The End of World War I

World WarsMs. Hamer

March 5 and 8, 2010

Last Push for Germany

• Fighting had ended on the Eastern Front with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

• Germany wanted to secure victory on the Western Front before the arrival of American troops

Previous German Gambles

• Schlieffen Plan• Battle of Verdun February-December

1916– Germany’s attempt to “bleed the French

army white”– Long, bloody battle with 250,000

battlefield deaths and 500,000 wounded– Germany lost since they didn’t gain their

goal of the city of Verdun• Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

Effects on Germany of Brest-Litovsk

• Happy over victories– Gained 1/3 of Russian territory and much of

Eastern Europe

• Caused some problems– 1 million German troops that were left to

man the occupied territories could have been used on the Western Front

– Germany’s treatment of both Russia and Romania in the two treaties was so harsh that it solidified Allied sentiment against Germany• Especially because the Allies didn’t want this

type of treatment to happen to them!

The Last Gamble –German Spring Offensive of

1918• German leadership saw itself as risking

everything on this last point– No reserves left if this operation failed

• Called the Kaiser’s Battle and Operation Michael (German archetype, like “Uncle Sam”)

• Germany had a superiority of 10% in manpower over the Allies after German troops were sent to the Western Front from the East

• Attack began March 21, 1918

New Technology and Tactics of Operation Michael

• 5 hour bombardment of heavy artillery– Intended to destroy front and communication

lines

• Then a succession of different types of poison gas

• Aimed at the place where French and British forces met – to split the armies apart

• Then rolling barrage of artillery fire with German troops following behind

New Technology and Tactics of Operation Michael

• Stormtroopers– Specialty and

strongest forces in small groups aimed at weak points to quickly break apart the front lines

Effects of the Initial Attack

• Over four months, Allied lines were pushed back 40 miles (impressive in trench warfare)

• Ludendorff developed new strategy and tactics, but did not have a plan for victory

• Caused unified command to emerge for the Allies under French General Foch

• Germans were finally stopped 56 miles from Paris

Shelling of Paris

• To inspire terror for civilians

• Used long range shells

• 250 Parisians killed

• No real effect on war The Paris Gun

How did Germany Fail with the Spring Offensive?

• No plan for victory• Stormtroopers had a higher casualty rate for

the best troops and then left the rest of the groups with not as qualified troops

• Desperate German troops stopped to loot Allied trenches for food and liquor

• “Black Day” of the German Army – August 8, 1918– Tank led Allied counterattack broke the German

lines– Breakdown in German morale

Central Powers Retreat• Numerous Allied attacks followed the

Central Powers in retreat– Allies in Salonika against Bulgaria and then

Austria Hungary– Americans at St. Mihiel and other points along

the German fortified Hindenburg Line• Hindenburg Line is where Germany began the Spring

Offensive

• Ludendorff said an armistice would be the only thing to save Germany– Upper government even tried to create a

constitutional monarchy (more representative government)

– Appealed to Wilson for peace on October 4, 1918

Central Powers Leave the War

• Bulgaria out of war September 1918• Turkey dropped out October 1918• Italian and Allied troops from

Salonika beat Austria-Hungary, which signed an armistice on November 3, 1918

Germany Crumbles from Within

• Revolution breaks out within Germany:• November 3, 1918, German naval officers

wanted to march out and meet the British– Naval soldiers revolted

• Socialist revolt broke out in Bavaria on November 7th

• Ludendorff was fired and left the country• Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and left for

Holland• Revolutionaries declared a German

democratic government in Berlin on November 9, 1918

Path to Armistice

• November 8, 1918 German armistice delegation met with General Foch, Allied commander

• November 11, 1918, 11am – Armistice came into effect– 11th month, 11th day, 11th hour

• The war had lasted 52 months

Reactions to Armistice

Signing the Armistice

• Germany’s Representative to the signing was Catholic Center Party Leader Matthias Erzberger

• Hindenburg told Erzberger to sign at any price because an armistice was necessary– Erzberger later killed

for it in 1921 by a death squad

Armistice Day

• Many hopes put into the peace session that would end the war

• Of course, not all fighting ended on November 11th

–Many in Eastern Europe would also fight for independence

– Americans jumped the gun and celebrated the Armistice on November 7th!

Allied Reactions to the Armistice

• “Quiet exhaustion” in the trenches

• Reported joyous celebration throughout England and France– Released apes from a gas

factory terrorized England until they were caught again!

– School inappropriate celebrations in the streets!

– A beer called “Pax” was made in Belgium

– Bells rang in Paris as parades ran through the streets pulling captured cannons

– Allied soldiers in Paris were carried through the streets

• Allied civilians who lost loved ones in the war mourned

Eastern European Reaction to Armistice

• Celebrations of nationalism• November 11th is now celebrated as

Independence Day in Poland

German Reaction to the Armistice

• Glad war was over, but shocked by their defeat• Psychologically unprepared because

government censorship and propaganda had hidden true nature of the war– Worst sounding propaganda from the front had said

“All Quiet on the Western Front” instead of “We’re Losing Badly…”

– How was it possible to lose the war when Germany as a territory had not been lost?

• “Stab in the Back legend” – Germany had not lost the war, but those who took over the government at the end of the war were to blame for the loss – Socialists, Jews, Catholics, and democratic

revolutionaries became scapegoats

Terms of the Armistice

• Signed at 5am on November 11, 1918 in a railway car in a forest near Paris

• General Foch drew up the armistice to prevent Germany from regrouping and continuing the war:– Germany had to withdraw from all

occupied territory• Not including Eastern Europe because the

Allies were freaked out by the Bolsheviks and communism in Russia

Terms of the Armistice cont.

– Alsace-Lorraine would return to France– The German Rhineland was to become a

demilitarized zone occupied by the Allies– German military materiel and navy were to

be turned over to the Allies– Treaty of Brest-Litovsk became invalid– Germany would have to pay for the damage

caused by the war– British naval blockade of Germany while the

final peace negotiations occurred• There were provisions to feed the German

civilians

– Armistice was at first set for 36 days, but was then extended indefinitely

A “Wilson Peace”

• Germany wanted a peace based on American President Wilson’s Fourteen Points – this would be the most kind peace for Germany as opposed to the one England and France would create!

Wilson’s Fourteen Points

1. No secret treaties2. Free and open seas3. Free trade through the reduction or

elimination of tariffs4. Reduction of military stockpiles5. The needs of colonial populations

need to be taken into consideration as well as the needs of the imperialist powers

Points 6-13 Deal with Specific Regions

6. Evacuation of Russian territory7. Evacuation and restoration of Belgium8. Evacuation of France with the restoration of

Alsace and Lorraine9. Boundaries of Italy should be realigned based

on ethnicity (Italy gets back land previously lost to A-H)

10.People of Austria-Hungary should be allowed autonomous rule

11.Evacuation of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro and guarantee of independence for all Balkan States

12.Turkey should be sovereign, but the rest of the Ottoman Empire should be given autonomy

13.Poland should be recreated along ethnic boundaries

The Big One – Point 14

14. Establish a League of Nations to provide a forum for nations to discuss and settle their grievances before turning to war

Losses of WWI

WORLD War One

Allies: Green Central Powers: Gold Neutral: Grey

The War to End All Wars

• World War I was the bloodiest war in history to that time.

• 22 million were dead – more than half of them civilians.

• 20 million people were wounded

• 10 million became refugees.

Approximate Deaths in WWI

Country Total Dead

Germany 2 million

Austria-Hungary 1.5 million

Russia 1.7 million

France 1.5 million

Great Britain 1 million

Italy ½ million

United States 100,000

Generational Losses

• 17% of those who served for France were killed

• Total – approximately 9 million soldiers died

• Injuries: – 20 million wounded– 7 million disabled permanently– Unknown quantity of mental distress (PTSD) from

the war• Called the “Lost Generation” because they

were haunted by the war

Economic Damage

• 1920 estimated cost of the war:– $337 billion

• Loss of markets / trade• Lots of inflation• Shattered confidence in progress– Technological advances were used for

warfare and murder

Political Change

• Toppling of centuries old dynasties– Russia– Austria-Hungary– Ottoman Empire– Germany (though not that old)

• Nationalism and Self-Determination created 9 new countries:– Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania,

Poland, Hungary, Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia

1918 Flu Epidemic• Known as Spanish Influenza – Because neutral Spain did not downplay news of

the flu like those countries at war– Appeared first in Kansas in 1918

• Effects of the war on the epidemic– Movement of troops aided its spread– Weakened civilian populations were affected

• Especially deadly to the young and healthy

• Killed approximately 50 million people around the world, mostly in the fall of 1918– Less conservative figures estimate 100 million

people• Memory of it was obliterated from popular

and historical memory, especially in the US

The Paris Peace Settlement and

theTreaty of VersaillesJanuary 18, 1919: Formal opening of peace negotiations took place

Paris Peace Conference• Peacemakers for the “Big Four” represented• England– Prime Minister Lloyd George ended up being

moderate except on British imperial interests• France– Premier Clemenceau wanted to ensure French

security for the future• The United States– President Woodrow Wilson wanted to create an

idealistic peace and a League of Nations• Welcomed by enormous and ecstatic crowds calling him

“Wilson the Just”

• Italy– Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando was frustrated by

Allied refusals to meet Italian territorial demands and stormed out on April 24, 1919

Paris Peace Conference cont.

• 27 states participated• 10,000 delegates, observers, and experts• Nonparticipants:– Defeated Central Powers were not allowed to

be part of the compromise, they were just told the terms and had to accept or reject them

– Communist Russia

• 5 separate treaties were made with the defeated powers:– Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and

Turkey

Tensions at the Peace Table

• Competition and tension between Allies• Hatreds built up during the war would cause

problems for a peace settlement– England and France wanted to punish Germany

• Wilson’s goal:– Democratic peace with the notion of self-

determination– A structure that would legalize these new ideas

(League of Nations)• European Powers wanted:– National Security– Rebalancing of the Balance of Power (with

Germany taken out of the picture)• Germany expected– To be included in the negotiations as a new

democracy

Time as a Factor

• As the negotiations moved along, other factors were changing

• Strength of parties was altering as negotiations moved forward– Breaking down of armies– New countries declaring independence

• All sides were being heavily lobbied by different activists for nationalities who wanted independence– Or Zionists who wanted a Jewish home in

Israel

Treaty of Versailles• Germany• 440 articles• Germany lost all colonies and 13% of its

prewar territory in Europe (10% of its population)– Alsace and Lorraine– Lands near Belgium and Denmark– Regions in the East that would become part

of Poland and Eastern Prussia would become geographically disconnected

Treaty of Versailles cont.

• Rhineland would become demilitarized (30 miles wide) with no military forces of Germany there–West Bank of the Rhine would be

occupied by the Allies for about 15 years– France wanted an independent Rhine

state – gave in if England and America promised to guarantee French safety in the future

Treaty of Versailles cont.

• Germany’s armed forces would be heavily reduced– No draft allowed– Volunteer force of maximum 100,000

men– No air force, no submarines, no gas

weapons

Treaty of Versailles cont.

• Germany would have to pay reparations for the war– This amount was unspecified at first

• Set at $32 billion in 1921

– Wilson resisted this demand, but eventually gave in

– Limitations were put on industry and commerce to tame the “German Revival” that many were worried about• Like French limitations on names of liquor and

wine (Cognac, champagne)

Treaty of Versailles cont.

• Article 231 – War Guilt Clause–Wanted to establish a legal foundation

for the requirement of Germany paying reparations

– Therefore Germany was made to accept the blame for starting the war

Europe Post WWI

German Reactions to Terms• Public opinion was shock and then outrage

• Popular rejection of treaty across entire political spectrum– Especially focused on war guilt

• People of Germany were not aware of German foreign policy and actions around the start of the war

– Slightly hypocritical since these terms were nicer than those imposed on Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

• They could not negotiate the terms of the treaty – either accept them or the blockade would continue and the war would begin again

• The idea of German democracy would be wounded by guilt by association after being the ones to sign the Treaty

Treaty of Versailles Enacted

• Signed by Germany on June 28, 1919 in the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles

• 1,000 observers were gathered to witness the event

• 5 years after the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, the treaty was signed

Other Treaties of the Paris Peace Conference

Treaty of Saint-Germain

• Austria• September 10, 1919• Gave some of Austrian territory to

neighboring states• Forbade Austria’s union with Germany– Austria was primarily composed of

Germanic people– Austria didn’t actually want to be

independent initially, but was forced to be

Treaty of Trianon

• Hungary• June 4, 1920• Huge territories were ceded to

Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Romania– Hungarians rejected the territorial loss

with the slogan “No, no, never”

Treaty of Neuilly

• Bulgaria• November 27, 1919• Bulgaria also lost territory

Europe Post WWI

Treaty of Sèvres

• Ottoman Turkey• August 10, 1920• Dismembered the Empire– Syria and Lebanon would be under French

control– Palestine and Iraq would be under British

control– Other territory would go to Italy and Greece– Kurds and Armenians would gain autonomy

• Kurds did not

• Never ratified because of nationalist Turkish revolts

Wilson’s League of Nations

• Was so important to Wilson that he compromised on lots of other points

• Aim was to promote peaceful resolution of conflicts

• Made of a General Assembly and a smaller Council

• Began in Geneva, Switzerland in January 1920

• Had no enforcement mechanisms to make a difference – formally dissolved in 1946

• US and USSR did not join as members

American Rejection of the Treaty of Versailles

• The League of Nations freaked some people out:– Would America still be sovereign?– How involved would America have to be in this

protection of other states?– What if non-white or non-Protestant people

would be on an even standing with the US?!• American people were disgusted by the

negotiations of the Treaty – saw it as a return to Balance of Power politics

• As Wilson was campaigning for the Treaty and League of Nations he collapsed and never really recovered

• The US Senate refused to ratify the Treaty in March 1920

Disappointments• Those under colonial rule hoped for self-

determination– Ho Chi Minh was one of these…– Pan-African conference

• Japanese gave a proposal for a declaration of racial equality that was rejected

• Arab lands hoped for independence, but were instead given this new name of “mandates”– At least maybe they would get independence in the future

• Italy felt cheated of territory and acted like a loser in WWI

• Destroyed economic unities and Keynes warned against crippling Germany economically

• France felt like they were left “holding the tail of the tiger” as the ones on the continent to enforce the treaty

Historical Outcome

• Woodrow Wilson– Loser in America– Hero in Czech Republic

• Treaty– Too harsh?– Not harsh enough?

• “After a war to end all wars, this might very well end up to be a peace to end all peace”