THEENCYCLOPEDIAOFWARFARE

MEDIEVALWARS500–1500

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TitlesavailableintheEncyclopediaofWarfareseries:

AncientWarsc.2500BCE–500CE

MedievalWars500–1500

EarlyModernWars1500–1775

RevolutionaryWars1775–c.1815

ImperialWars1815–1914

WorldWars1914–1945

ModernWars1945–Present

CONTENTS

POST-ROMANBRITAIN500–1100EARLYMEDIEVALSCOTLAND500–1100WARSOFTHEFRANKS500–1000WARSOFTHEGERMANICMIGRATIONS500–750WARSOFTHEBYZANTINEEMPIRE500–1000CHINESESUI/TANGDYNASTY581–950WARSOFTHETURKISHEMPIRES600–1299KOREA600–1100CHINESENANCHAOWAR650–774MUSLIMEXPANSION624–1100NORSEEXPANSION800–1066WARSOFTHEHOLYROMANEMPIRE900–1259WARSOFTHEBALKANANDSLAVICPEOPLES,900–1250CHINESESONG,JIN,YUANANDMINGDYNASTYWARS,960–1644THEIBERIANPENINSULAANDTHERECONQUISTA1000–1250INDIANWARS1000–1200SOUTH-EASTASIA1000–1200BYZANTINEWARS1000–1453WARSOFNORMANENGLAND1066–1200THECRUSADES1096–1291

FirstCrusade1096–99Crusader-TurkishWars1119–49SecondCrusade1145–49Crusader-TurkishWars1153–87ThirdCrusade1189–92

FourthCrusade1202–04Crusader-BulgarWars1205–08FifthCrusade1213–21CrusaderBattles1244SeventhCrusade1248–54Crusader–TurkishWars1268EighthCrusade1270Crusader–TurkishWars1289–91

RUSSIAN/RUSSO-SWEDISHWARS1142–1500THECELTICWEST–IRELANDANDWALES1150–1500SCANDINAVIANKINGDOMS,1157–1471JAPANESEGENPEIWAR1180–85MONGOLWARS1190–1402

ConquestsofGenghisKhan1211–27MongolCampaigns1232–1336ConquestsofTamerlane1370–1405

TEUTONICANDLIVONIANWARS1198–1500INDIAANDSOUTH-EASTASIA1200–1400FRENCHANDANGLO-FRENCHWARS1200–1337FIRSTBARONS’WARANDENGLAND1215–24ICELAND1246EASTERNEUROPEANANDOTTOMANWARS1250–1500WARSOFSICILY,SARDINIAANDITALY1250–1500MONARCHIC,IMPERIALANDNOBLEWARSOFWESTERNEUROPE1250–1500

THEIBERIANPENINSULARANDBALEARICISLANDS1250–1500WARSOFSCOTLAND1263–1500SECONDBARONS’WAR,ENGLAND1264–67JAPANESEGENKOWAR1331–33ANDFOURTEENTH-CENTURYBATTLES

HUNDREDYEARSWAR1337–1457

ETHIOPIANWAR1445WARSOFTHEROSES1455–85SWISS-BURGUNDIANWAR1474–77SPANISH-MUSLIMWARS1481–92

AUTHORSANDCONTRIBUTORSHOWTOUSETHEMAPSKEYTOTHEMAPSYMBOLSBATTLESANDSIEGESINDEXGENERALINDEX

MAPS

FrankishEmpire,c.730–900Roncesvalles,778Dara,530ByzantineEmpire,c.1000AdDecimum,533Casilinum,554Alexandria,619Pliska811TangChina,800CampaigninYodong,645Badr,624Medina,627Walaja633Damascus,635Tours,732AbbasidEmpire,750–1258Ostia,849VikingCampaigns,900Maldon,991Clontarf,1014NowegianInvasion,1066StamfordBridge,1066Hasting,1066CampaignsofWilliamtheConqueror,1066–69EmergenceofHungary

Lechfeld,955Legnano,1176LakePoyang,1363Tumu,1449Brunkeberg,1471Alarcos,1195Muret,1213DeclineoftheByzantineEmpire,565–1430Kleidion,1014PechenegRaids,1048–54Manzikert,1071Constantinople,1453FirstCrusade,1096–99SiegeofJerusalem,1099Harran,1104Lisbon,1147Hattin,1187Arsuf,1191Constantinople,1204LaForbie,1244LakePeipus,1242DysertO’Dea,1318Shrewsbury,1403Kurikawa,1183MongolChina,1250EmpireoftheGreatKhan,c.1206–1370KalkaRiver,1223Leignitz,1241Mohi,1241CampaignsofHulaguKhan,1262–64

Bun’ei,1274Ankara,1402Grunwald,1410ExpansionofDelhiSultanate,1206–1351Bouvines,1214Nicopolis,1396VitkovHill,1420Varna,1444Belgrade,1456Vaslui,1475Malta,1283Castagnaro,1387SanRomano,1432Marchfeld,1278Nájera,1367Falkirk,1298Bannockburn,1314HalidonHill,1333Evesham,1265Sluys,1340HundredYearsWar,1337–1457Crécy,1346Poitiers,1356Agincourt,1415Verneuil,1424Orléans,1428–29Formigny,1450Towton,1461WarsoftheRoses,1455–85BosworthField,1485

Nancy,1477

FOREWORDTOTHESERIESbyDennisShowalter

TheEncyclopediaofWarfareoffersfivecharacteristicsjustifyingitspossession.First,itischronological.Itsentriesreflectafundamentalcharacteristicofhistory.Historyislinear.Itstartssomewhereintime.Itgoessomewhereintime.Itseventsinteractinatemporalcontext.Andtheencyclopedia’schronologicalperspectiveenablesmakingconnectionsthatotherwisemightremainobscure.Itcontextualizes,forexample,the1147siegeofLisbonwiththeCrusader-Turkishwarsofthesameperiod–andintheprocessdemonstratingthecomprehensiveaspectofChristian–Muslimrivalry.LisbonwasfarfromJerusalemonlyintermsofmiles.

Theencyclopediaisalsocomprehensive.IteschewsaWestern-centricperspectivethattoooftensacrificesunderstandingforfamiliarity.Thechronologicalchaptersaresubdividedbytimeandplace.ThustheyintegratetheancientwarsofChinaandofSouthandSouth-EastAsia,thebattlesofearlyRomeandthoseofIrelandinthetwenty-fifthcenturyBCE(asingleentry,tobesure,butmeritingconsideration!)Cross-referencingcannotbeeasier.Andthatcrossreferencingenablesnotmerelyjuxtaposition,butcomparisononaglobalscaleofwar’smethodsandwar’sconsequences.

Theencyclopediaisconcise.Itsentrieshonouratime-testedformula.Theyaddress‘who’,‘what’,‘when’,‘where’,‘why’,andtherebyofferframeworksforfurtherinvestigationoftaprootsandramifications.Butthatdoesnotmeana‘onesizefitsall’template.Eventsrecognizedasimportant–Hattin,Gettysburg,theSomme–aremorefullydevelopedwithoutdistortingtheessentiallyeconomicalformat.Noraretheentriesmerenarratives.Theyincorporateanalyticaldimensionsrelativetotheirlengthandinsightfulwhetherphrases,sentencesorparagraphs–likethecommentthatCrusaderJerusalem’s1187surrendertoSaladininvolvedransomingmostofthepopulation‘atreasonablerates’!

Theencyclopediaisuser-friendlyandclearlywritten.Notonlyareitsmorethan

fivethousandentriesindividuallyintelligible.Thegraphicssynergisewiththetext,enhancingratherthanchallengingorsubmergingit.Themapsinparticulararemodelsoftheirkind,bothaccurateandinformative.

Finallytheencyclopediaisconcentratedonwarmaking.Iteschewsmilitaryhistory’sframingconcepts,whethereconomic,culturalorgender,infavourofpresentingwaratitssharpend.Thatenablescoveringthefullspectrum:warsandrevolutions,campaignsandcounter-insurgencies,battleandsieges.Andinturntheencyclopedia’sformatfacilitatesintegrating,ratherthancompartmentalising,war’slevelsandwar’saspects.InthesepagesMarathonandHastings,theriseoftheRomanEmpireandtheBritishEmpire,becomesubjectsforcomparisonandcontrast.

TheEncyclopediaofWarfare,inshort,admirablyfulfillsthedefinitionofaworkthatprovidesinformationonmanyelementsofonesubject.Itsvalue,however,isalsoincontext.Thisworkmakesbroadercontributionstomilitaryhistory’sreferenceapparatus,andtoitsreferencementality,ontwolevels.Theencyclopediacomplementstheelectronicera’smemeof‘sixdegreesofseparation’.Theideathateverythingisnomorethansixstepsawayfromeverythingelseisanaturalbyproductofwebsurfing,whereahalf-dozenmouseclickscanleadfarawayindeedfromtheoriginalreferencepoint.Italsoencouragesdiffusion:engagementonperipheriesattheexpenseofthecentre.

TheEncyclopediaofWarfareencouragesandfacilitatesrefocusingonwar’sessentialelements:theplanning,conductandresultofusingarmedforce.Diffusionisanaturalaspectofthecurrentlydominantapproachtomilitaryhistoryasanacademicdiscipline.Theconceptofpivotaleventshasbeenovershadowedbyanemphasisonunderlyingstructures:reachingoutfromtheoperationaltowardstheinstitutional,thepoliticalandthesocialdimensions.War’ssharpendatbestjostlesforplace.Itcanloseouttoanintellectualdisdainthatisalsoaestheticandmoral.Warfare,inthesenseofmakingwar,isarguablytothetwenty-firstcenturywhatsexallegedlywastotheVictorians.Itinvolvesemotionsnicepeopledonotfeelandactionsnicepeopledonotperform.Writingaboutitbecomesthenewpornography,panderingtoappetitesbestleftneithernurturednoracknowledged.

Theencyclopediacontributesbalanceandperspectivetothisdiscourse.Itscontentsreinforcethespecific,uniquenatureandfunctionofarmedforces

comparedtoanyotherinstitutions.Itsentriesdemonstratethatwarmakinghashadadirect,significantimpactonhumanaffairs;thatcombathasfundamentallyalteredhistory’scourseinbothshortandlongterms.Tounderstandthisistounderstandtheworldinwhichwelive.AndTheEncyclopediaofWarfareenablesthatunderstandinginanimpressivefashion.

DENNISSHOWALTERJune2013

MedievalWars500–1500Thewarsofthemedievalperiodwerebrutalaffairs,conductedprimarilyatcloserangewithedgedandimpactweapons,supportedbythebowandarrowandthecrossbow.Yetbytheendoftheera,gunpowderweaponswerestartingtoreshapethenatureofthebattlefield,frominfantrybattlestosiegewarfare

againstfortresses.

Post-RomanBritain500–1100■CAMLANN,537TheAnnales Cambriae record the deaths of King Arthur andMordred, ofteninterpretedasbelligerents.Gildas’contemporarydescriptionsofinternaldiscordsuggestcivilwar,butneitherthisnorthelocationarecertain.■ARFDERYDD,573Gwendoleu ofArfderydd, the area encompassingHadrian’sWall andCarlisle,foughtagainstPeredurandGywriofStrathclyde.TheAnnalesCambriaerecordthatGwendoleufellandMerlinwentmad.■DEORHAM,577The forces of Gloucester, Cirencester and Bath united to dislodge Ceawlin’s‘Wessex’forcesfromHintonHill,overlookingtheAvonvalley.Thetownsweredefeated and their kings Connmail, Condida and Farinmail were slain. ThevictoryextendedCeawlin’spowerfromtheSolenttotheThamesandtheSevernEstuary, isolating theWestCountryBritons from those of theWelshMarchesandWales.■DEGSASTAN,c.603Aidan,kingoftheScotti,attemptedtohalttheexpansionistwarfareofEthelfridof Northumbria. Ethelfrid defeated the numerically superior army at Degsas’Stone.Hisbrother,Theobald,waskilledwithallhismen.■CHESTER,616Ethelfrid of Northumbria vanquished an army from the British kingdoms ofPowysandRhos,possiblyalliedwiththeAnglo-SaxonCearlofMercia.Despiteheavylosses,EthelfridwasvictoriousandKingSelyfSarffagadanofPowysandCadwalCrysbanofRhosfell.Notably,1200BritishmonksfromBangor-on-Deewereslaughtered.ThevictoryisolatedtheBritishkingdomsinWalesfromthoseofStrathclydeandRhegedinthenorth.■HATFIELDCHASE,12OCTOBER633EdwinofNorthumbriawasdefeatedbyanallianceofCadwallaofGwyneddandPenda of Mercia. Edwin was killed, his army destroyed and NorthumbriafragmentedasCadwallapursuedayearofrapineinthenorth.■HEAVENFIELD,634Oswald of Northumbria, possibly with allies from Dal Riata, defeated

Cadwalla’s numerically superior forces. Oswald took a defensive positionalongsideHadrian’sWallandhemmedinCadwalla’sadvancingarmy.■MASERFELTH,642Penda ofMercia defeated Oswald of Northumbria. The location is uncertain;contenders include Oswestry, ‘Oswald’s Tree’. Tradition states Penda hadOswald’s body ritually dismembered and displayed in a tree as a sacrifice toWoden.■WINWAED,655OswyofBerniciadefeatedthesuperiorforcesofPendaofMerciaandhisDeiranandEastAnglianallies.Merciansandtheirallieswerekilled,includingtheEastAngleEthelhere.OswybeheadedPenda.■INVASIONOFNORTHWALES,1063Harold Godwinson led a land and sea campaign fromGloucester to curb thepowerofGruffuddapLlewellyn,‘KingoveralloftheWelsh’.HaroldattackedRhyddlan, razedGruffudd’s fleetandputhismen to flight.Haroldsecured thesubmissionsofWelshsub-kingsasTostig ledacampaignofplunder.Gruffuddwas murdered by his own men and Harold sent his head to Edward theConfessor.■NORTHUMBRIANREVOLT,1065Following a series ofmurders, thenorthern aristocracy rebelled againstTostigGodwinson,EarlofNorthumbria,slewhismenanddeclaredhimanoutlaw.ThelordsofNorthumbriaandMerciamarchedsouthtoconfirmMorcarofMerciaastheirnewEarlandplunderedtheareaaroundNorthampton.HaroldGodwinsonalliedhimselfwithMorcaragainsthisbrother.TostigfledintoexileinFlandersandsentemissariestoHaraldHardradaofNorway.

EarlyMedievalScotland500–1100■DUNNICHEN,20MAY685EcgfrithofNorthumbriaattemptedtoreinforcehispowerinnorthernBritaininanattackagainstthePictishKingdomofFortiu,tothenorthoftheMounth.ThesouthernPictishzoneabove theForthacknowledgedNorthumbrian suzerainty,butBrideiofFortiuchallengedNorthumbrianpowerandharasseditsallies.

TheNorthumbriansmarchedintonorthAngusneartheLakeLunnGaran,anareamarkedbydeephills,anarrowpathwayandboggyterrain.Feigningretreat,the Picts led Ecgfrith’s men into a narrow mountain pass where they wereambushed.Ecgfrithwaskilledandthegreaterpartofhisarmyslaughtered.ThedefeatmarkedtheindependenceofthePictishkingdomsfromNorthumbriaandthe end of their tributary status. The recovery of lands from Northumbriancontrol coincidedwith the rejectionof the newly establishedSee atAbercorn,whichwassymbolicofNorthumbrian-sponsored‘Roman’Christianity.■CARHAM,1018Huctred, Earl of Northumbria, marched against Malcolm II of the ScotsKingdom(southoftheForthandClyde)andOwainofStrathclyde.HuctredwasdefeatedandkilledandtheScotsgainedcontrolofLothian.■DUNSINANE(BATTLEOFTHESEVENSLEEPERS),1054Siward of Northumbria led land and sea forces againstMacbeth of Scotland,followingScottishattacksonNorthumbria.BattlewasmetnorthoftheFirthofForthonthefeastoftheSevenSleepersofEphesus.Siwardwasvictorious;3000Scots and 1500 English fell andMacbeth put to flight. The English regainedcontrolofCumbria,installingMalcolmIIIasKingofStrathclyde.■LUMPHANAN,15AUGUST1057MalcolmIIIofScotlandmortallywoundedhisrivalMacbethatanengagementnorthoftheMounth.RetreatingovertheCairnamounthpass,Macbethstagedalaststandandwasdefeated.HediedatLumphanan.■ALNWICK,13NOVEMBER1093Malcolm of Scotland led his fifth and last invasion of northern England,besieging thecastleatAlnwick.RobertdeMowbray,EarlofNorthumbria, setouttorelievethecastle.AlthoughlackingthemanpowertoengagetheScotsinopenbattle,RobertsucceededintakingthemunawaresandattackedMalcolm’sbesieging forces before the ramparts. Malcolm and his son were both killed,

resultinginongoingdynasticstrugglesinScotland.

WarsoftheFranks500-1000■VOILLE,507Clovis’ victories over the Alemanni east of the Rhine and the BurgundianKingdomon theRhone valley brought theFranks into the orbit of theGothickingdoms and the scene of Mediterranean politics. Despite the mediation ofTheodoric, Clovis moved against the Visigothic kingdom of Aquitaine. Thesuperior army of Alaric II of Toulouse met Clovis’ forces in the northernmarchesofVisigothic territory.Fighting tookplacewith javelins andhand-to-hand combat, the Goths deserted the field and the Senatorial leaders of theAuvergnats under the commandofAppollinariuswere all killed.Clovis killedAlaric and plundered his treasury at Toulouse. He drove the Goths fromAngoulêmeandhisson,Theuderic,subduedtheVisigothickingdomsouthtothePyrenees.CloviswasmadeconsulbytheEmperorAnastasius.

■VEZERONCE,25JUNE524FollowingthedeathofClovis,hisfoursonscontinuedtheFrankishWarsagainstBurgundy.ClotairandChildebertfinallydefeatedGundomarandhisOstrogothicalliesandtheBurgundianKingdomwasannexedintotheMerovingianlands.■WOGASTISBURG,631Dagobert I sent three armies recruited from the Austrasians, Alemanni andLombards to stem the growing cohesion of Slavic power united under Samo,onceaFrankishmerchant.Dagobert’sarmieswereheavilydefeated,probablyinBohemia.■COMPIÈGNE,26SEPTEMBER715Thefirst inaseriesofbattles intheFrankishcivilwarsfollowingthedeathofPepinofHeristal.Pepin’sgrandsonTheudoaldsucceededhimbrieflyasMayorof thePalace toDagobert III.Theudoaldwasousted in favourofRagenfridofNeustriaandPepin’sillegitimateson,CharlesMartel,wasdeclaredmayorbythenobles of Austrasia. Ragenfrid defeated Theudoald with the support of Eudo,DukeofAquitaine.■COLOGNE,716ChilpericIIandRagenfrid,MayorofthePalaceofNeustria,ledaforceagainstAustrasia. A simultaneous invasion was led by their ally Radbod of Frisia.Charles Martel, recently escaped from imprisonment by Plectrude andTheudoaldintheirpowerbaseatCologne,retreatedratherthanfaceinsuperableodds. Cologne fell after a short siege and Chilperic II and Ragenfrid weredeclaredkingandmayorrespectivelybytheAustrasians.■AMBIEVE,716Charles Martel defeated the army of Chilperic II and Ragenfrid of Neustria.Attackingastheyrestedatmidday,CharlesMartelemployedafeignedretreattodrawthemfromtheirdefensivepositionintoopenground.■VINCY,717Charles Martel routed the troops of Chilperic II and Ragenfrid of Neustria.Having pursued them to Paris, Charles Martel moved against Plectrude inCologneandsecuredtheremainsofPepin’streasury.■SOISSONS,718ChilpericII,RagenfridandEudo,DukeofAquitaineweredefeatedbyCharlesMartel’s armyofveterans.Ragenfrid fled toAngers,Eudo andChilperic II tolands south of the Loire. Eudo handed Chilperic II over to CharlesMartel in

return for recognition of his Dukedom. On the death of Chlothar IV, CharlesMartel recognizedChilperic II as king in return for royal legitimizationof hismayoralty.

■THEBOARN,734Charles Martel’s army was ferried over the Aelmere to the Boarn, where hedefeated and killed Poppo, king of the Frisians. Looting and destruction ofheathentemplesfollowed.CharlesMartelannexedtheFrisiankingdom.■RONCESVALLES,778

TherearguardoftheFrankishArmywasambushedanddefeatedinthePassofRoncesvallesbyanallianceofChristianBasquesofPamplonaandtheforcesoftheEmirofCordova.■BALLON,22NOVEMBER845CharlestheBaldofWestFranciawasdefeatedbythenumericallyinferiortroopsofNominoe,DukeofBrittany.TheBretons lured theFrankish troops into thetreacherousmarshlandsbetweentheOustandtheAff.■SOISSONS,923The climax of the rebellion byWest Frankish nobles against Charles III (theSimple),ledbyhisbrother,Robert,CountofParis.CharlesIIIwasdefeatedanddeposedandRobertwaskilled.

WarsoftheGermanicMigrations500–750■THEICEOFLAKEVANERN,c.530Onela of Sweden was defeated by the exiled Swedish princes Eanmund andEadgilsandtheGeatishKingHeardred.Thebattle,foughtonthefrozenlake,isrecordedinBeowulfandNorsesagas.■ASFELD,552Audoin,leaderoftheLombardsandalliedtotheEmperorJustinian,defeatedtheGepidarmyofThorisind.Jordanesrecordsthebattleasoneofthebloodiestofhistime,withthelossof60,000lives.■CORONATE,689Cunipert, King of the Lombards, returned from exile with an army ofPiedmontese and defeated the rebellion ofAlahis,Duke ofTrent andBrescia,alongwithhisVenetianforces.Alahiswaskilledinthebattle.■BRAVALLA,750Legend recorded by Saxo Grammaticus and Norse saga. Harald Wartooth ofDenmarkisdefeatedbySigurd,KingofSweden,inabattlerepletewithheroes,berserkers,fightingbearsandValkyries.

WarsoftheByzantineEmpire500–1000■AMIDA,502–03A Sassanian Persian siege of Byzantine-held Amida is noted for a spiriteddefence inwhichByzantine soldiers undermined the Persian siege ramp frominsidethewallsuntilitcollapsed.Nonetheless,thecityfell.■DARA,530OneofByzantineGenBelisarius’earliestvictories.TheByzantinefieldarmyofthe east, about 25,000 men, was camped near Dara when a 40,000-strongSassanianforceunderFiruzapproached.Belisariusassumeddefensivepositionsoutside the town, digging a series of ditcheswith narrowpassages left for histroopstocross.ThePersiansbeganwithacavalrychargethattemporarilydrovethe Byzantine left flank back, but the Byzantines regrouped and the first dayconcludedwithtwofightsbetweenchampionsofeacharmy.Onthesecondday,10,000more Persians arrived. After arrow exchanges at midday, the Persianslaunched a general assault. The Byzantines threw them into confusionwith aflank attack by cavalry that had been concealed. In the final phase, theByzantinesdividedthePersianarmyintotwopartsanddefeatedeachinturn.■CALLINICUM,19APRIL531A Sassanian cavalry force of 15,000 under Azarethes invaded Byzantineterritory;BelisariusbroughtamixedByzantineforceof25,000tochallengehim,pursuing the withdrawing Persians. In an Easter Day battle, both sides beganwith arrow exchanges. Under their cover, Azarethes reinforced his left-wingcavalry. Their charge then crumbled the Byzantine right wing. The Byzantinecavalry fled. Belisarius’ infantry, in close formation, survived the attack untildark,thenescaped.

■CONSTANTINOPLEI,532In theNika revolt,massive rioting and property destruction inConstantinoplethreatened Emperor Justinian. Eastern veterans under Belisarius and HerulmercenariesunderMunduschargedthemobintheHippodrome,slaughteringanestimated30,000.■ADDECIMUM,13SEPTEMBER533In533,aByzantinearmyunderthecommandofBelisariusinvadedtheformerRomanprovinceofAfrica,currentlyruledbyVandalsunderKingGelimer.Afterhisunopposedlanding,BelisariusmarchedrapidlytowardCarthage.TheVandal

armyambushedtheByzantineforceon13SeptemberatAdDecimum,the10-milemarker on the road south of Carthage, at a point where the road passedthroughanarrowdefile.Gelimer’splanwasapparentlytobottle theByzantineforce in and attack it from both sides, but the Vandal attack was badlycoordinated. The first Vandal contingent, commanded by Gelimer’s brother,Ammatas, was not yet organized for battle when it ran into the Byzantineadvanceguard.Thisforcewasalmostcompletelydestroyed,thedeadincludingtheVandal prince. A secondVandal force soon engagedwith Belisarius’ Hunmercenaries,butproved tobe so terrifiedof theHunnic force that theyhardlyfoughtback.TheByzantinespursuedthemnearlytothewallsofCarthage.

Gelimer then appeared on the scene with the largest of the three Vandalforces.HedrovetheByzantinesbackfromthefield,theVandalcavalryroutingBelisarius’mercenary cavalry.Gelimer thendiscoveredhis brother’s body andstopped to bury it. Belisarius was able to regroup his forces and his counter-attackfoundtheVandalforcecompletelyunprepared.TheVandalswererouted,Gelimer fleeing away from Carthage, apparently in the mistaken belief thatByzantine forces already blocked theway to his capital city.Belisarius lost atmost1800men,whileVandalcasualtiesnumbered10–12,000.Althoughmostofthe Vandal army still remained intact, Belisarius was able to march on toCarthage,whichopeneditsgatestohim.

■TRICAMARUM,15DECEMBER533The Byzantine invasion army under Belisarius had taken Carthage, but theVandal kingGelimer’s armywas still largely intact.Belisariusmarchedout tomeetGelimer27kmfromCarthage; theByzantine forcenumberedabout8000infantryand5000cavalryandtheVandalarmywasslightlylarger.

BelisariusfirsttriedtoluretheVandalsintoadisorderedcharge,butGelimerheldhisground.TheByzantinesthenattackedtheVandalcentre.Inahardfight,theVandalsweredrivenback,buttheirwingsdidnotcometosupportthem.TheVandal centre eventually collapsed into a rout, whereupon the wings of the

Vandalforcealsofledbacktotheircamp.Belisariusbegantoorganizeanassaulton the Vandals’ fortified camp. Before he could attack, Gelimer fled,precipitating a mass flight before the Byzantines stormed the by-then emptycamp.■ROMEIII,537–538Byzantine general Belisarius defended Rome with 5000 soldiers. Vitigis, theGothic king, established a partial siege, his seven fortified camps blockingsuppliesandbreakingtheaqueducts.AnattemptedassaultinMarch537failed,but Vitigis’ seizure of Portus increased pressure on Rome. Belisarius offeredbattle, but was driven back into the city. Stalemate ended when RomanreinforcementsarrivedandtheGothsweredefeatedastheywithdrew.■ROMEIV,546–47GothickingTotilabesiegedByzantine-heldRome.GenBelisariustriedtobreakthe siege, but his small armywas driven off.Muchof the population starved;othersattemptedflight,althoughmostwerekilled.Finally,partof thegarrisonbetrayedthecitytoTotila.Earlyin547,TotilaabandonedRomeandBelisariusreoccupied it, restoring thewallsTotila had slighted.Totila tried and failed toforceBelisariusoutagain.

■SENAGALLICA,551Atotalof50Byzantinewarshipsattacked47GothicshipsblockadingAncona.The Goths came out to meet the Byzantines; in missile exchange and thenboarding,theGoths,inexperiencedatsea,werecompletelydefeated.■TADINAE,552ByzantineGenNarseswith20,000–25,000menmetasomewhatsmallerGothicarmyunderTotila.Battle commencedwith theGoths’ unsuccessful attempt totakeagullyandoutflank theByzantines, followedby singlecombatsbetweenchampions.Totilothenlaunchedanattackofcavalrywithlancesalongtheentire

battle front, but the Byzantines held. The Byzantine advance then drove theGothsthroughtheirowninfantryinabloodyrout.■MONSLACTARIUS,552AByzantinearmyunder theeunuchNarses trappedaGothicforceunderKingTeïasasitmarchedtorelieveCumae.Inatwo-dayfight,Teïasandmuchofhisarmywaskilled.■CASILINUS,554FrankishraiderswithsomeGothsinvadedByzantine-heldItaly.Narsesmetthemwith18,000mennearCapua;theFranksunderButilinhadasimilarforce.WhentheByzantines struck a Frankish foraging party, the Franks left their fortifiedcamp to fight. The Franks, formed into a wedge (cuneus), broke through theRoman centre, only to be hit by Byzantine cavalry on their flanks and rear,sufferingamassivedefeat.■CONSTANTINOPLEII,559A Kotrigur Hun force of 7000 advanced on undefended Constantinople.Belisariusassembledascratchforceofguardsmen,veteransandvolunteersanddefeatedtheHunsinanambush.Justinianthenpaidthemtowithdraw.■MELITENEI,576Inacavalrybattle,ByzantineGenJustiniandefeatedtheSassanianPersiankingKhusrau nearMelitene and sacked the Persian camp. Fleeing Persians lootedMelitene,butmanydrownedintheEuphratesastheyfled.■SOLACHON,586A Byzantine army under Philippicus halted a Persian invasion in northernMesopotamia.Botharmieswereapparentlyallcavalry;theByzantinerightflankbroke the Persian left; the Persians fled when threatened with doubleenvelopment.■VIMINACIUM,601Partofa longcampaignagainst theAvars, theByzantineBalkanarmyheavilydefeatedtheAvarsatViminaciumbydismountingtheircavalryandwithstandingrepeatedAvarcavalrycharges.Avarlosseswereheavy.■ANTIOCH,613Emperor Heraclius, personally commanding the Byzantine army, tried to stopinvadingPersiansinabloodybattlethatwasatfirstindecisive,butthePersiansregroupedandroutedtheByzantines,consolidatingtheirholdonCilicia.

■JERUSALEMV,614A Sassanian Persian army under Shahrbaraz invaded Byzantine Palestine.Jerusalem surrendered peacefully, but when Shahrbaraz marched on, theinhabitantsexpelledthePersiangarrison.Shahrbarazturnedbackandplacedthecity under siege. Strongly fortified, but with a mostly civilian and clericalpopulace, Jerusalem withstood the siege for 21 days, its garrison vastlyoutnumbered by the Persians and a large number of Jewish rebels under thecommand of Benjamin of Tiberias. When the wall was finally breached,Shahrbaraztookthecitybystorm.Manyrelicsandchurchesweredestroyedandpriests killed in revenge for the Christians’ duplicity. The Persian conquerorsdeportedmuchoftheChristianpopulationtoPersiaandalsocarriedofftherelicoftheTrueCross.TheyleftthecityunderthecontroloftheirJewishallies.■ALEXANDRIA,619TheSassanianPersianinvasionofByzantineEgyptbeganin617or618.In619,they reachedAlexandria,whichwashighlydefensible,buthada largecivilianpopulation that could not be fed since the Persians held the surroundingcountryside. Byzantine governor Nicetas and Orthodox patriarch John theAlmsgiverbothsoonfledtoCyprus.ThecitysurrenderedinJune619,althoughonesourcereportsthatitwasbetrayedtothePersians.■ISSUS,622Byzantium’sEmperorHeracliusdefeatedalargePersianarmyunderShahrbarazineasternAnatolia,discoveringanambushandrespondingwithafeignedretreatthat drew the Persians out. Although not decisive, Issus restored Byzantine

morale.■SARUS,625TheByzantine vanguard crossed theSarus, butwas lured into an ambush andnearly destroyed by their Persian opponents. Emperor Heraclius then led therearguardovertheunguardedbridge,drivingthePersiansoff.■CONSTANTINOPLE,626A Sassanian Persian army under Shahrbaraz and the Avars jointly besiegedConstantinople.EmperorHeraclius sent part of his field army to reinforce thegarrison. The Avars, unskilled in siegecraft, tried to bring Persians to theEuropeansideof thecity incanoes,but theyweredestroyedby theByzantinefleet, leaving the Avars to attempt primitive siege towers. When anotherByzantinearmyarrived,theAvarsandPersiansbothwithdrew.■NINEVEH,12DECEMBER627All available Persian forces gathered under Gen Rahzad to meet a ByzantineinvasionofAssyria.EmperorHeracliusfeignedretreat,thenturnedandattackedthedisorganizedPersianforce,winningadecisivevictory.ThePersiansretreatedafter eighthoursof fighting.About6000Persiansdied in thebattle, includingRahzad,whomayhavebeenkilledinsinglecombatwithHeraclius.AforceofPersianreinforcementsnumbering3000thenarrived,butweretoolatetofightinthebattle.■RAVENNA,729Byzantine troops sent to restore order in Italy after a tax revoltmet an ItalianarmynearRavenna.TheByzantinesweredefeated and thousandswerekilled,helpingloosenByzantinecontrolofnorthernItaly.■PLISKA,26JULY811In811,ByzantineemperorNicephorusIlaunchedagreatcampaignagainsttheBulgars,personallyleadingaverylargearmythatincludedmanycourtiersandcourt officials. The Bulgar khan Krum tried to make peace, but Nicephorusrejectedhisoffers.

On crossing the frontier, the emperor took Pliska, the Bulgar capital,slaughteringthegarrisonandareliefforcethatarrivedtoolate,thenproceededtolaywastetothecountryside.Hethenmarchedon,believingthatKrum’sarmyhad been destroyed, allowing discipline to slacken despite pleas for greatercaution.TheByzantinearmysoonfounditselfcaughtinatrap:theBulgarshadblockedtheendoftherivervalleytheyweretraversingwithalogpalisadeandditch.WhenNicephorus’scoutsbroughtword,hefell intodepressionandtook

noimmediateaction.TheBulgars,reinforcedbyAvarandSlavallies,attackedbefore dawn on 26 July, targeting the imperial encampment. Nicephorus wasamong the first to fall in the surprise attack and uncontrollable panic rapidlyspreadamongtheByzantinetroops.ManyfleeingByzantinesoldiersdrownedinthenearbymarshes; infact,somanyweretrampledtodeathintheirhastethattheBulgarswere able to cross themarshes on their bodies. SomeByzantinesreachedthepalisadetothesouthandtriedtoclimb,onlytofalltotheirdeathsintheditchonthefarside.Thedesperatesoldiersburnedasectionofthepalisadeanditfelloutwardovertheditch,butwhentheytriedtocrossonit,itgavewayandmanywere burned to death in the ditch. Itwas perhaps theworstRomandefeat since Adrianople in 378. Khan Krum made Nicephorus’ skull into adrinkingbowl.■VERSINIKIA,22JUNE813BulgarsdefeatedamuchlargerByzantinearmybecauseanimpatientByzantinegeneral led hiswing forwardswithout orders.He did not receive support; thewingwasslaughteredandtherestofthearmyfledinpanic.■LALAKAON,3SEPTEMBER863EmirOmarofMeliteneraidedtotheBlackSeawithabout8000men.Hisforcewas surrounded by 13Byzantine corps under Petronas and almost completelydestroyed,outnumberedatleastthreetoone.■BATHYSRYAX,878Two Byzantine divisions (4,000–5000 men) shadowed retreating Paulicianrebels.Theygotinanargumentoverwhichwasbravestanddisobeyedordersinadawnattackthatcreatedpanicandbroketherebelarmy.

■ACHELOOS,20AUGUST917Byzantines under Leo Phocas attacked the Bulgars under Tsar Symeon. TheByzantineswerewinning,butarumourspreadthattheircommanderwasdead,causingpanic.SymeonturnedhistroopsandroutedtheByzantines.■DOROSTOLON,971Byzantineemperor John ITzimiskes ledanarmyofabout30,000 todrive theRus’ under Svyatoslav out of Bulgaria. They met outside the fortress ofDorostolon.TheRussiansbegantheactionwithacharge,onlytobestopped;asecond chargewas similarly contained. Finally, John sent in heavy cavalry onbothwings,breakingthroughtheRus’shieldwallandcausingacompleteroute.■ADRIANOPLE,972AByzantinearmyunderJohnITzimiskesdefeatedthelarger,butinferiorRus’army of Svyatoslav. Russian advance was halted with archery, then a cavalrycharge;theRus’withdrewtoKiev.■PANKALIA,24MARCH979Inasurpriseattack,Byzantium’sGenBardasPhocascrushinglydefeatedarebelarmy under Bardas Sclerus, Phocas wounding Sclerus in single combat. ThebattleendedtherebellionandSclerusescapedtoMuslimterritory.■GATESOFTRAJAN,17AUGUST986Byzantine emperor Basil II retreated after unsuccessfully besieging Sofia.BulgariansunderTsarSamuelsurroundedhisarmyinthemountainsandnearlyannihilateditastheByzantinesfled;Basilhimselfbarelyescaped.■SPERCHEIOS,996Byzantines under Nicephorus Uranus surprised a Bulgarian army under TsarSamuelas theyreturnedfromraidingGreece.TheByzantinesdaringlycrossedthe flooded Spercheios River, completely routing the Bulgarians in a dawnattack.

ChineseSui/TangDynasty581–950■BOHAISEA,598AChinesearmyandsupportingfleetinvadedtheKoreankingdomofGoguryeo(Koguryo). The fleetwas badly damaged in storms and repulsed by aKoreanfleet.Thearmy,depletedbydisease,withdrew.■YODONGREGION,612A large SuiDynasty/Chinese army invaded theKorean kingdomofGoguryeo(Koguryo).WhilemedievalaccountssuggestthattheChineseinvasionincludedoveramilliontroops,thisisdoubtlesslyanexaggeration.Asystemoffortressesin northern Goguryeo tied down the Chinese invasion. In the Yodong region(present-daynorth-eastNorthKorea)aKoreanfortresswithstoodalengthysiegebyChinese forces purportedly numbering over 300,000, another exaggeration.The garrison of the fortress finally began negotiating surrender terms, butKoreanreinforcementsarrivedandthefortresscontinuedtohold.Chineseforcesweremeanwhiledepleted,unabletoobtainsufficientsuppliesintheregion.Thesiegewas liftedwhenGoguryeoGenŬljiMundŏk(EuljiMundeok) led forcesthatcleared theChinese fromthe region. It is thought that theChinese lostallbut2700outoftheirforceofover300,000duringthecampaign.■PYONGYANG,612DuringtheChineseinvasionoftheKoreankingdomofGoguryeo(Koguryo),aChinese amphibious force attempted to seize the city of Pyongyang. Theamphibious force entered Pyongyang, but was ambushed and retreated to thecoast.■SALSURIVER,612During aChinese invasion of theKorean kingdomofGoguryeo (Koguryo), alargeChinesearmybegan theprocessofcrossing theSalsuRiver (present-dayChongchonriverinnorth-easternNorthKorea).InresponsetheKoreansbrokeadam upstream, flooding the river and isolating part of the Chinese army. TheGorguryeogenŬljiMundŏk(EuljiMundeok)attackedtheisolatedChineseandbadly defeated them. Exaggerated accounts give Chinese losses of more than300,000troops.

■HUOYI,8SEPTEMBER617As theChinese SuiDynasty began to collapse, the SuiGenLiYuan joined arebellionagainst thedynasty.LiYuan’s70,000 troopsdefeatedSui loyalistsatHuoyi,neartheYellowRiver.■HULAO,28MAY621LiShimin, thesecondemperorof thenewChineseTangDynasty, ledanarmyagainst two rebelliouswarlords,Dou Jiande andWangSichong.ThewarlordsweredefeatedatHulao,incentralChina.■ANSIFORTRESS,645

TheChineseTangDynasty, like thepreviousSuiDynasty, invaded theKoreankingdomofGoguryeo(Koguryo),which,atthetime,includedpartsofpresent-dayChina,includingtheLiaodongpeninsula.TheAnsiFortressguardedpartofthis area, being located just southeast of the Liao river. A Chinese armyreportedlyaslargeas60,000ledbyEmperorTaizongdefeatedGoguryeoforcesoutsideofthefortressandthenbeganasiege.Thefortressprovedimpregnabletoassault,sotheChineselaboriouslybuiltanearthenrampdesignedtooverlookthe fortress walls. The Koreans foiled this effort by building higher woodenrampartsatoptheirwallsinthepathoftheChineseramp.ThefortresscontinuedtoholdwhilewinterapproachedandtheChineseforceswithdrew,beingunabletoobtainadequatesuppliesinahostileareawithworseningweather.■BAEKGANG,27AUGUST663ForcesoftheKoreankingdomofBaekje,withtheirJapaneseallies,werebadlydefeated by forces of theKorean kingdom of Silla and theirChinese allies atBaekgang,inpresent-daySouthKorea.■TA-FEI,670ATibetan army attacked an invadingChinese army nearMountTa-Fei in theTarim Basin. The Chinese forces had separated into an advance force andrearguard;bothweredecisivelydefeated.■KAOYU,685AChineseTangDynastyarmycrushedarebelforceintheprovinceofJiangsu,near the central- west coast of China. Tang forces inflicted at least 7000casualtiesontherebels.■TIANMENLING,698Chinese Tang Dynasty forces had defeated rebel Mohe peoples and pursuedthemintotheformerKoreankingdomofGoguryeo.There,theMoheandBelhaeKoreansjoinedforcesanddefeatedtheinvadingChinesearmy.■SHIBAO,745–59Chinese forces invaded the Tarim Basin in present-day western China, whichwas held by Tibetans. Shibaowas a strong Tibetan position in the RedHills,continuallyresuppliedbyTibetancavalry,whilebesiegingChineseforceslackedadequate supplies.TheChinese appointed aTurkishgeneral,QosuKhan,whoorderedamassiveassaultwith63,000men.Theassaultingforcesufferedhugelossesintheattack,butfinallycapturedShibao,findingonly400deadTibetansinside.■YONGQIU,756

During the An Shi Rebellion against the Chinese Tang Dynasty, loyal forcesunder ZhangXun successfully defended thewalled city ofYongqiu inHenanProvince,inflictingheavylossesonmuchlargerrebelforces.■SUIYANG,757DuringtheAnShiRebellionagainsttheChineseTangDynasty,130,000rebelsunder Yin Ziqi besieged the city of Suiyang in Henan Province. Zhang Xun,having successfully defended Yongqiu the previous year, was chosen tocommand10,000 loyalistsdefendingSuiyang.Suiyangrepelledallassaults forseveral months. Food supplies in Suiyang were exhausted and the defenderseventually resorted to cannibalism. The city finally fell, but the costly siegecrippledrebelstrength.■HENSHU,781Chinese Tang Dynasty emperor Dezong, intending to establish firmer controlwithintheTangEmpire,dispatchedImperialtroopswhodefeatedwarlordforcesunderTianYueinmodern-dayHubeiProvinceincentralChina.■HUANGCHAOREBELLION,874–84AsthepoweroftheTangDynastyinChinadeclined,rebellionswerenumerous.Huang Chao, a charismatic merchant, led a particularly destructive rebellion.Huang’sterritorialsuccessesthroughoutChinaweretemporary,resultinginthesackingofmajorcitiesandthedevastationofruralregions,whileTanggeneralsunenthusiastically pursued themobile rebels.Huang escaped capture, but diedduringaclashwithrivalrebels.■TINGHSIEN,945Khitan forces ledbyLiaoemperorTaizongclashedwith JinChinese forces inpresent-daynorthernChina.TaizongwasdefeatedandbarelyescapedcaptureinthisattempttoexpandtheKhitanLiaoEmpire.

WarsoftheTurkishEmpires600–1299■DERBENT,627DuringtheThirdPerso-TurkicWar,thewesternTurkicKhaganatefoughtagainstthe Sassanid Empire in alliance with the Byzantine emperor Heraclius. TheKhaganTongYabghu led aGöktürk andKhazar force that stormed thenewlyfortifiedSassanidcityofDerbentinthesouthernCaucasus.Intheaftermathofthis victory, Heraclius led a Byzantine offensive, which defeated the mainSassanid army at Nineveh in December 627, while the Khagan’s forces tookTbilisi.■DANDANAQAN,23MAY1040A Seljuq force of 20,000 that had been raiding the western provinces of theGhaznavidEmpiredefeateda50,000-strongGhaznavidarmyatDandanaqaninKhorasan.ThedisputedterritorywasincorporatedintotheGreatSeljuqEmpire.■DIDGORI,12AUGUST1121A56,000-strongGeorgianarmyunderKingDavidIVinterceptedanddefeatedaSeljuq invasion force totalling at least 150,000 men at Didgori, near Tbilisi.DavidfolloweduphisvictorywiththecaptureofTbilisiintheyear1122.■YASSICHEMEN,10–12AUGUST1230The lastKhwarezmian ruler, Jalal ad-Din, captured theAyyubid cityofAhlat,provokinganAyyubidalliancewith theSeljuqSultanateofRûm. Jalal ad-Dinwasdefeatedinathree-daybattlebytheSeljuqsultanKayqubadI.

Korea600–1100■HWANGSANBEOL,660A50,000strongSillaarmycommandedbyGenKimYushinattackedaforceofno more than 5000 Baekje troops under Gen Gyebaek, which was defendingSabi, theBaekje capital.Despite beingheavily outnumbered, theBaekje armyinflicted heavy casualties, beating off at least four Silla attacks before beingoverwhelmedandannihilated.SabiwasthencapturedbytheSillaarmy,leadingtothesurrenderofKingUijaofBaekje.■HEUNGHWAJIN,1018Khitan troops numbering 100,000 under the command of Gen Xiao BaiyainvadedtheKoreankingdomofGoryeo.TheirlineofadvancecrossedastreamnearHeunghwajin,whereGoryeo’sarmyunderGenGangGam-chanhadsetatrap.GenGanghad thestreamblockedandbroke thedamas theKhitanforcecrossedthestreambed.ManyKhitansweredrowned.Theselossesincreasedthealreadyconsiderablenumericalsuperiorityofthe208,000strongGoryeoarmy.■KWIJU,1019Despite his defeat at Heunghwajin, GenXiao Baiya advanced on the Goryeocapital,Kaesong,buthis army sufferedbadly in theharshKoreanwinter.TheKhitanarmywasvirtuallyannihilatedbyGenGangGam-chanatKwiju.

ChineseNanchaoWar650–774■CHANG’AN,763A100,000-strongTibetanarmysurroundingtheChinesecapital,Chang’an,waspanicked into retreat by the renownedChineseGenGuoZiyiwhohad spreadrumoursofhisadvanceattheheadofahugearmy.

MuslimExpansion624–1100■BADR,13MARCH624In the earliest days of Islam, Muhammad and his followers had to flee theirhometown of Mecca in Arabia and set up a Muslim community in Medina,roughly 320km to the north ofMecca.Mecca was controlled by the Quraishtribe,whowerepolytheisticandhostiletoIslam.AclashbetweentheMuslimsofMedina and the Quraish ofMecca initially took place along the importantcaravan route that ran north and south along thewestern edge of theArabianpeninsula. Thewells at Badr, 130km south-west ofMedina,were a key pointalongthatroute,whichbecamethesceneof thefirstsignificantbattlebetweentheMuslimsandtheQuraish.Muhammadcommanded313men,twohorsesand70camels, takingupdefensivepositionsnearBadras theQuraishapproachedwithover900men,100horsesand170camels.Bothsidesincludedarchersandswordsmen. By tradition, the battle opened with personal combat betweenchampionsfromeachside.Bothsidessentout threechampions, includingAli,Hamza and Ubayda for theMuslims. All threeMuslim champions slew theiropponents, although Ubayda was mortally wounded. After the combat ofchampions, theQuraishmounted a general attack.TheQuraish attack falteredandtheMuslimscounter-attacked.TheQuraishfledindisorder,pursuedbytheMuslims,whogatheredover40prisoners.

TheMuslimshadlost14killed,while theQuraishlostmorethan70killed.TheMuslimsexecutedsomeQuraishcaptives immediatelyafter thebattle,butMuhammad then ordered the lives of prisoners spared. Some of the prisonersbecameconvertstoIslam.Althoughsmall,thebattlewasdecisiveintermsofthesurvivaloftheseminalMuslimcommunity.■OHOD,625The battle of Ohod (often renderedUhud)was the second battle between theQuraishtribeofMeccaandtheMuslimsofMedinainArabia.TheQuraishwith3000menadvancedonMedina.Muhammadled1000Muslimsaroundtherearof the Quraish force, which then turned to attack theMuslims. TheMuslimsrepulsedtheinitialattack,butultimatelylostthebattleandretreatedtoMedina.■MEDINA,627ThepolytheisticQuraishtribeofMeccainArabiahadbeenengagedinwarwiththeMuslimsofMedina, ledbyMuhammadsince624.TheQuraishalliedwith

otherArabtribesandgatheredanarmyof10,000tomarchonMedinainearly627.Muhammad,withonly3000combatantsandalertedtotheapproachoftheQuraish, ordered ditches dug around Medina. The Quraish army consistedlargely ofmountedwarriors on horses and camels,which could not cross theMuslimditchesnorassault thewallsofMedina.Unpreparedforsiegewarfare,probingattacksby theQuraish failed. Inpersonalcombatbetweenchampions,theMuslimAlislewtheQuraishchampionAmr.Totalcasualtiesareunknown,but the Muslims suffered few losses, while the Quraish army became badlydepletedandwascompelledtowithdraw.

■MUTA,629Zaid Ibn Harithah was defeated while leading a small force into modern-dayJordan to avenge themurderofMuslimemissaries by localArab tribes in thefirstconfrontationbetweenMuslimsandtheChristianByzantineEmpire.■MECCA,630Muhammad’sfollowersfromYethrib-MedinaandalliedArabtribesnumbering10,000forcedtheeventualsubmissionofMeccaandtherulingQuraishtribeinanalmostbloodlessassault.TheidolsintheKa’baweresubsequentlydestroyed.■YAMAMA,632After two failed attacksunder the commanders Ikrimah andShurahbil,Khalidibnal-Walidledaforceof13,000todefeatMusailamaandtheBanuHanifatribeandsubjugatedcentralArabia.■HIRA,633Khalid ibnal-Walidbesieged the fortifiedcityofHira, capitalof theLakhmidKingdom until it was annexed by Persia in 602. The Lakhmids surrendered,alliedwithKhalidandactedasspiesagainsttheSassanids.■ULLAIS,633Khalid pursued Persian and Christian Arab forces from Walaja to the plainbetweentheEuphratesandKhaseef.LightcavalrymassacredtheSassaniansinretreatintheKhaseef.UllaiswasalsoknownasthebattleofBloodRiver.■ZUMAIL,633Khalid’s spies identified the location of imperial camp atZumail.The Islamicforcesconductedaco-ordinatedthree-sidedattackatnight,nearlydestroyingtheChristianArabcorps.■WALAJA,633Khalid ibnal-Walid led anarmyof theRashidunCaliphatenumberingaround15,000 against the numerically superior Sassanid forces ofYazdegerd III.TheSassanids sent two armies to intercept the Islamic forces at Walaja near theEuphrates,recruitingAraballiesenroute.Khalidmovedhisforcestomeetthearmies separately before they coalesced. The battlefield consisted of a plainbetween two high ridges, bordered by the Euphrates and the desert. Khaliddeployed the terrain and his superior numbers of cavalry, positioning thembehind the western ridge until he was able to entrap the entire Persian army.After assuming an initial defensive position, the Persian commanderAndarzaghar launchedacounter-attack.Followingaperiodof retreat, the light

cavalrychargedthemoreunwieldyPersianheavycavalry.Khalid’sforcesthengraduallysurroundedanddecimatedthePersianarmy.■SALASIL,633Khalid ibn al-Walid tricked the heavily armed Persian army into a series ofmarches until they were exhausted. The Islamic cavalry broke through theinfantrylinesofthePersianarmy,whoweremassacredinretreat.

■FIRAZ,633Khalid defeated an alliance of the Byzantine and Sassanian forces bothgarrisoned in the border region of Firaz.Khalid led a force of around 18,000againstaforceofupto180,000.AftergivingtheenemytheoptiontocrosstheEuphrates,Khalidcaughttheminapincermovementwiththeriverattheirback.Some50,000ByzantineandSassanidsfellandFirazsurrendered.■AJNADAIN,634The combined Islamic forces of several armies, numbering 20,000, weresummonedtoAjnadainbyKhalidibnal-WalidtomeetalocalByzantineforceof around 9000. Islamic archers were ordered to fire in controlled barragesagainsttheinitialforaysoflightlyarmedRomaninfantryandarchers,buttheseremained out of range. Al-Waqidi records that after suffering initial losses,Khalid sent individual warriors to challenge their Roman counterparts.NumerousRomancommanderswerekilledbyDhararIbnal-Azwar,then,astheduellingbecamewidespread,Khalidorderedageneraladvance.Ontheseconddayof thebattle, theRoman linescollapsedafter the lossof their commanderTheodore,followingafailedambushagainstKhalid.TheByzantineforceswererouted by the Islamic cavalry as they fled towards Jerusalem, Jaffa andGaza.Despiteadecisivevictory,manyIslamiccommandersfell.■BOSRA,634IslamicforcesattacktheByzantineArmyatBosra,thecapitaloftheGhassanidkingdom. After several days of battle, the Islamic forces besiege the city. Asreserve forces were moving towards Ajnadain, the Byzantine commandersurrendered.■SANIYYAT-UL-UQAB,634KhalidlaidsiegetoDamascusandformedanisolatingcordonaroundthecity;thelargestdetachmentscoveredthesouthernroadtoPalestineandthenorthernroad to Emesa. Heraclius sent 12,000 Byzantines reinforcements to break thesiege;thesewereinterceptedandroutedinapass32kmnorthofthecity.■MARJ-UDDEEBAJ,634FollowingthesurrenderatDamascus, theByzantineArmyweregivena three-day truce to disperse. Leading the cavalry, Khalid pursued and attacked theByzantinearmyontheplainofJabalAnsariya,closetoAntioch.■PELLA,635KhaliddefeatedtheByzantinearmyunderTheodoretheSacellarius,themilitary

commander in Syria. As imperial treasurer, Theodore’s role was to providereassurancetounpaidsoldiersandmercenaries.■DAMASCUS,635Khalidibnal-WalidlaidsiegetoDamascus,thestrongholdofByzantineSyria.The fortifications ofDamascuswere intimidating, surroundedby an 11mhighwallandguardedbysixgates.Lackingsiegeequipment,Khalidsurroundedthecity,with eachgate guardedby a general commandingover 4000 troops.Onecavalry detachment reconnoitred for Byzantine relief columns from Emesa asanother protected lines of communication with Medinah and engaged theByzantine garrison at Fahal. Following the defeat of a relief column, theByzantinedefenders attempted a seriesof counter-attacks. Infantry coveredbyarchers rushed first fromoneand then fromseveralgates,but sufferedseriouslosses and could not break the siege lines. On receipt of insider information,KhalidlaunchedasurpriseattackagainstthelightlyguardedEasternGateand,afterinitialresistance,thecitysurrenderedandwassparedfurtherbloodshed.■YARMUKRIVER,636Vahan’s ethnicallymixed force of 50,000 pursuedKhalid’s army of 25,000 inretreat from Damascus. After six days of single combat, cavalry charges andnegotiations,Khalid’sforcesroutedtheByzantines.ThesurvivorsfledtowardsEgypt.

■QADISIYA,637Sa’d ibn abi-Waqqas led an Islamic force of 30,000 against a numericallysuperior,butinexperiencedPersianarmyofinfantry,heavycavalryandelephantcorps.ThedecisiveIslamicvictoryeffectivelyendedthePersiancontrolofIraq.■HAZIR,637Meenascommandedagarrisonforceofaround70,000againstKhalid’smobileguardinanoffensiveaimedatpreventingafull-scalesiegeofQinnasrin.Meenaswaskilled,thegarrisonslaughteredandthecitysurrendered.■IRONBRIDGE,637

Following the Rashidun victory at Yarmuk, the Islamic army marched intoAnatolia.ApproachingAntioch from the east, they encountered theByzantinearmyoutsidemodern-dayMahruba,nearanIronBridgeovertheOrontes.Fewdetails remain beyond the prominent role played by Khalid and the Islamicmobile guard. The Byzantine Army suffered catastrophic losses and fled toAntioch,whichwasthenbesieged.■JALULA,637Following the capture of Ctesiphon, 12,000 Islamic troops engaged theSassanian armies regrouping at Jalula. The Sassanian commanderMihran dugentrenchments in anattempt to slow theopposingcavalry,buthis forcesweredefeated.■JERUSALEM,637With thedefeatof theByzantinefieldarmy,Jerusalemwasgraduallybesiegedby Islamic armies marching from the east. Heraclius could not offer anyassistance and the surrender of Jerusalem solidified Islamic control overPalestine.■ALEPPO,638TheRoman general Joachim unsuccessfully defended the fort ofAleppowith4000garrisontroopsagainsttheIslamicforcesofKhalid.Afterasiege,Alepposurrenderedandthegarrisonwaspermittedtodepart.■BABYLON,639In one of the initial engagements of the conquest of Egypt, Amr ibn al-Asldefeated theByzantine force nearHeliopolis, thenbesiegedEgyptianBabylonuntilitssurrenderin641.■NIHAWAND,641Knownas‘TheVictoryofVictories’.Nihawandsawthedecisivedefeatof theSassanian imperial forces marshalled to defend the wealthy provinces ofmodern-dayIraq.ThedesertfrontierwasindisarrayandundermannedfollowingSassanidabolitionof theclientLakhmidstate that functionedasabufferzoneagainst the Byzantine Empire. After defeat at Jalula in 637, the city wasabandoned by theMarzbans of the north-eastern provinces.Yazdegerd III hadmoved his capital to Merv from which he conducted raids into Islamic-heldterritoryandraised leviesforamajoroffensive.ThecommanderMardanShahled some60,000 against an Islamic armynumbering30,000, led bynumerouscommandersincludingCaliphOmar.ThePersiancavalrymayhavebeentrickedinto an ill-prepared attack on a Bedouin force that feigned flight, only to

surroundthePersiansinpursuit.■ALEXANDRIA,642The Islamic forces of Amrwere bombarded fromwithin the heavily fortifiedwallsformonths,butthedeathofHeracliuspreventedByzantinereinforcementsbeingsentandthecityfellafterasiegeofoverayear.■TRIPOLI,643AbdullahibnZubayrcapturedthelastoftheByzantinecoastalenclavesinNorthAfricaafterasiegelastingonemonth.■BALANJAR,650Abdar-RahmanibnRabiahinvadedthenorthernCaucasusintentonconqueringthe Khazar Khagagnate, but was defeated. A ninth-century source describescatapultsusedbybothsides.■BATTLEOFTHEMASTS,655FoughtoffthecoastofMountPhoenixinLycia,thisnavalbattlewasacrucialvictoryforIslamoveranavalforceofsome500shipsledbyEmperorConstansII.Abdullah bin S’aad led a relatively inexperienced fleet of some 200 ships.TheByzantine shipsweremoored in close formation; the Islamicvictorymayhave resulted from the superiorboardingandclose combat techniquesof theirforces.■BASRA,656Alsoknownasthe‘battleoftheCamel’.ArebelgroupinEgyptfirstimprisoned,thenmurderedCaliphUthman.TheaccessionofAli ibnAbiTaleb(thecousinandadoptedsonoftheProphet)ledtodissensionwithintheSahaba(companionsoftheProphet).ArebelfactionunderAishamarchedtoBasrawithanarmyof3000warriorstodemandvengeanceforthemurderofUthman.AliraisedaforceofseveralthousandaidedbyalliesfromKufraanddefeatedAisha’sfaction.Thespiralintocivilwarandeventualschismleavesthereliabilityofthesourcesforthe battle questionable, but both factions are reputed to have suffered greatlosses.■SIFFIN,657AliledanarmyagainstMu’awiya,GovernorofSyria,whowasinrevoltagainsthim.Afterthreedaysofbattlewithmanycasualties,thebelligerentswithdrewtoKufaandDamascusrespectively.■CONSTANTINOPLE,673–78Mu’awiya’s forces failed to defeat theByzantine fleet at sea, but remained in

possessionoftheAsiaticshoreoftheseaofMarmorain672.Thearmyreturnedthe next year and formed a land and sea blockage along theBosphoros river,keeping thecity inan intermittent stateof siege.The fifth-centuryTheodosianWallsremainedunbreachedandthecitydefencesunderEmperorConstantineIVPogonatus were unbroken. The defeat of the Islamic navy at the battle ofSyllaeumin677owedmuch to theuseofGreekfireandensured that thecitywasre-suppliedbysea.Theharshwinterof677–78andthestarvationsufferedbytheIslamicforcesresultedinthesiegebeinglifted.Mu’awiyasuedforpeacein678.■KERBALA,680HusainibnAliledarevoltoftheBanuHashim,theclanoftheProphet,againstthe Umayyad Yazid I in defence of the hereditary principle of the Caliphate.Accounts of the battle have uncertain veracity in view of their doctrinallypartisannature.Shi’a traditionsdescribe themassacreofHusain’s companionsby onslaughts of lances and arrows and the decapitation of the remainingmembersoftheProphet’sfamily.■SEBASTOPOLIS,690–92The Umayyad Gen Marwan defeated an army led by the Byzantine emperorLeontioswhohadsuccessfullysubjectedIslamicforcestoaseriesofhumiliatingdefeats in Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Albania. The Byzantine Armyincluded a force of 30,000 Slavs (forcibly resettled within the empire byJustinian II) under the Bulgar-Slav commander Neboulos. Marwan securedvictory by persuading Neboulos and some 20,000 of the Slavic contingent todefect.■CARTHAGE,698Following theByzantine reconquest ofCarthage under John the Patrician andTiberiusAspimarus.Hasanibnal-Nu’manledacounter-attackwiththeIslamicforces who had fled to Kairouan. Hasan’s force of 40,000 outnumbered theCarthaginiandefenders, although theByzantineshadcalledon their traditionalAmazighallies,plusFranksandVisigoths.HasanlaunchedasuccessfullandandseaoffensiveandtheByzantineforceswithdrewtoCorsica,SicilyandCrete.■KABUL(MASKIN),701Abd ul Malik dispatched Syrian reinforcements to his general Al-Hajjaj ibnYusuf, governor of the eastern Muslim provinces. Al-Hajjaj successfullydefeatedtherevoltofIbnAlAshath,whothenretreatedtoKabul.■RIOBARBATE,711

Internal dissensions in theVisigothickingdom inSpain resulted in an alliancebetween the remaining Byzantine governor in North Africa, Count Julian ofCeuta,andMusaibnNusair.TariqibnZayid,governorofTangiers,ledaninitialraid on Gibraltar with 1700 men, possibly aided by a fleet of Count Julian’sships.Subsequentlyheledaforceof7000Syrians,BerbersandYemenisontoCartagena.TheVisigothickingRoderickhadbeencampaigningagainstBasquesand Franks in the northern town of Pamplona. His force of 25,000 marchedsouth and encountered Tariq’s army at Rio Barbate near Cadiz. Roderick’scommanders Sisbert and Osbert either deserted or defected during the battle.Roderickwas killedwith themajority of his court and the defeatedVisigothsfledtoSeville.■CONSTANTINOPLE,717–18Leo the Isaurian defeated the fleet ofMaslama and Suleiman and drove theirremaining ships into the Sea of Marmara. Leo repulsed several more attacksbeforethearrivalofBulgaralliessawthebesiegerswithdraw.■COVADONGA,718TheVisigothPelayosuccessfullyrepulsedaMoorishadvanceinthefirstmajorChristianvictoryagainsttheIslamicinvasionoftheIberianpeninsula.■TOULOUSE,9JUNE721Al-SamhibnMalikalKhawlanibesiegedthecityofToulouse.Eudo,theDukeofAquitaine,retreatedat thestartof thesiegetogatheralliesanddefeatedtheMoorsinasurpriseattack.■BALANJAR,723According to the ninth-century historian al-Tabari, al-Djarrah ibn Abdullahcaptured the townofBalanjarandmassacredmuchof thepopulationwhohadtriedtodefendthecitywithacordonof3000wagons.■TOURS,732Abder-RahmanledaforceofArabandBerbercavalryfromtheKingdomofAl-Andalusacross themountainsby thevalleyofRoncesvallesandintoGascony.AtBordeaux,theIslamicforceofsome50,000defeatedtheallianceofEudoofAquitaineandMunuza,onceaBerbercommanderinSpain.Fromhere,thearmyoverran southern Gaul for several months, reaching as far as the Loire. Theanonymous Arabic source describes the army reputedly laying waste to thecountryand ladening themselveswithcaptivesandspoils.Both theMozarabicChronicle and IsidorePacensis attest to thedestructionof churches andof thegeneral population and suggest that the aim of the expedition was raid and

pillage,notconquest.

EudoofAquitainefledtoAustrasiawiththeremnantsofhisarmyandsoughtthe assistance of CharlesMartel, with whom he had previously contested thestatusofMajorofthePalace.CharlesMartelreorderedhisforcesandmarchedsouthfromtheupperDanube.Abd’sforceshadlootedtheextra-muralchurchofStHilaryatPoitiers,butmadenoseriousattempttobesiegethecityitself.Theforces thenseparated intoseveral raidingpartiesandpillagedtheareabetweenTours andPoitiers.Uponhearing the advanceof the armies ofCharlesMarteland Eudo from the east, Abd withdrew towards Poitiers, covering the slowdispatch of the train of booty with a series of skirmishes to delay theapproaching Frankish forces. An anonymous Arabic source makes pointedreference to the disorder caused by the baggage train andAbd’s reluctance toorderhistroopstoabandontheirspoils.

The discipline and mobility of the lightly armed Islamic cavalry made itdifficulttocounterinmountedcombatandtheycouldeasilyoutmanoeuvretheFrankish heavy cavalry. Although probably possessing superior numbers andboth cavalry and infantry forces, Charles dismounted his cavalry to present astrong defensive line. Isidore Pacensis describes the solid phalanx of theFrankishforcesas‘abeltoficefrozentogether,andnottobedissolved,astheyslew theArabswith the sword’. This defensive position resisted the repeatedcharges of the Islamic cavalry until nightfall. An Arabic anonymous AramicsourcedescribestheIslamicassaultbreakingtheFrankishlines,butdeterredby

theenemylootingthebaggagetrainandthentakingflightatthedeathofAbder-Rahman.Bycontrast, IsidorePacensis records the retreatof the Islamic forcesfrom the battlefield during the night.Despite the divergence of the sources, itappearsthattheIslamicforceswithdrew,perhapslackingtheweighttodealaneffectiveblowanddesirousofprotectingtheirremainingbooty.Charlesrefusedtosendthecavalryinpursuit,waryoftheriskposedbyafeignedretreattomenandreclaimedspoilsalike.

■KASHGAR,736Nassr ibn Sayyar, Governor of the garrison city of Balkh, unsuccessfully

defendedthecityagainstKhurasanitroopsledbyal-HarithibnSurayj,inrevoltoverconditionsfornativeconvertsinUmayyad-controlledKhurasan.■ACRONIUM,739Theophanes the Confessor records the defeat of a large Islamic force raidingacrossAnatoliabyLeotheIsaurianandhissonthefutureEmperorConstantineV.■RUPARTHUTHA,746The lastUmayyadcaliph,Marwan II,occupiedKufaandMosul in a seriesofcampaigns to reunite theUmayyadEmpire andputdownSyrianandKharijiterebellions.■ZAB,25JANUARY750The final defeat of the Umayyad Dynasty by the first Abbasid caliph Abual-’Abbasal-Saffah.Around300membersof theUmayyadfamilywerekilled.MarwanfledtoEgyptandwaslaterexecuted.■TALAS,751IslamicandTibetanalliesdefeated theTangGenKaoHsien-chih.Thenumberof combatants is uncertain. The Abbasid army of Ziyad ibn Salih may havenumbered 20,000, including their Tibetan andUyghur allies. The Tang forcesincludingtheirFerghanaalliesmayhavenumbered10,000,plus20,000Karlukmercenaries.Theretreatof theiralliesandthedesertionof theKarlukslefttheTangarmyoutnumberedandoutmanoeuvred.■HERACLEAPONTICA,806An Arab army of up to 135,000 men under Caliph Harun al-Rashid invadedAnatoliaandtookHeracleaPontica(modern-dayEregli)afteradecisivevictoryagainstaByzantinefieldarmycommandedbyEmperorNikephorosI.■ANZEN,22JULY838A 25,000-strong Byzantine army commanded by Emperor Theophilos wasdecisivelydefeatedatAnzeninAnatoliabyGenAfshin’sArabarmyof20,000men.TheophilosfledtoConstantinople,allowingCaliphal-Mu’tasim’sarmytobesiegeAmorium.■AMORIUM,AUGUST838AnArabarmyof80,000menunderCaliphAl-Mu’tasiminvadedAnatoliaandtook the strongly fortifiedByzantine city ofAmoriumafter a two-week siege.The30,000-stronggarrisonandupto40,000inhabitantsweremassacred.■OSTIA,849

Navalexpeditionsunder theAghlabidEmirateofTunisiasystematicallyraidedthe coastlines of Provence and Italy. A fleet for the common defence of thecoastline, formed by Naples, Amalfi and Gaeta, gathered at Ostia. TheengagementopenedwithanattackfromNeapolitangalleys,butmidwaythroughthe battle, a storm scattered the Islamic ships, allowing survivors to be easilydefeated.IslamicbootyandprisonlabourhelpedbuildtheLeonineWalls.■SAMOSATA(SAMSAT),873TheByzantine emperorBasil I advanced fromAnatolia, penetrating deep intoArabterritoryandreachingthevalleyoftheEuphrates,whichwastemporarilyincorporatedintotheempire,togetherwiththecityofSamosata.■APULIA,875–80IslamicattacksconqueredBari,TarantoandBrindisiandsaw the formation ofnumerous Emirates claiming independence from the Aghlabid Emirate ofTunisia.IslamicandLombardcontrolofApuliawasgraduallyeradicatedinthe870s, firstbya seriesof campaignsunderLouis thePiousand, in880,by thenavyofByzantineemperorBasilI.■TAORMINA,1AUGUST902ByzantinecontrolofSicilywas steadily erodedbya seriesofAraboffensivesthat began in 827. The coastal fortress of Taormina was the last ByzantinestrongholdontheislandandwascapturedinAugust902.■GARIGLIANO,JUNE915The Fatimid Caliphate conquest of Minturno on the Garigliano river in 883posed a serious threat to Rome. Pope John X led a combined Italian andByzantineforceinanoffensivewhichdestroyedtheFatimidarmy.■MELITENE,934ThecityofMelitene(Malatya)ineasternAnatoliahadbeenamajorByzantinestrongholduntilitsconquestbytheArabsin638.AByzantinecounter-offensivebya50,000-strongarmyunderJohnKourkouasrecapturedthecityin934.■SIMANCAS,934Abdal-RahmanIIIledalargearmywiththeassistanceoftheMoorishgovernorof Zaragoza, Abu Yahya. Ramiro II of Leon headed a combined force fromNavarre,GaliciaandAsturias.TheforcesgatherednearthewallsofthecityofSimancas,butatotaleclipsecausedsuchterrorthatbattlewasnotjoinedfortwodays.Afterseveraldaysofcombat, theChristiansemergedvictoriousandheldcontroloftheDouro.

■CANDIA,960–61In960,a50,000-strongByzantinearmyunderthefutureemperorNicephorosIIPhokas invadedMuslim-heldCrete.Although the islandwas quickly overrun,thecapitalofCandiawasonlytakenin961afteralongsiege.■ADANA,964AfterdefeatingSayfal-Dawla,EmirofAleppo,andsackingthecityin962,theByzantine emperor Nicephoros II Phokas launched an offensive into southernAnatolia. He captured Adana, despite fierce resistance by Sayf al-Dawla’sgarrison.■ALEPPO-ANTIOCH,969After therecaptureofAnatolia thearmiesofByzantineemperorNicephorosIIPhokas invaded Syria and stormed Antioch, before retaking Aleppo from thechamberlainKarguyah,whohadoverthrowntheemirSayfad-Dawla.BothcitiesbecameByzantineprotectorates.■CROTONE,982Emperor Otto II and his Italo-Lombard allies fought the numerically inferiorforcesoftheKalbidemirofSicily,Abual-Qasim.Germanheavycavalrykilledal-Qasim, but, following his death, the Islamic troops surrounded theGermanforces.TheresultingslaughterincludedthedeathsofLandulfIVofBenevento;Henry I, Bishop of Augsburg; Günther, Margrave of Merseburg; numerousGermancountsandOttoII,whosubsequentlydiedonhisjourneynorth.■CIVITATE,18JUNE1053RobertGuiscard,HumphreydeHautevilleandRichardofAversafacedLeoIXwith an army ofLombard, Italian andSwabian troops. The forcesmet on thebanks of the Fortore river. Richard led a cavalry charge, which put theramshackle Lombards to flight. Humphrey attacked the formidable Swabianmercenaries, at the centre, eventually decimating them with the assistance ofRobert’sreserveandRichard’scavalry.

■SAGRAJAS(AZ-ZALLAQAH),1086KingAlfonsoVI’sCastilianandLeóneseforceof2500menwasdefeatedbya7000-stongAndalusianarmyunderYusufibnTashfinatSagrajas,nearBadajoz.Alfonsobarelymanagedtoescapeandhisarmywaseffectivelydestroyed.

NorseExpansion800–1066■ELLANDUN,825Egbert of Wessex defeated Beornwulf of Mercia, overturning the balance ofpowerandresulting in thesubmissionof theMerciansubjectkingdoms(Kent,Surrey,Sussex,Essex,EastAnglia)totheoverlordshipofWessex.■HINGSTONDOWN,837AgreatViking‘Ship-Army’joinedwithCornishBritonsresistingsubmissiontoWessextoraidacrossthesouth-west.EgbertofWessexdefeatedthecombinedforcesontheCornishsideoftheTamar.■ACLEA,851AethelwulfofWessexdefeateda large forceofViking ships raidingalong theThames,describedbyTheAnglo-SaxonChronicleasthe‘greatestslaughterofaheathenraiding-armythatwehaveeverheardtellof’.■YORK,867TheVikingarmyofIvarandHalfdenewinteredinYorkandrepairedtheRomanfortifications. Osberht and Aella, rival claimants to the Northumbrian throne,combined their forces and succeeded in breaching thewalls behindwhich theVikings had fled. Once inside the fortifications, the Northumbrians wereslaughtered and both kings killed; Aella subjected to the Blood-Eagle. Thesubmission of the survivors effectively ended the Anglo-Saxon kingdom ofNorthumbria.■ENGLEFIELD,31DECEMBER870Earldorman Aethelwulf of Berkshire led the shire levies to victory against acontingent ofVikings on a plundering expedition from their base at Reading,killingoneoftheirearls.■HOXNE,870The Viking army annihilated the army of Edmund of East Anglia at Hoxne.Edmund died fighting fiercelywith a greatmany of hismen andEastAngliabecamesubjecttoVikingcontrol.■READING,4JANUARY871Aethelred and Alfred of Wessex attacked the Vikings at their stronghold inReading. TheWessex forces succeeded in taking the gate, but were seriouslydefeatedonceconfrontedwiththemainVikingarmy.

■ASHDOWN,8JANUARY871AethelredandAlfredofWessexdefeatedalargeVikingarmy,killingfiveearlsand two kings, Bagsecg andHaldan. Both sides divided their forces into twodivisionsandemployedshieldwalls.■WILTON,871In his first engagement as kingofWessex,Alfred’s depleted forces suffered aserious defeat by the reinforced Viking army. Following a long battle, theVikingsfeignedaretreat,killingthosewhobrokeranksinpursuit.■HAFRSFJORD,872InoneofthemostdecisiveseabattlesofmedievalScandinavia,HaraldFairhairdefeateda looseconfederationofkingsand jarlsopposed tohisconquestsandconsolidationofpowerthroughoutNorway.■CHIPPENHAM,6JANUARY878The Viking Guthrum attacked the Royal Vill of Chippenham on the feast ofEpiphanyandoverrodemuchofWessex.AlfredandhisremainingthegnsfledtoAthelney,manyothersfledoverseasorsubmittedtoGuthrum.■EDINGTON,878Alfred ofWessexwith the Shire levies of Somerset,Wiltshire andHampshirerouted the entire Viking army, put them to flight, then besieged them for afortnightatChippenhamuntiltheysuedforpeace.■CYNWIT,878The men of Devon routed a force of 23 Viking ships surrounding theirstrongholdontheearthworkatCountisbury.Around1200werekilled,includingtheirkings,andthe‘Raven’bannerwascaptured.

■LEUVEN,891Arnulf, king of East Francia, defeated a force of mounted Vikings riding inadvanceoftheirfleettowardsLouvain,blockingtherunoftheriverDylewiththebodiesofdeadNorsemen.■TETTENHALL,5AUGUST910TheVikingsofNorthumbriamountedanattackonMercia,believingEdwardofWessextobewithhisforcesinKent.EdwardcommandedthecombinedleviesofWessexandMercia,surroundingtheVikingforcesbetweenWednesfieldandTettenhall inStaffordshire.ThedecisiveAnglo-Saxonvictoryand thedeathof

the Viking kings Eowils and Healfdan signalled the end of Viking raids inBritainsouthoftheHumber.■CORBRIDGE,915/918Vikings from Waterford, led by Ragnall, fought an indecisive battle withConstantine of Scotland and Ealdred, son of Eadwulf, of Northumbria atCorbridge.In918,RagnallestablishedhimselfaskingatYork.■TEMPSFORD,918EdwardtheElderstormedtheBurh,fortifiedbyVikingsfromHuntingdonandEastAnglia,killingtheEastAnglianleaderGuthrumIIandtheearlsToglosandManna.■BRUNABURH,937Aethelstan ofWessex, his brother Edmund and forces ofWessex andMerciadefeatedaconfederacyofIrishNorseledbyOlaf,ConstantineofScotlandandtheStrathclydeWelshofEugenius.■BAUDS,962Vikings colonized the Orkneys and Hebrides and systematically attacked theScottishmainland.Indulf,KingofScotland,defeatedapartyofNorse‘pirates’,butthenfellinbattle.■MALDON,10AUGUST991TheEarldormanofEssex,Brythnoth,hishousecarlsand the local fyrdfacedalarge Danish raiding party, possibly led by Olaf Tryggvason, across thecausewayatNortheyIslandontheBlackwaterEstuary.ThepoemTheBattleofMaldon depictsBrythnoth refusing topay ransomand inducing theVikings tocross the causeway. Following Brythnoth’s death, the shield wall eventuallydisintegratedandhismenfledorwereoverwhelmed.■GLENMAMMA,30DECEMBER999Brian Boru ofMunster and his ally,Mael Sechanaill II, routed the combinedarmies of Mael Morda of Leinster and Sygstrygg Silkbeard of Dublin in anarrowvalleyoftheWicklowMountains.■SWOLD,1000OlafTryggvason,andhisfleet,headedbythe‘LongSerpent,’wasdefeatedandkilledbyacoalitionofOlafofSweden,SweinForkbeardofDenmarkandEricHakonson.■NAIRN,1009SweinForkbeardofDenmarkbesiegedthetownofNairnanddefeatedMalcolm

ofScotlandinhisattempttoraisesiege.Malcolmwaswounded,buttheDaneswithdrew.

■MORTLACK,1010SweinofDenmark’sforceswereroutedafteradesperatestruggle.ThreeScottishthainswerelostbutMalcolmofScotlandisreputedtohavestrangledtheDanishleaderEnetus.■CLONTARF,23APRIL1014Brian Boru and his Ui Neill andManx allies defeated an alliance of Vikings

fromOrkney,Man andDublin andLeinstermen.Thousands fell on both sidesincludingBrianBoru,hissonandgrandson.■NESJAR,1016AtNesjarin1016OlavHaraldssonfoughtoffanattackfromtheSwedishSveinnHakonarson and the Norwegian chieftain Erling Skjalggson, in the first ofseveralseabattlesforcontrolofthewatersaroundNorway.■PEN,1016EdwardIronsiderepulsedtheinvadingarmyledbyhisDanishrivalCnut,fromKenwalh’s Castle, an Iron Age hillfort in CastleWood, defended by a singlerampartandditch.■ASHINGDONORASSANDUN,18OCTOBER1016Edmund Ironside and his entire English forces tracked Cnut’s forces headinginland.FollowingthedesertionofhisMercianallyEadricStreona,EdmundwasdefeatedandUlfkellSnillingofEastAngliakilled.■SHERSTON,1016The raiding army ofCnut, aided byEadric Streona ofMercia, facedEdmundIronsideinanindecisiveencounterwithgreatslaughteroneitherside.■HELGEAA,1026OlafIIHaraldssonofNorwayandAnundJakobofSwedenattackedthecoastofSkane.CnutmetthemwithacombinedEnglishandDanishfleet,andthebattlewasindecisive.■STRANGEBJERG,1028CnutarrivedonthecoastofNorwaywithapowerfulfleet,havingsubornedthechieftainsofNorway.OlafIIHaraldssonfledtoRussia■STIKLESTAD,29JULY1030Olaf II Haraldsson, aided by Harald Hardrade and a muster of 4000 fromSwedenandsoutheasternNorway,wasdefeatedandkilledbyrebelNorwegianchieftainsleadingaforceofsome14,000.■NORWEGIANINVASIONOFBRITAIN,1066In1038,HarthacnutofDenmarkandMagnusofNorwaynamedeachothertheirsuccessor,shouldtheydiewithoutamaleheir.Harthacnutdiedin1042,askingof Denmark and England. Harald Hardrada succeeded Magnus in 1047, butpreoccupation with extending his power in Denmark and Sweden delayedpursuit of his claim until the death of Edward theConfessor.Harald receivedemissaries offering support from Scandinavian Orkneyers and Tostig

Godwinson.TostigsoughttoreclaimtheearldomofNorthumbriafromwhichhehadbeendeposedbyhisbrotherandwasalreadyharryingtheEnglishcoastwithNorse pirates. Hardrada sailed to Northumbria with 200 ships the combinedforceswith his allies numbered 300 ships and 9000men.Hardrada raided thecoastofYorkshiretotheHumber,thenpursuingafewretreatingEnglishships,followedtheOusetodisembarkatRiccall.

■FULFORD,20SEPTEMBER1066EdwinofMerciaandMorcarofNorthumbriablockedHardrada’sroutetoYorkat Gate Fulford. The English broke from the battle after suffering a rout, but

therewereseverelossesonbothsides.■STAMFORDBRIDGE,25SEPTEMBER1066Following thedefeatof theMercianandNorthumbrian leviesatGateFulford,Hardradaacceptedsurrender fromthecitizensofYorkanddemandedhostagesfromthroughouttheshire.Toreceivethesehostages,hemarchedthemainbodyofhisarmyawayfromhisshipstoStamfordBridge.HaroldGodwinsonheadednorth, having demobilized the Essex levies at Sandwich. Taking only hishousecarls,reinforcedwithwhatleviescouldbemusteredenroute,Haroldmetwith the English ships and remnants of the army at Tadcaster and surprisedHardrada’sforcesatStamfordBridge.

TheNorwegian positionwas on the eastern side of theRiverDerwent, butfailed to set a proper guard on the bridge. The forces werewell-matched butsurprise and preparedness gave the English the upper hand.The Anglo-SaxonChronicle reports that both sides slogged it out on foot in ‘a stubborn battle’.However in the ‘Heinskringla’ (Lives of the Norse Kings) the English aredepicted riding in on the Norwegians from all sides, throwing spears andshooting, suggesting that Harold may have used mounted troops and archers.Through a long and bloody battle Harold’s housecarls and the Mercian andNorthumbrian levies were seriously depleted, but were eventually victorious.BothTostigandHaraldHardradafell,Hardradahavingbeenstruckinthethroatbyanarrow.TheNorwegianforcesgavewayandwerecutdownastheyfledthe19kmtotheirships,whereHaroldgavethemquarter.Ofthe300invadingships,between20and24shipssailedhome.

WarsofNormanEngland1066–1200■HASTINGS,14OCTOBER1066HaroldmarchedsouthwithhishousecarlsfromYorktoLondoninfivedaysandwaitedfivedaystomusteralltheavailablemilitia,gatheringforcesintheregionof9000men,includingsome3000housecarls.HadhewaitedlongerinLondon,hemighthavegatheredmustersfromthesoutherncountiesandtheremnantsofthe Northern Levies. William of Normandy had landed at Pevensey on 28September. His forces included feudal contingents and mercenaries fromNormandy,BrittanyandFlanders andhavebeenestimated tonumberbetween7000and50,000, includingcavalryof12,000and infantryof20,000.Williammoved his forces to Hastings and began construction of a castle, raiding forsuppliesacrosstheSussexcountryside,muchofitHarold’sancestralland.

Harold arrived at Senlac Hll on 13 October and organized his forces in adefensivepositiononaridge13kmnorthwestofHastings,overlookingamarshyvalleyandbrook.Thehousecarlsstoodatthehighestpointandatthecentreofthelinewiththemassofinfantrypositionedoneitherside.Thenextmorning,heformedasolidshieldwall,400mbroadand800mdeep,behindwhichhisforceswerearmedwithjavelins,swords,pikesandaxes.

WilliamledtheNormansfromthecentrewiththeFrenchandFlemishonhisright and the Bretons on his left. The Norman archers and crossbow-menadvanced shortly after dawn, but as they were firing uphill, they made littleinitial impacton thehousecarls’shields.Williamordered the infantryadvance,whichwashamperedby the slope andmarshy terrain.A contingent ofBretoninfantryretreateddownthehillunderabarrageofjavelinsandcollidedwiththearchersandcavalrywhobecamemiredinthemarsh.TheBretonswerepursueddownthehillandtherestoftheNormaninfantryretreated.William,hisbrotherOdoofBayeuxandCountEustaceofBoulogneralliedthecentreandright.TheAnglo-Saxonchargewascutoffbyacontingentofthecavalry,ralliedtoprotect

theBretons.Williamledacavalrychargeuptheslope,whicheventuallybroke,but, as itwaspursueddownhill,manoeuvredadevastatingcounter-attack.Theuse of feints and counter-attacks was a regular Breton tactic assimilated anddeployedbyNormancavalryatArques(1053)andMessina(1060).Williamledanother charge against the centre, which was repulsed, followed by anotherfeignedflight.TheshieldwallwavereddespiteHarold’sorderstoholdfast.Thisreflects a definite contrast with the level of discipline apparent from theconcertedactionsoftheNormansandthedeviceoffeignedflightandcounter-attack.ThedwindlingAnglo-SaxonlineheldastheNormanswroughtongoingmountedattacks.Thesealternatedwithcoordinatedhigh-angle firevolleysandrepeated infantry assaults, gradually demolishing the shieldwall. Harold’s twobrothers,GyrthandLeofwine,plusanumberofhisbodyguardfellbeforeHaroldwasstruckintheeyewithanarrowandmortallywounded.TheFyrdleviesgaveway, leavingonly thehousecarlssurroundedon thecrestof the ridge.WilliamimperilledhisvictoryandbarelyescapedwhenthecontingentofhousecarlshepursuedralliedthemselvesinretreattoslaughteralargenumberofNormansinadeepditchcalledMalfosse.

■ELY,1071Elywasarefugeforrebels,includingHereward‘theWake’andMorcar.Williamsurroundedtheislandwithshipsandsoldiers,constructedabridgeandbrokeinafterseveralbloodyassaults.Morcarwascaptured,butHerewardescaped.■TINCHEBRAY,28SEPTEMBER1106RobertofNormandyattackedthearmyofHenryIasitbesiegedthecastleofhisally,Mortain,butwasdefeatedandcapturedtogetherwiththeCountofMortain,RobertBellemeandEdgartheAetheling.■CRUGMAWR,1136AnallianceofDeheubarthandGwynedd,witharmouredhorsemen,defeatedtheNorman lords of southWales, pursuing them to the River Teifi, where manydrownedandtoCardigan,whichtheWelshburned.■NORTHALLERTON,22AUGUST1138ThemaraudingarmyofDavidofScotland, supportedbynorthernnobles,wasdefeatedby the forcesofArchbishopThurstanofYork,under thestandardsoftheNorthernSaints.■COEDEULO,1157The army of Henry II and hisWelsh allies, includingMadog of Powys, wasroutedinadeepwoodedvalleybythesonsofOwainGwynedd.Henryhimselfnarrowlyavoidedcapture.■ALNWICK,1174William the Lion of Scotland besieged castles and raided across northernEngland in support ofHenry theYoungKing’s rebellion againstHenry II.AsWilliamheadedtoAlnwickwithNormanknightsandFrankishmercenaries,theEnglish army under Richard de Lucy approached from Newcastle under thecoverofmistand tookthemunawares.Williamwascapturedashishorsefell,bringingtherebelliontoahalt.■TAILLEBORG,1179Richard I, thenDuke ofAquitaine, attacked the cliff-top fortress, first lootingsurroundinglands.Leftwithnoreinforcementsorlinesofretreat,thedefendersattackedRichardoutsidethewallsandwereeasilysubdued.■GISORS,27SEPTEMBER1198RichardIandBrabanconmercenaries routedPhilipAugustusand300knights.Pursued to theGisors, the bridge collapsedwith 20 knights drowned and 100

captured.Lackingsiegemachinery,RichardthenretreatedtoDangu.

WarsoftheHolyRomanEmpire900–1259■MERSEBERG(RIADE),15MARCH933AlargeMagyararmycommandedbythewarlordsBulcsú,LélandSúrinvadedcentralGermany,butwasdecisivelydefeatedby theGermanheavycavalryofKingHenryItheFowlerneartheUnstrutriver.■LECHFELD,10AUGUST955AMagyararmyof25,000lightcavalrycommandedbythewarlordsBulcsú,LélandSúrinvadedcentralGermanyinanattempttorepeatthelarge-scaleraidofthe previous year. However, on this occasion, Otto I the Great, King of theGermans,was prepared tomeet the threat.He ordered his troops,whichweredrawnfromacrossGermany,toconcentrateontheDanube,aroundNeuburgandIngolstadt.ThisplacedhisarmyacrosstheMagyarlineofcommunicationsinagoodpositiontoattacktheirrearwhiletheywereraidingnorth-eastofAugsburg.Otto also anticipated the probable Magyar route for their return journey; hebelieved that, as in the past, they would head back towards Hungary viaLotharingia (Lorraine), theWest FrankishKingdom (France) and finally Italy.He therefore ordered his brother Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne andDuke ofLotharingia, to keep his forces concentrated in Lorraine to block their line ofretreat.

The German army probably totalled 8000 cavalry in eight 1000-stronglegiones(divisions)–threefromBavaria,twofromSwabia,onefromFranconiaandonefromBohemiaunderPrinceBoleslavI.Theeighthdivision,whichwascommanded by Otto and slightly larger than the others, included Saxons,Thuringians and the king’s personal guard. Otto’s forces caught the MagyararmyasitattackedAugsburg,whichwasfiercelydefendedbyagarrisonledbyBishopUlrich.

ThearrivaloftheGermanarmyforcedtheMagyarstoabandontheirattacksonAugsburgandtodeployontheLechfeld, thefloodplaintothesouthofthecity. TheMagyar cavalry launched a frontal attack on the Bavarians, while adetachment made a wide outflanking move, routed the baggage guards andcharged into the rear of the Swabians. This dangerous threat was finallycontainedwhentheattackersweredrivenoffbytheFranconiandivision.

TheMagyars’frontalattackwasbeatenoffbyOtto’smoreheavilyarmouredcavalry, which inflicted severe casualties on their opponents. In such close

combat, theMagyar horse archerswere at amarkeddisadvantage, lacking thespace to effectively use their deadly shoot-and-run tactics. Bulcsú feigned aretreat with part of his force in an attempt to lure Otto’s men into breakingformationandpursuing,buttheGermanlineheldandroutedtheMagyars.

In an exceptional move for an army of this period, the German forcesmaintained theirdisciplineandmethodicallypursued theMagyars for thenextcoupleofdays, rather thandispersing to loot theenemycamp.Many fugitiveswerekilled,ordrownedattempting tocross theLechriver.BulcsúandseveralotherMagyar leaderswerecapturedandexecuted. Itseemslikely thatGermancasualties totalled approximately 3000. Although theMagyars may well havelost nomore than 1000men in the battle itself, a further 2000were probablykilledafterwardsbythepursuingGermancavalry,whileanother1500orsowereslaughteredbyGermanpeasantsastheymadetheirwaybacktoHungary.

The victory effectively ended the Magyar threat to Germany and boostedOtto’sprestige as awarrior andcommander.Hewashailed as emperorbyhistroops on theLechfeld battlefield and, in 962,was formally crowned asHolyRoman Emperor by Pope John XII.Militarily, the battle at Lechfeld is oftenregardedasmarkingthebeginningofthedominanceofheavycavalryinbattle,which was soon to evolve into the armoured knight on the battlefields ofnorthernEurope.■CEDYNIA,24JUNE972OdoI,MargraveoftheSaxonOstmark,invadedPolandwithanarmyofabout

4000men, butwasdefeatednearCedynia,WestPomerania, by aPolish forcecommandedbyDukeMieszkoI.■VLAARDINGEN,29JULY1018GodfreyII,DukeofLowerLorraine,ledanimperialforceofpossibly1000menagainsttherebelliousCountDirkIIIofFriesland.The imperialistssailedwest,along the riversWaal andMerwede, to Dirk’s stronghold in Vlaardingen. Onlanding,Godfrey’smenfound that thenumerousditchesmade it impossible todeploy near the castle and attempted tomove tomore open ground, butwereambushedandroutedwithheavylosses.■NAKLO,10AUGUST1109Prince Bolesław III Wrymouth of Poland invaded Pomerania to secure hisnorthern borders against the pagan Pomeranian tribes. The Poles captured thestrongholdofNakło nadNoteci after defeating aPomeranian relief force nearthetown.■GłOGÓW,14AUGUST1109King Henry V of Germany’s invasion of Poland in support of the exiledZbigniew,Duke of Poland,was halted by the defenders ofGłogów inSilesia.HarassmentbyPolishguerillasforcedHenrytoabandonthesiege.

■HUNDSFELD(PSIEPOLE),24AUGUST1109AnimperialistarmyunderKingHenryVofGermanyinvadedPolishterritoryinsupport of the exiled Zbigniew, Duke of Poland, but was defeated by PrinceBolesławIIIWrymouth’sPolisharmynearWrocław inSilesia.Thebattlewasdubbed‘Dogs’Field’ (Hundsfeld inGerman;PsiePole inPolish) afterBishopWincenty Kadłubek of Kraków wrote of ‘dogs which, devouring so manycorpses,fellintoamadferocity,sothatnoonedaredventurethere’.■WELFESHOLZ,11FEBRUARY1115Saxon and Thuringian nobles led byDuke Lothar of Saxony rose against the

Holy Roman Emperor HenryV. They defeated imperial forces atWelfesholz,nearMansfeld in Saxony, forcingHenry to relinquish effective control of theprovince.■NOCERA,1132A rebel army under PrinceRobert II ofCapua andRanulf II, Count ofAlife,destroyed King Roger II of Sicily’s royalist forces at Nocera Inferiore insouthernItaly.Rogerescaped,accompaniedbyonlyfourknights.■RIGNANO,30OCTOBER1137KingRogerIIofSicily’sarmywasdefeatedatRignanoinApuliabyRanulfII,DukeofApuliaandCountofAlife,supportedby800GermanknightssentbytheHolyRomanEmperorLothairIII.■WEINSBERG,DECEMBER1140King Conrad III of Germany seized the lands of Henry the Proud, Duke ofSaxonyandBavaria.OnHenry’sdeath,hisbrotherWelf,reclaimedBavaria,butwasdefeatedbyConradatWeinsberg,nearHeilbronn.■MONTEPORZIO,29MAY1167An imperialist army of 1600 men commanded by Christian I, Archbishop ofMainz,defeatedOddoneFrangipane’s10,000-strongarmyof theCommuneofRome.ThepoorlyequippedRomanmilitiawereroutedbyChristian’sknights,losingover4000men.

■LEGNANO,29MAY1176AttemptsbytheHolyRomanEmperor,FrederickIBarbarossa,toassertcontrolofnorthernItaly led to theformationof theLombardLeague in1167,ananti-ImperialistallianceofnorthernItaliancity-states,backedbyPopeAlexanderIII.

In1174,FrederickattemptedtofinallycrushtheLeagueandinvadednorthernItaly. He took the towns of Susa and Asti in Piedmont, but was forced toabandon the long siege of Alessandria in 1175. By 1176, he had receivedreinforcements,buthisforceswerenomore than3000strong(mainlyGermanknights).TheLeaguewasabletoraiseanarmyof4000menandthetwoforces

clashedatLegnanonearMilan.Frederick’sknightsbrokemuchoftheLeague’scavalry, but were repulsed by the elite Lombard infantry protecting theirstandard. A final counter-attack by the League’s Brescian cavalry routed theImperialists.■CORTENUOVA,27NOVEMBER1237TheSecondLombardLeaguewas formedby thenorthern Italiancity-states in1226tocounterattemptsbytheHolyRomanEmperor,FrederickII, to imposehisauthorityontheregion.InAugust1237,Frederickleda10,000-strongarmyinto northern Italy in an attempt to crush the League. After prolongedmanoeuvring,hesurprisedanddefeatedtheLeague’sarmyof15,000menunderPietroTiepolonearCortenuovainLombardy,inflicting10,000casualties.■BRESCIA,AUGUST–OCTOBER1238FollowinghisvictoryatCortenuova,Frederick IIbesiegedBrescia,oneof thefewcitiesoftheLombardLeaguethathadcontinuedtoresisthim.Thecityheldduringathree-monthsiegeandFrederickwasforcedtowithdraw.■VITERBO,1243TheHolyRomanEmperor,FrederickII,installedanimperialgarrisoninViterboin1240,whichwasexpelledbyapopularuprisingin1243.Frederickbesiegedthecity,butwaspersuadedtowithdrawbyPopeInnocentIV.■PARMA,18FEBRUARY1248TheHolyRomanEmperorFrederick II’s siegeofParmaendedabruptlywhenhisfortifiedcampwassurprisedandcapturedbyasortieon18February1248.The5600-strongImperialistarmylostatleast3000men.■FOSSALTA,26MAY1249TheLombardLeague’sarmyof8800menunderFilippoUgoniwasmarchingtoattack Modena when it was intercepted near the city by a 15,000-strongimperialistarmycommandedbyKingEnzioofSardinia,theillegitimatesonofthe Emperor Frederick II. Despite being heavily outnumbered, the League’sforcesmade repeated attacks, finally routing the Imperialists. Casualties wereheavyonbothsidesandEnzioand400ofhisknightswerecaptured.■CASSANO,16SEPTEMBER1259TheGhibellinesunderEzzelinodaRomanoweredefeatedat theAda riverbyGuelphsunderAzzoVIId’Este.AzzowonasignificantvictoryfortheGuelphs;Ezzelinowaswoundedandcaptured.

WarsoftheBalkanandSlavicPeoples900–1250■BOSNIANHIGHLANDS,927A Bulgarian force of 30,000–70,000 men under Duke Alogobotur invadedCroatia,butwasheavilydefeatedasitcrossedtheBosianHighlandsinMay927byafarlargerCroatianarmycommandedbyKingTomislav.■PRESLAV,971The Byzantine emperor, John I Tzimiskes invaded Bulgaria with an army of40,000menand stormed the capital,Plevna.TheBulgarian tsar,Boris II,wascapturedanddeposedandhiscountrybecameaByzantineprovince.■STUGNARIVER,1093Anarmy ledby threeprincesofKievanRus’,Sviatopolk IIofKiev,VladimirMonomakhofChernigovandRostislavofPereyaslav,wasattackedanddefeatedby8000CumantribesmenneartheStugnariver.■GVOZDMOUNTAIN,1097AnHungarianarmyledbyKingColomanIcrossedtheRiverDravaandinvadedCroatia.KingPetarSvačićofCroatiaattemptedtointercepttheinvadersbeforetheyreachedtheAdriaticcoastandthetwoarmiesclashedatGvozdMountain.Petarwas defeated and killed,marking the endof theSvačić dynasty.CroatiawasthenlinkedtoHungaryinapersonalunionbetweenthetwocrowns,whichcontinueduntil1918.■LIPITSA,22APRIL1216Thiswas the decisive battle in thewars of succession for theGrand PrincelythroneofVladimir-Suzdal,followingthedeathofVsevolodtheBigNest.Inthebattle,foughton22April1216,theforcesofMstislavtheDaringandKonstantinVsevolodovich defeated the army of Konstantin’s younger brothers, YuriVsevolodovich andYaroslav.Konstantin seized the throne ofVladimir-SuzdalandruledasGrandPrinceuntilhisdeathtwoyearslater.■KLOKOTNITSA,9MARCH1230An85,000-strongEpirotearmyledbyTheodoreKomnenosDoukasinvadedtheBulgarian Empire, but was defeated by a Bulgarian force of 25,000 mencommandedbyTsarIvanAsenII.

ChineseSong,Jin,YuanandMingDynastyWars960–1644

■TANGDAO,16NOVEMBER1161A Southern Song fleet of 120 warships equipped with trebuchets hurlinggunpowder bombs surprised and defeated a Jurchen Jin force of 600 navalvesselsofftheislandofTangdaointheEastChinaSea.■BACHDANG,1288The attempted Mongol invasion of Champa in 1288 was frustrated at BachDang.Thedefendersplacedsharpenedstakesintheseaneartheshore.Whenthetideretreated,theshipscaughtonthestakes.■LAKEPOYANG,30AUG1363–4OCT41363The largest naval battle in history, 300,000Han crews andmarines in ‘towerships’faced200,000Minginsmaller,similarvessels.Inlongweeksoffightingonthehuge,shrinkinglake,theMingeventuallyprevailed.

■TUMU,1449In July 1449, OiratMongol forces totalling 20,000men led by Khagan EsenTayisicarriedout largescaleraids intoChinese territory.TheMingZhengtongemperor was persuaded by the influential eunuch, Wang Zhen. to lead his500,000-strong army in person against the raiders.However,WangZhen heldeffectivecommandandconductedanincompetentcampaign,whichculminatedinthedefeatoftheMingforcesandthecaptureoftheZhengtongemperor.■PYONGYANG,8JANUARY1593TheChineseattackonPyongyangin1593wastheturningpointintheJapanese

invasionofKorea.TheydrovetheJapaneseoutofthecitytobeginaretreatthatendedwiththemleavingKorea.■ULSAN,1597Ulsan,asmallcastleguardingaharbourontheeasterncoastofKorea,wasoneof the Japanese fortresses established to provide control of the country and toensurecommunicationswithJapan.In1597,whilestillincomplete,UlsancameunderattackfromahugeChineseandKoreanarmyinoneofthelastbattlesoftheinvasion.Repeatedattacksusingwavesoftroopswerebeatenbackfromthewalls so that even further assaults could be mounted across piles of corpses.Starvationandverycoldweathertooktheir tollonthedefenders,whofrozetodeath at their posts. Desperate foraging parties searched the pockets of deadsoldiers in themoat to find scraps of food. The castlewas defended byKatoKiyomasa,whoheldoutuntilaJapaneserelievingarmyarrivedandattackedtherearoftheChineselines.■SARHU,1619During thewinter of 1618–19, a 160,000-strongMing army advanced in fourdetachmentsontheManchucityofHetuAla.Althoughhehadonly60,000men,theManchukhanNurhacibeateachofthefirstthreeMingdetachmentsinturn.The final 40,000-strong Ming force was badly demoralized as it retreatedthrough the mountains and was routed when a shadowing 20-man Manchuscoutingforcesoundedhorns,givingthesignaltoattack.■NINGYUAN,1626TheManchukhanNurhaciledanarmyofatleast60,000meninassaultsonthecityofNingyuan.Nurhaciwasmortallywoundedbyartilleryfireandtheattackswerebeatenoffbythecity’s10,000-strongMinggarrison.■NANYANG,1642LiZicheng took theMingcityofNanyangwith a20,000-strongpeasant rebelarmy, following up his victory with the capture of Beijing, after which heproclaimedhimselfasthefirstemperoroftheShunDynasty.■SHANHAIPASS,28MAY1644After takingBeijing,LiZicheng attacked a 100,000-strongMing andManchuarmy in the Shanhai Pass. Li’s 60,000 men had almost defeated the MingcontingentwhenhisarmywasbrokenbyaManchucavalrycharge.■FORTZEELANDIA,1661FortZeelandiawas themost importantDutchcolonialoutposton the islandofTaiwan. In1661, itwascapturedbyZhengChenggong (Koxinga) inanaction

thatmarkedthebeginningofChineseruleoverTaiwan.

ScandinavianKingdoms1157–1471■GRATHEHEATH,1157Three claimants to theDanish throne, Sweyn III, CnutV andValdemar I theGreat,hadagreedtopartitionthecountrybetweenthem.Sweynbrokethepact,killingCnutandwoundingValdemar,whomanagedtoescapetoJutland.SweyntheninvadedJutland,buthisarmywasbrokenbyValdemar’sforcesinasurpriseattack atGratheHeath. Sweynmanaged to escape, butwas hunted down andkilledbylocalpeasants.■VISBY,27JULY1361ThebattleofVisbyin1361wasfoughtontheislandofGotlandbetweenKingValdemar IV of Denmark and the local yeomanry. After overcoming thedefenders, the Danish king laid siege to the town of Visby, which soonsurrendered.According to legend, its inhabitants thenpaidmoney to persuadethe Danes not to carry out looting.Mass graves found at Visby have yieldedimportantarchaeologicalfindsconcerningmedievalwarfare.■HELSINGBORG,1362ADanishfleetcommandedbyKingValdemarIVdefeatedaHanseaticsquadronunder JohannWittenborg, themayor of Lübeck, at Øresund, off Helsingborg.TwelveHanseaticshipswerelostandWittenborgwasexecutedonhisreturntoLübeck.■BRUNKEBERG,10OCTOBER1471ASwedish forceof at least 8000peasant levies and1000knights ledbyStenSture the Elder attacked and defeated a 6000-strongDanish army underKingChristianIofDenmarkatBrunkebergsåsennearStockholm.

TheIberianPeninsulaandtheReconquista1000–1250■GRAUS,1063KingRamiroIofAragonattackedGraus,atownontheborderoftheMoorishEmirateofZaragosa.RamirowasdefeatedandkilledbytheEmir’sarmy,whichwassupportedbyaforceof300Castilianknights.■CABRA,1079EmirAbdAllahofGranadainvadedtheEmirateofSevillewiththetacitsupportofAlfonsoVIofLeónandCastile, butwasdefeatedatCabrabyaGranadinearmyunderRodrigoDíazdeVivar(ElCid).■UCLÉS,29MAY1108A2300-strongCastilianandLeóneseforceunderAlfonsoVIwasdefeatedhereby anAlmoravid armycommandedbyTamim ibn-Yusuf.The infante, SanchoAlfónsez,wasmurderedbyvillagerswhiletryingtoescapefromthebattlefield.■ALARCOS,18JULY1195A large Almohads army, commanded by Emir Abu Yusuf Ya’qub al-Mansur,defeated a smallerCastilian force underAlfonsoVIII. The emir deployed theveteran Almohades and Andalusian cavalry in the first line, supported by asecondlineofAfricanarchersandjavelin-armedinfantryandathirdlinetoactas a reserve. After three charges, Alfonso’s 8000 cavalry broke through thecentreoftheemir’sfrontline,butthegapwasclosedbehindthemandtheyweresurroundedbythearchersandinfantryofthesecondline.TheCastilianinfantry,supported by Alfonso’s bodyguards and the knights of the Military Orders,attemptedtofollowuptheinitialbreakthrough,butweredefeatedbytheemir’sfirstline,whichhadreformed.Alfonso’sarmythenbrokeinroutwiththelossof20,000–25,000men,includingthreebishopsandmuchoftheCastiliannobility.■LASNAVASDETOLOSA,16JULY1212Las Navas de Tolosa was a turning point in the Christian Reconquista ofMoorishSpain.ThealliedChristianarmywas ledbya local shepherdalongapathtotaketheMuslimarmybysurprise.■MURET,12SEPTEMBER1213SimonIVdeMontfortledtheAlbigensianCrusadetodestroytheCatharheresyand bring Languedoc under the crown of France. He invaded Toulouse andexiled its count, Raymond VI, who sought aid from his brother-in-law, KingPeterIIofAragon.DeMontfort’sconquestsinLanguedocthreatenedAragon’s

borders and Peter agreed to cross the Pyrenees and deal with Montfort’scrusaderswhohadjusttakenMuret.

On 10 September, Peter’s army of 3000 cavalry arrived atMuret,where itwas joined by 30,000 militia infantry from Toulouse. The crusader infantrydrove off the first of three allied cavalry divisions under the Comte de Foix,whichattackedanopengateinthecitywalls.Asthisactionwasbeingfought,threedivisionsofcrusadercavalrysortiedviaanothergate.ThefirstchargedtheComtedeFoix’sdisorderedmeninflank,breakingthemafterashortmelee.ItwasthenjoinedbytheseconddivisioncommandedbyWilliamd’Encontreandbothformationschargedtheallies’mainbattleledbyKingPeter.Atthisstage,thecrusaders’thirddivisionunderdeMontfortchargedthealliedleftflank.KingPeter was killed and the surviving allied cavalry broke, with many fugitiveskilledintheruthlesspursuit.

Sofar,thealliedinfantryhadnotbeenseriouslyengaged;theymisinterpretedtheconfusedcavalryactionsas a crusaderdefeat and surged forward toattackthe town walls. They broke as deMontfort’s cavalry rallied and reformed toattack their rear. Thousands were killed in the crusader pursuit and manydrowned trying to ford theGaronneriver.Allied losses totalled15,000–20,000dead,whilecrusadercasualtieswereverylight,althoughalmostcertainlygreaterthantheirclaimsofonlyoneknightandeightsergeants.

■JEREZ,1231Ferdinand III of Castile launched a plundering raid or cavalgada against theEmiratesofCordobaandSeville.The raidersdefeatedaMoorish force ledbyEmirIbnHudbeforereturningtoCastilewiththeirloot.

IndianWars1000–1200■PESHAWAR,1009MahmudofGhazni ledhisTurkic-Afghanwarriorsoutofpresent-daywesternAfghanistantovictoryagainstaconfederationofHinduprincesatPeshawar,inpresent-dayPakistan.VictoryenabledfurtherraidsbyMahmud.■GUJRAT,1025MahmudofGhazniledhisMuslimTurkic-AfghanwarriorsintoGujratProvince(inpresent-dayPakistan)defeatinglocaldefendersandseizingtheHindutempleofSomnath.Thetemplewaslootedofitsrichesanddestroyed.■KOPPAN,1052Rajadhiraja,theruleroftheCholaEmpireinpresent-daysouthernIndiaandSriLanka, was killed fighting the rebellious Chalukya kingdom. His youngerbrother,Rajendra,defeatedtheChalukyasandmaintainedtheCholaEmpire.■GUJRAT,1178Muhammad of Ghur led a Muslim Turkic-Afghan army into the province ofGujrat, inpresent-dayPakistan.HisarmywasweakaftercrossingadesertandlocalforcesunderRajaBhimdevIIrepulsedtheinvaders.■TARAIN,1191Muhammad of Ghur led his Muslim Turkic-Afghan army into north-centralIndia.A confederation ofHindu princes formed a large army and stopped theinvasionatTarain,northofDelhi.TheHindususedsuperiornumberstodefeatthe left and rightwingsofMuhammad’s army.Muhammadhimselfwasbadlywounded in personal combat with Govindraj, the brother of the Hinducommander, Prithviraj. Muhammad withdrew northwards beyond the Indusriver.

South-eastAsia1000–1200■VIJAYA,1044ADai Viêt (North Vietnamese) army commanded by Emperor Lý Thái TánginvadedChampa(SouthVietnam),defeatedtheChamkingSaDauandsackedhiscapitalofVijaya.Anestimated30,000Chamwerekilled.■KHMERINVASIONOFCHAMPA,c.1130OperationsbytheKhmerkingdomofCambodiaagainstChampabeganaround1130andculminatedinanattackonChampain1145,whenKingSuryavarmanII, the founder of Angkor Wat, captured Vijaya and went on to pillage anddestroythetemplesatMySo’n.TheKhmerkingcontinuedhiscampaigninanattempt tocontrol thewholeofChampa,butwasdefeatedbya future rulerofChampain1149.■KHMERINVASIONOFANNAM,c.1150Having subdued Champa during his initial campaigns, the Khmer kingSuryavarmanIIsoughttocontrolthewholeofVietnambyconqueringAnnaminthe north. However, instead of marching against Annam with allies fromChampa,hediscoveredthataChampa–Annamalliancehadbeencreatedagainsthim.Inaseriesofactions,thealliancemanagedtodrivetheKhmersout,tobefollowedbyaninvasionofCambodiaontheirownbehalf.

ByzantineWars1000–1453■KLEIDION,29JULY1014Confronted by the high palisade erected by the Bulgarians under their rulerSamuel, the Byzantines, led by Emperor Basil II, initially tried to storm theobstacle.Theysufferedhighlossesintheattemptandtheemperorwasreadytocalloffthecampaign.TheByzantinegeneralNikephorosXiphiasvolunteeredtolead a small force over themountains in an attempt to find away behind theenemy position. Basil’s troops maintained their position and launched small-scale assaults tokeep thedefendersbusy.Xiphias followedadifficult track tothewestofthepass,whichledacrossMountBelasicaandfellontherearlinesof the Bulgarians. The Bulgarian army was crushed. According to latertraditions, Basil II captured and blinded 15,000 prisoners and ordered everyhundredtobeledbacktoSamuelbyaone-eyedman.■CANNAE,1018A Byzantine force under the governor of Italy, Basil Boioannes, defeated anarmyofrebelsledbyMelofromBari.TheVarangianssentbytheemperorBasilIIplayedadecisiveroletotheByzantinevictory.■SHIRIMNI,11SEPTEMBER1021TheByzantinearmyunderEmperorBasilIIdefeatedtheforcesofKingGeorgeI of Georgia. The Georgians were reinforced by Armenian auxiliaries. TheGeorgians began the battle and put to flight a part of the Byzantine army.However,theByzantines,ledbyBasil,counter-attackedandwonthebattle.Themost effective part of the Byzantine army was the Varangians, who led aferociousattackontheenemy.

■SVINDAX,1022TheByzantinearmyunderEmperorBasilIIdefeatedtheforcesofKingGeorgeI ofGeorgia.As a result, theGeorgian king abandonedhis claims toTao andsurrenderedmanypossessionstoBasilII.■SYRIA,1030Acampaigningforceof20,000menundertheemperorRomanosIIIwascrushedbyanArabforcenearAazaz.TheByzantinearmybrokeandfledbecausemanysoldierswereexhaustedbythirstanddysentery.■ADRIATIC,1032

After capturingCassano, theSicilianArabscarriedout anaval raidacross theAdriatictoCorfu,wheretheyburntthecity.However,theyweredefeatedatthehandsoftheByzantineandRagusanfleets.■INVASIONOFSICILY,1038GeorgeManiakes led a Byzantine invasion of eastern Sicily. His aim was toexploitthecivilconflictsamongthelocalArabsandbringtheentireislandunderByzantine control. Maniakes’ army included Varangian and Normanmercenaries.■MESSINA,1038AByzantinearmyofupto15,000underGeorgeManiakesstormedMessinaanddefeated the Sicilian Arabs. The Byzantine force relied onVarangian soldiersunderHaraldHardradaandonNormanandLombardmercenariesunderArduin.■RAMETTA,1038The Arabs of Sicily and a force of 5000 Arabs from Africa attacked theByzantines underGeorgeManiakes.A fiercebattlewas fought and eventuallyManiakesputtheArabstoflight.■DRAGINA,1040TheByzantinesunderGeorgeManiakesdefeatedanarmyofArabsunderUmer.The charge of theByzantine andNorman heavy cavalry demolished theArabbattlelineatthefirstattack.Umerbarelyescapedwithhislife.

■BULGARIANREVOLT,1040–41Emperor Romanos III’s decision to force the Bulgarians to pay their taxes incoinandnotinkindtriggeredarevolt.AcertainPeterDeljanraisedanarmyandmarched southwards. The army thatwas sent to fightDeljan and their leader,Tihomir, joined the rebels. However, Deljan had Tihomir killed. The rebelsdefeated the Imperial armyclose toThessalonica.However, anotherBulgarianleader,Alusjan, seizedcontrolover the revolt and replacedDeljanas itshead.Leading20,000men,AlusjanmarchedtobesiegeThessalonica.Aftersixdays,the besieged carried out a sortie and caught the rebels by surprise. Around

15,000Bulgarianswere captured. In the aftermath of this defeat,Alusjan hadDeljanblindedandwithdrewtotheinterior.TheImperialarmyinvadedBulgariaand Emperor Michael IV defeated the Bulgarians in Prilep. The revolt wascrushed.■MONOPOLI,1042AByzantineforceof3500menunderGeorgeManiakesdefeated theforcesofthe rebelArgyros fromApulia and theNormans.The rebelsnumberedaround7000.Maniakesmadeaterribleexampleandhadmanyciviliansexecuted.■SASIRETI,1042Feudal lords under Liparit IV, Duke of Kledkari, revolted against the king ofGeorgia Bagrat IV. The rebels attempted to place the king’s half-brotherDemetriusonthethroneandrequestedByzantinemilitaryaid.TheforcesoftherebelsunderLiparitandtheirByzantinealliesdefeatedtheroyalarmy.Theroyalarmy commanded byBagratwas reinforced by 700 Scandinavians,whowerecampaigningundertheVikingIngvar.■KORSUN,1044After leading an unsuccessful naval campaign against the Byzantines, theRussianprince,VladimirofNovgorodadvancedonKorsunandcaptureditfromtheByzantines.HeretainedituntilhesignedatreatywiththeByzantines.■KARS,1048AforceofSeljuqTurksunderIbrahim,thebrotherofTogrul,launchedthefirstlarge-scale Seljuq raid on Byzantine Armenia. The Byzantines and theArmeniansweredefeatedandalargenumberofArmenianswereenslaved.■KAPITRON,1048Following their defeat in Erzerum, the Byzantines, under the command ofKatakalonKekaumenosandLiparitregroupedandfoughtagainsttheadvancingSeljuqs.TheByzantineswonthebattle,butLiparitwascapturedbytheenemy.■PECHENEGRAIDS,1048–54The Pechenegs raided the Balkans, crushing a Byzantine army underConstantine.AsecondbattlenearAdrianoplehadthesameoutcome,despitethebraveryoftheByzantinecommandersDokeianosandArianites.TheByzantinesreorganized their defence. They stopped seeking pitched battles and the fieldarmy was dispersed through fortified camps. From these, the ByzantineslaunchedsurpriseattacksonthePechenegs,seizingbootyandprisoners.ThesetacticsprovedsuccessfulandpushedtheenemybacktoBidin.However,alarge-scaleByzantine attack failedbecauseof the lackof co-ordinationbetween the

Byzantine generals. A large Byzantine force suffered heavy casualties. TheemperorConstantineIXMonomachoswasforcedtorecognizethesettlementofthe Pechenegs between the Haemus and lower Danube. In 1054, the emperorsigned a 30-year peace treaty and, through titles and gifts, appeased thePechenegs.■STRAGNA,1049The Byzantine troops under Aaron Vladishtlav abandoned their camp andestablished themselves in hiding places. The Seljuqs under Hasan startedplundering the camp. The Byzantines emerged from their hiding places androutedtheSeljuqs.■MANZIKERT,1049TheSeljuqsunderTogrulbesiegedthecityfor30days.Theytriedtominethewalls.TheByzantines,underBasilApokapes,destroyedthesiegeenginesoftheSeljuqsandforcedthemtoliftthesiege.

■ANATOLIA,1064ASeljuqarmyunderSultanAlpArslanbesiegedAni,whichfellafter25days.The city was pillaged and much of its population was slaughtered. Around50,000peoplewerecaptured.■SEBASTIA,1068WhenEmperorRomanos IVwas stationed inLykandos,hewas informed thatthe Seljuqs had sacked Neokaisareia. Leading a mobile cavalry force, theemperorforcedtheTurkstoabandonthebootyandprisonerstheyhadcaptured.■HERAKLEIA,1068

WhileRomanosIVwasinHerakleia,theSeljuqsdefeatedtheByzantinesunderPhilaretosBacharamios,destroyedIkoniumandretreated.RomanosorderedthearmyofChatatourios to attack the retreatingTurks.He failed to carry out theattack.■OTRANTO,1068The Normans captured the city from the Byzantines. The besiegers bribed anieceofthecity’sgovernorwhosehousewasattachedtothewall.Theyenteredthecitywithropesthroughherhouse.■SEBASTIA,1070TheByzantinesunderManuelKomnenosweredefeatedbyaSeljuqforceunderArisghi. By feigning retreat, the Seljuqs enticed the Byzantines into anundisciplined charge. Many Byzantines were killed and their general wascaptured.■BARI,1071Leadingalargearmy,theNormanleaderRobertGuiscardlaidsiegetothecityin1068.TheByzantinespushedbackthenumerousNormanassaults.Guiscardblockaded the city’s port by building a fortified bridge, which preventedByzantinereinforcementsfromenteringBari.Althoughthedefendersdestroyedthe bridge, the Byzantine navy failed to provide effective support to thebesieged. The city was starved into submission and surrendered afternegotiationsin1071.■MANZIKERT,26AUGUST1071AByzantine forceof40,000underEmperorRomanos IVmarchedagainst theSeljuqsinAnatolia.Onthemarch,RomanoswasforcedtodismisshisGermanmercenaries. He also sent a large part of the army, including Varangians andFrankish mercenaries, to Chliat. These forces played no further role in thecampaign. Romanos reached Manzikert on 24 August and sent NikephorosBryennios to chase off Seljuq raiders. Bryennios’ army was ambushed andwithdrew.Similarly,byfeigningretreat,theSeljuqsambushedandannihilatedacavalryforceunderNikephorosBasilakes.RealizingthattheTurkswerepresentin greater strength than he had previously assumed,Romanos ordered the leftwing of the army under Bryennios to attack. However, the Seljuqs forcedBryennios towithdraw.On26August, the Imperialarmylauncheda full-scaleattack.TheByzantinesadvanced,withtherearguardprotectingthemainlineandflanks. The Seljuqs harried the Byzantine line with arrows while constantlymoving back. The Seljuq wings attacked the Byzantine wings at close range

beforewithdrawingagain.Consequently,theByzantinewingsmarchedatslowerpace than thecentre.Bymid-afternoon, theByzantineshad reached theemptySeljuq camp. However, they failed to come to grips with the enemy and theemperor’sforceswerenolongerinclosecontactwiththewings.Itwasduskandtheemperorgavetheordertowithdraw.However,thesignalwasmisunderstoodby some officers and soldiers who believed that the emperor had fallen.AndronikosDoukas, theheadof the rearguard,deliberately failed tocover thewithdrawal of the army. He reversed his own lines and marched towards thecamp. Romanos’ division was isolated and the emperor was captured by theSeljuqs.■KALAVRYAI,1078A force of 6000 mercenaries under Alexios Komnenos defeated a force of12,000undertherebelNikephorosBryennios.Komnenoswonthebattlebecausehe exploited the plundering of the enemy camp by Bryennios’ own Pechenegallies.■NICAEA,1080NikephorosMelissenos revolted and became the self-proclaimed emperor. HecapturedNicaea,whereheestablishedagarrisonofTurkishmercenaries.WhenhemovedtoThessalonica,thesemercenariesseizedthecity,whichbecamethecapitalofaSeljuqstate.■DURRACHIUM,18OCTOBER1081TheNormansunderRobertGuiscarddefeatedtheByzantinesundertheemperorAlexiosIKomnenos.RobertdetachedsomecavalrytoenticetheByzantinesintoan undisciplined charge. They were pushed back by Byzantine archers. TheNorman right under Count Ani charged the left flank of the Varangians. TheByzantines under Pakourianos attacked and brokeAni’s troops.Consequently,theNormanknightswhowereengaged in skirmisheswith theByzantine rightwere outflanked. TheVarangians joined the pursuit of the enemy and becameseparated fromAlexios’main line.Tired by the chase and theweight of theirequipment, theywereunable to resist theassaultofNormanspearmensentbyGuiscard.ThewholeVarangiandetachmentperished.ThemainbattlelineoftheByzantines, which was situated behind the Varangians, was crushed by thechargesofGuiscard’sheavycavalrythathadbeenheldinreserve.■ANTIOCH,1084The Seljuq leader, Suleyman, took advantage of the absence of PhilaretosBachramios,whohadestablishedhisownindependentprincipalityandcaptured

thecity.Withtheassistanceofaccomplices,theSeljuqsenteredthecitywithoutresistance.■DOROSTORUM,1086The Pechenegs defeated the Byzantines under Alexios I Komenos. ThePechenegs used their wagons as a fortified camp. It was an equal fight untilPecheneg reinforcements arrived late in afternoon.This relief force routed theByzantines.■LEBURNION,1091TheByzantines underAlexios IKomnenos and their Cuman allies inflicted aseveredefeaton thePechenegs.Manyprisonerswerecaptured.TheByzantinevictorywasfollowedbytheslaughterofalargenumberofPechenegs.

■NORTHERNSYRIA,1099–1104Bohemond,thePrinceofAntioch,withthesupportofseveralPisanships,ledanunsuccessfulattackonLaodikeia.In1101,TancredcapturedKilikiaandMarasand blockaded Laodikeia, which capitulated in 1103. In 1104, the Byzantinegenerals Boutoumites and Monastras seized Kilikia and Maras, whileKantakouzenos, leading a surprise attack from the sea, recaptured Laodikeia.However, he failed to capture the fortress from the Normans. Jocelin ofCourtenayrecapturedLaodikeiainthenameofthecrusaders.■DURRACHIUM,1107–08

ThekingofSicily,Bohemond,besiegedthecity.TheByzantines,togetherwiththeVenetian fleet, blockaded theNormans from land and sea.ManyNormansdiedandBohemomdwasforcedtosignapeacetreatywithAlexiosI.■PHILOMELION,1116TheSeljuqrulerMalik-ShahledamajorassaultontherearguardofthearmyofAlexiosIwhileitwasmarchingtowardsNikomedia.TheattackwasdrivenoffbyNikephorosBryennios.TheByzantinecavalrypursuedtheSeljuqs.■ANATOLIA,1120–21The emperor John II Komnenos led a campaign against the Seljuqs. Aftersuccessivevictoriesonthebattlefield,theByzantinescapturedthefortifiedcityof Laodikeia. The following year, the Byzantines captured Sozopolis throughtrickery. Paktarios, a cavalry commander, was instructed to fire arrows at theenemytroopswhooccupiedthegates.WhentheTurkssalliedoutinfrustration,Paktarios’ troops feigned retreat and the emperor’s main force ambushed theSeljuqs.■BEROE,1122The Byzantines under John II Komnenos fought a large-scale battle with thePechenegs. The Pecheneg cavalry charged and firedmissiles constantly to theByzantines. The Byzantines forced the enemy back to their wagon circle, butthey failed to penetrate it. This fortified enclosure withstood many attacks.Eventually,theemperor’sinterventiontookchargeoftheVarangians,whobrokethewagonswiththeiraxes,causingthedefeatofthePechenegs.■CORFUI,1147A Norman fleet of 70 galleys under George of Antioch captured Corfu. Theislandsurrenderedthankstobribesandthedissatisfactionofthepopulationoverthetaxburden.■CORFUII,1149Byzantine and Venetian galleys under Stephen Kontostephanos captured theislandfromtheNormans.Thealliesattackedfromtowersandladdersattachedto ships and occupied the city. The defenders of the citadelwere starved intosubmission.■SERBIANREBELLION,1150–51TherevoltunderUrošIIwasincitedbytheNormansofSicilyandbackedbytheHungarians.ManuelIKomnenosdefeatedtheHungariansbeforetheycouldjointheSerbs.Thebattle tookplace atTara.Manuel I andhis generals performedindividualactsofvalourandtheemperor’sduelwiththeHungariancommander

Bagin sealed the Byzantine victory. Afterwards, the Serbian leader swore toremainloyaltoManuelI.■SIRMIUM,8JULY1167The Byzantines under Andronikos Kontostephanos defeated the HungariansunderDionysios.TheByzantineswon the battle because of intelligent tacticaldispositions, mainly the weakening of the Hungarian line by the feignedwithdrawaloftheByzantineleft.■EGYPTIANEXPEDITION,1169A Byzantine army and a naval force of 200 ships under the command ofAndronikosKontostephanosjoinedforceswiththekingofJerusalem,Amalaric,at Ascalon and laid siege to Damietta. The siege failed, according to theByzantinesources,becauseAmalaric,notwantingtosharetheprofitsofvictory,dragged out the operation until the Imperial army ran short of provisions andsuffered from famine. Meanwhile, the besieged received reinforcements andsuppliesfromCairo,whereastheByzantinesbegantorunoutofmaterialfortheconstruction of siege engines. Eventually, the Byzantines assaulted the wallsusing ladders and archers. Their attackwas abortedwhen theywere informedthatAmalarichadnegotiatedatrucewiththedefenders.Beingdemoralizedandpressedbythelackofsupplies,theByzantinesliftedthesiegeanddeparted.Thesiegehadlastedforthreemonths.■AEGEAN,1170TheemperorManuelIorderedthearrestofallVenetiansthroughouttheempireand confiscated their properties. Venice forbade its subjects to trade with theByzantinesandsentafleettoattacktheAegeanislands.■RAGUSA,1171TheVenetian fleet of 120 ships attacked the city,whichwas underByzantinecontrol.After some fighting, thecity surrendered,was forced topay tribute toVeniceandtodemolishpartofitswalls.■CHIOS,1171TheVenetian fleet captured the island from theByzantines. InApril1172, theVenetianswereforcedtoabandonChios.Famineanddiseaseclaimedthelifeof6000menanddepletedtheVenetianarmy.■MYRIOCEPHALON,17SEPTEMBER1176A Byzantine army of about 25,000 soldiers under Manuel I Komnenos wasdefeated by the Seljuqs under Sultan Kilij Arslan II. The Byzantines weremarchingtowardsIconiumwhentheywereambushedbytheSeljuqs.

■INVASIONOFGREECE,1185AlargeNormanfleetsailedfromMessinaandcapturedDurrachium.FollowingtheViaEgnatia,theNormansunderBaldwinsackedThessalonicaandcapturedmuch booty. The Normans were stopped in Mosynoupolis, where they weredefeatedbyAlexiosBranas.■CONSTANTINOPLEUPRISING,1185WhenanagentofAndronikosIwenttoarrestIsaakIIAngelos,thelatterkilledtheagent and sought asylum inHagiaSophia. Isaakappealed to thepeopleofConstantinopleandwasdeclaredemperor.AndronikosIwasexecuted.■STRYMON,1185Following theirvictory inMosynoupolis, theByzantinesunderAlexiosBranascontinuedtopursue theNormansuntil thebanksofStrymon.InDimitriza, theByzantines plundered the enemy camp and captured generals Richard andBaldwin.■CONSTANTINOPLE,1186GeneralAlexiosBranasrevoltedagainsttheemperorIsaakIIAngelos.HewasdefeatedandkilledbyConradofMontferrat,whowastheemperor’sbrother-in-law,inabattleatthewallsofConstantinople.■BERRHOE,1189The Vlachs and the Cumans, who led unremitting attacks on Byzantineterritories from fortified strongholds, ambushed and scattered the Byzantinearmyinanarrowdefile.TheemperorIsaakIIAngelosbarelyescapedwithhislife.■ANTALYA,1207The Seljuqs, under SultanKay-Khusraw I, exploited the fragmentation of theByzantineEmpire by the armies of the FourthCrusade and captured this portfromtheItalianadventurerAldobrandini.Thesiegelastedfortwomonths.■ADRIANOPLE,1254Asmall armyunderEmperorTheodore IILaskaris defeated aBulgarian forceunderMichaelIAsan.Laskarisledasurpriseattackontheenemycamp.MostoftheBulgariansoldiersmanagedtofleeunscathed.■PELAGONIA,1259TheNicaeansunderJohnPalaiologosdefeatedtheforcesofMichaelAngelosofEpiros,GuillaumeIIofVillehardouinand400Germanknights.TheCumanandTurkish cavalry archers ambushed the Franks and many knights were taken

prisoner.■CONSTANTINOPLE,1261An army of 800 men under Alexios Strategopoulos captured Constantinople.Strategopoulos took advantage of the absence of the Latin fleet and,with thehelpofthecity’sinhabitants,hisarmyenteredConstantinopleusingladders.■BURSA,1317–26The Ottomans blockaded the city, destroyed its countryside and built forts topreventitfromreceivingreinforcements.Beingpressedbystarvation,thelocalauthoritiessurrenderedthecitytoOrhan,whomadeithiscapital.■CONSTANTINOPLE,1422TheOttomanshadtakenalmostalloftheByzantineEmpireandpenetrateddeepinto the Balkans, but Constantinople remained Byzantine. Sultan Murad IIbesiegedthecityforseveralmonths,butcouldnotbreachthewallsandfinallywithdrew.■CONSTANTINOPLE,6APRIL–29MAY1453On 2 April, the advanced units of the Ottoman army pitched camp in thelandwardsideof thecity.TheemperorConstantineXIPalaiologosorderedthegreatchainofironandwoodonwoodenfloatsbeplacedacrosstheGoldenHornto prevent the Ottoman fleet from entering it. On 5 April, SultanMehmed IIarrivedandsetupcampalongthelandwallsclosetotheGateofRomanos.Thesize of the Ottoman army is unknown, with eyewitnesses providing estimatesrangingfrom60,000to300,000.Thedefenderswerearound5000andmanyofthemwerewesternEuropeanreinforcements.TheOttomanshadlargecannons,bombardsandarquebuses.Thelargestoftheircannonswassome8.8mlongandhurled stonesweighing 544kg. Because of the heat and pressure generated, itcouldbefiredonlyseventimesaday.ItwasdesignedbytheHungarianengineerUrban.Lackingmen,thedefendersdecidedtomanonlytheoutersectionofthecity’slandwalls.Theyhadcrossbows,smallarms,smallcanonsandarquebuses.However, their canons proved ineffective and damaged thewalls, because thefortifications of Constantinoplewere unable to support them. The core of theOttomanfleetwas16to18galleys,60to80galliotsandaround20vesselsforcarryinghorses.Thedefendershadbetween10and39ships.On20April, thedefenders received minor reinforcements and supplies commissioned by thePopeand thekingofAragon.This indicates that theOttomanswereunable tocontroltheseafully.Todealwiththis,on22April,theOttomanswheeledtheirshipsoverlandfromtheBosporus to theGoldenHorn.Theybypassed the iron

chainandwereabletoharassthedefender’sshipsintheharbour.Thedefenders’plan to attack the Ottoman fleet was delayed due to dissension among theVenetian and Genoese. When the attack was launched on 29 April, it failed.Meanwhile,thedefenderswereabletodealwiththeOttomanbombardmentandtorebuilddamagedsectionsofthewallswithwood,stones,earthandhides.On18 May, the Ottomans filled in part of the moat and attempted to wheel awoodenturretuptothewalls.Thedefendersburntitdown.Consequently,from16Mayto25May,theOttomanscarriedoutextensiveminingoperations.AllofthemweresuccessfullyfoiledbythedefenderswhowereledbyJohnGrand.On28May,whenthelandwallsweresufficientlyweakened,MehmedIIorderedageneralassault.ThisassaultwasconcentratedaroundthegatesofRomanosandCharision,whereGiustiniani,theleaderoftheGenoesereinforcements,andtheemperor were positioned. After an artillery barrage, the Ottomans led adisorganized assault that was repelled. However, it managed to weary thedefenders.AsecondattackwascarriedoutbytheAnatolianTurks,butthiswasrepelled.ThentheJanissariesattackedthedefendersand,afteranhouroffiercefighting, they succeeded in advancing to the inner walls. About 50 OttomansenteredthecitythroughasmallgatecalledKerkoporta.Theyclimbedthetowerabovethegate.At thesametime,Giustinianiwaswoundedandwithdrew.ThedefenderspanickedandtheJanissariespouredintothecitythroughthisposition.ConstantineXI, whowas at CharisionGate, perished, although his bodywasnever found. It is calculated that about 4000 people were killed and at least50,000weretakenprisoner.

TheCrusades1096–1291

FirstCrusade1096–99■NICAEA,14MAY–19JUNE1097United crusader and Byzantine forces (perhaps 60,000) besieged Seljuq-heldNicaea,sufferingheavylossesinanattemptedescalade.Aftercrusadersrepelleda relief force under Kilij Arslan, the Turkish garrison surrendered to theByzantines.■DORYLAEUM,1JULY1097The First Crusade army became divided while marching in Anatolia. Turkishsultan Kilij Arslan attacked the vanguard of 20,000 with 6000–7000 cavalry.Bohemond rallied the crusaders and the noncombatants and infantry made astrongcampwhilehe,withabout3000knights,shieldedthem,thenfellbackonthecamp.Fightingcontinueduntilthemaincrusaderforceofc.30,000arrivedandattackedtheTurkishflank.■TARSUS,1097TancredandBaldwinofBoulogneclearedthesouthflankoftheFirstCrusade’sadvance,takingTarsusandliberatingtheArmenianChristiansfromTurkishrule.BaldwingarrisonedTarsusafterfightingTancredforpossession.■ANTIOCH,1097–98TheFirstCrusadearmybesiegedtheverystrongcityofAntioch,erectingcampsoutside the major gates. They defeated a relief effort from Damascus inDecember, but a sally from Antioch killed many and made morale plummet.Crusaders crushed another relief force from Aleppo in February. A traitor letcrusaders into the city on the night of 2–3 June, as a third relief force underKerbogahofMosulapproached.

The crusader army, now numbering under 30,000,was vastly outnumberedandsufferingfromstarvationandlackofhorses.HeartenedbydiscoveryoftheHoly Lance, they broke out of the city and attacked Kerbogah on 28 June.Exiting the city in five divisions, the crusaders counted on speed. TheoverconfidentKerbogahthrewforcesintothefightpiecemeal,wheretheyweredefeatedinturn.ThemainMosulforcefledwithoutengaging.■SIEGEOFJERUSALEM,1099TheFirstCrusadearmy,numberingaround12,000–14,000combatants,reached

Fatimid-held Jerusalem on 7 June. Jerusalem was strongly fortified andgarrisoned and the crusaders had to bring water in from a distance since theFatimid governor had poisoned the local wells. The crusaders decided on animmediate assault (13 June), despite having only one siege ladder, but weredriven offwith heavy losses. The crusaders then established a siege,with thetroopsofGodfreyofBouillon,RobertofFlandersandRobertofNormandy tothe north and Raymond of Toulouse on the west. Two Genoese ships thenarrived,whichweredismantled, their timberusedtobuildaramandcatapults.Thecrusadersalsoconstructedtwogreatsiegetowers,oneinRaymond’scampand theotherunderGodfrey’scommand.Underheavymissile attack from thewalls, thecrusaders filled in theditchsurrounding thecityso the siege towerscouldapproach.Theassaultbeganon13July,impelledbynewsthataFatimidrelief army was approaching. Raymond’s men were unable to manoeuvre hissiegetowertothewall,butonthenorthsideofthecity,arambroughtdownpartof theouterwallearlyon14July.Thecrusadersthenburnedtheram,clearingtheway to the innerwall. The siege towerwas dragged up to thewall in thecourseoftheday.Normally,siegetowerswereusedtofireatthedefenders,but,on 15 July, two Flemish knights used spare timber to bridge the gap andestablished themselves on the wall, opening the gate to their comrades. Thecrusadersfloodedintothecity,massacringmostofthepopulace.

■ASHKELON,1099AFatimid armyof 15,000–20,000 underVizier al-Afdal gathered atAshkelonand the First Crusade army of about 9000 marched against them from therecentlyconqueredJerusalem.On12August,thecrusaderscaughttheFatimidsby surprise in their camp north of the city, the crusaders attacking in threedivisions.TheFatimidEthiopianinfantrychargedvaliantly,butthebulkoftheirarmyneverdeployedproperlyandwasoverwhelmed.■MERSIVAN,1101TheDanishmendTurkisharmysurroundedaLombardandFrenchcrusaderforceinAnatolia.Afterdaysoffightingandseveraleffortstobreakout,theChristianspanicked.Mostofthecrusadersweremassacredorcaptured.■EREGLII,1101The crusader army of William of Aquitaine and Welf of Bavaria suffered asurprise attack by Kilij Arslan’s Seljuqs in early September and was routed.Manyleadersescaped,butmostcrusadersdied.■EREGLIII,1101A15,000-mancrusaderarmyunderCountWilliamIIofNeverswasambushednear Eregli, Anatolia, by Kilij Arslan and almost entirely destroyed. OnlyWilliamandafewknightsmadeittoAntioch.■RAMLEH,1102AFatimidarmyseveralthousandstronginvadedtheKingdomofJerusalemfromAscalon. Baldwin I underestimated their numbers and attacked with adisorganizedcavalryforceofonly500knights,withoutwaitingforhisinfantryto catch up with his vanguard. Most of Baldwin’s army was lost, includingCountStephenofBlois.Baldwinescapedwithonlyafewmen,whobarricadedthemselvesinatowerandescapedatnight.■HARRAN,1104Seljuq emirs Soqman ibn Ortuq and Jikirmish attacked a combined Christianforce led by Bohemund of Antioch and Baldwin of Edessa, which had beenbesiegingHarran.Detailsof thebattleareunknown,except that theChristianswere heavily defeated and Count Baldwin was captured, ending FrankishexpansiontowardtheEuphrates.Consequencesofthebattlewereslight,astheTurkishleadersfoughteachotheroverdivisionofthespoils.■ARTAH,1105Tancred, regent of Antioch, was besieging Artah when aMuslim relief force

underRidwanofAleppoattacked.TancreddefeatedtheMuslimforce,perhapsemployingafeignedretreat,thencompletedhissiegeofthecity.■SARMIN,1115BursuqbinBursuq’sSeljuqarmy invadedAntiochene territory in1115.PrinceRogerofAntioch,aidedbyBaldwinofEdessa,gatheredanarmyofFranksandMuslimallies several thousand strong that caught theTurksby surpriseon14September. The crusader left wing rapidly broke the Turks facing them. TheTurcopoles on the Frankish right were thrown back, but the Christians soonrallied,winninganeasyvictory.

Crusader-TurkishWars1119–49■AGERSANGUINIS,28JUNE1119The‘FieldofBlood’wasacatastrophicdefeatoftheFranksofAntioch.WhenIl-Ghazi of Mardin invaded the Principality of Antioch, Roger of Antiochmobilized immediately insteadof awaiting reinforcements from the south.Hisforceof700knightsandabout3000infantrymarchedagainsttheenemyonlytobe caught by surprise in a steep-sided valley; Il-Ghazi’s force, travelling onlittle-usedpaths,appearedsuddenlyonallsides.Thefightbeganwitharcheryonboth sides and heavy casualties.When the forces engaged, the Frankish rightenjoyed considerable success. However, the Turcopoles on the Frankish leftweredrivenback,whichthrewthemenbehindthemintoconfusion,leavingtheFrankishforceunabletorecoverasastrongwindblewsandintheirfaces.Rogerandmostofhisarmydiedintheencounter.■AZAZ,11JUNE1125The Seljuq Il-Bursuqi of Mosul invaded Edessa and besieged Azaz. KingBaldwinIIofJerusalem,Joscelin IofEdessaandPonsofTripoliassembledarelievingarmyabout3000strong.TheyattackedIl-Bursuqion13June,Baldwinfeigning a retreat and thus drawing the larger Turkish army into a closeengagement inwhichFrankish superior armourhad a decisive advantage.TheTurksweredefeatedinabloodybattle.■MARJES-SUFFAR,1126In King Baldwin II of Jerusalem’s secondmajor battle against the Turks, theFranks,althoughbadlyhurtbyTurkisharchery,ralliedwithastrongattacklateintheday,winningthevictory.

■EDESSA,28NOVEMBER–24DECEMBER1144Edessa,weakestofthecrusaderstates,wasthefirsttofalltoaresurgentIslam.Count Joscelin II ofEdessa hadmade an alliancewith hisTurkish neighbour,KaraArslan, against Imad ad-DinZengi, ruler ofMosul andAleppo. Joscelinleft with most of his army to support Kara Arslan, leaving Edessa almostundefended.Zengiseizedtheopportunity,rushinghisarmytoattackthecityinitslord’sabsence.Hearrivedon28Novemberandlaidthecityundersiege.Thefew trained soldiers and civilians, under the commandofArchbishopHugh IIandtheArmenianandJacobitebishopsofthecity,attemptedadefense,butdid

nothavesufficientforce tomantheentirecircuitofwallsor theknowledgetocombatZengi’sefforts toundermine them.TheEdessansheldout fornearlyamonth, as Count Joscelin frantically tried to muster a force from the othercrusader states to raise thesiege.ButZengi’s siegeenginesandminesworkedtoo quickly. The Muslim army took Edessa on 24 December, sacking andslaughtering the panicked defenders, many of whom were trampled to deathwhiletryingtoreachthecitadel.Thecitadelfellon26December.ZengihadalltheFrankishsurvivorskilled,butsparedthenativeChristians.HewasabletogoontotakeSaruj,butreturnedtoMosulasaJerusalemitearmyapproached.ThefallofEdessaledtothecallingoftheSecondCrusade.■LISBON,1147Northerncrusadearmiesnumberingabout10,000withafleetof150–200shipsstopped in Portugal, where Afonso Henriques convinced them to help attackMuslim-heldLisbon.TheyinvestedthecityinlateJune,findingvastfoodstoresinthesuburbs.AmassiveattackinearlyAugustfailed,butaminebroughtdownpartofthewallinmid-October.Thegovernorsurrendered,butthecitywasstillsacked.

SecondCrusade1145–49■DORYLAEUMII,1147EmperorConradIII’slargecrusadingarmyfellintoaTurkishtrap.Theircavalrywasdrawnaway,leavingthecrusaderinfantryunprotected.TheGermanretreatbecamearoutaftertheirrearguardwasdestroyed.■DAMASCUS,23–28JULY1148TheforcesoftheSecondCrusadeledbyLouisVIIofFranceandConradIIIofGermanydecidedwithBaldwinIIIofJerusalemtoattackDamascus.Theirarmy,perhaps 50,000 strong, approached Damascus from the west, driving backoutlyingMuslim forces.Word came thatNur ad-Din’s armywasmarching torelieve the city, so the crusaders knew they had to take the city quickly. Thecrusaders shifted operations to the east, believing the wall to be weaker, butfoundthemselvestrappedwithnowater,littlefoodandnoeasywayintothecity.TheycouldnotreturntothewesternwallbecausetheareahadbeenreoccupiedbyMuslim forces.After a siege of only four days, theCrusader army had towithdraw,effectivelyendingtheSecondCrusade.TheysufferedheavycasualtiesontheirmarchbacktoChristianterritory

■INAB,29JUNE1149Nurad-DinofAleppobesiegedInabwithabout6000men;RaymondofAntiochcame with a relieving force of 1400. The Muslims withdrew, but attackedRaymond’scamp,killingmostoftheAntiochenes,includingRaymond.

Crusader-TurkishWars1153–87■ASCALON,1153AscalonwasthelastporttofalltotheKingdomofJerusalem.Inaseven-monthsiegebyBaldwinIII,thelargeFatimidgarrisonwagedastrongdefensebehind

Ascalon’sstrongwalls,conductingaseriesofskirmishesandresuppliedbyseainMay. InAugust, thedefenders’destructionofa siege towerbackfiredwhenthetowercollapsedandbroughtdownpartofthewall,allowingthesuccessfulChristianassault.■HARIM,12AUGUST1164AlargeChristianforcecametoraiseNurad-Din’ssiegeofHarim.TheMuslimsretreated and theChristians pursued, losing all cohesion. TheMuslims turnedanddefeatedtheChristianspiecemeal,thentookHarim.■AL-BABEIN,18MARCH1167AmalricofJerusaleminvadedEgypt,pursuingShirkuh’sEgyptianforceuptheNilewithhiscavalry.TheMuslimsturnedattheedgeofthedesert,wheresandlimited the Frankish cavalry’s effectiveness. Amalric, with his 374 Frankishknights, attacked the centre,which retreated to drawAmalric away.Themainbattlebrokedownintosmallfights.WhenAmalricreturned,heralliedsomeofhisTurcopoletroops.Therewasnoclearvictor.■MONTGISARD,25NOVEMBER1177ThiswasSaladin’sworstdefeat.TheAyyubidsultanlaunchedaraidfromEgyptagainstJerusalem.HebypassedTemplar-heldGazaandAscalon,heldbyKingBaldwin IVwith 500men. Baldwinmanaged to get word to the Templars atGaza, who helped hismen break out ofAscalon. The combined force caughtSaladin’slargerarmybysurprise.Thosewhostoodwereannihilated;thosewhofledwereharriedbacktoEgypt.■JACOB’SFORD,1179Baldwin IV of Jerusalem began constructing a strong castle, Chastellet, todefend the vulnerable Jacob’s Ford on the Jordan river. Saladin tried to bribeBaldwintoceaseconstruction,thenattacked.AlargeMuslimforcereachedtheincompleteChastelleton23August.Theyimmediatelyunderminedawalland,afterseveralattempts,brokeinon30August,killing700soldiersandbuilders,taking800captivesanddestroyingthefortress.■KERAK,1183Saladin invested Kerak castle with a vastly superior force of about 20,000.BaldwinIVleda relievingarmyofperhaps8000.SaladinfearedbeingcaughtbetweenthecastleandChristianfieldarmyandwithdrew.■CRESSON,1MAY1187Saladin’s son al-Afdal raided Galilee with about 7000 men. A Templar andHospitaller force of 130knights and300mounted sergeants attacked them. In

fierce fighting, the Christians were destroyed, only four knights managing toescape.■TIBERIAS,2JULY1187SaladininvadedtheKingdomofJerusalemwithaforceofabout30,000.ToluretheChristianarmyout,SaladinsentadetachmentagainstTiberiason2July;thetown fell on the same day, although Eschiva of Galilee withdrew with hergarrisontothecitadel.ThedecisiontorescueEschiva,thewifeofRaymondofToulouse, led to thecrusaderdefeatatHattin.Eschivawas forced tosurrenderthedayafterthebattle.■HATTIN,4JULY1187Saladin invaded the Kingdom of Jerusalem with a force probably numbering30,000, the culmination of years of mounting pressure on the crusadersettlements.The controversialKingGuy rallied all available forces to counterthethreat,raisingperhaps20,000men(including1200knights);thelargestarmyever assembled by the kingdom. To bring together this force, Guy assembledmost of the manpower of the military religious orders, as well as strippinggarrisonsfromfortressesthroughoutthekingdom.

To lure the Christians into battle, Saladin sent a detachment to take thefortressofTiberias;themaincityfellon2July,althoughRaymondofTripoli’swifeEschivawasabletowithdrawtothecitadelwiththegarrison.Whenwordreached theChristianarmy,Guydecidedafter longandacrimoniousdebate tomarchtothereliefofTiberias’garrison.

TheChristianarmy’smarchon3Julyprovedtobeveryslow,withthemensufferingconstantMuslimattacksontheirrightflankandtotheirrear.InsteadofreachingTiberias,theycampedforthenightatMarkana,onawaterlessplateau,themenandtheirhorsesalreadysufferinggrievouslyfromthirstinthesummerheat.By themorningof4 July,Saladin’sarmyhadcompletely surrounded thedemoralized and disunified Christian force. Guy desperately needed to pushforwardtotheSeaofGalileeforwater.

ActionopenedwhenRaymondofTripolilaunchedachargetobreakthroughtheMuslimline,whichjustopenedranksandlethimthrough.InsteadofturningbacktoattacktheMuslimrear,RaymondcontinuedtowardTiberias,addingtosuspicionsthathewasatraitor.TherestoftheChristianarmysufferedabarrageofarrowsandsmoke from thegrass fires theMuslimshadset that aggravatedtheirthirstevenmore.Someoftherearguardbrokefree,butthemainFrankishcavalrywas left unsupportedby the infantry,which retreated against orders to

theHornsofHattin,anextinctvolcanowhoselipwaslitteredwithBronze-andIron-Age walls that gave them some protection. This ‘mutiny’ rendered itimpossible for theChristians tobreakout,since thecavalrycouldnotadvancewithoutinfantrysupport.Throughtheday,theFrankishpredicamentgrewevermore desperate, fatigue and thirst taking their toll as they fought off constantMuslimharassment.Lateintheday,Guyledtwodesperatecharges,bothaimeddirectlyatSaladininthehopeofkillingtheMuslimsultananddishearteninghistroops, but theChristianswere thrownbackboth times.Later in the fight, theChristianrelicoftheTrueCrosswascapturedanditsbearer,thebishopofAcre,was killed, further disheartening the surviving crusaders. When the Muslimsbroke through theFrankishdefences, they foundGuyandhisknightsslumpedon the ground, soweakened by exhaustion and thirst that they could fight nolonger. The battle of Hattin destroyed the fighting force of the Kingdom ofJerusalem. Most of the leaders received courteous treatment and were soonransomed, although Saladin personally executed his enemy, Reynald ofChâtillon.The200TemplarandHospitallerprisonerswerebutchered,whilethesurviving foot soldiers were enslaved. The destruction of the Christian armymadeitpossibleforSaladintotakecontrolofmostoftheKingdomofJerusalemoverthenextfewmonths,includingJerusalemitself.ThedesperateplightofthecrusadingcauseledtothecallingoftheThirdCrusade.

■JERUSALEM,1187AfterdeliveringhiscrushingvictoryatHattin,Saladineasily tookmostof thekingdomof Jerusalem.Themost important point symbolicallywas Jerusalem.Although Jerusalemwasdenudedof itsgarrison,PatriarchHeracliusandLordBalianofIbelindecidedtoresist.Only twootherknightsandfewprofessionalsoldierswerewithinthewalls,althoughBalianknightedallnobleboysovertheageof16and30burgerstostiffenthedefence.Saladin’sarmynumberedatleast20,000.

Saladin invested the citywith his armyon20September, but attempted no

escalade,astheChristiansputupashowofresistancebymanningthewalls.Itbecame a battle of negotiation, Saladin threatening to put allChristians to thesword and Balian threatening to destroy the Dome of the Rock. Jerusalemopened its gates on 2October, ransomingmost of the populace at reasonablerates.

ThirdCrusade1189–92■ACRE,1189–91When Saladin released King Guy of Jerusalem in July 1188, almost all hiskingdomwasinMuslimhandsandGuy’sownleadershipwasunderthreat.

His responsewas to takea small force tobesiege theMuslim-held townofAcre,whichstartedon28August1189.Atfirst,Guy’sforcewasfartoosmalleventoinvestthelargeandstrongly-fortifiedcity,butgraduallymoreandmoremen joined him, including his political rivals and gradually crusaders fromEurope.

SaladinsoonarrivedandcampedclosetothestrongChristianfieldcamp,butfailed tooverrunGuy’s forceon15September.Soona firstwaveofcrusadersarrived–Germans, Dutch, English, Danish and northern French– bringing thenumberofbesiegers to30,000.On4October,Saladin failedagain todislodgetheChristiansinamajorbattleduringwhichthecrusadersbrokeintoSaladin’scamp,butweresoondrivenoutagain.

On 5 May 1190, the crusaders launched a major assault against Acre,employingthreegreatsiegetowersinanattempttobreaktheirwayin,buttheyweredrivenoff,with the flammable towersdestroyedbyGreek fire.Saladin’sresponse was an eight-day assault on the crusader camp, which began on 19May.A large French crusader army arrived in July 1190 and, on 25 July, thearmylaunchedamassiveassaultonSaladin’scamp.Theassaultfailed,resultingin4000–5000Christiansbeingkilled.

Acre’s plight became more desperate as crusader fleets blocked off itsharbour,but thedeadlockwasonlybrokenafterKingsPhilip IIofFranceandRichardIofEnglandarrivedinmid-1191.Thecitysurrenderedon12July1191,afterSaladin’s final effort todriveoff the crusader army failed.The crusaderstook 3000Muslim prisoners, but massacred themwhen negotiations for theirransombrokedown.■ARSUF,7SEPTEMBER1191AftertakingAcre,thearmyoftheThirdCrusade,underRichardtheLionheart,

set out to march the 129km to Jaffa. Saladin’s army shadowed the Christianmarch,harrowingtheflankandespeciallytheHospitallerrearguard.Skirmishesweresofrequentthatthecrusadersmadebarely8kmprogressaday.Anattemptto negotiate with Saladin rapidly broke down. On 7 September, the crusaderarmynorthofArsufsufferedsuchheavyattacksthatRichardstoppedtofacetheenemy. Each army numbered about 20,000, although the Muslim force wasmostly cavalry, compared to about 4000 knights, 2000Turcopoles and 14,000infantry on the Christian side. The battle started at about 900 hours, Saladinlaunching his Turkish light cavalry against the Christian line in the hope ofprovokingadisorganizedcharge.

TheChristianswere harried for hours, butmanaged to hold their positions,themorevulnerablecavalryshelteringbehindashieldofinfantrythatrespondedtotheMuslimswiththeirowncrossbowsandbows.KingRichardpreparedthecavalryforadecisiveenvelopmentoftheTurks,but,beforehecoulddoso,theChristian line finally broke when the Hospitallers on the left flank, goadedbeyondbearing,chargedtheenemy,sweepingtheneighbouringnorthernFrenchcontingent alongwith them.Richard theLionheart ordered a general attack tokeep his force from disintegrating. His forceful action managed to keep theChristian army from breaking up in pursuit, while Richard’s Anglo-Normanreserve force repulsed Turkish counter-attacks. A series of crusader chargesfinally drove Saladin’s army from the field and looted his camp. Although aChristian victory, Arsuf was not decisive; Saladin lost perhaps 7000 men (toChristian losses of 700), but retained a sufficient force to dog the crusaders’footsteps.■JAFFA,1192Inthelastengagementof theThirdCrusade,MuslimsattackedKingRichard’scampof2000menoutsideJaffa.Richardhadtimetoorganizeasoliddefenceoflancesandcrossbows;theMuslimsneverclosed.

FourthCrusade1202–04■CONSTANTINOPLE,8–13APRIL1204TheFourthCrusade,amostlyFrencharmyofabout10,000accompaniedbyalarge Venetian fleet of over 200 vessels, including 60 galleys, reachedConstantinopleinJune1203.TheirgoalwastosupporttheclaimofByzantineprinceAlexiusagainstausurper.Inaninitialassaultin1203,thecrusaderstooka section of Constantinople’s walls and forced the usurper to flee. Relationsbetween the crusaders and the Constantinopolitans soon broke down and theemperor friendly to them was killed in a coup early in 1204. The crusadersdecidedonrevengeandconquest.

In1203,thecrusadershadfoundthegreatlandwallsofthecityimpenetrable,soin1204theyfocusedtheirassaultontheseawallsthatoverlookedtheGoldenHorn. The Venetians under Doge Enrico Dandolo prepared for the assault bylashingcargoshipstogetherforstabilityandcreatingflyingbridgesthatcouldbeconnectedtoConstantinople’stowerswithgrapplinghooks.Theyalsoprotectedtheshipsfromenemymissileswithmeshesofvines.Thefirstassaulton9April

failedasadversewindsblewtheshipsawayfromthetowers.Asecondassaulton 12 April was more successful. Some crusaders crossed ontoConstantinopolitan towersbymeansof the flyingbridges,whileothers landedonthenarrowshoreandscaledthewallatotherpoints.Asthecrusadersbrokeinto thecity, theypurposely set a fire todiscourage resistance.Thatnight, theusurper fled and resistance had ended by the morning of the 13th. TheWesterners systematically pillaged the Christian city of everything they couldfind, their loot including a greatwealth of holy relics and important historicalartefacts.Theythenproceededtochooseoneoftheirown,BaldwinofFlanders,asemperor.

Crusader-BulgarWars1205–08■ADRIANOPLE,14APRIL1205Western Emperor Baldwin I of Constantinople besieged Adrianople with arelativelysmallforceearlyin1205.Kaloyan,theBulgartsar,broughtarelievingforce to the city’s aid. An attack on the heavily fortified crusader camp wasimpracticaland theforceof300knightswasformidable,soKaloyan turned toguile.TheBulgarsenthisCumanalliesagainst thecrusaders,whohadformedbefore theircamp.These lightlyarmedcavalrymen feigned flight,drawing thecrusadersintoadisorderedpursuit;theCumansthenturnedandwoundedmanywitharrows.Thesamestratagemwasaccomplishedwithevenmoresuccessthefollowingday.Despitewarnings,aforceunderCountLouisofBloispursuedtheseemingly fleeing Cumans, who led them into an ambush. Baldwin came tosupportLouisandmostofthecrusaderforcewaskilled;Baldwinwascapturedandsoondied.TheBulgarsoverranThraceandMacedonia.■PHILIPPOPOLIS,30JUNE1208HenryofConstantinoplewithastrongarmyincluding2000knightsdefeatedaBulgar army of 30,000with a direct assault against TsarBoril that forced hisflight.ThecrusadersthenharriedtheBulgarretreat.

FifthCrusade1213–21■DAMIETTA,1218–19Acrusadingarmydecided inApril1218 toattack thestrongly fortifiedcityofDamietta on the Nile delta. The 18-month siege was marked by constantlydepartingandarrivinggroupsofcrusaders.

ThefirststageofthesiegewasaseriesofattemptstotakeChainToweronanisland in the Nile. The crusader force succeeded in this objective afterconstructing a floating miniature castle with a revolving scaling ladder. TheMuslimsthenblockedtheNiletothecrusadersbysinkingships.

October1219sawtwomajorattacksonthecrusadercamp,but,inFebruary1219, the crusaders were finally able to cross to the Damietta bank. Directassaultsonthecitystartedon8Julybutfailed,asdida29AugustattackontheMuslim camp. On the night of 4 November, however, crusader sentriesdiscoveredanunguardedtowerandscaledthewall.

CrusaderBattles1244■LAFORBIE,17–18OCTOBER1244After Khwarazmian mercenaries sacked Jerusalem, the Christian settlers inOutremerandtheirAyyubidalliesfromDamascusandHomsmarchedsouthtoconfrontacombinedKhwarazmian–Mumlukforce.Eachside’sarmynumberedabout 11,000.TheChristian knights on the rightwingwere at first successfulagainst the Egyptians, but the Khwarazmians overran the Damascenes in thecentre, then fell on the crusaders’ rear. The Christian-Ayyubid force wasannihilated.

SeventhCrusade1248–54■ELMANSURA,1250KingLouisIX’scrusadercavalrycrossedtheNiletoattacktheAyyubidMuslimcamp,butwithoutinfantrysupport,thecavalrywaspinnedinaday-longbattle.Louisheldthefield,butwithoutdecisivevictory.

Crusader–TurkishWars1268■ANTIOCH,1268Mamluk sultan Baibars attacked Antioch, which was strongly fortified, butdefended only by a small force.The city surrendered after a short siege, afterwhichBaibarsmassacredorenslavedthepopulationdespiteapromiseofmercy.

EighthCrusade1270■TUNIS,1270Onhissecondcrusade,KingLouisIXattackedTunis.Dysenterysoonravagedthe crusader camp and, on 25 August, the king himself died. The crusaderswithdrewunderCharlesofAnjou,havingaccomplishednothing.

Crusader–TurkishWars1289–91

■TRIPOLI(LEBANON),1289MamluksultanKalavunbroughtalargeforceagainstChristianTripoli.VenetianandGenoesedefendersdesertedandthecityofferedlittleorganizedresistancetoageneralassault.Mostofthedefendersweremassacred.■ACRE,4APRIL–18MAY1291Mamluk sultan al-Ashraf Khalil attacked Acre with a huge Muslim army,determined to take the last major outpost of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. TheMuslim force probably outnumbered the 30,000–40,000people inAcre, about15,000ofwhomwerefightingmen.

The city’s doublewallswere in good repair, but theMamluks underminedthemand launchedmissiles against them, including jarsof explosivematerial.TheChristians respondedwith repeated sorties, until defenders feared that notenoughmensurvivedtodefendthewalls.Theouterwallshadtobeabandonedon 8May and, on 18May, Acre fell to a general assault. AsMuslim troopsentered,muchof thepopulace fled to theport, fightingandcapsizing ships intheirfrenziedefforttoescape.TheTemplarconventhelduntilthe28th,whenitcollapsed,killingbothattackersanddefenders.

Russian/Russo-SwedishWars1142–1500■NOVGOROD,1164Seeking to control theGulf of Finland, theKingdom of Sweden attempted tosendafleetuptheNevariverontoLakeLadoga.Thefleetwasdrivenoff,withmanyofitsshipscaptured.■NEVA,15JULY1240Thedeclarationofacrusadeagainstthepagansofnorth-eastEuropesuitedtheinterestsoftheKingdomofSweden.ThenominallySwedishcomponentof thecrusade,includingFinns,NorwegiansandsomeTeutonicKnights,advanceduptheNevariver.AhurriedlyraisedarmyunderthecommandofPrinceAlexanderofNovgorodcaughttheSwedesbysurpriseandroutedthem,probablyclosetothepointwheretheRiverIzhoraflowedintotheNeva.■LAKEPEIPUS,1242AspartofthecrusadetobringChristianitytothelargelypaganlandsofnorth-easternEurope,theTeutonicKnightssentanexpeditiontowardsPskov,onLakePeipus. Other allied forces also invaded the region, creating a crisis forNovgorod,towhomPskovowedallegiance.

ThelossofPskovcausedNovgorodtoraiseanarmyunderPrinceAlexander,which retook the town and launched raids designed to draw out the Crusaderarmy. As the Crusader army advanced over the ice of Lake Peipus, it wasoutnumberedbyAlexander’sarmyandmanyalliedtroopsfledthefield.

The core of the crusader force, the Teutonic Knights, led a charge at theRussian centre, becoming embroiled in a melee. Russian cavalry crushed thecrusader flanks and surrounded the knights, inflicting a severe defeat. PrinceAlexanderwasafterwardknownas‘Nevski’forhisleadershipinthebattle.■TURKU,1318Novgorodian forces made several forays into Finland, often causing greatdestruction. In 1318, the town of Turku was attacked and heavily damaged,probably as part of a campaign to consolidate Novgorodian control over theBalticcoastalregion.

■VYBORG,1495In the early months of the Russo-Swedish War of 1495-97, Russian forcesbesiegedVyborg castle.During the final assault aminewas detonated by thedefenders,causingtheRussianstoretreatindisorderandbreakoffthesiege.■IVANGOROD,1495Inresponseto theRussianoffensive,Swedishforcesattackedandcapturedthenewly built Russian fortress at Ivangorod. Once it became apparent that thefortresscouldnotbeheld,itwasdemolishedandtheSwedesretreated.

TheCelticWest–IrelandandWales1150–1500■MÓINMHÓR,1151AninvadingarmyofConnachtmenandLenistermenambushedaMunsterforceled by Toirdhelbach Ó Briain, King of Thomond, as he emerged from amountainpass.ÓBriainlosttwoofhisthreebattalions,some3000men.■BATTLEOFABERCONWY,1194Ahard-foughtbattlenear theestuaryof theConwyriverbetweenLlywelynapIorwerth, a prince of Gwynedd, and his uncle, Dafydd ab Owain Gwynedd.Llywelyn’svictoryallowedhimtoseizecontrolofnorthernWales.■DÚNBEALGALLIMHE,1230RichardMórdeBurghledaninconclusiveNormanassaultonGalwayfort,heldbyÁedÓFlaithbertaigforthekingofConnacht.Afterseveraldaysoffighting,reinforcementsfromConnachtarrivedandtheNormanswithdrew.■BRYNDERWIN,1255LlywelynapGruffudd,co-heiroftheWelshprincipalityofGwynedd,foughtanddefeated his brothers, Owain and Dafydd, at Bryn Derwin, south-west ofSnowdonia.Llywelyn’s armyoutnumbered the combined forcesofOwain andDafyddwhowerecapturedafternotmuchmorethananhouroffighting,therebyendingthebattle.Llywelyn’svictorygainedhimthesolerulershipofGwyneddandpositionedhimastheeffectiveleaderoftherestofWales.■CADFAN,1257WelshforcesledbyMareduddapRhysGrygandMareduddapOwain,lordsofDeheubarth, defeated an English royal army in the Tywi Valley inCarmarthenshire, southernWales.As theEnglisharmy,under thecommandofStephenBauzanandNicholasFitzMartin,layencampedinthevalley,theWelsh,hidden in the woods, harassed them through the night. In the morning, theEnglish began to withdraw to Carmarthern, but experienced continuedharassmentuntil aboutmidday,when theWelshoutflanked themandcapturedtheEnglishsupplytrainatCoedLlathen.Thefollowingday,theEnglishmovedtothewest, towardCymerau,butranintoamarshwheretheirmountedtroopswere bogged down. TheWelsh promptly attacked and, in the ensuing battle,many English knights were pulled from their horses and trampled to death.EnglishcasualtiesincludedBauzanandasmanyas3000ofhismen.■CREADRANCILLE,1257

CenélConaillforcesledbyGoffraidÓDomnaillhaltedthenorthwardadvanceofMauriceFitzGerald,LordJusticiar,nearSligo.ThebattleturnedintoaroutoftheAnglo-NormanswhowerethendrivenfromlowerConnacht.■CALLAN,1261Munstermen led byFíngenMacCarthaig,King ofDesmond, engaged a royalarmycommandedby JohnFitzThomas,1stBaronofDesmond, atCallannearKenmareinsouth-westMunster.ThemountainousterrainwasnotsuitedtotheAnglo-Normanforce,manyofwhomweremounted,andanimmenseslaughteroccurred.AccordingtotheAnnalsofIreland,theirlossesincludedFitzThomas,hissonMaurice,eightbarons,15knightsandcountlesssoldiers.■ÁTHANCHIP,1270ConnachtmenattackedanAnglo-Normanforce fording theShannonrivernearCarrick-on-Shannon. After breaking up the vanguard, the Connachtmen thendislodged theenemyrear, forcing theNormans to leaveninedeadknightsand100horsesonthefield.■OREWINBRIDGE,11DECEMBER1282AmountedEnglishforcesupportedbyarcherssurprisedthearmyofLlwelynapGruffudd,PrinceofGwynedd,nearOrewinBridgeontheYfronriver.Attackedfromtherear,theWelshbrokeandfled.Llwelynhimselfwaskilled.■DENBIGH,1294During a general Welsh revolt led by Madog ap Llywelyn, the tenants ofDenbighroseupagainsttheearlofLincolnanddrovehimoutwithheavylosses.EdwardIrespondedwithoverwhelmingforceandquicklyretookDenbigh.■MAESMOYDOG,5MARCH1295TheWelshrevoltledbyMadogapLlywelynagainstEdwardIeffectivelyendedatMaesMoydoginCaereinionwhentheearlofWarwickdefeatedMadogwithacombinedforceofcavalry,crossbowmenandarchers.■ATHENRY,10AUGUST1316AforceofAnglo-NormancolonistsandalliedMunsterIrishdefeatedanarmyofConnachtmen led by Feidlim Ó Conchabair, the king of Connacht, who waskilled.Over1500headswerecollectedfromthebattlefieldandsenttoDublin.■DYSERTO’DEA,10MAY1318ConorO’DeaofThomondandasmallcontingentofMunstermenheldthefordof the Fergus river against an advancing Anglo-Irish force under Richard deClare.DeClareheedlesslyrushedacrosstheriverwithsomeofhisknights,only

to be surrounded and killed. De Clare’s main force then crossed over andsurrounded theO’Deas in turn,butwere thrown intodisarrayby thearrivalofIrishreinforcementsandrouted.■ARDNOCHER,10AUGUST1329ThomasButler,brothertoEdmund,EarlofCarrick,ledanunsuccessfulAnglo-Norman attackon theMacGeoghegan fort ofArdnocher inWestmeath.ButlerandseveralotherNormanleaderswerekilled,alongwithsome140soldiers.

■FIODH-AN-ÁTHA,1330

Ualgarg Ó Ruairc, King of Breifne, led an Irish force against Fiodh-an-Átha(Finnea, Co. Westmeath), but was repulsed by the town’s Anglo-Normanpopulation.AmongtheslainwasArtÓRuairc,inlinetothekingshipofBreifne.■LOUGHNEAGH,1345Aodh Reamhair Ó Néill, King of Tyrone, invaded Clandeboye (Co. Down)across LoughNeagh, butwas repulsed in a naval encounterwithClandeboyerulerÉinriÓNéill.AodhescapedwithdifficultybackacrossLoughNeagh.■CALRY-LOUGH-GILL,1346An engagement between Ualgarg Ó Ruairc, King of Breifne, and Ruaidrí ÓConchobair of the Clann-Donough near LoughGill (Co. Sligo). ÓRuaircwasrouted and subsequently slain with all his foreign (probably Scottish)mercenaries.■BAILELOCHDEACAIR,1356AidedbyClannanBaird’smen,DonnchadhÓCeallaighofUíMaineslewAodhÓConchobair,KingofConnacht,atBaileLochDeacair(Balloughdacker) inapersonalactofrevenge.■TRIANCONGAIL,1383Niall Mór Ó Néill, King of Tyrone, led a large Irish force into Clandeboye(Counties Down and Antrim) and attacked and burned several Englishsettlements there. An opposing English force formed up near Carrickferguswhere, in a mutual cavalry charge, Aodh Óg Ó Néill, presumably the son ofNiallMór, andRolandSavage, son ofEnglish baronHenrySavage,woundedeachotherwithspears.AodhÓgdiedthreedayslater.■TOCHARCRUACHAIN-BRI-ELE,1385NearCroghan(Co.Offaly),MurchadÓConchobhairandthemenofUíFailghe(Co. Offaly), joined by the Cenél Fiachach, defeated the English of Meath.AmongtheEnglishdeadwereNugentofMeathandhissonChambers.■ROS-MHIC-THRÚIN,1394In October 1394, King Richard II of England landed with a large army atWaterford. In defiance, Leinster king Art Mac Murchadha Caomhánachattacked,plunderedandburnedtheEnglishportofNewRoss(Ros-mhic-Thrúin,Co.Wexford).■TRAGH-BHAILE,1399The Clann Enrí Ó Néill, led by Domhnall mac Enrí of Tyrone, mounted anexcursion against the English of Tragh-Bhaile (Dundalk, Co. Louth). The

English repulsed them, killing many, and Domhnall was taken prisoner toEngland.■MYNYDDHYDDGEN,JUNE1401A few hundred Welsh bowmen led by Owain Glyn Dŵr, Prince of Wales,defeated a larger and better-armed, but undisciplined English force in theCambrianmountainsofWales.Englishlosseswerearound200men.■TUTHILL,2NOVEMBER1401Thiswas a skirmish between aWelsh army commanded byOwainGlynDŵrand the English defenders of the town and castle of Caernarfon, in northernWales.Thebattlewasinconclusive,withsome300Welshcasualtiesreported.■BRYNGLAS,22JUNE1402ThecountylevyofHerefordshireunderEdmundMortimerpursuedthesmallerforceofOwainGlynDŵr,PrinceofWales,toahillnearPilleth.TheretheWelshturnedandoverwhelmedtheEnglish,takingMortimerprisoner.■SHREWSBURY,21JULY1403In1403,theearlsofNorthumberlandandWorcesterinnorthernEnglandroseupinrebellionagainstKingHenryIV.HenryPercy(‘Hotspur’),sonoftheearlofNorthumberland, joined by his uncle Thomas Percy, raised an army of some14,000,includingasignificantforceofCheshirelongbowmen,andthenmarchedon Shrewsbury, in Shropshire. A royal army near the same size, led by KingHenryhimself,metthemthreemilesnorthofShrewsbury.Afteranunsuccessfuleffort to negotiate a settlement, battle began around midday with a massive,mutual exchange of arrows. However, the Cheshire longbowmen provedsuperiortotheroyalarchersandcollapsedtheking’srightwing,commandedbytheearl of Stafford.According to a contemporarymonastic source, the king’smen ‘fell like autumn leaves, every arrow striking a mortal man’. Staffordhimselfwas killed and hismen fled the field. The king’s leftwing, under thecommand of his son Henry, Prince ofWales (the future Henry V), held fast,althoughthe16-yearoldprincehimselfwithdrewwithagrievousarrowwoundtotheface.Hotspurthenledachargeofknightsdirectlyagainsttheking,hopingtokillhim,andmanagedtotaketheroyalstandard.Unfortunately,uponliftingthe visor of his helmet Hotspur himself took an arrow to the face and wasinstantly killed. However, confusion on the battlefield led some of theNorthumbrian forces to believe that Hotspur lived and the king was dead,promptingHenryIVtoshowhimselfandshoutout‘HenryPercyisdead’.Whenrealizationofthissunkin,thebattlecametoahalt.Theroyalistarmyhadtaken

theheavierlosses,butHotspur’sdeathendedthePercyrebellion.

■PWLLMELYN,1405AWelsh force, led by Gruffudd ap Owain Glyn Dŵr, attacked Usk castle insouth-east Wales, but were repulsed by the English defenders. The castlegarrisonpursuedtheretreatingWelsh intonearbyMonkswoodwhereGruffuddwascaptured.■CLUAINIMMORRAIS,1406AtCluainImmorrais(nearGeashill,Co.Offaly),MurchadhÓConchobair,Lord

ofUíFailghe(Offaly),ledasmallmountedtrooptovictoryagainstacombinedforceofEnglishandConnachtmercenaries,whotooksome300casualties.

JapaneseGenpeiWar1180–85■UJI,23JUNE1180TheMinamotoclanonceagainresumedtheireffortstounseatthepowerfulTairafamily from their controlof theShogunate and theEmperor.With adecreeofPrinceMochihito supporting their uprising, the smallMinamoto armymovedsouth from Kyoto commanded by Minamoto Yorimasa, seeking promisedsupportfromwarrior-monksatNara.AttheruinedbridgeovertheUji,superiorTairaforcesdestroyedtheMinamotoandrebellioninasharpcombat.■NARA,1180Taira forces ingreat number attacked theNaramonastery,whichhad allied totheMinamotoclan.Around3500monksandtheirfollowersfellwhentheTairaburnedthemonasteryandtwotemplesafteraspiriteddefence.■ISHIBASHIYAMA,14SEPTEMBER1180MinamotoYoritomotookadvantageofthesuddendeathofTairaKiyomoriinaraid tomovetheMinamotoupoutofIzutowardsEdowithhissupporters, theMiura. Oba Kagechika, a strong supporter of the Taira, promptly rallied hisforcesforarapidmovementinpursuit,amassingtentimesYoritomo’snumbers.The Taira overtook the Minamoto in the narrow isthmus near the ravine ofIshibashiyama. Under cover of darkness and a torrential rainstorm, the Tairalaunchedanall-outattackupthevalleyintothesurprisedMinamotosamurai.Inthe murk and muck, the Minamoto were entirely annihilated, but Yoritomoescaped the Taira’s vengeance into the surrounding foothills in the confusion.Kagechikacontinuedthepursuitinvainforthreedays,finallyabandoningitandleaving Yoritomo alive, then fleeing to the coast to Awa Province by sea toresumethefighting.■FUJIGAWA,9NOVEMBER1180InvadingMinamototerritory,theTairaarmypausedattheFujigawarivertofindtheMinamoto and their Takeda alliesmustered on the far bank.An attack ordisturbanceduringthenightprovokedaTairaretreat.■SUNOMATAGAWA,6AUGUST1181Minamoto Yukiie’s attack upon a Taira force invading Owari Provincedisintegratedwhen theTairaon the far sideof this river allowedhis approachandthensmotheredtheattackinshowersofarrowsandsamurai.■YAHAGIGAWA,1181

Retreating defeated before the Taira advance, Minamoto Yukiie attempted toholdtheriverwithastockademadeoftimbersfromadismantledbridge.OnlytheillnessofTairaTomomorisavedtheMinamotoafteranotherrout.■HIUCHI,APRIL–MAY1183TairaKoremoriandhismainarmysucceededincapturingthispalisadedhilltopbastion,garrisonedbyadetachmentofMinamotoYoshinaka’stroops.Atraitorsuggestedbreachingthemoat’sdam;theTairastormedandtooktheposition.■KURIKAWA,1183The main Taira army moved southward out of Kyoto, overcoming isolatedMinamotodetachmentsplacedalongthelineofKisoYoshinaka,theMinamotocommander’s, advance.Alerted to the quality and quantity of the Taira force,YoshinakadiscoveredthattheTairahadsplittheirarmyintwo,withthelargerportion under Taira Koremori and Michimori camped just before this pass,whichYoshinaka convinced themwas already defended. A deep, blind valleyopened out of the pass. TheMinamoto drew the Taira army into a protractedfight, while special units circled around to the enemy’s rear. As night fell,Yoshinaka’s infiltrators attacked and stampeded aherdof cattle into theTaira,theironsetmadeallthemorestartlingbytorchestiedtotheanimals’horns.ThepanickedTaira fled into theblindvalleywhere theMinamotobutchered them.ThismarkedthefirstTairadefeat.

■SHINOHARA,1183Minamoto Yukiie joined his force with Kiso Yoshinaka’s, the combinedMinamotoarmiesrapidlypursuingtheTairaforcesretreatingafterthedisasteratKurikawa.TheTairamadeafiercestandhere,butlostandresumedtheirretreat.■MIZUSHIMA,17NOVEMBER1183ThedefeatedTairaevacuatedKyotoandmovedsouthbacktotheirownterritory,rallying and readying their forces in expectation of Kiso Yoshinaka’s pursuit.The Minamoto army had looted the Imperial capital, with Yoshinaka andMinamotoYukiie forfeiting imperial and popular supportwith that action and

other rude conduct. Yoshinaka divided his forces and engaged the Taira here,losingbadlyandretreatingbacktoKyotowithweakenednumbersinstillfurtherdisgrace.■MUROYAMA,1183MinamotoYukiie took the smaller portion of theMinamoto army andmovedintoTairaterritory,findingtheenemy’smoraleandnumbersralliedsufficientlytothrashhisarmysoundlyandsendthemlimpingbacktoKyoto.■FUKURYŪJI,1183SenoKaneyasu,oneofthemorecleverTairaallies,heldthispalisadedkeepfora while against Kiso Yoshinaka’s army under Imai Kanehira, slowing theMinamotoadvancewitharcherydirectedintothesurroundingricepaddies.■HOJUJIDONO,1184KisoYoshinakasoughtsolecontrolofhisMinamotoclananddeclaredhimselfJapan’s first shogun. He began by attacking the Hojujidono palace where theMinamoto had installed their puppet-emperor, Go-Shirakawa, after the clan’striumphant entry into Kyoto. The emperor’s retinue and allied warrior-monksresistedtheattack,butwiththedefendersslaughteredandthepalaceinflames,Yoshinaka took the emperor and fledwhile the rest of the clanmovedagainsthim.■UJI,19FEBRUARY1184Miyamoto Yoshitsune moved to drive Kiso Yoshinaka from Kyoto after hisattemptedcoup.Havingdemolishedthebridgeintothecity,Yoshinaka’sforcesfound themselves flanked and beaten by Yoshitsune’s Kamakura army, whichfordedtheUjiriver.■AWAZU,21FEBRUARY1184Kiso Yoshinaka was in flight to the city of Awazu when his horse becameenmiredinafrozenricepaddy.Hisretainersandwarrior-wifefailedtoholdoffMinamotoYoshitsune’spursuingforceslongenoughforhissuicide.■ICHI-NO-TANI,18MARCH1184This Taira fortress on advantageous ground obstructed theMinamoto advanceunderYoshitsunenearKobe.TwoloosedriderlesshorsesproveditsimpassablecliffspassableandYoshitsune,with200samurai,enteredthebastion’srearandseizedit.■KOJIMA,1184The Taira navy on the Inland Sea supported this bastion on the coast against

Minamoto Noriyori’s advance into their territory. The Minamoto cavalrymanagedtoswimaninterveningstripofoceanandoverruntheposition.■YASHIMA,22MARCH1185MinamotoYoshitsune’snascentfleet,duringafiercestorm,launchedaseaborneassault upon this Taira stronghold near the Taira fleet’s anchorage. TheMinamotoadvancingunderacloudofsmokedrovetheTairatotheirships.■DAN-NO-URA,25APRIL1185Strengthenedbyalliesandships,MinamotoYoshitsuneledhisclaninsuperiorforceagainsttheTairaatsea.Afterabloodydefeat,theTairaandtheirpuppet-emperorplungedintothesea.

MongolWars1190–1402

ConquestsofGenghisKhan1211–27■BEIJING,1215FollowingaseriesofMongolvictoriesunderGenghisKhan, theJin’snortherncapitalofZhongdu(Beijing)cameunderthreat.TheJuyongPasstothenorthofthecapitalwaswelldefended,sotheMongolswereforcedtomakeadetourandbegan a long siege of Zhongdu. The city surrenderedwhen the garrisonwerereducedtocannibalismandtheJinemperorfledtohisothercapitalatKaifenginthesouth.■OTRAR,1219Genghis Khan conducted a fierce five-month siege against Otrar, a well-defendedoutpostof theKhwarazmEmpire.According to legend,when it fell,thegovernorwasexecutedbyhavingmoltensilverpouredintohiseyes.■BUKHARA,1220While the siegeofOtrarwas inprogress,GenghisKhan ledhismainarmy toassault Bukhara. The 20,000-strong garrison fled, leaving only a handful oftroopstobedefeatedbytheMongolbesiegers.■SAMARKAND,1220ThefallofSamarkandwas thedecisiveactionof theKhwarazmWar.Abravesortiewasmadeusingelephants,buttheMongolhorsemenbroketheattackandasurrenderwasnegotiatedafterthecitadelfell.■HERAT,1220TheMongolconquestofCentralAsiawasaccompaniedbymuchslaughter.Thearmies divided in pursuit of the Khwarazm Shah Jalal-al-Din. After GenghisKhancapturedNishapur,hissonToluicapturedHeratafterfiercefighting.■MERV,1221TheKhwarazmoutpostofMervfelltotheMongolsaftermuchfiercefighting.TheMongol general Tolui is said to have sat on a golden chair to watch theexecutionofthenumerousprisonerstaken.■NISHAPUR,1221DuringthepreliminaryattackonNishapur,Toghachar,GenghisKhan’sson-in-law,waskilledbyanarrow.Thesubsequentsackofthewell-defendedcitywasfarmoreterriblethannormalandtheareawaslaidtowaste.

■INDUSRIVER,1221Jalalal-DinofKhwarazmevadedtheMongolsasfarastheIndusriver.Here,hisarmywereencircled,soJalalal-Dinswamhishorseacrosstheriver.Admiringhisbravery,theMongolslethimescape.■KALKARIVER,31MAY1223ThebattleoftheKalkariverwasoneofthegreatestvictoriesachievedundertheMongolgeneralSubadai.By1223, theMongolshadregroupedinthesouthernRussiansteppes.TheRussianprinceswouldappeartohavehadnointelligenceaboutthecampaignsandconquestsofGenghisKhan.Thefirstinformationthata new enemy had appeared in the southern steppes was brought to MstislavMstislavitch in Galich by his father-in-law, Khan Kotyan, whose nomadicterritory lay close to the easternmost bend of theDnieper.Mstislav ofGalichimmediatelysummonedacouncilofwar inKiev.Theymade thedecision thatthe Russians and Polovtsians should move east to seek out and destroy theMongolswherever theymightbefound.When theexpeditionary forcewasonits way, the Mongol envoys met the main body at Pereyaslavl and tried todissuadethemfromfighting.However,whenasecondattemptatparleyfailed,thearmycrossedtheDnieperandmarchedeastwardsacrossthesteppesforninedays,littleknowingthattheyhadinfactbeenmisledbyaMongolfalseretreat,afavourite tactic conductedon a grand scale. They soon encountered aMongolarmyattheKalkariver.TheKumansretreatedinsuchhastethattheygallopedovertheRussiancampandtrampleditunderfoot.Therewascompleteconfusionand a terrible slaughter. Mstislav of Kiev defended himself inside a hastilyerected stockade until hewas persuaded to give himself up.The princesweretakenby theMongolsandcrushedbeneathplatformsplacedover theirbodies.SubadailedtheMongolarmyhome,havingcovered6430kminlessthanthreeyears.

■SITRIVER,1226While the main body of the Mongol army was besieging Vladimir, theirvanguard,wenttoreconnoitrethepositionofPrinceYurilocatedontheSitriver.VladimirwasdemoralizedwhentheMongolspresentedtheheadofoneofYuri’ssons at the gate and thousands of Russian prisoners began erecting palisades.Aftera fiercebombardment, thecitysurrenderedand thearmymovedagainst,anddefeated,PrinceYuriatSit.

MongolCampaigns1232–1336

■KAIFENG,1232KaifengwasthesoutherncapitaloftheJin,whodefendeditagainsttheMongolsinalongsiegecelebratedforusingironbombsandfirelances.ThecityonlyfellwhentheJinemperorfled.

■KIEV,1240ThecityofKievfelltotheMongolsafterashort,butbraveresistance.Manyofthecivilians took refugeona certain church roof,whichcollapsedunder theirweight.Thecitywasthenalmostcompletelydestroyed.

■CRACOW,1241TheMongolshadnotintendedtocaptureCracowastheywerealreadysatisfiedwiththebootytheyhadcollectedduringtheirraid,but,onhearingthatitsprincehadfled,theyenteredCracowvirtuallyunopposed.■LEIGNITZ,9APRIL1241TheMongolarmy inPolandcontinuedwestwards towardsBreslau (Wroclaw),thecapitalofSilesia.CrossingtheOderriveratRatibor,someonraftsandsomeswimming,theMongolsapproachedBreslaureadyforasiege,butfoundthatitsinhabitants had done their work for them, burning the town themselves andtakingrefugeinthecitadel.

HeretheMongolmainbodywasrejoinedbyadetachmentunderKaiduthathadtakenamorenortherlyroute.ScoutsinformedthemthatahostilearmyhadtakenupapositionagainstthemnotfartothewestofBreslauatWahlstatt,nearLeignitz (Legnica).Adecisionnowhad tobemadeoverwhether toattack thecastle of Breslau first or to take on the Polish army, which was under thecommandofHenrythePious,DukeofSilesia.CzechandGermanknightswerealso present and a persistent tradition claims that a contingent of TeutonicKnightswas also there, possibly under their GrandMaster Poppo ofOsterna,althoughthishasbeencalledintoquestion.

AsHenrymarchedoutfromLiegnitzwithhisarmy,astonefellfromachurchandnearlystruckhim.Thiswastakenasabadomenanditwasthereforewithsome trepidation that he arranged his forces into four divisions on the fatefulbattlefield.TheMongols leftBreslauandadvanced to fighthimandappear tohaveadoptedtheirfavouritetacticofafalsewithdrawaltoluretheirenemieson.ThealliedarmyseemstohavebeeninitiallythrownintoconfusionbyvolleysofMongolarrows,butralliedsufficientlytomountachargeagainst theMongols,atwhichtheMongolscarefullywithdrew.

At this point great alarm was caused in the allied ranks by a man whoappearedoutoftheMongolranksonhorsebackandgallopedaroundcryingoutinPolish:‘Fly,fly!’ThisapparitionnodoubtaccompaniedtheMongolcounter-attack. Someof the army retreated, butHenry thePious charged theMongolsonceagain.ThechroniclerDlugloszincludesavividdescriptionoftheMongoltuk (standard)made from crossed bones and yak tails, which he describes asbeing ‘aGreekcross,on topofwhichwasagreyheadwithabeard’.Healsomentions the strange phenomenon of clouds of burning, foul-smelling smokethat theMongolsusedatLeignitz. Itwasprobablyproducedbyburningreeds,

fannedbya favourablewind.With this smokeactingasboth an irritant andasmoke screen, the Mongols pressed home their advantage. Henry the Piousescapedwith fourofhis followers.Threewerekilledand then theduke’sownhorsegaveway.Afterabravecombat,Henrywasslainandhisheadwascutoff.

ThebodyofHenrythePiouswasidentifiedlaterbyhiswifeonlybecauseofthesixtoeshehadononefoot.HewasthemostdistinguishedoutofthousandsofcasualtiesatLeignitzon9April,becausewearetoldthattheMongolsfillednine sackswith the ears cut off from the slain as trophies. Henry’s headwasimpaleduponaspearandparadedoutsidethewallsofhiscastle.Thedefenderswere suitably terrified, but Leignitz was not a major Mongol target, so theMongolsabandonedPolandandmarchedonintoBohemiaandMoravia,headinginthegeneraldirectionoftheirmainmilitaryobjectiveofHungary.■MOHI,11APRIL1241The newly reunited Mongol army withdrew to the Sajo river, where theyinflicteda tremendousdefeatonKingBela IVat thebattleofMohi.ThekinghadsummonedacouncilofwaratGran(Esztergom).AsBatuwasadvancingonHungaryfromthenorth-east,itwasdecidedtoconcentrateatPestandthenheadnorth-easttoconfronttheMongolarmy.WhennewsoftheHungarians’apparentintentionsreachedtheMongolcommanders,theyslowlywithdrew,drawingtheirenemieson.TheMongolstookastandnearEgertotheeastoftheRiverSajo.Itwasastrongposition.Woodlandpreventedtheirranksfrombeingreconnoitred,whileacrosstheriverontheplainofMohi,theHungarianarmyappearedtobeveryexposed.Subadailaunchedhisattackduringthenightof10–11April1241,onlyonedayafterhiscompatriotswonthegreatbattleofLeignitz.Onedivisioncrossed the river in secret to advance on theHungarian camp from the south-east.Themain bodybegan to cross theSajo by the bridge atMohi.Thismetwithsomeresistance, socatapultswereused toclear theoppositebank.Whenthecrossingwascompleted,theothercontingentattackedatthesametime.Theresultwaspanicand,toensurethattheHungariansdidnotfightdesperatelytothelastman,theMongolsleftanobviousgapintheirencirclement.Astheyhadplanned, the fleeingHungarianspoured through this trap that led toa swampyarea.WhentheHungarianknightssplitup,thelightMongolarcherspickedthemoffatwill.Itwaslaternotedthatcorpseslitteredthecountrysideforthespaceofatwodays’journey.

■KÖSEDAĞ,26JUNE1243TheMongolsattackedtheSeljuqSultanateofAnatolialatein1242.ThesultanwasjoinedbytheEmpireofTrebizondandtheircombinedarmywaslargerthantheMongol one. TheMongols stated that theywelcomed the odds because itpromisedmoreloot.TheresultwasadecisiveMongolvictoryatKöseDağearlyin1243thatledtothedeclineoftheSeljuqsandtheabsorptionofTrebizondintotheMongolEmpire.■BAGHDAD,29JANUARY–10FEBRUARY1258TheMongolsiegeofBaghdadbeganwitharrowlettersthreateningtospareonly

non combatants.Abombardment led to the capture of the easternwall.Thosewhotriedtoescapewerekilledbeforethecityfell.

■AINJALUT,3SEPTEMBER1260Qutuz’sMamluks followed theMongolsup thecoast toAcre,whichwas thenheld by a crusader army. The crusaders were enthralled by the prospect of abattle between Mongols and a Muslim army and chose to remain neutral,althoughtheysentsuppliestoQutuzinacknowledgementoftherecentsackingofSidonbytheMongols.

KetbughawasintheBiqavalleywhenhereceivedthenewsthattheMamluks

hadenteredSyria,sohegatheredhistroopswhowerethenwidelyscatteredongarrisondutiesorgrazingandheadedsouth.HetookupapositionatAinJalut(‘Goliath’sspring’)north-westofMountGilboa.Itwasanexcellentplaceforacavalrybattle, and theadjacentvalleyofferedgoodpasture.Baybar’sMamlukvanguardmade contactwith theMongol through some extensive skirmishing,andonascendingahillobserved theMongolpositions.TheMongolshadalsonotedhim,sohebeatahastyretreattojoinQutuzandthemainbody.ThebattleofAinJaluttookplaceonFriday3September1260.TheMamluksapproachedfromthenorth-west,andtheMongolschargedintothem,destroyingtheMamlukleftflank.ButQutuzralliedhistroopsandlaunchedacounterattackthatshooktheMongols.Theyagainattacked,butQutuzagainralliedhismentothecryof‘Allah - help your servant Qutuz against the Mongols!’. He then launched afrontalattack that led toacompleteMamlukvictory.Ketbughawaskilledandthe Mongol army disintegrated. There followed a pursuit of the Mongolstragglers. Ain Jalut had therefore provided that rarest of events, a Mongoldefeat,sothatitisoftenregardedasbeingtheturningpointintheirconquests.

■TEREKRIVER,1262TheGoldenHordewasaMongolstatebroughtaboutbythesubmissionoftheKhanateofKipchak.Atitsheight,itenjoyedgreatwealth(hencethename).In1262, the Golden Horde became embroiled in the civil war arising from thedisputedsuccessiontothepositionofGreatKhanoftheMongolsafterthedeathofOgedeiKhan. The battle of the Terek riverwas a victorywon byMongolgeneralNogai,nephewofBerkeKhanoftheGoldenHorde,duringthecivilwarbetweenhisuncleandHulagu.Takingtheinitiative,HulagumarchednorthanddefeatedBerkeinasurpriseattackbesidetheTerekRiver.However,victorywasrapidly turned intodefeatwhenmanyofHulagu’s troopsweredrownedas theice of the frozen river gave way under them. Nogai’s army then successfullycounter-attackedandthesurvivorsfled.■XIANGYANG,1268–73ThelongsiegeofXiangyangdisplayedgreat ingenuityonthepartof theSongdefenders and theMongolbesiegers.Xiangyangwas suppliedbypaddleboatsdrivenbymenworking treadmills.TwoSongofficers led a relief convoyof ahundredpaddleboatsladenwithsupplies,butwereinterceptedbytheMongolsduring the night, with bales of burning straw providing artificial illuminationfromthebanks.In1272,theSongbuiltapontoonbridgetolinkthetwocities,but theMongolsconstructedmechanicalsaws thatcut thebridge intosections,after which it was burned. Both sides also had exploding bombs withfragmenting iron cases.Thesewereused largely as anti-personnelweapons.AprovisioningoperationofXiangyangwascarriedoutlateroninthesiege,helpedbySouthernSongshipsthatwereequippedwithfirelances,siegecrossbowsandtrebuchetsshootingfirebombs.Yet,evenwhenariverblockadewasfinallyputinplaceandfirmlymaintained,theMongolsiegeweaponsoftractiontrebuchets,bombsandsiegecrossbowsprovedincapableofcausinganyrealdamagetothewalls,soMuslimcounterweighttrebuchetsandtheiroperatorsweresummonedto China from the lands of the west. The weapons were constructed at theMongol capital, where Khubilai Khan attended some of the trials in person,beforebeingtransportedtoXiangyang.Thismayhavebeendonebydismantlingthe machines, although they could have been mounted on wheeled carriages.Projectiles could now be launched weighing ten times greater than any stonethrownbeforehand.OneparticularshotlaunchedontargetbroughtdownatowerofXiangyangwithanoiselikethunder.ThedestructionofthewallsinthiswayeventuallyledtoXiangyang’ssurrender.

■BUN’EI,1274ThefirstMongolinvasionofJapantakesitsnamefromtheyearperiodofBun’eiduringwhich itoccurred.AfleetcarryingdefeatedChineseandKorean troopssailedfromthecoastofKoreaandfirst ravaged the islandofTsushima,wheregreat heroism was displayed by the samurai warriors. They were the first toencounter this strangeand terribleenemywhousedexplodingbombs flungbycatapult. Their tactics were also unfamiliar because the Mongol troops wereorganized in huge phalanxes, unlike the samurai who were used to a moreindividual style of combat. Arrows (some poisoned) were loosed in densevolleys.FromTsushima,theMongolssailedtoIki,wherethelocalgovernorputupa fierce resistancebeforebeingkilled.Captiveswere taken from Iki as theMongolspreparedfortheirlandfallonJapan’ssouthernmainislandofKyushu.■HAKATABAY,1274When the Mongols landed at Hakata Bay, they were subjected to attacks bygroupsofsamurai,whoweredrivenbackinland.TheMongolssoonwithdrew,satisfiedwiththeintelligencetheyhadgatheredaboutJapanesedefences.■NGASAUNGYYAN,1277InBurma, theMongolhorseswerestartledbywarelephants,but theMongolsrefusedtobepanickedandcalmlytooktheirmountstotherear,thenreturnedtoloosearrowsagainsttheelephants,stampedingthem.■YAMEN,19MARCH1279TheMongolconquestoftheSongwasinitiallyhamperedbytheirlackofshipsandnavalexpertiseforusebothatseaandonrivers.In1265,manyshipswerecapturedasthenucleusofafleet.TheadvanceagainsttheSongwassteppedupand it was a sea battle at Yamen that brought about the final eclipse of theSouthern Song. Bayan crossed the Yangtze in 1275 and, from 1277, the waragainsttheSongdevelopedintoaseabornechasefromoneporttoanother.Thepursuit reached its climax at Yamen, situated off Guangdong Province. TheMongolsblockadedtheSongfleet,whichattemptedtobreakout.Intheensuingbattle,theSongimperialshipwasoneofthecasualties,so,beforetheMongolsreachedthem,anofficialtookthechildemperorinhisarmsandjumpedintothesea,drowningthemboth.■KYUSHU,1281During thesecondMongol invasionofJapan theMongolswereforced towaiton their ships before landing. There, the fleet was caught by a typhoon (thekamikazeordivinewind)thatsunktheirships.

■HOMS,29OCTOBER1281ThesecondbattleofHomswasanindecisiveencounterbetweentheMamluksofEgyptandtheMongolIlkhanate,includingArmenianandGeorgianauxiliaries.TheMamlukleftflankandtheIlkhanatecentrewerebrokeninsuccession.■KAUNGSIN,1283Following their victory at Ngasaungyyan in 1277, the Mongols advanced toKaungsin in northern Burma, but were driven back by the heat. They tookKaungsinin1283,anoperationresultinginthefallofPagan.■KULIKOVO,8SEPTEMBER1380

GrandDukeDimitriofMoscow(DimitrioftheDon)foughtanimportantbattleagainst the Golden Horde of the Mongols at the field of Kulikovo, at theconfluenceoftheDonandtheNepryadvarivers.

ConquestsofTamerlane1370–1405■KANDURCHA,1391The battle of Kandurcha (the Battle of the Steppes) was won by TamerlaneagainsthisprotégéToktamish,whofirstdefeatedTamerlane’sleftwing,onlyforreservetroopstocircleroundandattackToktamish’srear.■PANIPAT,1398The battle of Panipat in 1398was a defeat inflicted upon SultanNasir-uDinMehmudoftheTughlaqDynastyinthenorthIndiancityofDelhibyTamerlane,aspartofhiscampaigntocontrolIndia.■BAGHDAD,1401Tamerlane besieged Baghdad, but the defenders held out for 40 days beforeTamerlanedecidedtostormthecity.Thiswasfollowedbyabrutalsackofthecity,inwhichalmosteveryinhabitantwaskilled.■ANGORA/ANKARA,20JULY1402TamerlaneapproachedAnkaraknowingthatithadbeenleftlightlydefendedbyBayezidtheThunderboltandgaveordersforimmediatesiegeoperationsagainstAnkara’smightyByzantinewalls.Thecity’swatersupplywasdivertedandthemining of the ramparts began. Mongol troops were already scaling the wallswhen thenewscame thatBayezidhadabandonedhismarch toSivasandwastwodaysawayfromAnkara,butwhentheOttomanarmyarrived,theywereinaverypoorstate.Theonlysourceofwateravailable forBayezid’s troopswasaspring that Tamerlane had arranged to be fouled. Therefore, they were in nopositiontofallupontherearofabesiegingarmy,soTamerlanewasgivenampleopportunitytoorganizehisbattlelines.Theylookedmagnificent,beingcrownedat the front by the presence of war elephants from India. Bayezid’s armyincludedSerbiantroopsunderhisbrother-in-lawStephenLazarevicand,infact,theSerbsscoredthefirstgainofthedaybydrivingbackTamerlane’sleftwing.However, therewere problems among theOttoman ranks. Certain contingentsfromAnatoliawerefromasimilarethnicbackgroundtoTamerlane’sowntroopsandhisagentshadbeenactiveamongthem,sosomecameovertoTamerlane’sside. Faced by rear attacks along with the frontal assault, the Ottoman armybegantogiveway.Ontherightwing,Lazarevic’sSerbshungonuntilforcedto

retreat to cover other contingents’ withdrawal. Soon, only Bayezid and hisjanissaries were left. He held on until nightfall, then retreated with only 300warriors left toaccompanyhim.Theenemy followed inhotpursuit andkilledBayezid’s horse as he was being ridden. Bayezid the Thunderbolt was takenprisoner.

TeutonicandLivonianWars1198–1500■UMERA,1210The crusading Brothers of the Sword, consisting of Livonians, Germans andLatgalians, pursuedBaltic pagans intopresent-dayEstonia.TheBrotherswereambushedandrepulsed.SeveralcapturedBrotherswereexecutedbythePagans.■VILJANDI,1211ThecrusadingLivonianOrder attacked the fortifiedpagan townofViljandi inpresent-dayEstonia.The townheld,butnegotiationsallowedpriestswithholywatertoenterthetownbeforetheLivonianOrderwithdrew.

■STMATTHEW’SDAY,21SEPTEMBER1217The crusading Sword Brothers, including Germans and converted BalticChristians, attacked and defeated the pagans in present-day Estonia. Killed inbattlewasconvertleaderCaupo,butthepagancommander,Lembitu,alsodied.■OTEPÄÄ,FEBRUARY1217Estonians allied with Russians, totalling 20,000 men, besieged the crusaderSwordBrothers’outpost atOtepää.The townwas strongly fortified and couldnotbetakenbyassault,butprovisionswerescanty,evenforthesmallgarrison.A relief columnof 3000Germans andBalticChristians arrived, but couldnotbreakthesiege.NegotiationsallowedthegarrisontoevacuatethetownandtheSwordBrotherswithdrewfromEstonia.■LYNDANISSE,15JUNE1219The king ofDenmark,Valdemar II, invadedEstonia and defeated an army ofBalticpagans.ThebattleislinkedtotheoriginsoftheDanishflag;awhitecrossonaredfield.■LIHULA,8AUGUST1220AlargearmyofcombinedpagantribesinEstoniaattackedtheSwedishfortifiedoutpost of Lihula. The Swedes had only 500 men in the garrison, whichattempted to fight its way out of Lihula once the town had caught fire. Onlyabout 50 Swedes escaped to the Danish outpost of Tallinn. The defeatdiscouraged further Swedish crusades in Estonia, leaving such efforts toDenmarkandtheLivonianOrder.■SAAREMAA,1227The Livonian Sword Brothers invaded the Baltic island of Saaremaa, the lastmajor stronghold of pagans in Estonia. The islandwas captured, converted toChristianityandheldbytheSwordBrothersuntil1236.■SAULE,22SEPTEMBER1236Estonia had beenmostly conquered and converted by the crusading LivonianSwordBrothers.Anexpeditionbuiltaround theSwordBrothers, reinforcedbyBalticChristians andGerman knights fromHolstein,was organized to invadepresent-dayLithuania.Thearmyof3000was commandedbyMasterVolkwinandadvancedintothelandsoftheLithuanianSamogitiantribe.LocaldefendersunderVykintasorganizedbehindtheinvadersandVolkwinturnedhisarmybacktowards Estonia. The path was blocked by thousands of Samogitians at aswampyareanearastream.

The Holstein knights and Sword Brothers attempted to break through, buttheirheavyhorsesandarmourboggedthemdownintheswampyterrain,wheretheywereshoweredwithjavelinsandswarmedbythemoremobileSamogitians.Volkwinandat least48knightswerekilled,andtheinvadingarmywasroutedwithheavylosses.■SKUODAS,1259Lithuanian Samogitians raided Courland near the border of present-dayLithuaniaandLatvia.ApartyofLivonianknightssenttopursuetheraiderswasambushedbytheSamogitians,whokilled33oftheknights.■DURBE,13JULY1260A crusading army of Teutonic Knights, Danes and Baltic Christians, led byHornhausen,wasorganizedtoinvadeLithuania.Instead,SamogitianLithuaniansraided Courland (Latvia) and Hornhausen turned his army against them. Theswampy terrain hampered the heavy knights and allied Baltic tribes switchedsides during the battle.Hornhausen and 150knightswere killed in the defeat,whichwasfollowedbypaganrebellionsinPrussiaandLivonia.■RAKOVAR,18FEBRUARY1268AlargeRussianarmyadvancedintopresent-dayEstoniaandfoughttheLivonianbranchoftheTeutonicKnights.Bothsidesclaimedvictoryafterthefiercebattle,calledthebattleofWesenbergbytheknights.■KARUSE,16FEBRUARY1270AnarmyoftheGrandDuchyofLithuaniaunderTraidenisdefeatedanarmyofthe Livonian Order of the Teutonic Knights. Lutterberg, commanding theknights,waskilledinthebattle.■AIZKRAUKLE,5MARCH1279Grand Duchy of Lithuania forces under Traidenis defeated a force of theLivonian Order of the Teutonic Knights in present-day Latvia. Ernst vonRassburg,theknights’commander,waskilledinbattle.■GAROZA,1287The Semigallian tribe had been in revolt against the Livonian Order of theTeutonicKnightsinpresent-dayLatviaandwonabattleatGaroza.Despitethevictory,theSemigallianswerepacifiedby1290.■PLOWCE,27SEPTEMBER1331TheTeutonicKnightswith7000troopsadvancedintocentralPoland,wheretheyfought 5000Poles.The seesawbattlewas claimed as a victory by both sides,

eachlosingathirdoftheirforce.■PÖIDE,4MAY1343During theEstonianUprisingagainst theTeutonicKnights, theknights invitedfour rebelEstoniankings toPöide castle for negotiations.Thekings and theirretinueswereattackedandkilledinthecourtyard.■GRUNWALD(TANNENBERG),15JULY1410WarbeganbetweentheTeutonicKnights,basedinPrussia,andPolandandtheirally theGrandDuchyofLithuania in1409.After an advanceby theTeutonicKnights into Polish territory, both sides called a truce and mobilized largerarmies. Once the truce expired in 1410, the Poles and Lithuanians began acounter-offensive. The armies clashed between the towns of Grunwald andTannenberg,inpresent-daynorthernPoland.

The Teutonic army, commanded by Grand Master Jungingen, consisted ofGerman knights and foot soldiers from Prussia, Pomerania and Stettin, plusvolunteers and mercenaries from different parts of Europe. The Polish king,JagielloandLithuanianGrandDukeVytautascommandedthePolish-Lithuanianforces,which also includedvolunteers andmercenaries fromBohemia,Russiaandelsewhere.

The Polish-Lithuanian army totalled between 30,000 and 39,000 men,significantlyoutnumberingtheTeutonicarmyof20,000–27,000men.However,the Teutonic army included more heavy knights, more trained troops, betterarmour andweapons, plus somebombards.ThePolish-Lithuanian armyhad alower proportion of heavy knights, consisting largely of light cavalry and rawinfantrylevies.

The Teutonic army was drawn up facing east by south-east. The Polish-Lithuanianswere opposite, drawn up on a few low hills and partly inwoods,withthePolesontheleftandtheLithuaniansfurthernorthontheright.GrandMaster Jungingen expected the larger Polish-Lithuanian force to attack hisposition. When they failed to do so, he sent envoys across the battlefield toprovokeKingJagiello.LegendssuggestthatJagiellowasdelayingbattleinorderto force theTeutonicarmy to stand forhours in theirheavyarmour in thehotJulysun,whilehisforceswereinpartialshade.TheTeutonicenvoysreportedlythrewdowntwoswordsinfrontofJagielloaspartoftheprovocation,suggestingthat if the king of Poland was afraid, here were more weapons and that theTeutonicarmywouldfallbacktoweakerpositions.

Shortly afterwards,Vytautas and theLithuanianson the rightdid launchan

attackagainstJungingen’sposition.TheTeutonicbombardsmanagedtwoshotsagainst the rapidly advancing Lithuanian light cavalry. A counter-attack byheavy Teutonic Knights drove back the Lithuanians in disorder. As theLithuaniansretreatedbeyondtheiroriginalline,therightflankofthePolishlinewas exposed. Jungingen wheeled his knights towards the Poles, hoping tocompletethevictory.

The Teutonic army drove back the Poles and captured the royal banner ofCracow.Polishreserveheavycavalrycounter-attacked,recapturingthebannerinfiercefighting.SpottingKingJagielloonahill,someTeutonicKnightsattackedthatposition.OneknightidentifiedasvonKökeritznearlyreachedtheking,butwasstoppedatthelastmomentbytheroyalsecretary,Oleśniscki.

Teutonic victory seemed imminent, but theirmain forcewas fully engagedfacing south-east against thePoles,whenGrandDukeVytautas,havingralliedhisLithuanians,attackedJungingen’srearandleftflank.Nearlysurroundedbysuperiornumbers,theTeutonicKnightsattemptedtocuttheirwaythroughtheirconverging enemies. Jungingenwas killed, aswere several other high-rankingTeutonic Knights. The Teutonic force was shattered and routed. A futile laststandattheircampusingwagonsasbarricadeswasoverrun.

The Teutonic army was annihilated, with nearly 8000 killed and 14,000captured.Polish-Lithuanian losses invictoryhadbeenheavy,with thosekilledand wounded totaling 12,000. The Peace of Thorn followed, in which theTeutonicOrdercededsometerritoryandagreedtopayanindemnity.■CHOJNICE,18SEPTEMBER1454A Polish and Prussian confederation army besieged a small Teutonic Ordergarrison in the fortified town of Chojnice in present-day northern Poland. ATeutonic army of 9000 cavalry and 6000 infantry under Bernard Szumborskiadvanced to relieve Chojnice. Near the town, they were attacked by almost20,000Poles,PrussiansandforeignmercenariesunderthePolishking,CasimirIV.

TheTeutonic forcewasdrivenbackandBernardSzumborskiwascaptured.The Polish-Prussian advance was halted by a solid line of Teutonic infantrybehind barricades and supported by bombards. The garrison of Chojnice thensalliedout and attacked thePolish-Prussian rear, causingpanic and confusion.The Teutonic army counterattacked and Bernard Szumborski escaped. ThePolish-Prussianforcerouted,losing3300killedorcaptured.TheTeutonicforcelost100knightsandanunknownnumberofinfantryintheirvictory.■SWIECINO,17SEPTEMBER1462APolishforceconsistinglargelyofmercenaries,defeatedaTeutonicforce,alsoconsisting largely ofmercenaries, near Swiecino in northernPoland.Killed inactionwastheTeutonicleaderRaveneck.■ZAKOTASWIEZA,15SEPTEMBER1463Also known as the battle of Vistula Lagoon, a Teutonic Order fleet wasdestroyedbyaPrussianConfederationfleetalliedwithPoland,nearmodern-dayKaliningrad,Russia.

IndiaandSouth-EastAsia1200–1400■CONQUESTOFTHEDECCAN,1296–1323The first stageof the conquest of theDeccanby theDelhiSultanate began in1296, when Alauddin Khilji, the son-in-law and commander of SultanJalaluddin’s armies, raided and plundered Devagiri (Maharashtra). Khiljisubsequentlymurderedthesultanandtookcontrolofthesultanate.ThewealthoftheKakatiyaKingdomalsoattractedtheattentionofKhilji,wholaunchedanattack against its Telugu Province in 1303. His armies were led by MalikFakruddin, but were heavily defeated by the Kakatiya army in a battle atUpparapalli(KarimnagarDistrict).Asecondattemptwasmadein1309byMalikKafur, whomanaged to capture Siripur andHanumakonda forts, although thefortress of Warangal was only taken after a prolonged siege. Malik Kafur’sforces’ atrocities at Warangal intimidated King Prataparudra sufficiently toinducehimtoofferanenormousamountoftribute,andsueforpeace.Accordingtocontemporaryaccountsatotalof241tonnesofgold,20,000horsesand612elephantsladenwiththelootedtreasure(includingtheKoh-i-Noordiamond,atthe time the world’s largest diamond) were paraded through Delhi. However,Prataparudrare-assertedhisindependencein1320followingthefalloftheKhiljiDynastyandtheaccessionofGhiyasuddinTughlaqassultanofDelhi.Tughlaqsent his son Ulugh Khan in 1323 to defeat the defiant Kakatiya king. UlughKhan’s (MuhammadbinTughluq’s) firstattackwas repulsedbuthe returnedamonthlaterwithalargerandreorganizedarmy.Theunpreparedandbattle-wearyforces of Warangal were finally defeated, and King Prataparudra was takenprisoner.HecommittedsuicidebydrowninghimselfintheRiverNarmadawhilebeingtakentoDelhi.

■MYINSAING,1299TheBurmesePaganEmpirefragmentedintoseveralsmallrivalstatesfollowingtheMongolcaptureofitscapitalin1287.Antipathybetweenthesestatesflaredup in 1299, provoking a further Mongol attack, which was defeated atMyinsaing.■CHAKANGRAO,1376KingBorommaracha IofAyutthayaattempted to take the cityofChakangrao,whichwas reinforcedby thegovernor ofNan and his army.This force set anambushfortheAyutthayanarmy,butwasheavilydefeated.■KAMPHAENGPHAT,1378KingBorommarachaIlaunchedafurtheroffensivetoseizeSukhothai’sfrontiercity, Chakangrao. The king of Sukhothai, Mahathammaracha II, realized thehopelessnessof further resistance and surrendered the city.Hewas allowed torulepartofhisformerlandsasatributarystateofAyutthaya.ThewesternpartofSukhothai, includingChakangrao,was annexedbyAyutthaya and the cities ofChakangrao and Nakhon Chum were merged under the new name ofKhampaengPhet.■SAENSANUK,1387King SaenMüangMa of ChiangMai foiled an attempted coup by his unclePrincePhrom,whosoughtaidfromAyutthaya.KingBorommarachaIattackedChiangMai,butwasdefeatedinafiercebattleatSaenSanuk.

FrenchandAnglo-FrenchWars1200–1337■DAMME,30–31MAY1213AnEnglishexpeditionaryforcecaughtthefleetofKingPhilipIIofFranceintheportofDammeandquicklyoverwhelmeda largeportionof it.Theactionwasresumedthenextdaywithanattackontheremainderofthefleet.TheEnglishwerethenrepulsedbyKingPhilip’sarmy,whichleftitssiegeofGhenttodriveoffthenumericallyinferiorEnglishbeforetheycouldcaptureDammeitself.■BOUVINES,27JULY1214An allied force including troops from the Holy Roman Empire, England andrebelliousFrenchprovincesmetaFrencharmycommandedbyKingPhilipIIatBouvines. The French chose the battleground and fought a largely defensivebattle against superior numbers. Each of the allies had a different reason forfightingagainstPhillip,butfoundacommoncauseunderthecommandofOttoIV,theHolyRomanEmperor.Thealliedvanguardengagedassoonasitarrived,bringingaboutamelée,which theFrenchcavalryon therightwingeventuallywon.Astheremainderofthealliedarmyarrived,ithurriedintotheattackinapiecemeal fashion, offsetting their numerical advantage. Troops were stillarriving to join the rightwingof thealliedarmyevenafter thecentreand lefthadbeendefeated,butbythentheoutcomewasnolongerindoubt.

■TAILLEBOURG,21JULY1242LargeEnglishandFrencharmiesunderthecommandofHenryIIIandLouisIXrespectively clashed at Taillebourg, both seeking to control the strategic rivercrossingthere.AFrenchcavalrychargedecidedtheissue.

FirstBarons’WarandEngland1215–24■ROCHESTER,1215Rochester castle blocked King John’s route from Dover to London and wasbesieged.Evenafterpartofthekeepwasundermined,thedefendersmadealonganddeterminedresistanceuntiltheywereeventuallystarvedintosubmission.■DOVER,1216–17Dover castle was key to communications with France and thus vital to theoperationsoftheFrenchforceunderPrinceLouis,whichwasassistingtherebelbaronsagainstKingJohn.Louislaidsiegetothecastlein1216usinglandandnaval forces. Despite gaining entry by undermining a tower, the French wererepulsed and the siege broken off. Operations against Dover Castle wererenewedthefollowingyear,butLouiswasagainunsuccessful.■LINCOLN,20MAY1217WithpartofLouis’army involved in siegeoperationsatDover, the remainderwas besieging Lincoln.An English relief army broke the siege and drove theremainderoftheFrencharmytowardsLondon.■SANDWICH,24AUGUST1217After a serious defeat offDover, the remainder of the French fleetwas againbrought to actionoffSandwich.The lossofhis fleetdeprivedPrinceLouisofreinforcementsandmadehispositioninEnglanduntenable.■BYTHAM,1220Havingchangedsidesseveraltimesinthebarons’wars,WilliamdeForzroseinrebellionagainstHenryIII.ThefallofhiscastleatBythambroughthisrebelliontoatemporaryend;herevoltedagainin1223.■BEDFORD,1224Bedfordcastlewasbesieged for eightweeksby theyoungkingHenry III andeventually fell after four assaults. This brought the surrender of the rebelliousFawkesdeBreautéandhelpedcementHenry’spositionaskingofEngland.

Iceland1246■HAUGSNES,19APRIL1246AlthoughsmallbyEuropeanstandards,theclashbetweentworivalchieftainsatHaugsnes in 1246 saw the highest casualties (about 100) of any battle inIcelandic history. It established þórður kakali Sighvatsson as the dominantIcelandicleader.

EasternEuropeanandOttomanWars1250–1500■KRESSENBRUNN,JULY1260Fighting for control of the duchies of Austria and Styria, the army of KingOttokarIIofBohemiaroutedthatofKingBélaIVofHungary.Bothforceswereverylargeandweresupplementedbymercenaries.■BAPHEUS,27JULY1302Whatseemedtobeaninconsequentialrebelliousclan,theOttomanTurks,ledbyfounder,OsmanI,stunnedaByzantinearmysenttorelievetheirsiegeofNicaea.TheTurkishlightcavalrydrovetheheavierByzantineforcesfromthefield.■PELEKANON,10–11JUNE1329TheOttomanTurks, led by SultanOrhan I, defeated anotherByzantine army,underAndronicusIII,attemptingtostoptheirexpansionthroughoutAsiaMinor.Thesmaller,butbetter-armouredByzantineforcesprovedtobenomatchagainsttheexperiencedTurks.■POSADA,9–12NOVEMBER1330Wishingtoformanindependentpoliticalentity, theWallachiansput togetheramilitaryconfederacythatraisedanarmyledbyBesarabI.Itwasasmallforce,estimatedataround10,000,whichwasnotveryexperiencedinwarfare.Facingthem was the Angevin king of Hungary, Charles I Robert, whose army wasmuchlarger(estimatedat30,000)andfarmoreexperienced.CharlesRoberttookthe offensive, attacking Wallachian sites, even if not sympathetic to hisopponents.Ashepushedfurther,fewerassistedhim.Eventually,hisownguidesled him into an ambush in the CarpathianMountains. There, theWallachiansquicklyoverwhelmedtheHungarians. Inorder tosavehimself,CharlesRobertwas forced to exchange his clothes with one of his soldiers, who was slainshortly thereafter. TheWallachians still hadmany conflicts to fight, but wereeffectivelyontheirwaytosovereignty.

■ADRIANOPLE,1365A decade after Adrianople was captured by the Serbs from a weakenedByzantine Empire (1355)– however, it was regained shortly afterwards– theOttomanTurksdefeated theByzantinesoutside it, although thecitywouldnotfalluntil1369.■MARITSA,26SEPTEMBER1371As theOttomanTurksmoved further into theBalkan peninsula, the decliningSerbian Empire determined to stop them. Assembling a large army, withexaggeratedestimatesofnearly70,000, theSerbiankingVukašinMrnjavčević

tried to surprise theOttomans, butwas unable to do so.The smallerOttomanforce, under the able leadership of Lala Şâhin Pascha, defeated the Serbs andkilledVukašin,thusfacilitatingtheconquestofsouth-easternEurope.■SAVRA,1385FollowingMaritsa, theOttomanTurks lost several engagements against smalllocalarmies,butneverthelessmovedfurtherintotheBalkanpeninsula.AtSavra,theTurksfacedanddestroyedanotherofthoseforces,ledbyBalsaBalsich.■KOSOVO,15JUNE1389Perhaps the first major defence against Ottoman Turkish forces invading theBalkan peninsula was that made by Serbian forces under Prince LazarHrebeljanovićatKosovoin1389.TheTurkswereledbytheirSultan,MuradI.Both armieswere large,with (likely exaggerated) numbers alwaysplacing theTurks at a two-to-one advantage, athough the Serbians did have some heavycavalry,whichtheTurkslacked.Thetwoforcesmetinanopenfield,withtheirsoldiers arrayed in a similar formation. The Serbs began the conflict with aheavy cavalry charge which, however, did not force the Turks to flee as washoped.When the Turks counter-attacked, the Serbs fled and the battle ended.Both sides suffered extremely heavy casualties, including both commanders.Murad’s son, Bayezid I, who had proven himself particularly valiant in thebattle,succeededtotheOttomanthrone.■ROVINE,17MAY1394After several victories, the large Turkish army, led by Sultan Bayezid I, wasdefeatedbya smaller,butverydeterminedWallachian force, although there issomedisputeastowhatcausedtheOttomanrout.■NICOPOLIS,25SEPTEMBER1396The battle of Nicopolis was the first combined military effort of westernEuropean forces in a crusade against theOttomanTurks. English, French andBurgundiancrusadersmarchedwithoutdifficultythroughcentralEurope–wherethey were joined by Hungarians, Wallachians, Transylvanians, Germans andKnightsHospitallers–andintoOttomanterritorysouthoftheDanuberiver.Theinitialcampaign,includingearlyattacksagainstfortifiedTurkishlocations,wasquite successful, with Vidin and Rahova surrendering after strong Crusaderattacks.Eventually,theymovedontobesiegeNicopolis.BayezidI,theOttomanTurkish Sultan, was attacking the remnants of Byzantium, but he quicklymarchedtoSerbiatocounterthem.

JohntheFearlessseemednottohaveknownBayezid’splansorprogress.In

fact,itwasnotuntilthedaypriortothebattleofNicopolis,whentheOttomanswere less than7kmaway, that the crusader leaders learned that a large enemyarmyledbytheSultanapproachedtheirforceandwantedtofightabattle.ThecrusadersbrokeofftheirsiegeofNicopolisandpreparedforabattleoutsideitswalls.Bothsidesaresaidtohavenumberedmorethan100,000,butarelikelytohavebeenbetween12,000and15,000.Thecrusaderswereledbyanumberofdifferentgenerals:JohntheFearless,CountofCharolaisandheir totheDuchyofBurgundy;PhilipofArtois, theConstableofFrance; Jean II leMeingreditBoucicault, the Marshal of France; Jean de Vienne, the Admiral of France;GuillaumedelaTrémoille,theMarshalofBurgundy;SirEnguerranddeCoucyVIIandtheHungarianking,SigismundI.

Sigismund, the most experienced against the Ottomans, recommended thatthe Hungarians and other central European troops, almost entirely infantry,should be in the front of the crusader forces.He suggested that theymeet theirregularinfantryoftheTurkswhowerealwaysinfrontoftheirarmy.Hewouldtake a defensive stance to provoke the Ottomans into a charge that might bedefeated at the contact of the two infantry forces or reinforced by the strongFranco-Burgundian cavalry in the second rank. However, Sigismund wasoverruledbytheFranco-Burgundians.TheybelievedthataheavycavalrychargewoulddefeattheTurks.

They charged headlong into the Turks, standing behind a line of stakes.Initially, the shockof this chargebrought success,breaking through the stakesandpushing theTurkish irregular infantryback.However, these troopsdidnotbreak,quicklyreformingbeforeasecondattackcouldbemade.Thatchargealsopushed the Ottoman vanguard back, but did not break it and, when acounterattackcamefromBayezid’sregular troops, thecrusaderswerefinished.AlthoughsomeGermanandHungarianinfantrytriedtoreinforcetheircavalry,allwerequicklydefeated.

ThebattleofNicopolislastedonlyaveryshort time,nomorethananhour.KingSigismundandhisarmy,whichhadnotparticipatedinthebattlebecauseithad been so short, retreated to the Danube, boarded boats and sailed back toBuda.

The many captives were executed, until John the Fearless’s nobility wasrecognizedandsomeoftheEuropeannoblesbecameheldforranson.Nomorethan300,fromatotalofupto6000,werespared.TheTurkshadalsosufferednumerouslosses,butfarfewerthanthecrusaders.

■VORSKLARIVER,12AUGUST1399WishingtohalttheGoldenHorde’sexpansionintonorth-easternEurope,GrandDuke Vytautas of Lithuania formed an alliance of forces, including TeutonicKnights.ledfromtheirWagenburg (‘wagonfort’)byaMongolfeignedretreat,theEuropeansweredefeatedwithheavycasualties.■SUDOMER,25MARCH1420Allied central European Catholic forces attacked the Hussities almostimmediatelyafterPopeMartinVcalledacrusadeagainstthem.Intheirsecondbattle, the battle of Sudomer, theHussites prevailed, using awagenburg fieldfortification.JanŽižkaemergedhereasaneffectivegeneral.■PRAGUE,12JUNE1420ThecitizensofPraguejoinedtheHussiterebellionin1419.Answeringthecallto crusade, a largeGerman army arrived outside Prague on 12 June, but theirsiegewasraisedbythearrivalofŽižka’ssoldiers.■VITKOVHILL,12–14JULY1420Following their relief of Prague, a Hussite force of 9000 retreated to nearbyearthen fortifications. Armed mainly with agricultural implements and somerudimentary gunpowder weapons, the Hussite heretics on Vitkov Hill wereattacked by Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund’s army. However, Jan Žižka’speasantarmy’ssurpriseflankingattackroutedthecrusaders.■VYŠEHRAD,1420ACatholic force fromPlzeňwas intercepted on theirway to relieve EmperorSigismundbysoldiersunderJanŽižka.TheHussites,usingtheirartillery-filledwagons,firedgunpowderartilleryatthecrusaders,chasingthemfromthefieldwithheavycasualties.■KUTNÁHORA,21DECEMBER1421Jan Žižka’s Hussites once more defeated the crusaders in December 1421.EmperorSigismund’ssuperiorforcessurroundedtheHussites,but,afterformingacolumnofcavalryandwagens,Žižkapushedhiswaythroughtheirlinesandroutedthem.■NEBOVIDY,6JANUARY1422Having chasedSigismund fromBohemia, JanŽižkawent on the offensive byattacking the fortification atNebovidy.TheHungariangarrisonwas small andeasilydefeated.TheHussitevictoryforcedSigismundfromhiswinterquarters.■NĚMECKÝBROD(DEUTSCHBROD),1422

Twodays after his victory atNebovidy, JanŽižka attackedSigismund’s reliefarmy, defeating it and causing heavy casualties. Some crusaders escaped tonearby Německý Brod, which the Hussites quickly captured, massacring theinhabitants.■HOICE,27APRIL1423Havingdefeated the crusaders, theHussites fell into twomilitant factions, theTaboritesandtheUltraquists.Equalinnumbers,theTaborites,ledbyJanŽižka,defeatedtheUltraquistsofČeněkofWartenberg,endingthecivilwar.■AUSSIG(ÚSTINADLABEM),16JUNE1426Trying to takeadvantageofŽižka’sdeath in1424,anothercrusadewascalledagainst theHussites.The response resulted in a huge army enteringBohemia.Learning frompreviousexperience, thecrusadershadbuilt theirownartillery-ladenwagons.However,theHussitesheldthehigherground,negatingtheeffectof the crusaders’ artillery. The crusaders’ charge was initially successful, buttheirimpetusfailedand,fatigued,theywerequicklydefeated,withheavylosses.■KHIROKITIA,7JULY1426Attempting to halt the piracy of his ships, Barsbay,Mamluk sultan of Egypt,invadedCyprus.His5000-manarmydefeatedthe4600soldiersofKingJanusofCyprus.Janus,takenprisoner,agreedtobecomethevassalofEgypt.■DOMAŽLICE,14AUGUST1431AcrusadingarmybesiegingDomažlicewassurprisedbyaHussitearmy,ledbyProkop the Bald, thought to be many kilometres north. The sight of theapproaching and singingHussite relief army led tomasspanicking among thecrusaders,whofled,withtheHussitearmykillingmany.■LIPANY(ĚESKY-BROD),30MAY1434Onceagain,thecrusadehavingbeenquelled,TaboriteHussitesfacedUltraquistHussites(withCatholicallies)inareligiouswar.LuredfromtheirWagenburgbyafeignedretreat,theTaboritesweredefeatedbycavalryattackandartilleryfire.■GROTNIKI,4MAY1439TheendoftheHussitescamewhenPolishcrusaders,ledbyHińczaofRogów,defeatedasmallforce,ledbySpytkoofMelsztyn,inaquickandruthlessbattleofwhichfewdetailsareknown.■ZLATICA,1443After several defeats in the Balkans against the forces of János Hunyadi, theOttomanTurks,ledbySultanMuradII,defeatedtheHungariansandtheirallies,

thePolesandSerbs,inamountainpass.■VARNA,10NOVEMBER1444Following on his victory the previous year, Sultan Murad II’s large army ofOttomanTurkssoundlydefeatedasmallercrusadingforceprimarilydrawnfromcentral Europe. It was the last serious attempt by Christian Europe to saveConstantinople fromOttoman rule. Folowing pleas from theByzantines, PopeEugenius IV agreed to organize a crusade. Largely composed of Hungarians,GermansandPoles,the25,000-strongCrusaderarmywasledbyHungariankingUlászlóI.Withaforceof40–50,000troops,MuradII’sarmymettheChristiansnear LakeVarna, close to the Black Sea coast. During the battle Ulászló andmany of his knightswere killed after an unsuccessful charge against the eliteJanissary infantry in the Ottoman centre. At the end of the day both sidesdisengaged,withnoclearvictor.TheChristian lossesweresoheavy,however,thattheirarmysoondisintegratedandretreatedfromOttomanterritory.

■KOSOVO,17–20OCTOBER1448AsecondbattleatKosovowasfoughtbetweentheOttomanTurks,ledbytheirsultan,Murad II and the Hungarians, led by János Hunyadi. The Serbs, whocontrolledtheareawherethebattlewasfought,triedtoremainneutral,althoughtheir territory suffered from the destruction of both forces. Both armies werelarge, although the numbers reported– which place the Turks at a significantadvantage(24,000against40,000–60,000)–arecertainlyexaggerated.Bothalsohadfairlylargenumbersofgunpowderweapons,whichopenedthebattlewithastrong,butineffectivebarrage.TheHungariansthenchargedtheircavalry,which

was initially successful, but soon became fatigued and impotent. The Turkishjanissaries held and other troops rallied around them.After a long and costlybattle, the Hungarians fled, followed by their remaining forces. The SerbscapturedHunyadi,whowasonlyreleasedwhenaransomof100,000florinswaspaid.■BELGRADE,4–22JULY1456The Serbian capital Belgrade had remained an island of defiance against theOttomansintheBalkans.SultanMehmedII(theConqueror)triedtofollowuphis victory at Constantinople by besieging Belgrade. But, despite having thesame gunpowder artillery arsenal, he could not bring down these walls. Acounter-attack launched by the townspeople, inspired by septuagenarianFranciscan friar Giovanni da Capistrano, forced the Turks into flight, withMehmedonlybarelyescapingcapture.■DIREPTATEA,APRIL1457InabattlefortherighttoruleMoldavia,thearmyofŞtefancelMare,inalliancewith Vlad III Dracul (the Impaler), defeated that of Petru Aron and he wascrownedStephenIIIofMoldavia.■TRABZON,1461ThelastremnantoftheByzantineEmpire,Trebizond,onthesouth-easterncoastof the Black Sea, was attacked by Ottoman sultanMehmed II. Besieging thecapitalcity,Trabzon,Mehmedquicklyforcedthecityintosubmission.

■THENIGHTATTACK,17JUNE1462Vlad III’s invasion of Bulgaria led to an attested 23,000 impalements ofBulgarians and Turks. Ottoman sultan Mehmed II responded by invadingBulgaria andTransylvania.Wanting to stop this invasion, but thinking that helacked sufficient soldiers to fight a battle against Mehmed’s troops, VladlaunchedanightattacktheTurkishcamp.HehopedtocauseconfusionamongtheOttomansand(possibly)assassinatethesultan.Hedidcauseconfusion,butneitherkilledMehmednordiscouragedtheTurkstoendtheirinvasion.MehmedpursuedtheretreatingWallachians,reachingthecapital,Târgoviste,butretreated

onfindingthatVladhadimpaledafurther20,000ofhismen.■LIPNIC,20AUGUST1470Testing the weakness of eastern Europe, Golden Horde leader Ahmed KhansimultaneouslyattackedPoland,MoldaviaandLithuania.TheseinvasionsendedwhentheMoldaviankingStephenIIIdefeatedalargeforceretreatingtoHordelandswithbootyandslaves.■NEGROPONT,1470TheOttomanarmy,ledbySultanMehmedII,wasbesiegingNegropontwhenaVenetianfleetarrived to relieve thecity.However, theadmiral,NicolòCanale,retreatedratherthanfacetheTurkishfleetandthecitysurrendered.■OTLUKBELI,11AUGUST1473After defeating the Byzantines, Sultan Mehmed II turned to the remnants ofMongol-controlled Asia Minor. One of these areas, the Ak Koyunlu (WhiteSheep), which had few soldiers and no gunpowder weapons, were easilydefeated.■VASLUI,10JANUARY1475The only question about the Ottoman Turkish invasions by the mid-fifteenthcentury was how far north or west in Europe they would go. The Turks hadalreadyconqueredtheByzantineEmpireandmuchoftheBalkans;theyshowednostopping.Nokingdomwasmoreactiveagainst theTurks thanMoldavia.Alarge armyofMoldavians, ledby their king,Stephen III, facedan even largerarmyofTurksunderHadânSuleimanPasha,theBeylerbeyofRumeliaoutsideof Visuli. The Moldavians attacked with gunpowder artillery, handguns andbows, then launched their cavalry at the Turks, who were having difficultyseeing what was happening through the cold January fog. The Ottomansremainedconfused,untiltheyfledorsurrendered.Thelatterwereimpaled,withonly the commanders being preserved. However, the defeat was far fromdecisiveastheTurkswouldreturnthenextyear.

■VALEAALBA,26JULY1476Allied with the Crimean Khanate,Mehmed II again tried invadingMoldavia.Arrayed in a forest, theMoldavians initiallywithstoodOttoman attacks usingintensive handgun fire and forcing the attackers to suspend their assaults.Mehmed,usinghisownguards, ralliedhis janissaries,whoeventuallychargedthe forest and defeated the Wallachians. Both sides took heavy casualties.However, the Turks could not capitalize on their victory, being decimated byensuingmonthsofstarvationandplague.■SHKODËR,1478–1479

Albania had resisted Ottoman control, although Mehmed II determined tochangethat.Shkodërwasbesiegedand,despitebeingbombardedcontinuallybygunpowder artillery, hung on for ninemonths until theOttomans allowed thecitizenstoleave.■BREADFIELD,13OCTOBER1479Wanting to repeat the success of his father, János Hunyadi, Hungarian kingMatthiasCorvinusdeterminedtohaltTurkishprogressintheBalkans.MusteringaforceofHungariansandotherChristiansoldiers,hefoughta largerOttomanarmy. Early on, the Ottomans held sway, but eventually the Hungarians worethemdown,causingthemtoflee.NoquarterwasgiventotheTurks,whowerepursuedandkilled.■RHODES,1480TheKnightsHospitaller had held the island ofRhodes, 26kmoff the coast ofAsiaMinor,since1306.TheirnavyconstantlyharassedshipscomingtoorfromtheOttomanTurkishports.SultanMehmed IIdecided finally toputanend tothispiracy.Onhisdeathbed,hesentalargeexpeditionaryforcetotheislandinMay1480.Theywouldbesiegethefortificationsforthenextfourmonths,usinga large number of gunpowder weapons to bring theHospitallers to surrender.But,assistedbythetownspeople,theydidnotsurrender,resistingattacksonFortStNicholas in the harbour and the Jewishquarter on the eastern side.Havingsufferedheavycasualties,theTurksretreatedtothemainlandandgaveuptheirsiege.Itwouldbeanother42yearsbeforeRhodeswouldbeattackedagain.■OTRANTO1480–81AsizeableOttomanarmyattackedOtranto,quicklydefeatingthecityandcastle.From the city, the Turksmade several raids on southern Italy.However, theiroccupationwas brief as Ferrante,King of Sicily, retookOtranto in September1481.■YENIEHIR,1481BayezidandCem,Mehmed II’s sons, fought abriefwar to succeedhim.Thisfirst battlewaswon byBayezid, butCemwas able to escape and returnwithMamluksupporters.Helostagainandwassentintoexile.■KRBAVAFIELD,9SEPTEMBER1493Pushing into Croatia, Ottoman armies faced little united resistance. Finally,several local lords combined in one army, led byMirko Derenčin. However,these were inexperienced men fighting very experienced soldiers. Theirenthusiasmquicklygavewaytodefeat.

■ZONCHIO,25AUGUST1499Forfourdays,OttomanandVenetianshipsfoughtintheIonianSea.Theconflictwent back and forth,withVenetian andOttoman ships changing hands and atleastonesunkbygunpowderartillery.Eventually,theOttomansprevailed.

WarsofSicily,SardiniaandItaly1250–1500■CINGOLI,1250ASicilian-GuelphinvasionofsouthernItalybyCardinalPietroCapocciowassoresoundingly defeated by Imperial-Ghibelline troops that the baggage train– alarge stock of papal arms– was captured. Capoccio escaped disguised as amendicantfriar.■MONTEBRUNO,25FEBRUARY1255AtMontebruno,thearmyofoneoftheGuelphclaimants–ThomasIIofSavoy,Count of Flanders–was defeated by an armyofGhibelline citizens fromAstiandthesurroundingregions.Thomaswascapturedinthebattle.■MONTAPERTI,4SEPTEMBER1260OneofthelargestoftheGuelph-GhibellinebattleswasfoughtbetweenFlorenceandSiena atMontperti, outside thewalls of Siena.TheSienese (Ghibellines),even with German heavy cavalry mercenaries, were outnumbered by moreexperienced Florentines (Guelphs).Both sides launched charges at each other,butthebattlewaslikelydecidedbyanactoftreachery,whenFlorentineBoccadegliAbati,switchingsides,causedaroutbytheGuelphtroops.■BENEVENTO,26FEBRUARY1266TheforcesofCharlesofAnjouandManfredofSicilyfoughtthemostdecisivebattle of theGuelph-GhibellineWars.Manfred’s armywas better experiencedand armed, although notmore numerous, but Charles placed his soldiers in adefensive formationand forcedManfred’s troops tocrossabridgebefore theyattacked.SeveralchargescouldnotbreakCharles’formationandheeventuallygained victory, although with heavy casualties on both sides (includingManfred).■TRAPANI,1266Venetian-Genoese competition in the eastern Mediterranean resulted in thisnaval battle. Venetian galleys, numbering 24, led by Jacopo Dandolo, foughtwith 27 Genoese galleys, led by Lanfranco Borbonino. The Genoese werequicklydefeated.

■DESIO,21JANUARY1277In1277atDesio,controloftheveryimportantnorthernItaliancityofMilanwasdecidedbetween forces of theVisconti andDellaTorre families. Interestingly,bothfamilieswereledbyecclesiasticalleaders,OttoneVisconti,ArchbishopofMilan, and Raimondo della Torre, Bishop of Como. Visconti soldiers, takingrefuge in the walled town of Desio, were attacked by the Della Torres, whoeventuallyforcedthegatesopen,butfelltodefeatinfightingamongthestreetswith both sides taking heavy casualties. As a consequence, the ViscontisassumedruleinMilan.

■MALTA,8JULY1283During the War of the Sicilian Vespers, an Aragonese fleet, commanded byRoger ofLauria, soundly defeated anAngevin-Napolese fleet, commanded byWilliamCornut(whowaskilled),intheharbourmouthofMalta.■GULFOFNAPLES,5JUNE1284Roger of Lauria proved his naval expertise by attacking the Neapolitan fleet,commandedbyCharlesII,intheirhomeport.Lauriafeignedaretreat,allowinghisowngalleystosurroundandattackthelessexperiencedNeapolitangalleys.■MELORIA,6AUGUST1284Genoa, competing economically with Pisa, chose to settle matters in a largenavalbattle,withestimationsofGenoese88galleysvs72Pisanones.ThemoreexperiencedGenoesemadequickworkofthePisans.■LESFORMIGUES(LASHORMIGAS),4SEPTEMBER1285Fightingatnight,RogerofLauria’sexpertiseandexperienceledtoyetanothervictoryintheWaroftheSicilianVespers.HisAragonesegalleysdestroyedmorethanhalfoftheopposingFranco-Genoesegalleys.■THECOUNTS,23JUNE1287Roger of Lauria’s next victory was near Naples when his 40–45 Aragonesegalleys defeated a superior Angevin fleet of 70 galleys. His less experiencedopponentswereforcedtomanoeuvreuntilconfusedandeasilydefeated.■CAMPALDINO,11JUNE1289InnorthernItaly,thelargertowns–Florence,Pistoia,Lucca,SienaandPratointhis case– often favoured the pro-papal Guelphs– as they were likely to gainmore economic and political sovereignty, while smaller towns– Arezzo– andprincipalitiesfavouredthepro-imperialGhibellines.TheGuelpharmyadoptedadefensive formation and, although Ghibelline charges pushed their centreformationback,Guelphcounter-attackseventuallydefeatedthem,causinghugeGhibellinecasualties.■CURZOTA,1296InoneofthenumerousnavalbattlesbetweenVeniceandGenoaforcontroloftheMediterranean Sea, Genoese galleys defeated Venetian ones.Marco Polo,recentlyreturnedfromChina,foughtamongtheVenetians.■CURZOLA,8SEPTEMBER1298A Genoese fleet of 66–75 galleys, led by Lamba Doria, defeated a largerVenetian fleet of 95 galleys, commanded by Andrea Doria, off the coast of

Dalmatia.MarcoPolowasamongthosecapturedbyGenoa.■PONZA,14JUNE1300Roger ofLauria continued towin naval battles during theWar of the SicilianVesperswithhis–bythen–veryexperiencedAragonese-Angevingalleycrews.His fleet, outnumbering an opposing fleet of Sicilian galleys, captured 26galleys.■MONTECATINI,29AUGUST1315The combined Florentine and Napolese army significantly outnumbered thePisans. However, the Pisans, commanded by the condottere (mercenary)UguccionedellaFaggiuola,outmanoeuvredtheiropponents,defeatingthemandcausinghugecasualties(includingmembersofallFlorentinenoblefamilies).■ZAPPOLINO,15NOVEMBER1325TheGhibellinesofModenafacedtheGuelphsofBolognawithequalnumbersofcavalry,butasignificantlysmallernumberofinfantry.YettheModenesefoughtwith greater unity and intelligence, more than making up for their numericalinferiority.■PARABIAGIO,20–21FEBRUARY1339Mercenaries (condottieri) were used by everyone in northern Italy during thefourteenthcentury.Whennotemployed, theyoftenoperatedasprivatearmies,raiding at will to keep occupied and supplied. At Parabiagio, the Milanesedecided to put an end to one of these armies. Interestingly, both sides werecommandedbyViscontibrothers.Onthepointofcollapse,theMilaneseralliedandeventuallydefeatedthecondottieri,withheavycasualtiesonbothsides.■GAMENARIO,22APRIL1345AGuelph queen ofNaples, Joan I, seemingly pursuing peace, had her armiesbesieged at thePiedmontese castle ofGamenario.However,Ghibelline forces,underJohnII,MarquessofMontferrat,soundlydefeatedtheminabattlefoughtnearby.■PORTOSANLORENZO,20NOVEMBER1347Several Roman nobles and their retainers, including Stefano Colonna theYounger, tried to put down Cola di Rienzo’s rebellion by force. Rienzodiscovered anddefeated this ‘army’ at the gate ofSanLorenzo,withColonnadyinginthemelée.■BOSPORUS,13FEBRUARY1352To combat a Byzantine trade monopoly with the Venetians, a Genoese fleet

fought a similarly sizedVenetian fleet in theBosporus strait.After a longandbloodybattlelastingwellintothenight,theVenetianswithdrew.■ALGHERO,25AUGUST1353Using their supportofAragoneseclaims toSardiniaasprovocation for furtherconflict, a Venetian fleet fought and defeated a Genoese fleet off Alghero,althoughithadlittleoveralleffectonthecontinualwarfarebetweentheseItalianstates.■MODON,1354WinteringontheislandofSapienzaandwithtwo-thirdsoftheirvesselsbeached,aVenetianfleet,ledbyNiccolòPisani,wassurprisedbyaGenoesefleet,ledbyPaganinoDoria,whotookmostoftheshipsasprizes.■CASCINA,28JULY1364PisansandFlorentineshadfoughtagainsteachotherforseveralcenturies,withlittle territory exchangedover that time. In themost recent engagements, bothtownsemployed largenumbersofmercenary forces,with thoseofPisa ledbythefamouscondottieri,JohnHawkwoodandHannekenvonBaumgarten.

Recently,theyhadledPisantroopstoseveralvictories.Inresponse,FlorencereplacedtheineffectivePandolfoIIMalatestawithhiscousin,Galeotto,insistingonpositiveresults.The twoarmiesmetnearPisa, justoutsideCascina,on thehot evening of 28 July 1364. The Florentines had camped and were resting,whenHawkwoodandBaumgartendecidedtoattacktheircamp.TheFlorentinesweresurprised,butfoughtdiligentlyandregrouped,counter-attackingthePisansand driving them from the field. Both sides took huge casualties, especiallyamongthePisanmercenaries.However,MalatestadidnotadvanceonPisaandthusthecityremainedoutsideFlorentinecontrolforanother38years.■CESENA,1377During theWarof theEightSaints, the rebellionof the small townofCesenaagainstthepapacyprovokeditsrecapturebycondottierileaderJohnHawkwoodand Robert, Cardinal of Geneva. In retaliation, the cardinal, serving as papallegate for the expedition, supervised a massacre of between 2500 and 5000citizensaspunishment,gainingforhimselfthename‘TheButcherofCesena’.■CHIOGGIA,AUGUST1379–JUNE1380The Genoese captured Chiogga in the Venetian lagoon in summer 1379.OutmanoeuvringtheGenoesefleet,thatofVenice,ledbyCarloZeno,blockadedChioggia. With no relief, after holding out for several months, the Genoesesurrendered.

■CASTAGNARO,11MARCH1387JohnHawkwood,employedascaptainofthePaduanarmy,luredtheVeronesetoa field outside Castagnaro. Foolishly, the Veronese attempted to attack thePaduans, appearing to be haphazardly arrayed next to a canal, by crossing amake-shift bridge of fascines. However, when Hawkwood’s cavalry chargedfrom the nearbywoods, theVeronesewere quickly routed, inwhatmust havebeenoneoftheshortestbattlesinmedievalhistory.■ALESSANDRIA,1391AfterlosingseveralbattlestotheFlorentines,mostlyagainstJohnHawkwood,aMilanese force under Jacopo dal Verme surprised a French army outsideAlessandria.TheFrench,ledbyCountJeanIIIofArmagnac,werecrushed,withArmagnachimselfkilled.■PORTOMAGGIORE,16APRIL1395AzzoXd’Este’sdisputewithhisfamilyovercontrolofFerraraledtoanattempttocapturethecity.However,hisarmyof8000condottieriweresoundlydefeatedbyVenetianalliesoftheFerrareseandimprisoned.■CASALECCHIO,26JUNE1402In1402,armiesofBolognaandFlorence, ledbyGiovanniIBentivoglio,wereallied against those of Milan, Rimini and Mantua, led by Gian GaleazzoVisconti,DukeofMilan.Thewarwasshort-lived,however,as theBolognese-FlorentinesweresoundlydefeatedatCasalecchio.

■SANLURI,30JUNE1409Fighting for the island of Sardinia, a smaller Spanish-Sicilian army of KingMartin I of Sicily defeated an army largely of Franco-Italian mercenaries.However, Martin was unable to profit from this victory as he died shortlyafterwards.■ARBEDO,30JUNE1422Milan’s defence relied on the control of fortifications along the alpine passes.The Swiss cantons of Uri and Unterwalden bought the well-fortified town ofBellinzona,but thenrefused to resell it to theMilanese,who tried taking itby

force.TheSwisschosetofight,initiallystoppingtheMilanesecavalry,butcouldnotsustaintheireffortsandwerevirtuallyannihilated.■L’AQUILA,1424BracciodaMontone,leadingaNeapolitanarmy,hadlaidsiegetol’Aquilafor13yearswhenaforceofAngevins,underMuzioAttendoloandFrancescoSforza,cametorelievethecity,defeatingtheNapoleseandkillingBraccio.■ZAGONARA,28JULY1424Florence and Milan hired numerous condottieri to fight several wars inLombardy.AttemptingtoraisetheMilanesesiegeofZagonara,laidbyAngelodella Pergola, a Florentine force, led by Carlo I Malatesta, fought a lengthybattleandwereultimatelydefeated.■SONCINO,MARCH1431ThefirstoftwobattlesbetweentheMilaneseandVenetiansin1431,thisoneonland.FrancescoISforzaledtheMilanese inasurpriseattackof theVenetians,capturingmorethan2000men.■PAVIA(BATTLEOFTHEPO),6JUNE1431Ariverinebattlebetweengalleyfleets fromVenice, trying toaid their recentlydefeated army and Milan. After a lengthy conflict, the larger Milanese fleetdefeatedtheVenetians,whosufferedheavylossesinmenandgalleys.■SANROMANO,1JUNE1432TheChianti regionhadbeen fought over byFlorence andSiena for centuries.However,thebattlenearFlorenceismostfamousbecauseitwasmemorializedinPaoloUccelo’sfamouspainting.TheFlorentines,ledbyNiccolòdaTolentino,met the invadingSienese, ledbyFrancescoPiccinino.Thebattle, by similarlysized forces, lasted more than six hours and ended with no definitive result,althoughtheSienesereturnedtoSiena.■DELEBIO,18–19NOVEMBER1432Late in 1431 Venice invaded the Valtelina. In November 1432, the duke ofMilan,FilippoMariaVisconti, tooka smallarmy into the region, fighting twobattlesnearDelebio,bothofwhichlossesbyVenice.■PONZA,5AUGUST1435Fightingforcontrolof thewesternMediterranean,aGenoesefleetdefeatedanAragoneseone, capturing the futurekingofAragon,AlfonsoVANGHIARI,29JUNE1440FilippoMariaVisconti,DukeofMilan,hadsoinfuriatedotherItalianstatesthat

anItalianLeagueoftheRepublicsofVeniceandFlorenceandthePapalStatesjoinedagainsthim.TheLeagueattackedAnghiariandwon,despitetheMilaneseoutnumberingthem.■CARAVAGGIO,15SEPTEMBER1448AlthoughtheItalianLeaguefellapart,VeniceremainedatwarwithMilan.Bothfielded armies of condottieri. TheMilanese, a republic for only a brief time,wereledbyFrancescoSforza,laterDukeofMilan,whodefeatedtheVenetians.■SARNO,1460ThefighttoclaimNaplesbetweentheAngevinsandAragonesetookanAngevinturnwhen they ambushed an army led byKingFerdinand I.He escapedutterdefeatandcaptureonlywhenrelievedbyanearbygarrison.

■MOLINELLA,25JULY1467VeniceandFlorencefoughtagainin1467.ThebattlewasfoughtalongtheIdiceriver, near the village of Molinella. The armies were equal in numbers andtechnology,includingartillery,butendedessentiallywithoutaclearvictor.TheVenetiangeneral,condottiereBartolomeoColleoni, decided not to advance onMilan.■MACOMER,14MAY1478TheAragonese finally conqueredSardiniawhen they facedLeonardoAlagon,MarquisofOristano.Thelocalmilitias,alargepartoftheSardinianforce,could

not compete against the more professional Aragonese and were soundlydefeated.■CAMPOMORTO,21AUGUST1482In an early battle of theWar of Ferrara, fought between the Papal States andFerrara (with many allies on both sides), the papal army, led by RobertoMalatesta,defeatedaNeapolitanforce,ledbyAlfonso,DukeofCalabria.

Monarchic,ImperialandNobleWarsofWesternEurope1250–1500

■TAGLIACOZZO,23AUGUST1268TheGhibellineConradV (Conradin) challenged theGuelphCharles ofAnjoufortheSiciliancrown.TheGhibellineshadseeminglywonthebattle,beforetheGuelphsluredthemintoatrapandchasedthemfromthefield.■ROCCAVIONE,12DECEMBER1275CharlesofAnjou’sGuelpharmywasdefeatedbynorthern ItalianGhibellines.Numbers,experienceandtechnologybeingequal,itislikelythattheGhibellineschoosing thefieldandusingdefensive tacticswaswhatwon thebattle in theirfavour.■MARCHFELD,26AUGUST1278Trying to exert his claim to the Holy Roman Empire, Ottokar II, King ofBohemia,campaignedintheAustrianlandsofEmperorRudolphI,withthetwoeventuallymeetingat thebattle ofMarchfeld.After a gruelling summer battlebetweenheavyknights,whichessentiallyendedinadraw,Rudolph’sconcealedreinforcementsattackedOttokar’sflankanddrovetheBohemiansfromthefield,althoughwithoutOttokar,whohadbeenslain.■WORRINGEN,5JUNE1288A German army of Heinrich VI, count of Luxembourg and Siegfried II,ArchbishopofCologne,attackedtheBrabantesebesiegersofWorringen,ledbyDukeJanI.TheBrabantesewonafterkillingHeinrichandcapturingSiegfried.■FURNES,20AUGUST1297GuydeDampierre,CountofFlanders,foughtaFrenchforceledbyRobertIIofArtois.TheFrenchtrouncedtheFlemings,althoughbotharmiesweresimilarinsize,typeandtechnology.Guywascapturedandimprisoned.■GOLDENSPURS(COURTRAI),11JULY1302Flemish townspeople rose against French political and economic rule bymassacring a garrison of soldiers in Bruges. Following this, the FlemingsbesiegedCourtrai castle,while theFrench armymarched north.TheFlemingsdugditchesonthebattlefield–somefillingthemwithwaterfromtheLysriver–and ordered their forces in solid lines behind them. Several French cavalrychargeswererepulsed,withmanyknightskilled,beforetheFrenchfled,giving

theFlemingsvictory.■MONS-EN-PÉVÈLE,18AUGUST1304TheFlemisharmyfacedalargeFrencharmy,fightinganunusuallylongbattlethat ended with neither side controlling the battlefield. However, with theirleader,WillemvonJülich,slain,theFlemingswithdrew.■GAMMELSDORF,9NOVEMBER1313Gammelsdorf was fought between two cousins claiming the German throne:FrederickI,DukeofAustriaandLouis,DukeofBavaria.Louis’soldiers,mostlyBavarian militia, defeated the Austrians more numerous and largely cavalryforce.■MORGARTEN,15NOVEMBER1315InMorgarten Pass, Austrian Duke Leopold I, with a largely cavalry army of2000–3000,was ambushed by 3000–4000Swiss peasants,who shot arrows atandrolledstonesandlogsontothem.TheAustriansfled,takinghugecasualties.■CASSEL,23AUGUST1328ThecountyofFlandersrebelledagainstFrancein1323,althoughtheFrenchdidnotresponduntil1328.Atthattime,alargearmy,ledbyrecentlycrownedPhilipVI, surrounded an equally large Flemish force positioned in Cassel, on a hill176mhigh.Afterseveraldays, theFlemishsoldiersattacked theFrenchcamp,nearly capturing the king.However, a French response routed the rebels,whosufferedhugelosses.■CHAMPTOCEAUX,14–16OCTOBER1341InthefirstlargeconflictoftheBretonCivilWar,CharlesofBlois,alliedtotheFrench, besieged Champtoceaux from 10 October to 26 October. John ofMontfort,alliedtotheEnglish,attemptedtorelievethesiegebut,despitecomingclosetocapturingCharlesatonepoint,hefailedtodosoandretreated,leadingtothefallofthetownandashiftinthewartoCharles.■STAVEREN,26SEPTEMBER1345TosubdueFrisianrebels,armiesofWilliamIV,CountofHolland,HainautandZeeland, landed on the beach near Staveren, where the local forces, fightingtenaciouslyfromtrencheswithpikes,spearsandswords,defeatedthem.■BAESWEILER,22AUGUST1371Wenceslas,DukeofBrabant,ledanarmyintoJülichtopunishDukeWilliamVIfor not protecting travelling merchants. The Jülich army outnumbered theBrabantese, who were in disarray from the outset and defeated them fairly

quickly.■SEMPACH,9JULY1386InanefforttoregainsomeofthelandsandcontrollostbytheAustriansovertheprevious 75 years, as well as to counter recent raids into their lands, DukeLeopold III invadedSwitzerland in1386.Their opponentswere an allianceofcantons, the Old Swiss Confederacy, principally Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz andUnterwalden. Leopold’s army outnumbered the Swiss, and included a largenumberofheavycavalry. Initially, theAustriansweresuccessful,but,duringabattlefoughton9July1386outsidethetownofSempach,theSwissduplicatedtheresultsoftheirancestors.Learningfrompastmistakesoffightingagainsttheunconventional Swiss, the Austrians dismounted their cavalry, but they wereunaccustomed to fighting in thisway andwere hindered by their heavier andhotterarmour.TheSwisssimplyoutlastedthem.AmongthedeadwasLeopoldandanumberofhisgreaternobles.■BILEĆA,27AUGUST1388TheOttomanTurksseemedunstoppableas they invadedsouth-easternEurope.Onlyrarelydidtheyfacesetbacks.OnewaswhenaBosnianarmydefeatedanOttomanforceoutsideofthetownofBileća.■OTHÉE,23SEPTEMBER1408Followinganineffectualartilleryduel, theBurgundians, ledbyCountJohntheFearless,quicklydefeatedtherebellingLiégeoisbychargingintotheirlinesand,withasmallforce,circlingaroundandattackingfromtherear.■LAROCHELLE,1419ACastilianfleetalliedtotheFrenchwasinterceptedbyanEnglishfleetoffthecoastofLaRochelle.TheCastilianswon,butcouldnotkeeptheEnglishfromcontrollingtheChannel.■BRUSTEM,28OCTOBER1467TheLiégeois, inexperienced in fighting battles, gathered an army andmet theBurgundians, led by Charles the Bold, at Brustem, where they were soundlydefeated.CharlesthenbesiegedandsackedLiège,endingtheirrebellion.■NEUSS,29JULY1474–27JUNE1475AssistingtheArchbishopofCologne,CharlestheBoldlaidsiegetoNeuss.TheBurgundianspossesseda largegunpowderartillery trainand thewallsheldfornearlyayearuntilaGermanarmydefeatedthefatiguedBurgundians.■NANCY,5JANUARY1477

FollowingdefeatsagainsttheSwissatGrandsonandMurtenthepreviousyear,CharlestheBold,DukeofBurgundy,gatheredwhatforcesandartilleryhehadleft to meet the rebellion of Lorraine at Nancy on 5 January 1477. Heavilyoutnumbered by their opponents, the Burgundians were defeated by infantryforces;Charleswasamongthosekilled.■COSMINFOREST(CODRII),26OCTOBER1497John I, King of Poland, and Ştefan cel Mare, Prince of Moldavia, decided aborderdisputeintheCosminForest.SurprisingthePoles,theMoldaviansfoughtforthreedaysuntilforcingthemoutofMoldavia.

TheIberianPeninsularandBalearicIslands1250–1500■HALMYROS,15MARCH1311Walter V of Brienne, the Frankish duke of Athens, dismissed the mercenaryCatalanCompanywithoutsettlingitsarrearsofpay.TheCatalan’s2000cavalryand 4000 infantry deployed on the plain of Orchomenus, near the Cephissusriver, flooding the fields in front of their position. Walter launched a frontalattack with his 6000 cavalry and 8000 infantry, which bogged down in theswampy ground and was decisively defeated by the lightly equippedmercenaries.■MANOLADA,5JULY1316This action was fought by armies led by Louis of Burgundy and the InfanteFerdinand of Majorca, both of whom claimed the Principality of Achaea onbehalfoftheirwives.Ferdinand’sdefeatensuredcontinuedAngevinsupremacyinAchaea.■RIOSALADA,30OCTOBER1340The sultans of Morocco and Granada besieged Tarifa with an 80,000-strongarmy. AlfonsoXI of Castile andAlfonso IV of Portugal led a relief force of12,000infantryand9000cavalry,whichdecisivelydefeatedthebesiegers.■LLUCMAJOR,25OCTOBER1349In1344, James IIIofMajorcawasdriven into exilebyhis cousinPeter IVofAragon andwas killed in the battle of Llucmajor on 25October 1349, whiletryingtoretakeMajorca.■NÁJERA,3APRIL1367An Anglo-Gascon army of 24,000 men commanded by Edward, the BlackPrince,intervenedintheCastiliancivilwarinsupportofPedrotheCruelagainsthishalf-brotherHenryIIofCastile.TheBlackPrince’sforce(including12,000archers)was reinforced by 4000Castilians led byPedro and attackedHenry’s60,000-strong army near Nájera. English archery inflicted heavy casualtiesbeforeHenry’sforcewasroutedwiththelossofatleast5000men.■MONTIEL,14MARCH1369PedrotheCruel’s40,000-strongarmywasroutedbyaforceof6000menunderHenryIIofCastile.Pedro’sforcessufferedatleast14,000casualtiesandhewaskilledbyHenrywhiletryingtoescape.

■ATOLEIROS,6APRIL1384APortugueseforceof1400menunderDomNunoÁlvaresPereiraintercepteda5000-strong Castilian army besieging Fronteira. The Portuguese formed adefensive square that repelled several attacks before the demoralizedCastilianarmywasrouted.■TRANCOSO,29MAY1385A600-strongCastilian raiding partywas caught by aPortuguese force of 300men, which dismounted and deployed in ploughed fields. The Castilians fledaftermakingseveralchargesthatwerebeatenoffwithheavylosses.

■ALJUBARROTA,29MAY1385Juan I of Castile invaded Portugal with an army of 8000 cavalry and 10,000infantry. João I commanded the Portuguese field army of 2500 cavalry and12,000infantry(including700Englisharchers),whichinterceptedtheCastiliansneartheabbeyofAljubarrota.

ThePortuguesetookupastrongdefensivepositionamongorchards,cuttingbrushwoodbarricadestocovertheirflanksanddiggingatrenchinfrontoftheirmain line.Theircrossbowmenand theEnglisharchersdeployedoneach flankwiththedismountedknightsandmen-at-armsinthecentre.

TheCastiliannoblespressuredareluctantJuanintoorderingafrontalattack,despite the fact that his army was exhausted after several hours march. Juanadvanced in three lines, the first comprising French mercenaries, the secondformedbyhisCastiliancavalryandthethirdcontainingcrossbowmenandotherinfantry. The French cavalry dismounted and attacked before the rest of theCastilianarmycouldcomeup to support theirassault.They tookheavy lossesfromarchery and crossbow fire as the attackwas funneled into thegap in thebarricades in the centre of the Portuguese line. This attack was repelledwithFrench losses of several hundred dead and 1000 captured, but Juan failed torealizetheextentofthedefeatandcommittedhiscavalrytoacharge,whichlostimpetus in crossing the trench and was also badly shot up by archery andcrossbow fire. Unsurprisingly, the cavalry were defeated by the Portugueseknights and men-at-arms, suffering at least 500 casualties before breaking inrout. Juan escaped, but his army was shattered, losing 6000 dead and 2000prisoners. Apart from Juan, virtually all the Castilian commanders werecaptured.■CEUTA,1415InAugust1415,a45,000-strongPortuguesearmycommandedbyKingJoão IsurprisedandstormedtheMoroccancityofCeuta.João’sson,PrinceHenrytheNavigator,distinguishedhimselfintheassaultonthecity.■ALFARROBEIRA,20MAY1449Rivalrieswithin thePortuguese royal familybriefly flaredup intocivilwar in1449,whenanarmyof30,000mencommandedbyKingAlfonsoVdefeateda6000-strongrebelforceunderPedro,DukeofCoimbra.

WarsofScotland1263–1500■LARGS,2OCTOBER1263Hakon IVofNorwaywitha fleetofmore than100 ships invadedScotland toclaimtheHebrides;theyalsoraidedtheScottishmainlandcoast.Tocounterthethreat,AlexanderIIIofScotlandcalleduplocalmilitiasaswellasknightsandtheir retainers. A Scottish force numbering perhaps 500 met a large Norseraiding force (800–900) at Largs in early October and drove them off inconfusedfighting.■DUNBAR,27APRIL1296TheEnglishunderEarlWarenneattackedDunbarcastle.RelievingScotsarrivedon 27April, butmistookWarenne’smanoeuvring for retreat and advanced indisorder.AnEnglishcavalrychargeroutedtheScotswithheavyslaughter.■LANARK,MAY1297In aminor incident, theScotWilliamWallace and his supporters attacked theEnglish sheriff of Lanark in May 1297, killing him and burning severalbuildings.LanarkignitedtheScottishrevoltagainstEngland.■STIRLINGBRIDGE,11SEPTEMBER1297In early September, an English army under EarlWarenne entered Scotland tosuppress a growing rebellion. William Wallace and Andrew Murray joinedforces to oppose him with numbers of perhaps 3000–4000 men. They tookposition around Abbey Craig to protect strategically vital Stirling Bridge.Warenne, with an army perhaps twice as large, attacked northward across thebridge on 11 September, after losing the element of surprise by oversleeping.TheEnglishvanguardcrossedthenarrowbridgetwoabreast.Astheyformedonthe north side, the Scots attacked. The ground was waterlogged, so Englishcavalrycouldnotmanoeuvreandinfantrybecamemired.Warennetriedtosendreinforcements,butthebridgecollapsed,eitherbysabotageorthesheerweightofmen.MostoftheEnglishcaughtonthenorthbankwereslaughtered,perhapstotalling500,withafewdozenScotscasualties.■FALKIRK,22JULY1298EdwardIrespondedtoWilliamWallace’sgreatraidofnorthernEnglandwithamassive invasion of Scotland to suppress the rebellion. The English armyinitially mustered 3000 cavalry and 25,000 English andWelsh foot, althoughnumbersweresmallerat thebattle,asEdwardsufferedsupplyproblemsanda

Welshmutiny. Indeed,Edwardconsidered retreat,but theScotsunderWilliamWallaceofferedbattle.Wallace’sforcewassmallerthanEdward’s,perhaps6000pikemen, 1000 archers and 500 cavalry, but he prepared a strongly defensivepositionontheroadtoStirling.FourdivisionsofScottishinfantryformedintoschiltrons, tightlypacked ranksofpikemenbrandishing3.6mspears,protectedbyalineofstakesropedorchainedtogether.ArcherswereplacedbetweentheschiltronstoprotectthelightlyarmouredpikemenfromEnglishbowmen,whiletheScotscavalryinturnprotectedthearchers.TheScotswerefurtherdefendedbywoodsandmarshesontheflanksandbyastreaminfront.

Thebattleon22Julywasbloody.ThefirstEnglishattackbyheavycavalrybecamemired in thewetgroundand failed topenetrate the schiltrons, but theScotshorsefledastheEnglishadvancedontherightflank.TheEnglishcavalrywasthenabletoridedowntheunprotectedScotsarchers,leavingtheschiltronsexposed to Edward’s archers and Gascon crossbowmen. The men of theschiltrons–untriedmilitia–held theirground,but theywereunable toadvanceover the wet ground to meet the enemy, and fell in their hundreds. Finally,Edwardsenthiscavalrybackintobreaktheschiltrons.ThousandsofScotswerekilled,with relatively lightEnglish casualties and theScottish rebel armywaseffectivelydestroyed.■STIRLINGCASTLEI,1299Stirlingshire rebels led by Thomas Morham and Gilbert Malherbe besiegedstrategicallyvitalStirlingcastle,heldbyanEnglishgarrison.TheScotslackedsiegeequipment,buteventuallystarvedthegarrisonintosubmission.■STIRLINGCASTLEII,20JULY1304Edward I of England besieged strategically vital Stirling. Heavy Englishtrebuchets killed many and damaged the walls. The Scots ‘rebels’ finallysurrenderedon24Julyforfearofthemassivetrebuchet‘Warwolf’.■METHVEN,19JUNE1306KingRoberttheBruceadvancedagainstEnglish-heldPerth.On19June,aforceof 300 cavalry and 1300 infantry under the Englishman Aymer de ValencesurprisedandtotallydefeatedtheScots;Robertfled.■LOUDONHILL,10MAY1307Robert theBruceofScotland’s first victory.Robert,with600Scots spearmen,chosehisgroundcarefully,protectinghisforcewithabogandseriesofditches.Aymer de Valence’s English force numbered about 3000, but they had toadvance with a tightly restricted front along the highway. Scottish spearmenpusheddownhillintothedisorderedEnglishranks.ApanicensuedandatleastonehundredEnglishmenwerekilled.■BANNOCKBURN,24JUNE1314EdwardIIofEnglandinvadedScotlandtosuppressRoberttheBruce’srebellion.TheEnglishforcenumberedperhaps10,000infantryand2000cavalry;theScotsforcewas5000–6000,mostlyhighlyexperiencedlightinfantry.Robertdeployedhis Scots to keep the English from relieving Stirling castle. On 23 June, theEnglishcavalryvanguardtriedtoslipbetweentheScotsandStirlingcastle,butaScottishdivisionunderThomasRandolph,Earl ofMoray, drove themback in

heavy fighting.The engagement disheartened theEnglish,whose supplies hadalsofailedandledthemtoexpectanightattack.

KingRoberthad intendedadefensivebattle.TheScotshaddug inonhighground, protected by pits, traps and caltrops. However, seeing the English indisorder,heorderedhisschiltronstoadvanceontothemarshyplainon24June.Four Scottish schiltrons advanced in turn, striking a series of hammer blowsagainst the English, who could not deploy along a front that was highlyrestricted,beingtrappedbetweenariver,anumberofstreamsandtheScots.TheEnglishandWelsharcherscouldnotbeplacedproperlytocutdownthelightly

armouredScots;onegroupworkedaroundastreamandbeganfiringagainsttheScots, only to be ridden down byScots cavalry. TheEnglish tried to stop theScottishadvancewithisolatedattacks,butfailed.

King Edward’s household finally forced him to withdraw. As the Englishforce wavered, the Scottish ‘small folk’ charged from the high ground andprecipitated an English rout. The bulk of the English army was killed orcaptured, hundreds drowning in the Forth or in the many streams like theBannockburnthatsurroundedthebattlefield.■FAUGHART,14OCTOBER1318Edward Bruce, Robert the Bruce’s brother, invaded Ireland. On 14 October,Bruce’s Scots-Irish army attacked a stronger Hiberno-Norman force and thethreeScottishdivisionswereeachdefeatedseparately.Brucehimselfwaskilled.■MYTON,20SEPTEMBER1319ArchbishopMelton ofYork raised local levies to stopScottish raiders.On 12September,theyattackedtheScottishcamp.ScottishspearmenadvancedandtheEnglishweredisastrouslydefeated;manyclericsfellintherout.■BOROUGHBRIDGE,16MARCH1322English troops under Andrew Harclay held the bridge against rebellious EarlThomas of Lancaster with archers supported by dismounted men-at-arms,preventingLancasterfromjoiningaScottishforceon16March.Lancasterwascapturedandexecuted.■INVASIONOFSCOTLAND,1332RobertBruce’sdeath inspiredScottish exiles inEngland andFrance to return.TheDisinherited, under Edward Balliol, landed at Kinghorn with an 88-shipfleeton6August,drivingoff local forces.Their armyof about1500defeatedyoungKingDavidIIatDupplinMoor,thentookPerthandwonanavalbattleontheTay.Balliolwascrownedking,butwasforcedtofleebyasurpriseattackinDecember.■DUPPLINMOOR,10–11AUGUST1332EdwardBalliol’s1500-manforcedefeatedasuperiorScottishroyalarmyunderthe earl ofMar, stormingMar’s camp and occupying the high ground.Manysuffocatedinthemelee.About2000royalistsfell.■DORNOCK,25MARCH1333Inasmallborderincident,WilliamDouglaswith50mensetonanEnglishforceof800.TwoEnglishmenwerekilledaswellas24ScotsandWilliamDouglas

wascapturedandimprisoned.■HALIDONHILL,19JULY1333InthesecondAnglo-ScottishWar,EdwardIIIofEnglandwithhisallyEdwardBalliolbesiegedBerwick.ArchibaldDouglas,guardianof theyoungDavid II,marchedwithalargearmytorelievethesiege.TheEnglishchosetheirgroundonHalidonHill,Edwarddismountinghismen-at-armsandplacingtheminthreedivisions, each flanked by archers; his army numbered perhaps 8000. On 19July,Douglasattackeduphillwithabout1200men-at-armsand13,500spearmenarrayedinfourschiltrons.Slowedbythebogsat thebaseofthehill, theScotswerecutdownby theEnglisharchers, thenas theattackwavered, theEnglishcavalry mounted and charged. They pursued the broken Scots for five miles.Douglas, five earls and thousands more Scots fell. Berwick surrendered toEdwardandBalliolwasrestoredaskingofScotland.■BOROUGHMUIR,30JULY1335GuyofNamurwith300menmarched to joinEdward III on30 July, butwasambushed by Scots under John Randolph. Namur retreated into derelictEdinburghCastle,butsurrenderedthenextday.■CULBLEAN,30NOVEMBER1335In the Second Anglo-Scottish War, David Strathbogie besieged AndrewMurrey’swifeinKildrummycastle.On30November,Murrey,with1000men,defeatedandkilledStrathbogieinasurpriseattack,scatteringhislargerforce.■NEVILLE’SCROSS,17OCTOBER1346DavidIIofScotlandinvadedEnglandwithabout10,000men.On17October,hestumbled on a northern English army of about 5000. The Scots advanced inschiltrons over rough ground, suffering heavy losses to archers. The ScottishrightpushedtheEnglishback,butwerethrownintodisorderbyacavalryattack.TheScottishrearguardthenwithdrew,sealingDavid’sdefeat.SeveralthousandScots,aswellashundredsofEnglishmen,diedinthebattle.

■OTTERBURN,5AUGUST1388Hotspur(HenryPercy)raisedanEnglishforcetopursueScotsraiders.Reachingthem at twilight, he attacked the Scottish camp immediately.After heavy andconfusedfighting,Hotspurwascapturedandabout2000Englishdied.■NORTHINCH,SEPTEMBER1396This ‘Battle of the Clans’ was a staged battle between two Scottish highlandclans.Thirtymenfromeachsidefought.ClanChattanwonwith11survivors;29oftheCameronswerekilled.■NESBITMOOR,1402

A party of 400 Scottish raiders in Northumberland was ambushed by 200EnglishmenfromtheBerwickgarrisonundertheearlofMarch.TheScotswerebadlycutup;severalleaderswerecaptured.■HOMILDONHILL,14SEPTEMBER1402A Scottish raiding force of perhaps 10,000 found their route blocked by anEnglish army.TheScots took a defensive position, butweremoweddownbyarchery.Atleast1200Scotsdied.■TUITEAMTARBHACH,1406A Scottish clan battle, in which Clan Mackay caught up with MacLeods ofLewiswhohad just raided their lands as the latter crossedTuiteamBurn.TheraidingpartywascompletelydestroyedHARLAW,24JULY1411AbloodybattlebetweenDonald,Lordof theIslesandtheEarlofMar,whoseforcewas smaller, butbetter armed. In theday-long struggle,Donald lost 900menandMar500,withnoclearvictor.■INVERLOCHY,SEPTEMBER1431James I tried to assert his authority over the Highland clans, imprisoningAlexander,LordoftheIsles.InSeptember,aforceofHighlandersunderDonaldBalloch ambushed the army James I sent against them under the earl ofMar,withbowmenfiringdownontheircampwhiletheHighlanderschargedfromthesouth. More than 1000 royalists are believed to have been killed in theencounter,withonly30Highlandlosses.

■PIPERDEAN,10SEPTEMBER1436About 4000 English soldiers under Henry Percy and the Earl of Mar movedagainst Dunbar castle, but Scots under William Douglas attacked them. TheEnglishwererouted;perhaps400werekilledand300captured.■SARK,23OCTOBER1448TheEarlofNorthumberlandinvadedScotlandwith6000men.Atotalof4000ScotsundertheEarlofOrmondattackedtheEnglishcamp,drivingthemintotherisingtideattheirback.Approximately1500Englishwerekilled,withanother500drowned.

■ARKINHOLM,1MAY1455Thissmallengagement,foughton1May,endedtheScottishCivilWarbetweenJames II and the Black Douglases. Royalist forces, perhaps under the earl ofAngus,decisivelydefeatedtherebels.■LOCHMABENFAIR,22JULY1484ScotsrebelsAlbanyandDouglascametoLochmabenFairon22Julywith500English cavalry to incite rebellion against James III. Townsmen took armsagainsttherebels,routingthemandcapturingDouglas.■SAUCHIEBURN,11JUNE1488On11June,asmanyas30,000troopsunderJamesIIImetaScottishrebelarmyof18,000underPrinceJamesatSauchieburn.Detailsofthebattleareconfused.TherebelswonandJamesIIIwaskilled.■DRUMCHATT,1497After James IVofScotland revoked theMacDonald title ‘Lordof the Isles’ in1495, Alexander MacDonald rebelled, claiming his traditional family lands.Clans Mackenzie and Munro, although normally rivals, joined forces againstMacDonald as he invaded Ross. After a short battle at Drumchatt (‘the Cat’sBack’)nearStrathpeffer,MacDonaldfled.Hewashunteddownandsoonkilled.

SecondBarons’War,England1264–67■NORTHAMPTON,APRIL1264A royalist army commanded by Henry III besieged Northampton, which washeldby twoofSimondeMontfort’ssons.Aroyalistdetachment ledbyPrinceEdwardbrokeintothetownandforcedthesurrenderofthecastle.■ROCHESTER,1264Rebel forces commanded by Simon de Montfort and Gilbert de Clare tookRochester,butthecastleheldoutforaweekuntilthesiegewasraisedbyareliefforceledbyHenryIII.■LEWES,14MAY1264A5000-strongrebelarmyledbySimondeMontfortsurprisedaroyalistarmyof10,000mencommandedbyHenryIIIandPrinceEdward.DeMonfortdeployedhisforcesinthreedivisions,therightunderhissonsHenryandGuy,thecentreledbyGilbertdeClareandtheleftofLondoners.PrinceEdward’scavalrybroketheLondoners,butthenpursuedthemforseveralhours,duringwhichtimetherebelshaddefeatedthemainroyalistarmy.■EVESHAM,4AUGUST1265Aroyalistarmyofatleast7000infantryand1000cavalrycommandedbyPrinceEdward trappedSimon deMontfort’s 5000-strong rebel force in a loop of theRiver Avon near Evesham. DeMontfort attempted to break the centre of theroyalist line,buthisWelsh troopsdesertedand the remainderofhis forcewasquicklysurrounded.Therebelarmywasshattered, losing3000men, includingdeMontfortwhowaskilledinaction.■SIEGEOFAXHOLME,1265After their defeat atEvesham,many rebels fled to the Isle ofAxholme in theLincolnshireFenswheretheywerebesiegedbyroyalistforces.Someeventuallysurrendered,butdeMontfort’sson,SimontheYounger,escaped.■CHESTERFIELD,1266Despite the royalist victory at Evesham, the Earl of Derby and other baronscontinuedtheirresistancetoHenryIII,butwereagaindefeatedatChesterfield.SomeofthesurvivorsthentookrefugeatElyintheFens.■KENILWORTH,JUNE–DECEMBER1266Undismayed by repeated royalist victories, a rebel garrison of 1200men held

Kenilworthcastleagainstasix-monthsiege.Attemptstostormthecastlefailed,butthegarrisonwasfinallystarvedintosurrenderon13December1266.■ELY,1267PrinceEdwarddefeated rebel forcesunder Johnd’Eyvill,whichwereholdingoutontheIsleofElyinthefensofCambridgeshire.ThisroyalistvictorymarkedtheendoftheSecondBarons’War.

JapaneseGenkoWar1331–33andFourteenth-CenturyBattles

■KASAGI,1331EmperorGo-Daigosoughttowrestpowerbackfromaweakshogunate, takingrefugeherewhile he sought allianceswithwarrior-monasteries.Bakufu troopsstormedthetempleanddraggedtheemperorintoexile.■AKASAKA,C.31OCT-20NOV1331KusunokiMasashige, Go-Daigo’s samurai, brilliantly held this flimsy fortressagainst Bakufu troops.With supplies and defenders exhausted, a fake funeralpyre convinced the besieging troops that the escaping clan had committedsuicideindefeat.■CHIHAYA,1333WithGo-Daigoreturningfromexile,KusunokiMasashigesuccessfullydefendedthisimpregnablehill-topfortress,inflictingbyrusesextremelyheavycasualtiesuponBakufu attackers and resisting all assaults.Loyalist forces flocked to theemperor’scauseasaresult.■BUBAIGAWARA,1333NittaYoshisadaproclaimedGo-Daigo’scauseandmarchedagainsttheBakufu.HereYoshisadahadtoretreatafterattackingrecentlyreinforcedBakufutroops,who–on the next day– found the Imperialist forces reinforced and, retreating,attackedfromtherear.■KAMAKURA,1333Takingseverelossesthroughdefendednarrows,NittaYoshisadagroundtowardthis, theHojoshogun’s lastbastion.Forcesdepletedbybattleand theChihayasiege, the shogun committed suicide after Yoshisada attacked acrossneighbouringtideflats.■MINATOGAWA,1336AshikagaTakaujimadehisfamily’sbidfor theShogunate,attackinghereafteran initial repulse.HavingurgedEmperorGo-Daigo’s retreat invain,KusonokiMasushige and Nitta Yoshisda fought Takuji’s landing. Masushige committedsuicideindefeat.■KANEGASAKI,1337Nitta Yoshisda was left as Emperor Go-Daigo’s last loyal general and

concentratedhis family’s resourcesat thisstrategic fortressonTsurugaBay, inwhich he sheltered Prince Takayoshi. The army of Ashikaga Takauji closelybesieged the castle,which fell after the defenders had been reduced to eatingtheirhorsesandthedead.Nittahimselfescaped,buthisson,theprinceandmostofhisfamilycommittedsuicideuponthesurrender.

HundredYearsWar1337–1457■CADSAND,NOVEMBER1337AsashowofstrengthagainstFrance,EdwardIIIofEnglandsentasmallfleetagainsttheFlemishislandofCadsand.Thetroops,ledbyWalterManny,rapedandslaughteredthevillagers.■ARNEMUIDEN,23SEPTEMBER1338Inthefirstnavalbattleusingartillery,aFrenchfleetof48galleysoverwhelmedfive English carracks transporting a cargo of wool. The Englishmen whosurvivedthebattleweremassacred,numberingabout1000intotal.■SLUYS,24JUNE1340Edward III invaded Flanders with a fleet of 120– 160 ships. A French fleetopposed his landing, taking station at the opening of the Zwin estuary, thenabout5kmwide.TheFrench admirals arrayed their 213vessels in three lines,the shipsofeach linechained to theirneighbours.As theEnglish approached,theFrenchfleetdriftedeastward,aswindblewintothemouthoftheriver.Theycastofftheirchains,butfailedtore-formbeforetheEnglishhittheirfirstline.Itwasabattleofarchery,thengrapplingandboarding.TheEnglishshipswerefullof longbowmen intended for the invasion of France; they vastly outshot theGenoesecrossbowmeninFrenchemploy.Aseveningfell,FlemingsattackedtheFrench third line from the rear. In an overwhelming victory, Edward captured190Frenchshipsand16,000–18,000Frenchmendied.

■SAINT-OMER,26JULY1340RobertofArtoisled1000Englisharchersand10,000–15,000FlemingstoattackSaint-Omer, which the Duke of Burgundy held with several thousand men.Robert offered battle and eventually some of the duke’s men burst out andattacked.Robert’smenwere driven off and their campbreached,wheremanythousands were slaughtered.Meanwhile, the Duke of Burgundy emerged andRobertoverwhelmedhim,withthebattleendinginstalemate.■BREST,18AUGUST1342TheEarlofNorthampton reachedFrancewith a fleetof260 ships,butonlya

smalllandarmy.Theycaughtbysurprise14GenoesegalleysanchoredatBrest.Three of the galleys made it up the estuary of the Elorn river; the other 11groundedinmudandwereburnedbytheEnglish.TheFrenchraisedthesiegeofBrestandwithdrew,thinkingthatalargearmyhadcome.■MORLAIX,30SEPTEMBER1342TheEarlofNorthamptonwithabout2400EnglishmenandanunknownnumberofBretonsattackedtheFrenchporttownofMorlaix;afteraninitialassaulton3Septemberfailedwithheavycasualties,theearlsettleddowntoasiege.Charlesof Blois came to relieve the siege with perhaps 3000 cavalry, 1500 GenoesecrossbowmenandsomeBretoninfantry.NorthamptonreceivedwordofCharles’approachandmadeanightmarchwithmostofhismen,diggingintoblocktheFrench line of advance. The English protected themselves with pit-traps andtrenches. The first French cavalry chargewas repulsed.When the second linechargedinturn,theyrodestraightfortheEnglishtraps,where50Frenchmen-at-armswerekilledandanother150captured.Northamptonthenwithdrewintotheforest,wheretheFrenchbesiegedhiminconclusivelyforseveraldays.

■AUBEROCHE,21OCTOBER1345The earl of Darby launched a surprise attack on French forces besieging thecastleofAuberoche.Despitesuperiornumbers,theFrenchfellback,whereuponthegarrisonsortied,trappingtheFrenchandslaughteringthem.■ST-POL-DE-LEON,9JUNE1346CharlesofBlois’overwhelminglysuperiorarmytrappedanEnglishcommanderwith80men-at-armsand100archers.TheEnglishduginonahillandrepelledattacksuntildark,whentheFrenchwithdrew.■CAEN,26JULY1346TheEnglish seizedCaen,whichwas garrisoned by 1000–1500French troops.TheFrenchcommandersdecided todefend the suburbon ÎleSaint-Jean ratherthan the old town, although the island’s defences were weak. A sudden,disorderly English assault proved effective. French defences failed at severalpointsontheriverandFrenchtroopsatthebridgeheld,onlytobeoutflanked.About 2500 French fighters and townspeople were slaughtered; others wereransomed.■BLANCHETAQUE,24AUGUST1346TheFrenchGodemar du Fay held theBlanchetaque ford against Edward III’sarmy. An English advance of 100men-at-arms and 100 archers established abridgeheadandgraduallypushedtheFrenchbackuntiltheybroke.■CRÉCY,26AUGUST1346PreparatorytothisfirstgreatlandbattleoftheHundredYearsWar,EdwardIIIhad raided deep into France with an army of about 4000 men-at-arms, 7000archersand5000otherinfantry.TheybegantowithdrawuponnewsthatPhilipVIhadgathereda largeFrencharmy (12,000men-at-armsand20,000–25,000infantry)tomeetthem.Philip,determinednottosufferanotherembarrassment,decidedtocuttheEnglisharmyoffandforcebattle.

On 26 August, Philip with his advance troops blocked the English retreat.English scouts had discovered the French presence and Edward responded bydigginginhismuchsmallerarmyonthegentlyrisinggroundnearthevillageofCrécy. The English position was strong. The 16-year-old Prince of Walescommanded the first line of dismounted men-at-arms, while King Edwardcommandedthereserves.Edwardpostedhislongbowmenonthewings,forwardofthemainlines,protectingthemwithcirclesofbaggagecartsandshallowpits,with the five English cannon also positioned on thewings. Themen-at-arms’

horseswerealsoprotectedattherearinalaagerofbaggagecarts.AlthoughitwasalreadylateafternoonandmostoftheFrencharmywasstill

spreadoutalongtheroad,Philipdecidedonanimmediateattack.Inexplicably,the first troops he sent into action were his 6000 Genoese mercenarycrossbowmen. The Genoese were made to advance, shooting as they went, atactic to which crossbows are ill suited. Increasing their difficulties, the largeshields thatnormallyprotectedcrossbowmenas they reloadedwere still in thebaggage,aswasmostoftheirammunition.Worstofall,itbegantorain,whichaffectedthecrossbows’mechanismsandslowedtheiradvancestillfurther.TheGenoesesoonbrokeandfledunderastormofEnglisharrows.

TotheFrenchleaders,theGenoesewithdrawalappearedtobecowardiceandtreason.Withoutorders,thecountofAlençonchargedthemwiththeeliteFrenchcavalry.Whilemassacring theirownmercenaries, theFrench inadvertentlygotwithinrangeoftheEnglisharchersandsoonsufferedheavylosses.SomeoftheFrench men-at-arms reached the first English line, where a vicious fightdevelopedaroundthePrinceofWales.

TheFrenchattackcontinuedintothenight,withrepeatedchargesagainsttheEnglishpositionsasreinforcementsreachedthebattlefieldandthrewthemselvesinto the engagement. They failed, however, to break through to the English

archers,whocontinuedtoinflictgreatdamageonmenandhorses.Asdarkfell,theEnglishmen-at-armsmounted and charged the surviving groups of FrenchhorseandFrenchinfantryinturn.ThebulkoftheFrenchinfantrybrokeandran,sufferingheavy losses.KingPhiliphimselfwasnearlykilled;heescapedwithhislife,butlefthispersonalstandardandtheOriflammeonthebattlefield.Thebattlewaseffectivelyoverbytheendoftheday,although2000Frenchinfantryturnedup thenextmorning.Theymistook theEnglish for theirownarmyandwerequicklyscatteredandslaughtered.

This great English victory displayed beyond doubt the power of well-positionedandwell-defendedlongbowmen.FewEnglishmendiedatCrécy,butthe French toll was enormous. About 2000 French men-at-arms perished,including eight princes of the blood and the blind King John of Bohemia.Nobody knows howmany common French soldiers also fell, butKing Philipmadethecarnageevenworsebyorderingthemassacreofthesurviving‘traitor’Genoesemercenaries.■CALAIS,4SEPTEMBER1346–3AUGUST1347The English siege of the strongly held seaport of Calais dragged on for 11months.InNovember,anefforttostormthetownfromboatsinthemoatfailed.Suppliesandreinforcements reachedCalaisbyseaas lateasApril,but faminefinally took its toll.KingPhilip finallycame to relieveCalais in late July,butwithdrewinfaceofthestrongerEnglisharmy.Calaissurrenderedon3August.■LAROCHE-DERRIEN,1347AnEnglish force of 700underThomasDagworth came to relieve thisBretontown,undersiegebyCharlesofBloiswithabout1500men.TheFrenchforcewas divided into four sectors. Dagworth attacked the largest before dawn,although his attempt at surprise failed. Fightingwas heavy and confused untilthe garrison came to Dagworth’s assistance. The English defeated the otherFrenchunitsinturn,inflictingheavycasualties.■LUNALONGE,1349A stalemate between French and Anglo-Gascon armies. The English in anentrenched position typical of the early Hundred Years War beat off FrenchcavalryattacksandtheEnglishwereabletowithdrawthatnight.■LESESPAÑOLSSURMER,29AUGUST1350AlsoknownasthebattleofWinchelsea,thisbattledevelopedwhenEdwardIIIorganized a fleet to stop raiders and intercepted 24 Castilian ships sailingsouthward.TheEnglish had twice the number of ships, but their vesselswere

smaller and lower, so they suffered heavy casualties while closing with theenemy.However, they quickly gained the advantage in hand-to-hand fighting,winningacompletevictory.■THIRTYFRENCHKNIGHTS,26MARCH1351The French and English each provided 30 champions to fight this battle inBrittany.Fightingseveralhours inaccordancewithstrict rules theFrenchwontheday.Thebattleaccomplishednothing.■SAINTES,1351TheFrenchGuydeNesletriedtohaltanEnglishadvance,drawinghismenupon foot before them on rising ground. The French were completely defeated,becauseanotherEnglishforceattackedtheirrear.■ARDRES,1351AnEnglish raiding party in Francewas cornered by French troops. Forced todefend themselvesonopengroundandwith archers almostoutof arrows, theEnglishforcewaskilledorcaptured.■MAURON,14AUGUST1352A superior French force attacked about 750 English troops. The Englishcommander,WalterBentley,dismountedhismen-at-arms,placingarchersonthewings.AFrenchcavalrychargescatteredtheunprotectedarchersononewing.Dismountedmen-at-arms thenattacked theEnglishcentre.Afterhard fighting,theFrenchweredrivenback.BothEnglishandFrenchsufferedheavycasualties,including89KnightsoftheStar,whohadpreviouslyswornnevertoretreat.■POITIERS,19SEPTEMBER1356CivilwarinFranceledEdwardIIIofEnglandtorenewhiseffortsatconquest.HeplannedanambitiouspincerstrategytotrapJeanII’sFrencharmy,hisownlarge army attacking from the west while the Prince ofWales came up fromGascony to threaten the French rear. In the event, King Edward’s army wasdelayed,whileEdwardtheBlackPrincebeganapillagingthrustintoFrance.HisEnglish-Gasconforceconsistedofabout2000archers,1000Gasconinfantryand3000men-at-arms,allmounted.

Jean II took the fieldwith8000men-at-armsand3000 infantry,hisgoal toforce the Black Prince into a decisive battle. As they approached, the princemarchedover fields to avoiddetection, finding and routingpart of theFrenchrearguard. The prince then took up a defensive position on a hill north ofNouaillé,aforesttotherear,withahawthornhedgeandvinesinfront.Marshesprotected the left flank,while on the right, theEnglish dug deep trenches.As

usual, archerswere posted on thewings,with dismountedmen-at-arms in thecentreunder thePrince’scommand.Thethirsty,hungryEnglishstood toarms,expecting immediateattack.Battlewasdelayedforadayasacardinal tried tonegotiate peace. The Prince ofWales provedwilling to negotiate, but Jean IIrefusedproposalsoutofhand.

By the morning of Monday 19 September, the English army was in badstraits, but the French delayed attacking such a strong position. Finally, theFrenchplannedamassedcavalrycharge–500men-at-armsonarmouredhorses–to break up the English archers, the rest of the army following on foot.Meanwhile,theBlackPrinceplannedadesperateretreatandstartedmovingtheEarl ofWarwick’smen.TheFrench advance guard saw the enemymovementand launched a charge against the English wings, but not against the all-importantarcherpositions.Ononewing,archerswereabletomovebehindthechargingFrenchmenandfireatthehorses’unarmouredrumps;ontheother,theimpetuousFrenchchargebroughtthemintocloserangeofarchersconcealedintrenches.

ThemainFrench forcewas already advancingon foot, ledby thedauphin.Theysufferedabarrageofarrows,whichhad lesseffectonfootmenthan theywouldoncavalry.SomeFrenchmenwereabletoclosewiththeEnglish,wherethey fought hand-to-hand for about two hours before retreating, still in goodorder.

At this point, in a horrible miscalculation, King Jean ordered his son towithdrawtosafety.TheDukeofOrléans,seeingthedauphinandhisentouragedepart, misunderstood and pulled back with the entire French second line. Inexasperation,thekinghimselfadvancedwiththethirdline.Bythen,theEnglishwererunningoutofarrows,soJeanwasabletoclosewiththeEnglishmen-at-arms.TheEnglishweretiredandwounded,butstilloutnumberedtheremainingFrench, especially as archers joined in with swords and knives. The decisiveblow came when the Captal de Buch took 160 of the English reserve andchargedtheFrenchrear.Theprincethenmountedmanyofhismen-at-armsandchargedtheunmountedFrenchonopenground.Caughtbetweentwoforces,theFrenchwere slaughteredand thosewho fledwerecutdown; Jeanhimselfwascaptured, alongwithabout3000ofhis army.About2500Frenchmen-at-armsdied.

■MELLO,10JUNE1358Frenchpeasantrebels,the‘Jacques’,campedinastrongpositionontheplateauofMello;aFrencharmyunderKingCharlesofNavarreopposedthem.Charlesinvitedthepeasantleaderforaparley,buttookhimcaptive.Charles’armythencharged the leaderlesspeasants.Despite their strongposition in two lineswitharchers in front and carts and trenchesprotecting the flanks, the peasant armywasoverrunanddestroyed.■BRIGNAIS,6APRIL1362ThemercenaryGreatCompany,about5000strong, attackedaFrench forceof4000 that had been sent against them. Accomplishing complete surprise, theCompanycaptured1000Frenchfighters,killingandscatteringtherest.■COCHEREL,16MAY1364An Anglo-Gascon force of 1500–2000 under the Captal de Buch met 1200Franco-Gascons under Bertrand du Guesclin. After a bloody engagement, duGuesclincommittedhisreserveagainsttheCaptal’sflank,causingarout.■AURAY,16MAY1364CharlesofBloiswith3000–4000mencame to relieve thesiegeofAuray.TheAnglo-Britishdefenders,about2000menunderSirJohnChandos,tookastrongposition on rising ground. Chandos drove off the first Franco-Breton attack,whereupon the Bretons of Charles’ second division deserted, leaving Charlesisolated. The English then charged, completing the French route with theirreserves.Some800Franco-Bretonsdied,includingCharles.■PONTVALLAIN,4DECEMBER1370InDecember,Englishbandswerespreadoutindisorganizedcamps,preparingtoenter winter quarters. With a series of forced marches, a French force underBertrandduGuesclincompletelysurprisedthelargestgroup,underGrandeson.AnotherFrenchforceunderSancerre,hearingofthebattle,attackedtheEnglishband under Fitzwalter and massacred them. The English suffered very heavycasualtiesandtherestoftheEnglishforcewasscattered.■LAROCHELLE,22–23JUNE1372ACastilian-Frenchfleetof20–40shipstrappedanEnglishconvoyofabout20merchantshipsandthreewarshipsinLaRochelle’sharbour.Inatwo-daybattletheEnglishsufferedcompletedefeat.■CHIZÉ,1373SirJohnDevereuxbroughtanEnglishforcec.800strongtorelieveChizécastle.

Initially successful, the English fled when French troops rallied. Almost theentireEnglishforcewaskilledorcaptured.■CHATEAUNEUF-DE-RANDON,1380BertrandduGuesclinbroughtaFrenchforcetoattackanindependentmercenarybandoccupying this small town.The townsurrenderedafter a short siege,butFrance’sgreatGeneralduGuesclindiedofdysentery.■ROOSEBEKE,27NOVEMBER1382Charles VI’s large French army completely defeated about 40,000 rebelFlemingsunderPhilipvanArtevelde.Theuntrainedtownsmentookadefensiveposition,butwereoutflankedandmassacreduntilnightfall;about27,500died.■MARGATE,24MARCH1387About 200 armed merchant ships under Jan Buuc dared an English Channelblockade,buttheEarlofArundelwith47greatshipsambushedthem,defeatingBuucintwoengagementsandcapturing68vessels.■BRAMHAMMOOR,19FEBRUARY1408TherebelliousHenryPercy,earlofNorthumberlandmarchedagainstYorkwithaNorthumbrian-Scottisharmy.SirThomasRokebymetPercywithlocallevies,defeatingandkillingtheearl.■HARFLEUR,18–22SEPTEMBER1415WhenHenryVinvadedFrancein1415,hisfirsttargetwasthetownofHarfleur.KingHenry invested the townwith his force of about 2000men-at-arms and6000archers;Harfleurhadagarrisonof400.The12greatgunsofHenry’ssiegetrain inflicted serious damage on the town’swalls.He then planned a generalassault,butHarfleur’sleaderssurrenderedontermson22September.■AGINCOURT,25OCTOBER1415HenryVofEnglandinvadedFrancein1415toreignitetheHundredYearsWar,takingadvantageofaFrenchcivilwar.AftertakingHarfleur,theEnglishforceofperhaps1500men-at-armsand7000archersmarchednorthward.TheFrenchmustered amuch larger army, perhaps asmany as 10,000men-at-arms and atotal force of 25,000, underConstable ofFranceCharles d’Albret, to confrontthe invaders. At first, d’Albret shadowed the English route as he raisedmoremen. However, the English force was rapidly weakening. The campaigningseasonwasover, theywereshorton foodanddysenterywas running rampant.Finally,theFrenchforcedbattleon25October.

KingHenry chose his ground carefully, placing hismen in a narrowdefile

betweentwoforests.Asusual,dismountedEnglishmen-at-armswereplacedinthe centre in three lines,with archers protected by stakes on thewings. Somearchersmayalsohavebeenpositionedinthecentreinterspersedwiththemen-at-arms. Although their numbers were far superior, the French hesitated toattack, wary of the English archers and the narrow front, especially as theywouldhavetoadvancethroughthethickmudoffreshlyploughedfields.Henryfinallystarted the fight inmid-morningbymovinghisarmyforward towithinarchery range; inexplicably, the French did not attack until after the Englisharchershaddriveninstakestoprotectthemselvesagainstcavalrycharges.

After English arrows began stinging the French, d’Albret sent his cavalryagainst thearchers inacatastrophiccharge.Unable togainmuchspeedon themuddyground,theFrenchmen-at-armsand,moreimportantly,theirhorseswerestruckbyahaleofarrows.Woundedhorses threw their riders into themudorrampaged, maddened by pain. Even before the cavalry charge failed, theconstablebeganleadingasecondchargeconsistingofdismountedmen-at-arms.TheirplatearmourwaslargelyproofagainstEnglisharrows;theplanmusthavebeenthattheywouldclosewiththeEnglishcentreandoverwhelmitwiththeirsuperiornumbers.Theyadvancedinhorribleconditionsthroughknee-deepmud,trying to push forward despite the weight of 23–27kg of armour, trying tobreathethroughtheslitsintheirhelmets.Arrowswereunlikelytopiercethem,but many were knocked off their feet by the force of blows and they wereadvancinginsuchcloseorderthatthosewhofellweretroddenintothemud.

Nonetheless, some of the French men-at-arms reached the English centre,certainly exhausted by their arduous crossing of the fields. The frontwas toonarrow for the French to deploy their superior numbers and they were alsoharriedbytheEnglisharchers,whoattackedthemontheflankwithhatchetsandswords. In a three-hour fight, the English killed, captured, or drove off theirattackers.

MuchoftheFrenchneverengagedwiththeEnglish.Intheafternoon,fearingan attack by the French rearguard,Henry ordered the execution of all but hishighest-ranking prisoners. The attack never materialized, though, with the

demoralizedFrenchmenfleeingthebattlefield.WhileallsourcesagreethatAgincourtwasagreatEnglishvictory,theyvary

widely in their accounts of the slain. The English suffered heavy casualties,about1600,suggestinghowdesperatethefightinghadbeen.Anywherebetween4000and10,000fellontheFrenchside,includingtheircommanderandalargenumberofothernobles.■ROUEN,31JULY1418–19JANUARY1419King Henry V besieged Rouen between July 1418 and January 1419. Soonrunning low on food, the town expelled 12,000 poor peoplewhowere left tostarveoutsidethewalls.Thecommander,GuyleBouteiller,finallysurrendered.■BAUGÉ,21MARCH1421A6000-manFranco-Scottish armyconfronted a largerEnglish armybesiegingBaugé.Theirsurpriseattackfailing,theEnglishweredefeatedinalong,bloodyfightinwhichtheircommander,theDukeofClarence,waskilled.■MEAUX,6OCTOBER1421–10MAY1422HenryVbesiegedMeauxinOctober1421untilthegarrisonsurrenderedon10May1422.Henry’sartilleryandminersbroughtdownsectionsofwall,butnogeneralassaultwasattemptedasthebesiegersfellpreytodysentery.■CRAVANT,31JULY1423AFrench royalist army 8000 strongmarched intoBurgundy, encountering theearlofSalisbury’sAnglo-BurgundianarmyonthebanksoftheYonneriver.TheEnglishcrossedundertheirarchers’protectivefire,bothfordingandcrossingthenarrowbridge.TheFrench retreated, but theirScottish allies under the earl ofBuchanstoodtheirground.InthemajorEnglishvictory,6000FrenchandScotswerekilledand2000captured.■LABROSSINIÈRE,26SEPTEMBER1423About2800FrenchsupportersofthedauphincaughtanEnglishraidingforceofabout1500underWilliamdelaPole.TheEnglishwerebrokeninaflankattackandnearlyallweremassacred.■VERNEUIL,17AUGUST1424A French royalist force of 14,000–16,000 (including about 6000 Scots) tookVerneuil with a ruse, drawing the English army of 8000–10,000 under John,DukeofBedford,outagainstthem.

The French army was far from unified. Scots and French divisions weredrawn up side by side, with Lombardmercenary cavalry on both wings. The

English formedwithdismountedmen-at-arms in the centre andarcherson thewings,thenadvancedtowithinarrowrange.Asthearchersdroveinprotectivestakes,theMilanesecavalryattackedandbrokethroughtheEnglishrightwing,butwentontoattackthebaggagetrain;theLombardcavalryontheotherwingsoon joined them. Bedford pushed back the French, but broke off pursuit toattack the Scots, now fighting alone, on the right flank. More than 7000FrenchmenandScotsdied,withlightEnglishcasualties.

■BROUWERSHAVEN,13JANUARY1426Philip the Good of Burgundy invaded Zeeland, held by a mixed Zeelander-

Englishforce.TheEnglishattackedasPhilipdisembarked,but theBurgundianknightsdrovetheirenemiesontoadikeandkilled3000.■STJAMES,1426An English army raiding into Brittany took refuge at St-James-de-Beuvron,where a French force under Arthur de Richemont attacked them. The Frenchwerecaughtoffguardbyasortieandwithdrew.■ORLÉANS,12OCTOBER1428–8MAY1429Afteraseriesoftriumphs,anEnglisharmyundertheearlofShrewsburyreachedthe strategicallyplacedcityofOrléans,which stillheldout forCharlesVIIofFrance. Orléans was connected to the Duke of Orléans, England’s inveterateenemy, so the Orléanais could expect brutal treatment from the enemy. As aresult,theyrefusedtosurrender,afterwhichShrewsburymountedasiegeon12October1428.

Orléans was a strongly fortified town with suburbs extending to the southbankoftheLoire.TheEnglisheffort totakethecityopenedinthesouth-banksuburbwithanattackontheAugustins,awalledmonastery.TheysoontooktheAugustins, then went on to seize Les Tourelles, a heavily fortified gate thatprotected the southern end of the long bridge over the Loire that led intoOrléans. The French defenders were forced back behind the city walls,destroyingasectionofthebridgeastheywent.

The walls of Orléans were invulnerable to the cannon of the day, so theEnglishhadnochoicebuttotrytostarvethedefendersout.Thedeathoftheir

commander and a number of temporary commanders probably also added toEnglishinactivityduringthewintermonths.EventuallytheEarlofSuffolktookcharge.TheEnglishforcewas insufficient to invest the large towncompletely,but they created a series of fortified camps to control the surroundingcountryside.Somefoodandreinforcementscontinuedtofindtheirwayintothetown,despiteEnglishpatrols.Nonetheless,byspring1429, thedefendersweregrowingdesperate.

Then came one of history’s great surprises: a French peasant womanpresented herself to the demoralized dauphin of France, proclaiming thatGodhad sent her to raise the siege ofOrléans and to seeCharles crowned as trueking. Joan of Arc quickly won credence. She was equipped with arms andarmour,aswellasabannerproclaiminghercauseandwassenttoOrléanswithahastilyassembledreliefforce.Sheenteredthecityon29April.JeandeDunois(the ‘Bastard of Orléans’) soon accepted Joan at least as a talisman, but hiscaution continued to clashwith her fiery demands for immediate attack. Joanquickly gave heart to the dispirited French, inspiring themen to confess theirsinsandsinghymns.

At Joan’s urging, the French made a direct assault on 4 May against theEnglish fortressofSt-Loup, taking thepositionafterheavy fighting. Joan thenwrotetotheEnglishdemandingtheirwithdrawalinGod’sname(theletterisstillextant).ThedefendersjoinedwithJoaninclamouringforafurtherassaultuntilDunois had to agree to attack Les Tourelles on 7 May. Again, the Frenchabandoned subtlety in favourof a full frontal assault.The first escalade failedand Joan sufferedanarrowwound, leading theEnglish to chantgleefully ‘thewitch isdead’!However, Joan soon returned to the fight and theFrench forcesuccessfully overran Les Tourelles in the evening, killing or capturing alldefenders.

On 8 May, Suffolk gathered the English garrisons from the fortressessurrounding Orléans and drew them up for battle. The French responded bytakingupbattleformationsoutsidethecitywalls.

Thetwoforcedfacedeachotherforanhour,neithersidewillingtostarttheconflict(itwasaSunday,soJoanwasunwillingtoattack).Finally,theEnglishwithdrew,endingthesiege.■ROUVRAY,12FEBRUARY1429The ‘Battle of the Herrings’ developed when the French attacked an Englishsupply convoy under Sir John Fastolf. The English fortified themselves with

theirwagons; theFrench failed to break through.About 400 Frenchmenwerekilled.■JARGEAU,11–12JUNE1429AFrenchforceof3000attackedthetownofJargeau,heldbyanEnglishgarrisonof700.FrenchartillerybroughtdownatowerandtheFrench,ralliedbyJoanofArc,scaledthewalls.■MEUNG-SUR-LOIRE,15JUNE1429AFrencharmyledbyJean,DukeofAlençonandJoanofArcattackedEnglish-heldMeung-sur-Loire.They took the fortifiedbridge in a single day, ignoringtheEnglish-heldtownandcastle.■BEAUGENCY,16–17JUNE1429AFrench force under Jean,Duke ofAlençon and Joan ofArc thrust into theLoireValley.They attackedEnglish-heldBeaugencyon 16 June, soon forcingtheEnglish toabandonthe townand takerefuge in thecastle.Theseconddaysawanartillerybarrageagainstthecastle.Thatnight,AlençonreceivedwordofanEnglishreliefforce,soheofferedgeneroustermsforthecastle’ssurrender.■PATAY,18JUNE1429A5000-manEnglisharmywascaughtunpreparedbythe1500-manvanguardofthe French army under LaHire. The English, mostly archers, had no time tofortifythemselvesandwerescattered.■COMPIÈGNE,18JUNE1430JoanofArcgathered300–400volunteers toprotectCompiègne.Aftera failedsurpriseattackagainsttheBurgundiansatMargny,JoanfellbacktoCompiègne,butwascapturedbecausethegatewasalreadyclosed.■GERBEVOY,1435EnglishtroopsundertheEarlofArundelencounteredalargeFrenchforcenearGerbevoy. Many of Arundel’s soldiers ran most who remained were killed.Arundelhimselfsufferedaculverinwoundandlaterdied.■ROUEN,1449A largeFrench armyunderDunois, the ‘Bastard ofOrléans’, tookRouen, theEnglish capital of France, after a three-week siege. Their victory was due toDunois’modernandlargeartillerytrain.■FORMIGNY,15APRIL1450TheincreasinglydesperateEnglishgatheredaforceof4000–7000soldiers,two-thirds of them bowmen, to halt the French advance into Normandy. They

encountered a 5000-man French army under the Comte de Clermont atFormignyon15April1450.

The English under Thomas Kyrielle took up a defensive position, in linebehind stakes and low earthworks. Action began with a series of ineffectiveFrench charges against the English flanks. Clermont then had two cannonbrought forward, whose shot had little effect; the English soon charged andseizedthem.ThebattleturnedwhentheDukeofBrittanywith1200menarrivedontheEnglishflank.Forcedoutoftheirpreparedposition,theEnglish(mostlylightlyarmouredarchers)couldbeoverwhelmedinaseriesofcharges.Kyrielland 900 of his men were captured; about 2500 English were killed. Frenchlosses,however,wereunder1000.■CASTILLON,17JULY1453A 9000-man English army led by Shrewsbury encountered a French forceinvadingGascony in July 1453. The French soldiers took refuge in a heavilyfortified camp, their 300 cannon, archers and crossbowmen mowing downEnglishcharges.ABretonflankattackeventuallycompletedtheEnglishrout.

EthiopianWar1445■GOMIT,1445Ethiopia,ledbyZaraYaqob,overcametheforcesoftheAdalSultanate,ledbyBadlayibnSa’adad-Dinwhowaskilled.HisbodywasthendistributedaroundEthiopia.

WarsoftheRoses1455–85■STALBANSI,22MAY1455The first battle of StAlbans is regarded as the first battle of theWars of theRoses. It was fought between Richard, Duke of York, assisted by RichardNeville,EarlofWarwick,whose3000menovercame2000LancastriansunderEdmund,DukeofSomerset,whowaskilledinthefightinginthecitystreetsofSt Albans. An important outcome of the battle was the temporary seizure ofHenryVI.■BLOREHEATH,23SEPTEMBER1459AtBloreHeath,aLancastrianarmyunderLordAudleyattemptedtointerceptaYorkist armymarching to join upwith theYorkistmain body atLudlow.TheambushwasfoiledandLordAudleywaskilled.■LUDFORDBRIDGE,12OCTOBER1459Richard,DukeofYorkmadeastandatLudfordBridgeacross theRiverTemebelowLudlowCastle,butwhensomeofhis troopsdefected,hewas forced totakerefugeinLudlowandthenfled.■SANDWICH,JANUARY1460The battle of Sandwich was a minor naval engagement fought at sea offSandwich between the Earl ofWarwick, Captain of Calais and a Lancastrianfleet.ItsecuredtheEnglishChannelfortheYorkistcause.■NORTHAMPTON,10JULY1460Landing at Sandwich, the Yorkists under Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick,advancedtoLondonandheadednorthtowardsCoventrywhereKingHenryVIwasbased.TheKing’sLancastrianarmyadvancedtomeetthemandtookupaposition atNorthampton behind some field defences.TheYorkista attacked inrainagainstabarrageofarrows.TheLancastrianLordGreyofRuthinchangedsidesasthebattlebeganandtheirdefencecollapsed.■WAKEFIELD,30DECEMBER1460ThebattleofWakefieldwasamajordefeat for theYorkists.Richard,DukeofYork, was inside his castle of Sandal to the south of Wakefield and wasexpectingreinforcements,butbeforeanysupportersarrived,hemadethestrangedecision to march out and give battle to the Lancastrians. He was heavilydefeatedanddiedinbattle.Hisson,EdmundEarlofRutland,waskilledashetriedtoescape.

■MORTIMER’SCROSS,2FEBRUARY1461Mortimer’sCrosswasavictorygainedbyEdward,EarlofMarch(laterEdwardIV) as he successfully prevented a Lancastrian army underOwenTudor fromjoining forces with the main Lancastrian body in England. Owen TudorattemptedanencirclementoftheYorkistleftwingbuthistroopsweredefeated.Duringtheflightfromthebattlefield,someoftheLancastrianswerefollowedasfarasHereford,whereOwenhimselfwascapturedandbeheaded.■STALBANSII,17FEBRUARY1461TheEarlofWarwickattemptedtohalttheprogresstoLondonoftheLancastrianarmy at St Albans, 38 km (24 miles) north of London. The Lancastriansoutmanoeuvredhimbymakingawidesweep,butwereunabletofollowuptheirvictory.■FERRYBRIDGE,28MARCH1461TheminorconflictatFerrybridgewasapreliminarytothebattleofTowton.TheEarl ofWarwick, leading theYorkist vanguard of the newly proclaimedKingEdward IV, forced theirway under arrow fire across the broken bridge of theAire river. The following day, the successful Yorkists were ambushed byLancastrians, although their main body soon arrived. Crossing upstream atCastleford,theybeganapursuitoftheLancastrianarmy.■TOWTON,29MARCH1461ThebattleofTowtonwasthelargestbattleoftheWarsoftheRosesandoneofthebloodiestinEnglishhistory.TheYorkistswereledbyKingEdwardIV,theLancastrians by Henry Beaufort, Duke of Somerset. The battle began with adischargeofarrowsbytheYorkistsassnowbegantofall.ThewindcarriedthearrowsfarintotheranksoftheLancastrianarmy,whorepliedwithabarrageofarrowsthatfellshort.Botharmiesthenadvancedandbeganalongandbloodyhand-to-handstruggle,constantlyreplenishedfromtherear.AstheLancastriansfellback,apanickedretreatbegan.AwoodenbridgeacrosstheCockbeckbrokeundertheweightoftheretreatandasmanyas30,000soldiersdiedinall.■HEDGELEYMOOR,25APRIL1464Thisbattle,afootnotetotheWarsof theRoses,wasanencounterbetweenthefamilies ofNeville and Percy, duringwhich the Percies attempted an ambushagainsttheYorkists.SirRalphPercywaskilledinthebattle.■HEXHAM,15MAY1464In another encounter in the north of England, John Neville, Lord Montague,attacked the camp of a Lancastrian raiding party located beside a river near

Hexham.ThreeimportantLancastrianleaderswerecapturedandlaterbeheaded.■EDGECOTEMOOR,26JULY1469ThebattleofEdgecoteMoorarosefromthedefectiontotheLancastriansideofthe Earl of Warwick, who reinforced the rebels. The rivals met almostunexpectedlynearBanbury.TheEarlofPembrokewascaptured.■LOSECOATFIELD,12MARCH1470Alsoknownas thebattleofEmpingham, thiswas themainengagementof theLincolnshire Rebellion. Although a victory for Edward IV, it was one of thefactorsthatcausedhimtofleefromEngland.■RAVENSPUR,1471King Edward IV returned to England to regain his throne. He landed atRavenspur and avoided fighting Lancastrian armies by claiming that heacknowledgedHenryVIandmerelywishedtoreclaimhisdukedomofYork.■BARNET,14APRIL1471ThebattleofBarnetwasfoughtbetweenEdwardIVand theEarlofWarwick.Thefightingbeganearly in themorningwhenfogobscured thebattlefieldandtheflankattacksweredissipatedwhileafiercemeleewentoninthecentre.Animpetuous attack by the Earl of Oxford left the battlefield and, when theyreturned, theywere attacked by their allies inmistake leading to a defeat forWarwick.Whileretreating,WarwickwaskilledbyYorkistsoldiers.■TEWKESBURY,4MAY1471The battle of Tewkesbury came about when the Lancastrians, retreating intoWales,werecaughtwhilecrossingtheSevernriverafterbeingdeniedthesafetyof thecityofGloucester.Thebattlewasevenlybalanceduntil theLancastrianDukeofSomersetaccusedanallyof treasonandkilledhim,causingasplit inthe ranks.TheYorkists tookadvantageof theconfusionandattacked in force,drivingtheLancastrianstowardstheriverwheremanydrowned.■BOSWORTHFIELD,22AUGUST1485Bosworth Field, the battle that ended the Yorkist line, was one of the mostdecisive battles in English history. Henry Tudor, exiled in France, provided anucleus of resistance for the Lancastrian lords who had been dispossessedfollowing the triumphofEdwardIVandhissuccessor,RichardIII.HenryandhisarmylandedatMilfordHaveninAugust1485andbegantoraiseadditionaltroops.KingRichardIIIdidthesameand,owingtothelocationsoftheiralliesand the directions of movement, the armies met at Bosworth Field nearLeicester.The forcesofLordStanleyand theEarlofNorthumberlandwereof

questionable loyalty, so Richard treated the former as hostile and placed thelatter,whohadpledgedloyaltytohim,safelytohisrear.

ThebattleofBosworthFieldbeganprecipitatelywhenRichardattackedfirsttopreventHenryfrombringingintoactionhisBurgundiangunners.Themovewas ledby theDukeofNorfolk.Henrywasstill arranginghisarmyand therewassomeconfusion,butthelineheldandtheDukeofNorfolkwaskilled.Therefollowedsomethingofastalemateand,seeingHenryTudorridingtowardsLordStanleytoaskforhisallegiance,RichardIIIunleashedafiercecavalrycharge.

The impactwas considerable andRichard’s own lance pierced the body ofHenry Tudor’s standard bearer. Although seemingly successful, at that pointLordStanleydeclaredforHenryandattackedRichardIII’sleftflank.TheEarlofNorthumberlandwithdrewhisforcesandRichardIIIwaskilledonthefieldofbattle.The coronet hewore on his helmetwas hacked off, and presented as acrowntoHenryTudor.■EASTSTOKE,16JUNE1487RegardedasbeingthefinalbattleoftheWarsoftheRoses,atStokeKingHenryVII crushed theYorkist rebellionunder the pretenderLambertSimnel and theEarlofLincoln,wholedanarmycontainingGermanandIrishmercenaries.TheYorkists immediately went on the attack, but after three hours the lightlyarmouredIrishtroopssufferedheavylossesandLincoln’sarmywasdefeated.Itwas one of the deadliest fights of the war, with perhaps 7000 of the 20,000combatants dying, as there was a mutual agreement that there would be noquarterforthoseleftstanding.AllofthemainYorkistscommandersdiedatthebattleapartfromSimnel,whowascapturedandeventuallypardoned.

Swiss-BurgundianWar1474–77■HÉRICOURT,NOVEMBER1474Thiswas the first encounter of the Swiss-BurgundianWar.An allied army ofAustrians, Alsatians and Swiss besieged Héricourt and defeated Charles theBold’srelievingarmy,thusdelayinghisplanstoannexAlsaceandLorraine.■PLANTA,NOVEMBER1475In November 1475, the army of the Duchy of Savoy engaged the SwissConfederates who were initially driven back, but reinforcements forced theSavoyardstowithdrawtheirleftflank.Duringtheattack,1000Savoyardsdied.■GRANDSON,2MARCH1476Grandsonwas amajor defeat for Charles the Bold at the hands of the SwissConfederacy. It followed his capture of the castle of Grandson on LakeNeuchâtel. Charles assumed that the approaching Swiss vanguard was theirentirearmyandwithdrewhiscavalryso thathisartillerycoulddeploy,but therapidadvanceoftheSwissmainbodydidnotallowfortheartillerytobeused.■MORAT,22JUNE1476AlsoknownasthebattleofMurten,MoratwasacastlebesiegedbyCharlestheBold.TheSwissrelievingarmyadvancedsteadilyinadensepikeformationandovercametheBurgundianarmy,capturingmuchbooty.■NANCY,5JANUARY1477During a severe winter, Charles the Bold laid siege to the city of Nancy,previouslycapturedbytheDukeofLorraine,whosentarelievingarmy.Charlesdeployedhisarmyof3000besiegersinadefensiveposition,whichhadasmallstream,aswellas30smallcannon,infrontofit.Thepositionwassufficientlystrong todissuade theDukeofLorraine’smuch larger armyof10,000 fromafrontalattack.Instead,thelargelySwissvanguardwassentoffinanencirclingmovementagainstCharles’leftflank.Meanwhile,thecentretookupapositiononCharles’right.Whentheyattacked,Charlestriedtoreorganizehisforces,butwascaughtup in theoverwhelmingadvance.Charleswashiton theheadandknockedoffhishorse.Hisbodywasfoundthreedayslater.NancywasrelievedandwhenCharles’deathbecameknown,theSwiss-BurgundianWarsended.

Spanish-MuslimWars1481–92■ALHAMADEGRANADA,1482Situated betweenMalaga andGranada,Alhamawas strategically important tothe Sultanate of Granada. In 1482, it fell to a Christian army as part of thereconquestofMoorishSpain.■LOJA,1486TheattackonLojain1486wasledpersonallybyKingFerdinandandprovedtobeadisasterfortheChristianarmy,whoweredrivenoffandpursued.Aplannedwithdrawalthenturnedintoapanicretreat.

■MALAGA,18AUGUST1487The siege of Malaga in 1487 began with a fiercely contested attempt by theChristianbesiegerstofindsuitableplaceswheretheycouldlocatetheirartillery.piecesAbombardmentfollowedandMalagawasalsothelastoccasiononwhicha trebuchetwasusedduringa siege.When itwasdiscovered that thegarrisonwerebeginningtosufferfromtheeffectsofstarvation,agunpowderminewasexplodedunderthemandthecitysurrendered.BAZA,4DECEMBER1489TheAmirMuhammad theValiant surrenderedBaza to theCatholicmonarchs

ratherthansubmittohishatednephewBoabdil,whomheregardedasatraitor,butBoabdilwithdrewhisassurancesandpreparedtodefendGranada.

AUTHORSANDCONTRIBUTORSRalphW.AshbyDrRalphW.Ashby isamemberof theHistoryDepartmentatEastern IllinoisUniversityandhasaPhDfromtheUniversityofIllinoisatChicago.Hismilitaryexperience includes completing a training programme with the United StatesMarineCorps,andmorethanthreeyearsofactiveservice in theUnitedStatesArmy, duringwhichhe participated in theFirstGulfWar.He is the author ofNapoleonAgainstGreatOdds:TheEmperorandtheDefendersofFrance,1814.

NellAubreyNellAubreyhasaBAinHistory,anMAinMedievalStudiesandiscompletingaPhDintheHistoryofMedicine,allatUniversityCollegeLondon.Shehasalsotaught earlymedieval history and the history of torture at University CollegeLondon.

TimBenbowDrTimBenbowisaSeniorLecturerintheDefenceStudiesDepartmentat theJoint Services Command Staff College, Oxfordshire. He previously taught atBritanniaRoyalNavalCollege,theUniversityofExeterandOxfordUniversity.He has a BA in Philosophy, Politics and Economics fromBrasenose College,Oxford and an MPhil and DPhil in International Relations from St Antony’sCollege,Oxford.HeistheauthorofBritishNavalAviation:TheFirst100YearsandThe History of World War I: Naval Warfare 1914-1918 and T he MagicBullet?UnderstandingtheRevolutioninMilitaryAffairs.

JamesBosbotinisJames Bosbotinis is a UK-based analyst specialising in military and strategicdevelopments. He is an Associate Member of and Editorial Assistant to theCorbettCentreforMaritimePolicyStudies,King’sCollege,London.Heholdsmemberships of the RoyalUnited Services Institute for Defence and SecurityStudies,theRoyalInstituteofInternationalAffairs,theInternationalInstituteforStrategic Studies andTheNaval Review. He also holds anMA inDiplomaticStudies from the University of Westminster and a BA in Economics andInternationalRelationsfromLondonGuildhallUniversity.

ThomasD.ConlanThomasD.ConlanisAssociateProfessorofAsianStudiesatBowdoinCollege,Maine. He studied Japanese history at the University ofMichigan andKyotoUniversity before earning his Ph.D from Stanford University in 1998. HisscholarshipfocusesonmedievalJapanesehistory.Heis theauthorofWeapons& Fighting Techniques of the Samurai Warrior 1200–1877 AD and has alsopublished two monographs: In Little Need of Divine Intervention: TakezakiSuenaga’s Scrolls of the Mongol Invasions of Japan and State of War: TheViolentOrderofFourteenthCenturyJapan.

AlejandrodeQuesadaAlejandro de Quesada has more than 30 years of experience as an armourer,collector, museum curator, weapons wrangler and as a participant in livinghistory presentations and reenactments.He is the founder ofAdeQHistorical,whichprovidesconsultingforfilmandTV,museumsandresearchers.Heistheauthor of more than 30 books, including The Hunt for Pancho Villa: TheColumbus Raid and Pershing’s Punitive Expedition 1916–17, The MexicanRevolution 1910–20,The Spanish–AmericanWar and Philippine Insurrection:1898–1902 andUniforms of the German Soldier: An Illustrated History from1870tothePresentDay.

KellyDeVriesDrKellyDeVriesisProfessorofHistoryatLoyolaCollegeinMaryland.Heisthe author of several books, includingMedievalMilitary Technology, InfantryWarfare in theEarlyFourteenthCentury,JoanofArc:AMilitaryLeader andGunsandMeninMedievalEurope.

JohnDorneyJohn Dorney studied history and politics in University College Dublin,completinganMAon the sixteenthcentury IrishchieftainFlorenceMcCarthy.HeistheauthorofTheStoryOfTheEasterRising,1916,TheStoryofTheIrishWarOf Independence,The StoryOf The IrishCivilWar andThe Story of theTudorConquestofIreland.

KevinJ.DoughertyKevinJ.DoughertyisanadjunctprofessoratTheCitadel,TheMilitaryCollegeofSouthCarolinainCharleston.HeisaretiredUSArmyofficerwhopreviouslytaughthistoryattheUniversityofSouthernMississippi.Doughertyistheauthor

ofThePeninsulaCampaignof1862:AMilitaryAnalysis,CivilWarLeadershipandMexicanWarExperience,EncyclopediaoftheConfederacyandCampaignsfor Vicksburg, 1862–63: Leadership Lessons. He lives in Charleston, SouthCarolina.

MartinJ.DoughertyMartin J. Dougherty is a freelance writer and editor specializing in weaponstechnology,militaryhistoryandcombattechniques.HeistheauthorofVikings:AHistoryof theNorsePeople andhaspreviouslycontributed toBattlesof theAncientWorld,BattlesoftheMedievalWorldandBattlesoftheCrusades.

LeeW.EysturlidDr. Lee W. Eysturlid is a history/social science instructor at the IllinoisMathematics and Science Academy. He has a PhD in history from PurdueUniversity, Indiana, and is amemberof theCitadelHistoricalAssociation.Hehas published on numerous military history topics and is author of TheFormativeInfluences,TheoriesandCampaignsoftheArchdukeCarlofAustriaand co-editor of Philosophers of War: The Evolution of History’s GreatestMilitaryThinkers.

WestleyFollettDr. Westley (Lee) Follett is Associate Professor in the College of Arts andLettersat theUniversityofSouthernMississippiGulfCoast,wherehe teachescoursesinclassical,medievalandworldhistory.Hereceivedhisdoctoratefromthe Centre for Medieval Studies at the University of Toronto and held apostdoctoral scholarship in theSchoolofCelticStudies at theDublin InstituteforAdvancedStudies.HeistheauthorofCéliDéinIreland:MonasticWritingand Identity in the Early Middle Ages and has published or has forthcomingarticlesinEolas:TheJournaloftheAmericanSocietyofIrishMedievalStudies,JournalofCelticStudiesand InsignisSophiaeArcator,anedited festschriftonmedievalLatinstudies.

PaulGelpiDr Paul Gelpi is a Professor of Military History at the US Marine CorpsCommandandStaffCollege,Quantico,Virginia,wherehe is a facultyadvisorteachingOperationalArtandtheCommunicationsProgramDirector.HeholdsaPhDinHistoryfromtheUniversityofAlabama,aswellasaBAandMAfromtheUniversityofNewOrleans.He isacontributor toseveralcompendiumsof

military(USandworld)history, twentiethcenturyUShistory,anencyclopediaofSino-Americanrelationsandacademicjournals.

StephenHartDr Stephen Hart is a Senior Lecturer with special responsibilities at theDepartmentofWarStudies,theRoyalMilitaryAcademySandhurst.Hehasbeenpublishedwidelyonmilitaryhistorytopics,includingTheAtlasofTankWarfareandColossal Cracks: Montgomery’s 21st Army Group in Northwest Europe1944–45.

PhyllisG.JesticeDrPhyllisG.JesticeisAssociateProfessorofMedievalHistoryandChairoftheHistory Department at the University of SouthernMississippi. A specialist inGermanhistoryduring the centralMiddleAges, she is the authorofWaywardMonksandtheReligionsRevolutionoftheEleventhCenturyandhascontributedto several works on the history of warfare, including Battles of the AncientWorld,BattlesoftheBible,FightingTechniquesoftheEarlyModernWorldandTheTimelineofMedievalWarfare.

DavidJordanDr David Jordan is a Senior Lecturer in Defence Studies, King’s CollegeLondon. A graduate of the Universities of Oxford and Birmingham, hepreviouslyheld lecturingpostsatBirmingham,WorcesterandKeele.Heis theauthorofWolfpack,AircraftCarriers,TheFall ofHitler’sReich andA tlasofWorldWarII.Hehasalsocontributed to theDictionaryofNationalBiographyand has written a number of academic articles on subjects as diverse as theBritish involvement in Indonesia in1945and theprospects forBritain’s futureaircraftcarriers.

HunterKeeterHunterKeeter isaconsultant innavalandmilitary technologyandoperations.From1998 to2004heworkedas journalistandeditoronseveralpublications,including Sea Power Magazine and the trade newsletter Defense Daily. Inaddition, he haswritten articles forNavalForces Internationalmagazine, andthe USNavy publicationsUnderseaWarfare and SurfaceWarfare, and is theauthor of American Air Forces in Vietnam and American Ground Forces inVietnam,aswellasacontributingauthortobooksonUShomelandsecurity.

SavvasKyriakidisDr Savvas Kyriakidis is a Post Doctoral Fellow at the University ofJohannesburg. He studied classics at the University of Thrace, Greece, andobtainedhisPhDinByzantineStudiesfromtheUniversityofBirmingham.HeistheauthorofWarfareinLateByzantium,1204–1453.

MichaelNeibergDr. Michael Neiberg is Co-Director of the Center for the Study of War andSociety at the University of Southern Mississippi. He specializes in thecomparativehistoryofWarandSocietysince1789andisafoundingmemberofthe Société Internationale d’Étude de la Grande Guerre. He is the author of,amongotherbooks,DanceoftheFuries:EuropeandtheOutbreakofWorldWarI,TheSecondBattleof theMarne,Fighting theGreatWar:AGlobalHistory,WarfareinWorldHistory,Foch:SupremeAlliedCommanderintheGreatWar,WorldWarI:TheWesternFront1914–1916,aswellasnumerousarticles,bookchapters, encyclopedia entries and reviews.He is also the editor ofTheGreatWarReader.

PeterPolackBorninJamaicain1958,PeterPolackisagraduateoftheUniversityoftheWestIndiesandNormanManleyLawSchool.AlawyerintheCaymanIslandssince1983, his first book,BlackStalingrad, is about theBattle of Cuito Cuanavale1987–88duringtheAngolanCivilWar.

DavidPorterDavid Porter has had a life-long interest in military history, particularlyarmouredwarfareandarmoured fightingvehicle technology.Since leaving theBritishMinistryofDefencein2006after29years’service,hehasworkedonanumberofresearchprojects.AswellaswritingfourvolumesintheWorldWarII Visual Battle Guide series, he is the author of The Essential VehicleIdentification Guide: Soviet Tank Units, 1939–45, The Essential VehicleIdentification Guide: Western Allied Tanks, 1939–45 andWorld War II DataBook:Hitler’sSecretWeapons.

RobS.RiceRobS.RiceisaProfessorattheAmericanMilitaryUniversity,teachingcourseson ancient andmodern navalwarfare.Hehas published articles in theOxfordCompanion to American Military History and contributed to B attles of the

Ancient World, Fighting Techniques of the Ancient World and Battles of theBible.

ScottM.RuschDr Scott M Rusch has a PhD from the University of Pennsylvania. He haswritten on ancientmilitary history formany publications. He is the author ofSpartaAtWar:Strategy,TacticsandCampaigns,950–362BC.

FrederickC.SchneidDr.FrederickC.Schneid isaProfessorofHistoryatHighPointUniversity inNorth Carolina. He is the author of several books on European warfare,includingTheSecondWarofItalianUnification1859–61,Napoleon’sConquestofEurope:TheWar of theThirdCoalition andNapoleonicWars. He has alsocontributed to Fighting Techniques of the Early Modern World and FightingTechniquesoftheNapoleonicAge.

GarySheffieldProfessor Gary Sheffield is Chair of War Studies at the University ofBirmingham.He haswrittenwidely on twentieth centurymilitary history anddefence issues. He is the author of The Chief: Douglas Haig and theTransformation of the British Army,The War Studies Reader,The Somme: ANewHistoryandForgottenVictory:TheFirstWorldWar–MythsandRealities.WithJohnBourneheeditedDouglasHaig:WarDiariesandLetters1914–1918.In2003,hesharedtheTemplerMedalforMilitaryLiteratureforhiscontributiontoTheBritishGeneralStaff:InnovationandReformc.1890–1939.

RobertJ.ThompsonIIIRobert J. Thompson III is a PhD student at the University of SouthernMississippi.Originally fromAlexandria,Virginia,hereceivedaBA inHistoryfromVirginiaWesleyan College in 2006 and anMA in History fromWilfridLaurierUniversity in 2007.His dissertationwill examinehow theUSArmy’spacificationprograminSouthVietnamfunctionedafterthe1968TetOffensive.

StephenTurnbullDr StephenTurnbull is Lecturer in Far EasternReligions at theUniversity ofLeeds. Following an undergraduate degree fromUniversity of Cambridge, hehasanMAandaPhDfromtheUniversityofLeeds.Hehaspublishedmorethan60books,includingSamurai:TheWorldoftheWarrior,NinjaAD1460–1650,

TheSamuraiCaptureaKing:Okinawa1609,TheArtofRenaissanceWarfare:From theFall ofConstantinople to theThirtyYearsWar, aswell asSamurai:The JapaneseWarrior’s (Unofficial)Manual. He was a consultant for the PCgamesShogun:TotalWarandShogun2:TotalWar,aswellasthefeaturefilm47Ronin.

AndrewWiestDr Andrew Wiest is Professor and Director of International Studies in theDepartmentofHistoryattheUniversityofSouthernMississippi.SpecializinginthestudyofWorldWarIandVietnam,Dr.WiesthasservedasaVisitingSeniorLecturerattheRoyalMilitaryAcademy,SandhurstandasaVisitingProfessorintheDepartmentofWarfightingStrategyintheUnitedStatesAirForceAirWarCollege. He is the author of The Boys of ’67: Charlie Company’s War inVietnam,Vietnam’sForgottenArmy:HeroismandBetrayalintheARVN,Haig:TheEvolutionofaCommander (GreatCommanderSeries)andTheIllustratedHistoryofWorldWarI,amongothertitles.

L.B.WilsonIIIL.B.WilsonIIIholdsaMastersDegreeinWarandSocietyfromtheUniversityof Southern Mississippi and is currently a PhD student at Mississippi StateUniversity. A former US Army Sergeant, in 2003 he served in Iraq. He haswritten on irregular warfare, insurgency and terrorism in Afghanistan, Iraq,Lebanon,IrelandandLibya.HeisacontributingauthortoCulture,Power,andSecurity:NewDirectionsintheHistoryofNationalandInternationalSecurity.

CONSULTANTEDITORS

MarcusCowperMarcus Cowper studied history at the universities of Manchester andBirminghamandhasworkedinthefieldofmilitaryhistoryasawriterandeditorfor the past 15 years. He is the author of a range of titles includingCatharCastles (2006), The Words of War (2009),Henry V (2010) and the NationalGeographicHistoryBook:AnInteractiveJourney(2011).HelivesandworksinOxford.

ChrisMcNabChrisMcNabisawriter,editorandhistorian,specializinginmilitaryhistoryandmilitarytechnology.Hehaswrittenmorethan80bookscoveringabroadrange

of periods and interests, his titles includingNative AmericanWarrior (2010),Hitler’sArmies:AHistoryoftheGermanWarMachine1939–45 (2012),ThirdReichDatabook,1933–45(2009),TheRomanArmy:TheGreatestWarMachineof the Ancient World (2010), Armies of the Napoleonic Wars (2009) andCampaignsofWorldWarII:DaybyDay(2003).ChrishasappearedonbothTVandradioasanexpertcommentatorinmilitaryaffairs,andworksinternationallydeliveringtrainingprogrammesinwritingandeditorialskills,particularlyinthefields of history and education. Chris lives in Swansea, UK, where his otherpassionsincludehillrunningandpercussion.

HOWTOUSETHEMAPSEachmapinthisbookisdesignedtoprovideaconcisepictureofthebattleasitunfolded.Thedispositionsofbothsidesareshownwithredandblueblocks,thered forces indicating the recognized victors and the blue the defeated forces.Movementisshownwithcolouredarrows.Significantgeographicalfeaturesarealso marked, such as towns,hills, ridges, roads, railway lines and rivers. Adistance scale is also included. For battles after 1914, the standard NATOmilitaryunitsymbolsareused,indicatingthetypeofforce,itssize,commanderandnumberorotheridentifyingmark.

KEYTOTHEMAPSYMBOLS Directionofmovementofvictors Directionofmovementofdefeatedforces Secondarymovement Castleorfort Camp

Cavalry

Infantry

Guns/artillerybatteries

Ancientgalleys

Ships

Shipsunk

Aircraftmovement/attack

Airfield

U-boat

Conflict/flashpoint

Battle

Typesofunitsymbols(post1914maps)

Infantry

Cavalry

Armoured

Airborne

Combined(Corpslevelandabove)UnitsizesXXXXX ArmyGroup/FrontXXXX ArmyXXX CorpsXX DivisionX BrigadeIII RegimentII BattalionI CompanyHowtounderstandaunitsymbol

BATTLESANDSIEGESINDEX

Aberconwy,Battleof(1194)74Acheloos,Battleof(917)21Aclea,Battleof(851)37Acre,Siegeof(1189-91)69Acre,Siegeof(1291)73Acronium,Battleof(739)34AdDecimum,Battleof(533)15–16Adana,Battleof(964)35Adrianople,Battleof(972)21Adrianople,Battleof(1205)71Adrianople,Battleof(1254)60Adrianople,Battleof(1365)98Aegeancampaign(1170)59AgerSanguinis,Battleof(1119)65Agincourt,Battleof(1415)127–8AinJalut,Battleof(1260)85,87Aizkraukle,Battleof(1279)92Ajnadain,Battleof(634)28Akasaka,Siegeof(1331)119Al-Babein,Battleof(1167)67Alarcos,Battleof(1195)50,51Aleppo,Siegeof(638)29–30Aleppo,Siegeof(969)35Alessandria,Battleof(1391)107Alexandria,Siegeof(619)18Alexandria,Siegeof(642)30Alfarrobeira,Battleof(1449)114Alghero,Battleof(1353)107AlhamadeGranada,Battleof(1482)136Aljubarrota,Battleof(1385)113Alnwick,Battleof(1093)10Alnwick,Battleof(1174)43Ambieve,Battleof(716)12Amida,Siegeof(502-03)13Amorium,Siegeof(838)34AnShiRebellion(755-63)23Anatoliacampaign(1064)56Anatoliacampaign(1120-21)58

Anghiari,Battleof(1440)109Ankara/Angora,Battleof(1402)89,90Annam,invasionof(c.1150)52–3AnsiFortress,Siegeof(645)23Antalya,Siegeof(1207)60Antioch,Battleof(613)17–18Antioch,Fallof(1084)57Antioch,Siegeof(969)35Antioch,Siegeof(1097-98)62Antioch,Siegeof(1268)73Anzen,Battleof(838)34Apuliacampaign(875-80)35Arbedo,Battleof(1422)108Ardnocher,Battleof(1329)75–6Ardres,Battleof(1351)124Arfderydd,Battleof(573)9Arkinholm,Battleof(1455)118Arnemuiden,Battleof(1338)120Arques,Battleof(1053)41Arsuf,Battleof(1191)69–70Artah,Siegeof(1105)64Ascalon,Siegeof(1153)67Asfeld,Battleof(552)13Ashdown,Battleof(871)37Ashingdon/Assandun,Battleof(1016)39Ashkelon,Battleof(1099)64ÁthanChip,Battleof(1270)75Athenry,Battleof(1316)75Atoleiros,Battleof(1384)113Auberoche,Battleof(1345)122Auray,Siegeof(1364)126Aussig(ÚstinadLabem),Battleof(1426)100Awazu,Battleof(1184)79Axholme,Siegeof(1265)119Azaz,Battleof(1030)54Azaz,Battleof(1125)65

Babylon,Siegeof(639)30BachDang,Battleof(1288)47Badr,Battleof(624)25Baekgang,Battleof(663)23Baesweiler,Battleof(1371)111Baghdad,Siegeof(1258)85Baghdad,Siegeof(1401)89BaileLochDeacair,Battleof(1356)76Balanjar,Battleof(650)30

Balanjar,Battleof(723)31Ballon,Battleof(845)13Bannockburn,Battleof(1314)115–16Bapheus,Battleof(1302)97Bari,Siegeof(1071)56Barnet,Battleof(1471)133Basra,Battleof(656)30BathysRyax,Battleof(878)19Bauds,Battleof(962)38Baugé,Siegeof(1421)128Baza,Battleof(1489)136Beaugency,Battleof(1429)130BedfordCastle,Siegeof(1224)97Beijing(Zhongdu),Siegeof(1215)80Belgrade,Siegeof(1456)102,103Benevento,Battleof(1266)105Beroe,Battleof(1122)58–9Berrhoe,Battleof(1189)60Berwick,Siegeof(1333)116Bileca,Battleof(1388)112Blanchetaque,Battleof(1346)122BloreHeath,Battleof(1459)131Boarn,Battleofthe(734)13BohaiSea,Battleofthe(598)21Boroughbridge,Battleof(1322)116Boroughmuir,Battleof(1335)116–17BosnianHighlands,Battleofthe(927)47Bosporus,Battleof(1352)107Bosra,Battleof(634)28BosworthField,Battleof(1485)133,135Bouvines,Battleof(1214)96BramhamMoor,Battleof(1408)126Bravalla,Battleof(750)13Breadfield,Battleof(1479)104Brescia,Siegeof(1238)46Brest,Siegeof(1342)120BretonCivilWar(1341-64)111Brignais,Battleof(1362)126Brunaburh,Battleof(937)38Brunkeberg,Battleof(1471)49,50Brustem,Battleof(1467)112BrynDerwin,Battleof(1255)74–5BrynGlas,Battleof(1402)77Bubaigawara,Battleof(1333)119Bukhara,Siegeof(1220)80BulgarianRevolt(1040-41)55

Bun’ei,Battleof(1274)87–8Bursa,Siegeof(1317-26)60Bytham,Siegeof(1220)97

Cabra,Battleof(1079)50Cadfan,Battleof(1257)75Cadsand,Battleof(1337)120Caen,Battleof(1346)122Calais,Siegeof(1346-47)123Callan,Battleof(1261)75Callicinum,Battleof(531)13,15Calry-Lough-Gill,Battleof(1346)76Camlann,Battleof(537)9Campaldino,Battleof(1289)106Campomorto,Battleof(1482)110Candia,Siegeof(960-61)35Cannae,Battleof(1018)53Caravaggio,Battleof(1448)109Carham,Battleof(1018)10Carthage,Battleof(698)31Casalecchio,Battleof(1402)107–8Cascina,Battleof(1364)107Casilinum,Battleof(554)17Cassano,Battleof(1259)47Cassel,Battleof(1328)111Castagnaro,Battleof(1387)107,108Castillon,Battleof(1453)131Cedynia,Battleof(972)45Cesena,Battleof(1377)107Ceuta,conquestof(1415)113–14Chakangrao,Siegeof(1376)96Champa,invasionof(c.1130)52Champtoceaux,Siegeof(1341)111Chang’an,Battleof(763)24–5Chateauneuf-de-Randon,Battleof(1380)126Chester,Battleof(616)9Chesterfield,Battleof(1266)119Chihaya,Siegeof(1333)119Chios,Battleof(1171)59Chippenham,Battleof(878)37Chizé,Battleof(1373)126Chojnice,Siegeof(1454)94Cingoli,Battleof(1250)105Civitate,Battleof(1053)35,37Clontarf,Battleof(1014)39CluainImmorrais,Battleof(1406)78

Cocherei,Battleof(1364)126CoedEulo,Battleof(1157)43Cologne,Battleof(716)12Compiègne,Battleof(715)12Compiègne,Battleof(1430)130Constantinople,Battleof(1186)60Constantinople,Battleof(1261)60Constantinople,Siegeof(673-78)30Constantinople,Siegeof(717-18)31Constantinople,Siegeof(1422)60Constantinople,Siegeof(1453)60–1ConstantinopleI,Battleof(532)15ConstantinopleII,Battleof(559)17ConstantinopleUprising(1185)60Corbridge,Battleof(915/918)38Corfu,Battleof(1032)54Corfu,Battleof(1147)59Corfu,Siegeof(1149)59Coronate,Battleof(689)13Cortenuova,Battleof(1237)46CosminForest(Codrii),Battleof(1497)112Counts,Battleofthe(1287)106Covadonga,Battleof(718)31Cracow,Siegeof(1241)83Cravant,Battleof(1423)128CreadranCille,Battleof(1257)75Crécy,Battleof(1346)122Cresson,Battleof(1187)67Crotone,Battleof(982)35CrugMawr,Battleof(1136)43Crusades(1096-1291)51,60,61–2,63,64–73,90,91–2Ctesiphon,Siegeof(637)29Culblean,Battleof(1335)117Curzola,Battleof(1296)106Cynwit,Battleof(878)37–8

Damascus,Siegeof(635)28,29Damascus,Siegeof(1148)66–7Damietta,Siegeof(1169)59Damietta,Siegeof(1218-19)72Dan-no-ura,Battleof(1185)80Dandanaqan,Battleof(1040)24Dara,Battleof(530)13,14Deccan,Conquestofthe(1296-1323)94,96Degsastan,Battleof(c.603)9Delebio,Battleof(1432)109

Denbigh,Battleof(1294)75Deorham,Battleof(577)9Derbent,Siegeof(627)24Desio,Battleof(1277)105Didgori,Battleof(1121)24Direptatea,Battleof(1457)102Domazlice,Siegeof(1431)100–1Dornock,Battleof(1333)116Dorostolon,Battleof(971)21Dorostorum,Battleof(1086)57Dorylaeum,Battleof(1097)61–2Dorylaeum,Battleof(1147)66DoverCastle,Siegeof(1216-17)97Dragina,Battleof(1040)54–5Drumchatt,Battleof(1497)118DúnBealGallimhe,Battleof(1230)74Dunbar,Battleof(1296)114Dunnichen,Battleof(685)10Dunsinane,Battleof(1054)10DupplinMoor,Battleof(1332)116Durbe,Battleof(1260)91Durrachium,Battleof(1081)57Durrachium,Siegeof(1107-08)58DysertO’Dea,Battleof(1318)75,76

EastStoke,Battleof(1487)135Edessa,Siegeof(1144)65–6EdgecoteMoor,Battleof(1469)132–3Edington,Battleof(878)37ElMansura,Battleof(1250)72Ellandun,Battleof(825)37Ely,Battleof(1071)43Ely,Battleof(1267)119Englefield,Battleof(870)37EregliI,Battleof(1101)64EregliII,Battleof(1101)64EthiopianWar(1445)131Evesham,Battleof(1265)119

Falkirk,Battleof(1298)114–15Faughart,Battleof(1318)116Ferrybridge,Battleof(1461)132Fiodh-an-Átha,Battleof(1330)76Firaz,Battleof(633)28Formigny,Battleof(1450)131FortZeelandia,Siegeof(1661)49

Fossalta,Battleof(1249)47Fujigawa,Battleof(1180)78Fukuryuji,Siegeof(1183)79Fulford,Battleof(1066)40Furnes,Battleof(1297)111

Gamenario,Battleof(1345)106Gammelsdorf,Battleof(1313)111Garigliano,Battleof(915)35Garoza,Battleof(1287)92GatesofTrajan,Battleofthe(986)21GenpeiWar(1180-85)78–80Gerbevoy,Battleof(1435)130Gisors,Battleof(1198)43GlenMamma,Battleof(999)38Glogów,Battleof(1109)45GoldenSpurs(Courtrai),Battleofthe(1302)111Gomit,Battleof(1445)131Grandson,Battleof(1476)135–6GratheHeath,Battleof(1157)49Graus,Battleof(1063)50Greece,invasionof(1185)59Grotniki,Battleof(1439)101Grunwald(Tannenberg),Battleof(1410)92,93,94Gujrat,Battleof(1025)52Gujrat,Battleof(1178)52GulfofNaples,Battleofthe(1284)105–6GvozdMountain,Battleof(1097)47

Hafrsfjord,Battleof(872)37HakataBay,Battleof(1274)88HalidonHill,Battleof(1333)116,117Halmyros,Battleof(1311)112Harfleur,Siegeof(1415)126–7Harim,Siegeof(1164)67Harlaw,Battleof(1411)117Harran,Battleof(1104)64,65Hastings,Battleof(1066)41,43HatfieldChase,Battleof(633)9Hattin,Battleof(1187)68–9Haugsnes,Battleof(1246)97Hazir,Battleof(637)29Heavenfield,Battleof(634)9HedgeleyMoor,Battleof(1464)132Helgeaa,Battleof(1026)39Helsingborg,Battleof(1362)49

Henshu,Battleof(781)23HeracleaPontica,Battleof(806)34Herakleia,Battleof(1068)56Herat,Battleof(1220)80Héricourt,Battleof(1474)135Heunghwajin,Battleof(1018)24Hexham,Battleof(1464)132HingstonDown,Battleof(837)37hioggia,Siegeof(1379-80)107Hira,Siegeof(633)26Hiuchi,Siegeof(1183)78Hojujidono,Siegeof(1184)79HomildonHill,Battleof(1402)117Homs,Battleof(1281)89Horice,Battleof(1423)100Hoxne,Battleof(870)37HuangChaoRebellion(874-84)24Hulao,Battleof(621)23HundredYearsWar(1337-1457)120,121,122–4,125,126–31Hundsfeld(PsiePole),Battleof(1109)45Huoyi,Battleof(617)23Hwangsanbeol,Battleof(660)24

Ichi-no-Tani,Battleof(1184)79–80Inab,Siegeof(1149)67Indus,Battleofthe(1221)80Inverlochy,Battleof(1431)117IronBridge,Battleofthe(637)29Ishibashiyama,Battleof(1180)78Issus,Battleof(622)18Ivanogrod,Siegeof(1495)74

Jacob’sFord,Battleof(1179)67Jalula,Battleof(637)29,30Jargeau,Battleof(1429)130Jerez,Battleof(1231)52Jerusalem,Siegeof(614)18Jerusalem,Siegeof(637)29Jerusalem,Siegeof(1099)62,63,64Jerusalem,Siegeof(1187)69

Kabul(Maskin),Battleof(701)31Kaifeng,Siegeof(1232)83Kalavryai,Battleof(1078)57KalkaRiver,Battleofthe(1223)80,82–3Kamakura,Battleof(1333)119KamphaengPhat,Battleof(1378)96

Kandurcha,Battleof(1391)89Kanegasaki,Battleof(1337)119KaoYu,Battleof(685)23Kapitron,Battleof(1048)55Kars,Battleof(1048)55Karuse,Battleof(1270)91Kasagi,Battleof(1331)119Kashgar,Battleof(736)34Kaungsin,Battleof(1283)89Kenilworth,Siegeof(1266)119Kerak,Siegeof(1183)67Kerbala,Battleof(680)31Khirokitia,Battleof(1426)100Kiev,Siegeof(1240)83Kleidion,Battleof(1014)53Klokotnitsa,Battleof(1230)47Kojima,Battleof(1184)80Koppan,Battleof(1052)52Korsun,Battleof(1044)55KöseDag,Battleof(1243)85Kosovo,Battleof(1389)98–9Kosovo,Battleof(1448)102KrbavaField,Battleof(1493)104Kressenbrunn,Battleof(1260)97Kulikovo,Battleof(1380)89Kurikawa,Battleof(1183)78–9KutnáHora,Battleof(1421)100Kwiju,Battleof(1019)24

LaBrossinière,Battleof(1423)128LaForbie,Battleof(1244)72LaRoche-Derrien,Siegeof(1347)123LaRochelle,Battleof(1372)126LaRochelle,Battleof(1419)112Lalakaon,Battleof(863)19Lanark,Battleof(1297)114Laodikeia,Siegeof(1101-1103)58L’Aquila,Siegeof(1424)108Largs,Battleof(1263)114LasNavasdeTolosa,Battleof(1212)50–1Leburnion,Battleof(1091)57–8Lechfeld,Battleof(955)43–5Legnano,Battleof(1176)46Leignitz,Battleof(1241)83–4LesEspañolssurMer,Battleof(1350)123LesFormigues(LasHormigas),Battleof(1285)106

LesTourelles,Battleof(1428)130Leuven,Battleof(891)38Lewes,Battleof(1264)118Lincoln,Siegeof(1217)97Lipany(Cesky-Brod),Battleof(1434)101Lipitsa,Battleof(1216)47Lipnic,Battleof(1470)103Lisbon,Siegeof(1147)66Llicamajor,Battleof(1349)112LochmabenFair,Battleof(1484)118Loja,Battleof(1486)136LosecoatField,Battleof(1470)133LoudonHill,Battleof(1307)115LoughNeagh,Battleof(1346)76LudfordBridge,Battleof(1459)131–2Lumphanan,Battleof(1057)10Lunalonge,Battleof(1349)123Lyndanisse,Battleof(1219)91

Macomer,Battleof(1478)110MaesMoydog,Battleof(1295)75Malaga,Battleof(1487)136Maldon,Battleof(991)38Malta,Battleof(1283)105Manolada,Battleof(1316)112Manzikert,Battleof(1071)57,58Manzikert,Siegeof(1049)55Marchfeld,Battleof(1278)110–11Margate,Battleof(1387)126Maritsa,Battleof(1371)98Marjes-Suffar,Battleof(1126)65Marj-udDeebaj,Battleof(634)28Maserfelth,Battleof(642)9Masts,Battleofthe(655)30Mauron,Battleof(1352)124Meaux,Siegeof(1421-22)128Mecca,Fallof(630)26Medina,Battleof(627)25–6MeliteneI,Battleof(576)17MeliteneI,Battleof(934)35Mello,Battleof(1358)126Meloria,Battleof(1284)106Merseberg(Riade),Battleof(933)43Mersivan,Battleof(1101)64Merv,Battleof(1221)80Messina,Battleof(1038)54

Messina,Battleof(1060)41Methven,Battleof(1306)115Meung-sur-Loire,Battleof(1429)130Minatogawa,Battleof(1336)119Mizushima,Battleof(1183)79Modon,Battleof(1354)107Mohi,Battleof(1241)84–5MóinMhór,Battleof(1151)74Molinella,Battleof(1467)110Monopoli,Battleof(1042)55Mons-en-Pévèle,Battleof(1304)111MonsLactarius,Battleof(552)17Montaperti,Battleof(1260)105MontePorzio,Battleof(1167)46Montebruno,Battleof(1255)105Montecatini,Battleof(1315)106Montgisard,Battleof(1177)67Montiel,Battleof(1369)113Morat,Battleof(1476)136Morgarten,Battleof(1315)111Morlaix,Siegeof(1342)120,122Mortimer’sCross,Battleof(1461)132Mortlack,Battleof(1010)39Mosynoupolis,Battleof(1185)59,60Muret,Battleof(1213)51,52Muroyama,Battleof(1183)79Muta,Battleof(629)26Myinsaing,Battleof(1299)96MynyddHyddgen,Battleof(1401)77Myriocephalon,Battleof(1176)59Myton,Battleof(1319)116

Nairn,Siegeof(1009)38–9Nájera,Battleof(1367)112–13Naklo,Battleof(1109)45Nancy,Battleof(1477)112,136Nanyan,Battleof(1642)48Nara,Battleof(1180)78Nebovidy,Battleof(1422)100Negropont,Siegeof(1470)103NemeckýBrod,Battleof(1422)100NesbitMoor,Battleof(1402)117Nesjar,Battleof(1016)39Neuss,Siegeof(1474-75)112Neva,Battleofthe(1240)73Neville’sCross,Battleof(1346)117

Ngasaungyyan,Battleof(1277)88Nicaea,Fallof(1080)57Nicaea,Siegeof(1097)61Nicopolis,Battleof(1396)98,99–100TheNightAttack(1462)103Nihawand,Battleof(641)30Nikarevolt(532)15Nineveh,Battleof(627)19Ningyuan,Battleof(1626)48Nishapur,Battleof(1221)80Nocera,Battleof(1132)45–6NormanWars(1066-1200)41,42,43NorthInch,Battleof(1396)117Northallerton,Battleof(1138)43Northampton,Battleof(1460)132Northampton,Siegeof(1264)118NorthumbrianRevolt(1065)10Novgorod,Battleof(1164)73

Ohod,Battleof(625)25OrewinBridge,Battleof(1282)75Orléans,Siegeof(1428-29)129–30Ostia,Battleof(849)34–5Otepää,Siegeof(1217)91Othée,Battleof(1408)112Otlukbeli,Battleof(1473)103Otranto,Battleof(1068)56Otranto,Siegeof(1480-81)104Otrar,Siegeof(1219)80Otterburn,Battleof(1388)117OttomanWars(1250-1500)97–104

Panipat,Battleof(1398)89Pankalia,Battleof(979)21Parabiagio,Battleof(1339)106Parma,Siegeof(1248)46–7Patay,Battleof(1429)130Pavia(BattleofthePo)(1431)108PechenegRaids(1048-54)55,56Peipus,Lake,Battleof(1242)73,74Pelagonia,Battleof(1259)60Pelekanon,Battleof(1329)97Pella,Battleof(635)28Pen,Battleof(1016)39PercyRebellion(1403)77–8Peshawar,Battleof(1009)52

Philippopolis,Battleof(1208)71Philomelion,Battleof(1116)58Piperdean,Battleof(1436)118Planta,Battleof(1475)135Pliska,Battleof(811)19,20Plowce,Battleof(1331)92Pöide,Battleof(1343)92Poitiers,Battleof(1356)124,125,126Pontvallain,Battleof(1370)126Ponza,Battleof(1300)106Ponza,Battleof(1435)109PortoSanLorenzo,Battleof(1347)106–7Portomaggiore,Battleof(1395)107Posada,Battleof(1330)97–8Poyang,Lake,Battleof(1363)47–8Prague,Siegeof(1420)100Preslav,Battleof(971)47PwllMelyn,Battleof(1405)78Pyongyang,Siegeof(612)21Pyongyang,Siegeof(1593)48

Qadisiya,Battleof(637)29

Ragusa,Battleof(1171)59Rakovar,Battleof(1268)91Rametta,Battleof(1038)54Ramleh,Battleof(1102)64Ravenna,Battleof(729)19Ravenspur,Battleof(1471)133Reading,Battleof(871)37Rhodes,Siegeof(1480)104Rignano,Battleof(1137)46RioBarbate,Battleofthe(711)31RioSalada,Battleof(1340)112Roccavione,Battleof(1275)110Rochester,Siegeof(1215)97Rochester,Siegeof(1264)118Rome,Siegeof(537-38)16Rome,Siegeof(546-47)16–17RomeRebellion(1347)106–7Roncesvalles,Battleof(778)12,13Roosebeke,Battleof(1382)126Ros-Mhic-Thrúin,Battleof(1394)77Rouen,Siegeof(1418-19)128Rouen,Siegeof(1449)131Rouvray,Battleof(1429)130

RuparThutha,Battleof(746)34

Saaremaa,Battleof(1227)91SaenSanuk,Battleof(1387)96Sagrajas(az-Zallaqah),Battleof(1086)37StAlbansI,Battleof(1455)131StAlbansII,Battleof(1461)132St-Loup,Battleof(1428)130StMatthew’sDay,Battleof(1217)91Saint-Omer,Battleof(1340)120St-Pol-de-Leon,Battleof(1346)122Saintes,Battleof(1351)124Salasil,Battleof(633)26,28SalsuRiver,Battleofthe(612)21Samarkand,Siegeof(1220)80Samosata(Samsat),Siegeof(873)35SanRomano,Battleof(1432)109Sandwich,Battleof(1217)97Sandwich,Battleof(1460)132Saniyyat-ul-Uqab,Battleof(634)28Sanluri,Battleof(1409)108Sarhu,Battleof(1619)48Sark,Battleof(1448)118Sarmin,Battleof(1115)64Sarno,Battleof(1460)109Sarus,Battleof(625)18–19Sasireti,Battleof(1042)55Sauchieburn,Battleof(1488)118Saule,Battleof(1236)91Savra,Battleof(1385)98Scotland,invasionof(1332)116Sebastia,Battleof(1068)56Sebastia,Battleof(1070)56Sebastopolis,Battleof(690-92)31Sempach,Battleof(1386)111–12SenaGallica,Battleof(551)17SerbianRebellion(1150-51)59ShanhaiPass,Battleof(1644)48Sherston,Battleof(1016)39Shibao,Siegeof(745-59)23Shinohara,Battleof(1183)79Shirimni,Battleof(1021)53–4Shkodër,Siegeof(1478-79)104Shrewsbury,Battleof(1403)77–8Sicily,invasionof(1038)54Siffin,Battleof(657)30

Simancas,Battleof(934)35SitRiver,Battleofthe(1226)83Skuodas,Battleof(1259)91Sluys,Battleof(1340)120Soissons,Battleof(718)12Soissons,Battleof(923)13Solachon,Battleof(586)17Soncino,Battleof(1431)108Spercheios,Battleof(996)21StamfordBridge,Battleof(1066)40Staveren,Battleof(1345)111Stiklestad,Battleof(1030)39StirlingBridge,Battleof(1297)114StirlingCastleI,Siegeof(1304)115StirlingCastleII,Siegeof(1306)115Stragna,Battleof(1049)55Strangebjerg,Battleof(1028)39Strymon,Battleof(1185)60StugnaRiver,Battleofthe(1093)47Sudomer,Battleof(1420)100Suiyang,Siegeof(757)23Sunomatagawa,Battleof(1181)78Svindax,Battleof(1022)54Swiecino,Battleof(1462)94Swold,Battleof(1000)38Symium,Battleof(1167)59Syriacampaign(1030)54Syriacampaign(1099-1104)58

Ta-Fei,Battleof(670)23Tadinae,Battleof(552)17Tagliacozzo,Battleof(1268)110Taillebourg,Battleof(1179)43Taillebourg,Battleof(1242)97Talas,Battleof(751)34Tangdao,Battleof(1161)47Taormina,Siegeof(902)35Tarain,Battleof(1191)52Tarsus,Siegeof(1097)62Tempsford,Battleof(918)38TerekRiver,Battleof(1262)87Tettenhall,Battleof(910)38Tewkesbury,Battleof(1471)133ThirtyFrenchKnights,Battleof(1351)123Tianmenling,Battleof(698)23Tiberias,Siegeof(1187)67–8

Tinchebray,Battleof(1106)43TingHsien,Battleof(945)24TocharCruachan-Bri-Ele,Battleof(1385)76Toulouse,Siegeof(721)31Tours,Battleof(732)31,32,33–4Towton,Battleof(1461)132,133Trabzon,Siegeof(1461)102–3Tragh-Bhaile,Battleof(1399)77Trancoso,Battleof(1385)113Trapani,Battleof(1266)105TrianCongail,Battleof(1383)76Tricamarum,Battleof(533)16Tripoli(Lebanon),Siegeof(1289)73Tripoli(Libya),Siegeof(643)30TuiteamTarbhach,Battleof(1406)117Tumu,Battleof(1449)48,49Tunis,Siegeof(1270)73Turku,Battleof(1318)73–4Tuthill,Battleof(1401)77

Uclés,Battleof(1108)50Uji,Battleof(1180)78Uji,Battleof(1184)79Ullais,Battleof(633)26Ulsan,Siegeof(1597)48Umera,Battleof(1210)89

ValeaAlba,Battleof(1476)104Vanern,Lake,BattleontheIceof(c.530)13Varna,Battleof(1411)101,102Vaslui,Battleof(1475)103–4Verneuil,Battleof(1424)128–9Versinikia,Battleof(813)19Vezeronce,Battleof(524)12Vijaya,Battleof(1044)52Viljandi,Battleof(1211)89,91Viminacium,Battleof(601)17Vincy,Battleof(717)12Visby,Battleof(1361)49Viterbo,Siegeof(1243)46VitkovHill,Battleof(1420)100,101Vlaardingen,Battleof(1018)45Voille,Battleof(507)10,12VorsklaRiver,Battleofthe(1399)100Vyborg,Siegeof(1495)74Vysehrad,Battleof(1420)100

Wakefield,Battleof(1460)132Walaja,Battleof(633)26,27Wales,InvasionofNorth(1063)9–10Warangal,Siegeof(1309)94Weinsberg,Battleof(1140)46Welfesholz,Battleof(1115)45Winwaed,Battleof(655)9Wogastisburg,Battleof(631)12Worringen,Siegeof(1288)111

Xiangyang,Siegeof(1268-73)87

Yahagigawa,Battleof(1181)78Yamama,Battleof(632)26Yamen,Battleof(1279)88YarmukRiver,Battleofthe(636)28–9Yashima,Battleof(1185)80YassiChemen,Battleof(1230)24Yenisehir,Battleof(1481)104Yodong,Siegeof(612)21Yongqiu,Battleof(756)23York,Siegeof(867)37

Zab,Battleof(750)34Zagonara,Siegeof(1424)108ZakotaSwieza,Battleof(1463)94Zappolino,Battleof(1325)106Zlatica,Battleof(1443)101Zonchio,Battleof(1499)104Zumail,Battleof(633)26

GENERALINDEX

Pagenumbersinitalicsrefertoillustrations

AbbasidEmpire33,34Abder-Rahman31,33,35Adrianople21,60,71,98Aethelred,KingofWessex37Afghanistan52AlaricII,KingofToulouse10,12Albania31,104Alemannipeople12Alexander,PrinceofNovgorod73Alexandria,Egypt18,30AlexiosIKomnenos,Emperor57–8AlfredtheGreat,KingofWessex37AliibnAbiTaleb30Almohads50,51Amalaric,KingofJerusalem59AmalricofJerusalem67AnatoliaByzantineWars18,56,57,58Crusades61–2,64MongolWars89Muslimexpansion29,34,35

AndronikosI,Emperor60Angevins105,106,108,109,112TheAnglo-SaxonChronicle37,40AnnalesCambriae9Annam52–3Antioch17–18,29,35,57,62,73Arabia25–6Aragon105–6,107,109,110archersByzantine28,57,59Crusader65Cuman60English40,75,77,113,115,116,120,122–3,127,132Genoese120Islamic28Moldavian104

Mongol84,85,88Norman41Scottish115,117Turkish60,65Welsh116

Armenia31,53,55Arthur,King9artilleryBurgundian112,135Chinese47,48Crusader100English115,122French120,131Hungarian102Hussite100,101Moldavian104Mongol85,87Ottoman60,102,104Teutonic92

Assyria19Austrasia12,33Austria97,110,111–12Avarpeople17,19,35AymerdeValence115Ayutthaya96Ayyubids67,72Azerbaijan31

Baekje23,24BaldwinI,EmperorofConstantinople71BaldwinI,KingofJerusalem64BaldwinII,KingofJerusalem65BaldwinIII,KingofJerusalem67BaldwinIV,KingofJerusalem67BaldwinofBoulogne59,60,62Balkans47,98–9,101,104Balliol,Edward116BasilI,Emperor35BasilII,Emperor21,53–4Baumgarten,Hannekenvon107Bavaria111BayezidItheThunderbolt,Sultan89,99BelaIV,KingofHungary84,97Belisarius,General13,15–17Beowulf13Bohemia44,100,110–11

Bologna,Italy106,107–8BorommarachaI,King96Bosnia112Bosporus107Brabant43,111Branas,GeneralAlexios60BritainNorwegianinvasion39–40Post-Roman9andVikings36,37–9seealsoEngland;Scotland;Wales

Brittany13,41,129,131Bulcsú,Magyarwarlord43,44Bulgaria53,55,60,103Bulgars19,21,31,47,71Burgundy10,12,99,112,128,129Swiss-BurgundianWar135–6

Burma88,89,96ByzantineEmpire15,53ByzantineWars13,14,15–19,20,21,53–61Crusades60andIslam26,28–30,31,34,35ItalianWars107OttomanWars97,98,99,102–3

Cadwalla,KingofGwynedd9CarthageByzantineWars15–16andIslam31

Castile112,113,123catapults30,84,87cavalryAustrian111–12Byzantine13,15,16,17,54–5,58Castilian50Crusader65,66,70,72Cuman60,71English75,115Frankish33,67,68French111,122,123,127German43,44,60,105Gothic17Hussite100,101Islamic26,31,33,70Japanese80Lombard46,128–9Magyar43,44

Milanese108,128–9Moldavian104Norman41,54–5,57Paduan107Polish92Sassanid13,17,29,30Scottish115,116Serbian99Teutonic92,94Turkish60,70,97

Ceawlin,King9Champa47,52–3champions,combatbetween13,17,25,26,123Chang’an,China24–5CharlesofAnjou,KingofSicily73,105,110CharlesofBlois,DukeofBrittany111,120,122,123,126CharlestheBold,DukeofBurgundy112,135–6CharlesVI,KingofFrance126CharlesVII,KingofFrance129ChilpericII,KingofNeustrai12ChinaMongols47,48,49,80,81,83,87,88NanchaoWar24–5Song,Jin,YuanandMingDynastyWars47–9,87,88Sui/TangDynasty21,22,23–4,34

CholaEmpire52Clovis,KingoftheFranks10,12Cnut,KingofEngland39ConradIII,KingofGermany66,67ConstantineIXMonomachos,Emperor55ConstantineXIPalaiologos,Emperor60,61Constantinople15,17,19,34,60,70–1,101Corfu54,59Crete31,35Croatia47,104crossbows41,60,75,120Cumanpeople47,57,60,71,82Cyprus18,100

DagobertI,KingoftheFranks12d’Albret,Charles127Damascus,Syria28,29,30,66–7,72Danube,River33,99DavidII,KingoftheScots116,117deDunois,Jean130,131

DelhiSultanate94,95Denmark38–9,49,50,69,91Dnieper,River82Douglas,Archibald116duGuesclin,GeneralBertrand126

Ecgfrith,KingofNorthumbria10EdmundIronside,KingofEngland39Edward,theBlackPrince112–13,124EdwardBruce116EdwardI,KingofEngland75,115–16,118,119EdwardII,KingofEngland115–16EdwardIII,KingofEngland116–17,120,122,124EdwardIV,KingofEngland132,133,135EdwardtheConfessor,KingofEngland10,39EgyptByzantineWars18,59Crusades67,72Cyprus100andIslam30MongolWars89

elephantsBurmese88Indian89Khwarazmian80Persian29

EnglandCrusades69FirstBarons’War97FrenchandAnglo-FrenchWars96–7,112HundredYearsWar120,121,122–4,125,126–31Norwegianinvasion39–40OttomanWars99SecondBarons’War118–19andWales77WarsofScotland114–18WarsoftheRoses131–3,134,135

Eschiva,PrincessofGalilee68Estonia89,91,92Ethelfrid,KingofNorthumbria9Ethiopia131Eudo,DukeofAquitaine12,31,33Euphrates,River17,26,35

Fatimids62,64,67Finland73–4

Flanders111,120,126Florence,Italy106,107,108,109,110fortificationsBulgarians53Chinese21,23Flemish111Hussite100,101Japanese48,78,79,119Pecheneg57,59Sassanid29Scottish116Swedish91Teutonic94,100Turkish99Vandal16Viking37,38wagenburg100,101

FranceCrusades64,69,70–1FirstBarons’War97andFlanders111FrenchandAnglo-FrenchWars96–7,112HundredYearsWar120,121,122–4,125,126–31OttomanWars99

Franconia44Franks10,11,12–13,17,31,33,57,64,65FrederickIBarbarossa,HolyRomanEmperor46FrederickII,HolyRomanEmperor46–7Frisia12,13fyrd38,43

Gaul31Gelimer,KingoftheVandals15–16GenghisKhan80GenoaCrusades61,62,64,73HundredYearsWar120,123ItalianWars105,106,107,109

Georgia24,31,54,55Gepidaepeople13GermanyByzantineWars57,60Crusades66,69HolyRomanEmpire43,45,46Hussites100MongolWars84

OttomanWars99TeutonicandLivonianWars89,91–2,93,94

Ghibellines47,105,106,110Gibraltar31Go-Daigo,Emperor119GodfreyofBouillon62,64Goguryeo(Koguryo)21,23GoldenHorde87,89,100,103Goths10,16–17Greece,ByzantineWars59Greekfire30,69GruffuddapLlewellyn,King9–10Guelphs47,105,106,110Guiscard,Robert56,57Guy,KingofJerusalem68,69

Hadrian’sWall9HaraldHardrada,KingofNorway10,39–40,54HaroldGodwinson,King9–10,40,41,43Hasanibnal-Nu’man,General31Hawkwood,John107‘Heinskringla’(LivesoftheNorseKings)40HenryI,KingofEngland43HenryII,KingofEngland43HenryIII,KingofEngland97,118,119HenryIV,KingofEngland77HenrythePious,DukeofSilesia84HenryV,HolyRomanEmperor45,128HenryV,KingofEngland126–7HenryVI,KingofEngland131,132,133HenryVII,KingofEngland133,135Heraclius,Emperor17,18,19,24,28,29,30HerewardtheWake43HolyRomanEmpire43–7,110–11housecarls38,40,41,43HuangChao24Huctred,EarlofNorthumbria10Hulagu,General87HungaryByzantineWars59HolyRomanEmpire43,44,45,47Hussites100MongolWars84–5OttomanWars99,101,102,104andWallachia97–8

Huns17

Hunyadi,János102,104Hussites100–1

Iberia112–14Iceland97impalements103India52,89,94,95,96infantryByzantine15,16,28Castilian50Crusader65,66,70English115French123Gothic17Janissaries61,89,101,104Lombard46Sassanid29schiltrons115,116,117Scottish115,116,117Teutonic94

Ireland38,39,74,75–8,116IsaakIIAngelos,Emperor60IsidorePacensis33,34IslamCrusades51,60,61–2,63,64–73expansion25–35,37Spanish-MuslimWars136

ItalianLeague109ItalyByzantineWars17,19,53,54HolyRomanEmpire46andIslam35OttomanWars104WarsofSicily,SardiniaandItaly105–10

Jagiello,KingofPoland92

Jalalal-Din,Shah80JamesI,KingoftheScots117JamesII,KingoftheScots118JamesIII,KingoftheScots118JamesIV,KingoftheScots118JapanGenpeiWar78–80Korea48MongolWars87–8

JapanGenkoWarandFourteenth-Centurybattles119

javelins10,41,91JeanII,KingofFrance124,126Jerusalem18,29,62,63,64,67–9JoanofArc130John,KingofEngland97JohnITzimiskes,Emperor21,47JohnIIKomnenos,Emperor58JohntheFearless99,100,112Jordan26JoscelinII,CountofEdessa65–6Julian,CountofCeuta31Jungingen,GrandMaster91,94Justinian,General17JustinianI,Emperor13,15,17JustinianII,Emperor31

Khalidibnal-Walid,General26,28–9Khaseef,River26Khmerpeople52–3Khwarazmians72,80Kiev82,83KievanRus’people47KilijArslan61,64KnightsHospitaller67,69,70,99,104KnightsTemplar67,69,73Korea21,23,24,48,87Kosovo98–9,102Krum,Khan19Kyoto,Japan79Kyrielle,Thomas131

Latvia91,92LeotheIsaurian31,34LiYuan,General23LiZicheng,General48Liégeoispeople112Lithuania91,92,93,94,100,103LivonianBrothersoftheSword90,91Livonianpeople89,91–2LlywelynapGruffudd74,75LombardLeague46,47Lombards12,13,35,64,128London41Lorraine43–4,112,136LouisIX,KingofFrance72,73,97

Macbeth,KingoftheScots10

Macedonia71MadogapLlywelyn75Magyars43–5MalcolmII,KingoftheScots10,38–9MalcolmIII,KingoftheScots10Malta105Mamluks73,85,87,89,104Manfred,KingofSicily105Maniakes,GeneralGeorge54,55ManuelIKomnenos,Emperor59Mar,Earlof117MarcoPolo106Martel,Charles12,13,33,34MarwanII,Caliph34Mecca,Arabia25,26Medina,Arabia25MehmedII,Sultan60,61,102,103,104Melitene17,35mercenariesBrabant43Catalan112condottieri106,107,108English78Frankish57Genoese123German57,105,135Herul15Irish135Karluk34Lombard128–9Norman54Pisan107Polish94Scottish76Swabian35,37Teutonic94Turkish57Varangian54–5,57

Mercia10,37,38,39,40Milan,Italy106,107,108,128–9Minamotoclan78–80Moldavia102,103,104,112MongolsMongolWars80,81,82–5,86,87–9,96,100Song,Jin,YuanandMingDynasty47,48,49

MorcarofNorthumbria10,40,43

Mosul62,65MozarabicChronicle33Mu’awiya,GovernorofSyria30Muhammad25,26MuradII,Sultan101,102

Naples35,105,106,108,109,110Netherlands49,69Nicaea57,60,61,97NicephorusI,Emperor19,34NicephorusIIPhokas,Emperor35NikephorosBryennios57,58Nineveh19,24Nogai,General87Normandy41,42ByzantineWars54–5,56,57,58,59,60Crusades62,64Ireland75–6

NorthAfrica31NorthKorea21NorthVietnam52Northampton,Earlof120,122Northumberland,1stEarlof117,118,126Northumberland,4thEarlof135Northumbria9,10,37,38,39,40Norway39–40,114Nurad-DinofAleppo67Nurhaci,khan48

OlafIIHaraldsson,KIngofNorway39OrkneyIslands38,39Ostrogoths10,12Oswald,KingofNorthumbria9Oswy,KingofBernicia9OttoItheGreat,KingoftheGermans43,44,45OttoII,Emperor35OttokarII,KingofBohemia97,110–11OttomanEmpireByzantineWars60–1MongolWars89OttomanWars97–104,112seealsoTurkishpeople

OwainGlynDwr77

Padua,Italy107PaganEmpire89,96Pakistan52

Palestine19,28,29PapalStates109,110Pechenegpeople55,57,58–9PedrotheCruel,KingofCastile112–13Penda,KingofMercia9PepinofHerstal,MayorofthePalaceoftheFranks12Percy,Henry(Hotspur)77–8,117,118,126Persia,SassanidEmpire13,17–19,24,26,29–30PeterII,KingofAragon51PhilipII,KingofFrance69,96PhilipVI,KingofFrance111,122,123Picts10pikemen114–15,136Pisa,Italy58,106,107PolandHolyRomanEmpire45Hussites101andMoldavia112Mongols83–4OttomanWars101,103TeutonicKnights92,93,94

Pomerania45,92Portugal66,112,113Prataparudra,King94,96Prussia91,92,94

Quraishtribe25–6Qutuz,General85,87

Ragenfrid,MayorofthePalaceofNeustria12RaymondofAntioch67RaymondofToulouse62,64,68Reconquista50–2Rhine,River10Rhodes104Rhone,River10Richard,DukeofYork131–2RichardI,KingofEngland43,69–70RichardIII,KingofEngland135RobertofNormandy43,62RoberttheBruce,King115,116RogerofAntioch64,65RogerofLauria105–6RomanosIII,Emperor54,55RomanosIV,Emperor56,57Rome16–17,35

RudolphI,Emperor110–11Rus’people21,47RussiaLivonianWars91MongolWars80,82–3Russo-SwedishWars73–4

sagas13

Sajo,River84Saladin67–8,69,70Samogitiantribe91samurai78,80,87–8Sardinia107,108,110Sassanids13,17–19,24,26,29–30Savoy135Sayfal-Dawla,EmirofAleppo35Scotlandearlymedieval10HundredYearsWar128Vikingexpansion38warsof114–18

Seljuqpeople24,55–8,59,60,61,64–5,85Serbia59,89,98–9,101,102Shahrbaraz,General18,19shipsAngevin105,106Aragonese105–6,109boardingtactics30Byzantine17,30,54,56,59Castilian112,123Chinese21,47,87Crusader69Danish39English39,40,96,112,120,123,132French96,106,120Genoese62,64,105,106,107,109,120Goth17Hanseatic49Islamic30Japanese80Milanese108Mongol88Neapolitan35,105–6Norman59Norwegian39,40,114Ottoman60–1,103,104

Pisan58,106Prussian94Ragusan54Scottish116Sicilian107Swedish73Teutonic94Venetian58,59,70–1,103,104,105,106,107,108Viking37,38

Shogunate78,79,119Sicily31,35,46,54,59ItalianWars105,106,108

siegetacticsAvaric19Byzantine13,59Chinese23,87Crusaders62,64,66English129–30escalade61,69,130French97Islamic28mining55,61,66,73,97Mongol87Norman56Ottoman60–1Seljuq55

Siena,Italy105,106,109SigismundI,KingofHungary99,100Simnel,Lambert135SimondeMontfort118,119SimonIVdeMontfort51Slavs12,19,31,47South-eastAsia52,94,95,96SouthKorea23Spain31HundredYearsWar123ItalianWars108Moors51Spanish-MuslimWars136seealsoIberia

StefanoColonnatheYounger106–7Subadai,General80,83,84Suffolk,Earlof130Swabia44Sweden38,39,49,50,91Russo-SwedishWars73–4

Switzerland108,111–12,135–6SyriaByzantineWars54,58Islam,expansionof28,30,31,34,35MongolWars85

Szumborski,Bernard94

Taborites100,101Tairaclan78–80Taiwan49Taizong,Emperor23,24Tamerlane89Tancred,RegentofAntioch62,64TarimBasin,China23TeutonicKnights73,84,91–2,93,94TheodoretheSacellarius28TheodorictheGreat,KingoftheOstrogoths10Thessalonica55,57,59Theudoald,MayorofthePalaceofNeustria12Tibet23,34TostigGodwinson10,39Totila,KingoftheGoths16–17Transylvania99,103trebuchets47,87,115TrueCross18,68Tunisia34,35Turcopoles64,65,67,70Turkicpeoples24,52Turkishpeople57,60,61–2,64Crusader-TurkishWars65–6,67–9,73seealsoOttomanEmpire

Ultraquists100,101UmayyadCaliphate31,34

ValdemarIV,KingofDenmark49Vandals15–16Varangians53,54,57,59VeniceByzantineWars58,59Crusades70–1,73ItalianWars105,106,107,108,109,110OttomanWars103,104

Verona,Italy107Vikings36,37–40Visigoths10,12,31Vitigis,KingoftheGoths16

VladIIIDracul(theImpaler)102,103Vytautas,GrandDuke92,94,100

Wales38,43,74–5Wallace,William114Wallachians97–8,99,103,104Warenne,Earl114Warwick,RichardNeville,Earlof131,132–3Wessex9,37–8WilliamI,KingofEngland41,42,43WilliamtheLion,KingoftheScots43

XiaoBaiya,General24

YazdegerdIII,KingofPersia26,30YellowRiver23Yoritomo,Minamoto78Yoshinaka,Kiso78–9Yoshisada,GeneralNitta119Yoshitsune,Minamato79–80Yukiie,Minamoto78,79

Zengi,Imadad-Din65–6ZhangXun,General23Zizka,Jan100

TitlesavailableintheEncyclopediaofWarfareseries:

AncientWarsc.2500BCE–500CE

MedievalWars500–1500

EarlyModernWars1500–1775

RevolutionaryWars1775–c.1815

ImperialWars1815–1914

WorldWars1914–1945

ModernWars1945–Present

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