytn 28ndash9idrk 11 23 64ndash5 74 100 103 171nIfriqiyya 139 144ipoundjz al-Qurrsquon 133ijza 175nijmpound 48ndash9ijtihd (independent judgement) 45ndash6ikhtilf 44 46poundIkrima 60poundilm al-adab 133Imm al-aramayn Ab al-Mapoundl+ 47ndash8

57imaginative vision 61+mn 8 Day of Judgement 56ndash7

59 61 tad+q 56poundImrn al-Mashaddl+ 28poundImru al-Qays 149 153 179nIndian(s) 87inheritance law (farrsquo=) 43 47

insilkh 17instruction 20 35 101 111 164n

method of 108 principle of tadr+j 111process 109ndash10 Quranic 118scientific 25 28 31 121 theory of108 111

intellect 14 20 faculty 24 54 human 1134 52ndash3 55 61ndash2 84 89ndash90 _awr 53

intellection discernment 18 the processof 18

intelligiblia 71 91 98Iraq 31 78Islamic scholarship 120 124 tradition

161 travelling in search of knowledge121

Islamic theology 24 82Isrrsquo+liyyt 42 167nistidll 49

Jbir b Hayyn 78 87 144al-jabr wa-lsquol-muqbala (algebra) 47jadl 43 49al-J|i~ poundAmr b Ba|r 133Jaml al-D+n b Hishm 131al-jar| wa-lsquol-tapoundd+l 42al-Junayd 58 170jurisprudence (fiqh) 35 43 46ndash7 50 105

107 112 jurist (fuqahrsquo) legaldecision 44 mushbaha 44 phases 4345ndash6 poundulamrsquo 45ndash6

Kapoundb al-A|br 40karmt 70kashf 64 66ndash7 69Khalaf b A|mar 117 119khal+fa (vicegerent of God) 13ndash14al-Khal+l b A|mad al-Farh+d+ 131ndash2

177nkhilfiyyt (controversial questions) 43

49 khilf 45ndash6khulwa 66al-Khnj+ 80 82 107Khurasn 30al-Khwrizm+ 114al-Kind+ 96al-Kirmn+ 73knowledge classification of 19 the

process of 23 prophetic 10 religious8 sociology of 2 6 156 source of 18theological 8 theory of 2 9

Kfa 30ndash1kurs+ 69

I N D E X

190

al-Lakhm+ 106Lakhsassi A 35ndash6 75 89 93 158 161

167nLatin 102Leaman Oliver xilexicography 37 129 135 153 the

science of 131linguistic sciences 40 skill 136 taste

(dhawq) 129 142ndash3 147 158literary composition 100 104 144 162

criticism 143 embellishment 135 155luxury crafts 158 production 105 129133ndash4 155 162 scholarship andauthorship 104 seven literary genres103 tradition 147

literary theory 104 106 genre 105 ikhtir110ndash11 taste 152

logic 77ndash81 83 86 91ndash2 96 107109ndash10 112ndash15 logical argumentation16 logical reasoning 88 man_iq 79 thescience of 57 95 tad+q 91ndash2

l| 68Luqmn 78

madhhab 44ndash7mad+na 14Maghrib 27ndash8 31 35 40 139Mahdi Muhsin 9Majr+_+ 78 87Makdisi G 175nmalaka see habitMalikite 46 106al-Manr b Ab+ poundmir 39mali| (public interest) 42material substance (mdda |aylniyya) 16mathematical sciences 77 96al-mawhib al-rabbniyya 67metaphysics 58 77ndash8 82ndash6 89ndash90 93 96Morocco 29Mupoundallaqa 149 153 179nal-Mubarrad 134Mu=ar 101 136ndash7 139 142 144 154muft+(s) 66 69Muhammad b poundAbd al-Salm 28Muhammad b Idr+s al-Mu__alib+ al-Shfipound+

48Muhammad b S+r_+n 73Muhsib+ 66Mu|yidd+n al-Nawaw+ 43Mujhid 38ndash9 60Mujassima 57 60 62 63mujtahid 46mukallaf 44

Muqaddima Blq edition 6 originalmanuscript 4 textual variations 4 5translation of 4

Murrkush (Marrakesh) 28ndash9Mushabbiha 57mu|af 38music (poundilm al-ms+q) 77Muslim b ajjj al-Qushayr+ 64 66musnad 101al-Mutanabb+ 153Mursquotazilite 41 133 Mursquotazila 57 60 63Muwa||id (Almohad) 28ndash9muwashshah 154 178n

Nabatean(s) 101al-Nbigha 153nafs 53na|w (grammar) 37 48 113 129ndash31 135

144Najm al-D+n al-Isrrsquo+l+ 69naql+ 3840 42 naql 48al-Nasaf+ 49nas+b 147 154 manskh 39ndash42 nsikh

39ndash42neo-Platonism 93Nicomachean Ethic 20nous 20 22nubuwwa 21

Organon 79 81ndash2orthodox x 7 62 74 81 orthodoxy 7

50 scholar 41orthography 39 41

pedagogical method 107ndash8 111ndash12perception 11 23 34 55 faculty of 69

powers of 17 of science 65 sense 1561

Persians 77ndash8 143philological sciences (al-poundulm al-lisniyya)

35 37 literature 37 130 135 155philosophy ethics 90 first intellect (al-

poundaql al-awwal) 93 human mental ability38 96 intellectual reasoning 91 9597 mental faculty 86 philosophicalsciences 6 33 77 refutation of 90 9395 97

phroneacutesis 20plagiarism 105Plato 78 94Poetics 80poetry 129 135 149ndash50 155

appreciation of 153 the craft of 148

I N D E X

191

mawliya 154 poetical habit 152popular themes 147 154

political organisation 21 stability 157Prestidigitation 88principle of jurisprudence (ul al-fiqh)

35 37 43 47ndash9 82 96 107 112ndash13prophecy 7 9 14 21 24 25 61 153 the

nature of 53 prophetic office 24 25prophetic phenomena 10 propheticscience 38 prophetic tradition 42 veilof the supernatural (|ijb al-ghayb) 17

Prophet(s) 9 10 17 20 22ndash4 32 3947ndash8 52 55 70 99 121 125companions of the 59 of God 34 soulof the 25 teaching of the 117

prose 129 135 148 155 artisticembellishment 152 eloquence ofspeech 151

pseudo-f+ 74pure intellect 16

al-Qa=+ Ab Bakr b al-poundArab+ (IbnpoundArab+) 49 69

qalam 68al-Qas_all+ Ab Darrj 144Qayrawn 27ndash9 31al-Qazw+n+ 177nqirrsquoa (Quran reading) 35 38ndash9 41Quatremegravere EM 3 6 58 72 79ndash80 88

172nQudma 133Quranic interpretation 36 a|km al-

jawr+| 39 exegesis 112 tafs+r 35 39ndash42 95 105 tarsquow+l 42 poundulm al-tafs+r38

Quranic letters 39Quraysh 136qurrrsquo 38 44ndash6 125 176nQur_ba (Cordoba) 27ndash9 31al-Qur_ub+ 40 42

ratio legis 48religious law 22 34 38 47ndash8 64 70 73

75 84 92 94ndash5 101 116 125 171nrevelation 11 50 59 61ndash2 153reyes de taifas (mulk al-_awrsquoif) 178nRhetoric 80Ricoeur P 163nRomans 77 102Rosenthal F 3ndash6 111819 73 79 100

104 169n 172n

Sapoundd b Ab+ Waqq 77ndash8

Sahl b Hrn 152Sa|nn 102Sapound+d al-D+n Muhammad b Ahmad 171nal-^rsquoigh 78salaf 40 42 56ndash60 63Sal| al-D+n al-Ayyb+ 31al-Slim+ 73al-sanad f+-lsquol-tapoundl+m 28satan 10 72 74Sayf Dawla b Hamadn 179nSayf al-Islam al-Bazdaw+ 48ndash9al-Shapoundb+ 60al-Sh_ib+ 39Schleiermacher F 3scholars and politics 122 124science(s) classification of 26 33 50 156

division of 33 157 intellectual 3378ndash9 86 89 96 141 157 of physics77 93 96 religious 6 64 112 114 127

second generation (tbipound+n) 39sedentary culture 73 157sensibilia 11 15 27 69 91 123sensual perception 14 15 18 72 91

93ndash4Shafiite 46Sharf al-D+n al-+b+ 41ndash2shar+pounda 42 44 50 88Shihb al-D+n al-Qarf+ 28ndash9Shirsquoite(s) 57S+bawayh 106 125 131 141 144 146Slane WM de 6Smith Adam 166nsocial organisation 21 22Socrates 78soothsayer 10sophia 20Sophistici Elenchi 80sorcery 78 87 88ndash90soul 9 16 25 52ndash3 71 human 74 the

nature of 9 30 perceptive soul 12theory of 36

Spain (Andalusia) 27 29ndash30 40 139speculative intellect (al-poundaql al-na~ar+) 12

18speculative theology (kalm)8 27 35

37ndash8 43 50ndash1 58ndash63 74 80ndash183ndash5 96 105 112 ambiguity in theQuran 59 61ndash2 argument of 54 Causeof all causes 52 54ndash5 defend the articlesof faith 51 divine attributes 60 la_+fa52 rational science 53

spiritual essence (dhawt r|niyya) 16 7193

I N D E X

192

spiritual world 15ndash17 36 63 89 165nspiritualia 94f+ 8 64ndash7 84ndash5 88 94 170nSufism x 7 17 36 38 43 56 64ndash6 68

73ndash5 84ndash5 171n dhawq 65 |aq+qaMu|ammadiyya 68 hull 68 Islamicculture 9 istiqma 67 maqm 6567mu|saba 65 mujhada 66ndash7 qu_b 69171n sha_aht 70 172n tajall+ 68theory of emanation 68

Suhraward+ 66sunnahad+th 35ndash8 42 48 50 52 59 105

112 125 asn+d 42 category of 42ndash3_abaqt 42 transmission 42

syntax and style (bayn) 37 48 129132ndash3 135

Syriac 101 102Syrian(s) 77Syrier M 8

tapoundwun 21 22al-abar+ 40al-Taghlab+ Sayf al-D+n 168ntapoundl+m 25 27talismans 78 87ndash90taqlid 44ndash6taawwur 81 92 101tad+q 81taw|+d 8 39 50 52 54ndash5 62 68Taylor T 165ntechne 20al-Thapoundlib+ 40al-Thawr+ 60Themistius 78theory of causality 62theory of language 130 technical habit 151thinking ability 14 96 99 110 157

160

Tilmisn 28Topics 80Torah 102traditional sciences 34ndash8Transoxania 30Tunis 6 28ndash9Turks 143

Uk~ 153al-poundulm alpoundaqliyya 76al-poundulm al-ladunniya 67poundUmar (the second Caliph) 77ndash8poundUmar b Rab+pounda 153poundumrn 6 10 22 29 37 73 156 poundumrn

badaw+ 157 159 poundumrn al-bashar+ 20poundumrn ha=ar+ 157 159

urban culture 29ndash31 125

veil (|ijb) 16 17 of words 110verstehen 3

Wahb b Munabbih 40wa|y 9Wansborough J 170nal-Wqid+ 40war and peace 14Western Europe 78wisdom (|ikma) 96writing history of 101

Yemen 101

amphir+ 45ndash6zajal 154 178nal-Zajjj 125al-Zamakhshar+ 41ndash2 131 133 144 146

177nZuhayr b Ab+ Sulm 153

Book Cover

Title

Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations


Introductory materials to the study of Chapter 6 of the Muqaddima

Man as thinking animal a philosophical introduction to human psychology and the establishment of social organisation

The division of the sciences

The intellectual sciences (al-ulm al-aqliyya)

Scholarship as a science and pedagogical method

Language and literature

Conclusions and findings

Notes

Bibliography

Index

THE EPISTEMOLOGY OFIBN KHALD$N

This is an analytical examination of Ibn Khaldnrsquos epistemology centred onChapter Six of the Muqaddima In this chapter entitled ldquoThe Book ofKnowledgerdquo (Kitb al-lsquoIlm) Ibn Khaldn sketched his general ideas aboutknowledge and science and its relationship with human social organisationand the establishment of civilisation

Zaid Ahmad investigates the philosophical foundation of Ibn Khaldnrsquosconcept of knowledge the hierarchical order of science and the sociologicalcontext in which knowledge and science can be transformed into the forcethat determines the prosperity of a civilisation

Zaid Ahmad is Senior Lecturer in Philosophy and Civilisational Studies atUniversiti Putra Malaysia He lectures on various key areas in PhilosophyEthics Islamic Thought History and Civilisational Studies Among his latestpublications is ldquoEpistemology and the Human Dimension in Urban Studiesrdquoin Urban Issues and Challenges Kuala Lumpur



University of Leeds



Zaid Ahmad






amp Francis Group











2002037181






C O N T E N T S

vii

CONTENTS





C O N T E N T S

viii







C O N T E N T S

ix



F O R E W O R D

x

FO REWO RD



xi

F O R E W O R D


Oliver Leaman

xii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS






xiii

ABBREVIATIONS







xiv





1





2









3





4

1



Introduction


Manuscripts




5





Editions




6









7








8

The f+






9








10






11









12








13








14








15









16








17








18








19





Excursus




20






21

2



organisation







22








23







24








25







26








27









28







29









30










31







32

Excursus





33

3









34







35






Excursus



36







37









38









39








40








41


Excursus





42










43



Excursus



The law





44





45






46

Excursus






47










48








49







Excursus



50








51

Definition of kalm







52




Argument 1





53






54










55


Argument 2




56






The origin of kalm





57








58








59








60







61


The human world






62


Excursus






63







64








65










66









67






68

Critiques of Sufism






69







Sufism assessed



70









71









72









73





Excursus




74






75



76

4



Introduction






77










78







79










80














81






Excursus





82










83







84








85


Excursus






86










87








88







Excursus



89







90








91






92







93








94






95




Excursus



96







97






98



99

5


PEDAGOGICAL METHOD

Introduction





100



Aims and purposes




101







102














103



Excursus





104





105








106



Excursus




107







108










109








110




Excursus




111








112







113




Excursus




114






115





116







117





118


Excursus





119






120







121



Excursus




122








123





Excursus




124






125







126








127





Excursus




128



129

6


Introduction






130







131






132








133









134






Excursus




135








136








137







138






139









140









141





Excursus




142









143






144








145


Excursus





146







147


Poetry and prose







148




The craft of poetry





149








150








151






152







153











154





Excursus



155





156

7







157







158







159



poundumrn ha=ar+

poundumrn badaw+









160




GOD


Prophetrevelation

Scienceknowledge


Social organisation

Civilisation




161



GOD



Knowledgesciences



Spiritual




talisman etc


metaphysics etc



162


N O T E S

163

NOTES










N O T E S

164






N O T E S

165








N O T E S

166




N O T E S

167


44 QII384 R2435











N O T E S

168




76 QIII26 R333

N O T E S

169









N O T E S

170











N O T E S

171












N O T E S

172















N O T E S

173







N O T E S

174









N O T E S

175








N O T E S

176










1 QIII279 R33192 QIII279 R3320

N O T E S

177











N O T E S

178







N O T E S

179









N O T E S

180














181

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books













182



















183




















184


















Leiden 1976


185



















186

Articles









I N D E X

187





INDEX





I N D E X

188








99ndash100 109 125 127 141 157 159artistic 155








15 17


81fursquod 19







theory 3Hijazi 46

I N D E X

189



















I N D E X

190








l| 68Luqmn 78

















I N D E X

191















104 169n 172n











I N D E X

192








160







Yemen 101



Book Cover

Title

Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations









Notes

Bibliography

Index



University of Leeds



Zaid Ahmad






amp Francis Group











2002037181






C O N T E N T S

vii

CONTENTS





C O N T E N T S

viii







C O N T E N T S

ix



F O R E W O R D

x

FO REWO RD



xi

F O R E W O R D


Oliver Leaman

xii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS






xiii

ABBREVIATIONS







xiv





1





2









3





4

1



Introduction


Manuscripts




5





Editions




6









7








8

The f+






9








10






11









12








13








14








15









16








17








18








19





Excursus




20






21

2



organisation







22








23







24








25







26








27









28







29









30










31







32

Excursus





33

3









34







35






Excursus



36







37









38









39








40








41


Excursus





42










43



Excursus



The law





44





45






46

Excursus






47










48








49







Excursus



50








51

Definition of kalm







52




Argument 1





53






54










55


Argument 2




56






The origin of kalm





57








58








59








60







61


The human world






62


Excursus






63







64








65










66









67






68

Critiques of Sufism






69







Sufism assessed



70









71









72









73





Excursus




74






75



76

4



Introduction






77










78







79










80














81






Excursus





82










83







84








85


Excursus






86










87








88







Excursus



89







90








91






92







93








94






95




Excursus



96







97






98



99

5


PEDAGOGICAL METHOD

Introduction





100



Aims and purposes




101







102














103



Excursus





104





105








106



Excursus




107







108










109








110




Excursus




111








112







113




Excursus




114






115





116







117





118


Excursus





119






120







121



Excursus




122








123





Excursus




124






125







126








127





Excursus




128



129

6


Introduction






130







131






132








133









134






Excursus




135








136








137







138






139









140









141





Excursus




142









143






144








145


Excursus





146







147


Poetry and prose







148




The craft of poetry





149








150








151






152







153











154





Excursus



155





156

7







157







158







159



poundumrn ha=ar+

poundumrn badaw+









160




GOD


Prophetrevelation

Scienceknowledge


Social organisation

Civilisation




161



GOD



Knowledgesciences



Spiritual




talisman etc


metaphysics etc



162


N O T E S

163

NOTES










N O T E S

164






N O T E S

165








N O T E S

166




N O T E S

167


44 QII384 R2435











N O T E S

168




76 QIII26 R333

N O T E S

169









N O T E S

170











N O T E S

171












N O T E S

172















N O T E S

173







N O T E S

174









N O T E S

175








N O T E S

176










1 QIII279 R33192 QIII279 R3320

N O T E S

177











N O T E S

178







N O T E S

179









N O T E S

180














181

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books













182



















183




















184


















Leiden 1976


185



















186

Articles









I N D E X

187





INDEX





I N D E X

188








99ndash100 109 125 127 141 157 159artistic 155








15 17


81fursquod 19







theory 3Hijazi 46

I N D E X

189



















I N D E X

190








l| 68Luqmn 78

















I N D E X

191















104 169n 172n











I N D E X

192








160







Yemen 101



Book Cover

Title

Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations









Notes

Bibliography

Index


Zaid Ahmad






amp Francis Group











2002037181






C O N T E N T S

vii

CONTENTS





C O N T E N T S

viii







C O N T E N T S

ix



F O R E W O R D

x

FO REWO RD



xi

F O R E W O R D


Oliver Leaman

xii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS






xiii

ABBREVIATIONS







xiv





1





2









3





4

1



Introduction


Manuscripts




5





Editions




6









7








8

The f+






9








10






11









12








13








14








15









16








17








18








19





Excursus




20






21

2



organisation







22








23







24








25







26








27









28







29









30










31







32

Excursus





33

3









34







35






Excursus



36







37









38









39








40








41


Excursus





42










43



Excursus



The law





44





45






46

Excursus






47










48








49







Excursus



50








51

Definition of kalm







52




Argument 1





53






54










55


Argument 2




56






The origin of kalm





57








58








59








60







61


The human world






62


Excursus






63







64








65










66









67






68

Critiques of Sufism






69







Sufism assessed



70









71









72









73





Excursus




74






75



76

4



Introduction






77










78







79










80














81






Excursus





82










83







84








85


Excursus






86










87








88







Excursus



89







90








91






92







93








94






95




Excursus



96







97






98



99

5


PEDAGOGICAL METHOD

Introduction





100



Aims and purposes




101







102














103



Excursus





104





105








106



Excursus




107







108










109








110




Excursus




111








112







113




Excursus




114






115





116







117





118


Excursus





119






120







121



Excursus




122








123





Excursus




124






125







126








127





Excursus




128



129

6


Introduction






130







131






132








133









134






Excursus




135








136








137







138






139









140









141





Excursus




142









143






144








145


Excursus





146







147


Poetry and prose







148




The craft of poetry





149








150








151






152







153











154





Excursus



155





156

7







157







158







159



poundumrn ha=ar+

poundumrn badaw+









160




GOD


Prophetrevelation

Scienceknowledge


Social organisation

Civilisation




161



GOD



Knowledgesciences



Spiritual




talisman etc


metaphysics etc



162


N O T E S

163

NOTES










N O T E S

164






N O T E S

165








N O T E S

166




N O T E S

167


44 QII384 R2435











N O T E S

168




76 QIII26 R333

N O T E S

169









N O T E S

170











N O T E S

171












N O T E S

172















N O T E S

173







N O T E S

174









N O T E S

175








N O T E S

176










1 QIII279 R33192 QIII279 R3320

N O T E S

177











N O T E S

178







N O T E S

179









N O T E S

180














181

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books













182



















183




















184


















Leiden 1976


185



















186

Articles









I N D E X

187





INDEX





I N D E X

188








99ndash100 109 125 127 141 157 159artistic 155








15 17


81fursquod 19







theory 3Hijazi 46

I N D E X

189



















I N D E X

190








l| 68Luqmn 78

















I N D E X

191















104 169n 172n











I N D E X

192








160







Yemen 101



Book Cover

Title

Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations









Notes

Bibliography

Index

the epistemology of

Documents