the efficacy of shadowing with instruction of sound change

The Efficacy of Shadowing with Instruction of

Sound Change: From the Aspects of Learners’ Listening

Comprehension Skills, Self-Efficacy, and Costs

Shogo NIIMOTO (Kyoto Sangyo University)

Keywords Shadowing, self-efficacy, explicit instruction, costs

要研究シャーングに的な変指導をた指導がのシャ

ーングしが大学のリスング力リスング力をス

をるのをしたに分けた大学にの指導を行た

のリスング力スに的にななたが力に

的な変指導をたのが的にながた

1. Introduction

When Japanese learners of English listen to English, they commonly encounter an issue: they are unable to identify English words or sentences, notwithstanding the fact that they know the words and sentences (Hamada, 2016). Among several factors affecting the difficulties of listening for Japanese learners, the immature bottom-up process is regarded as the fundamental problem. Insufficient bottom-up skills usually lead to breakdown or misunderstanding in communication (Hamada, 2015). Additionally, according to previous research, sound change in English which does not occur in Japanese language can prevent Japanese English learners from comprehending what they hear.

In Japan, an input-poor EFL country, it is of great significance for learners to autonomously keep listening to English outside classroom (Hamada, 2015). To promote them to practice listening, the enhancement of self-efficacy is considered

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関西英語教育学会紀要第４３号

an essential role (Hamada, 2017). Moreover, how they perceive listening teaching techniques employed in classroom as costs for learning plays a crucial role in motivation (Hamada, 2011).

Given these circumstances, a listening teaching technique with low costs which can equip learners with mature bottom-up skills, knowledge on sound change in English and self-efficacy is necessary.

2. Previous Studies

2.1 Shadowing Shadowing is defined as “listening in which the learners track what [they] heard

in speech and repeat it as accurately as possible while listening attentively to the incoming information” (Tamai, 2005, p. 34). Tamai (1992) conducted a study to compare the effects of shadowing and dictation. In his study, university students were divided into two groups: a shadowing group and a dictation group respectively. Each group was given the same number of lessons for three months. The results illustrated that the listening ability of the students in the shadowing group developed faster than that of the students in the dictation group. Tamai (2005) further examined the efficacy of shadowing and dictation. He concluded that shadowing is more effective for less- proficient learners to sharpen their bottom-up skills in a relatively short period of time.

After Tamai’s research (1992, 2005), a sizable number of studies on shadowing have indicated that shadowing can assist Japanese learners of English in developing their bottom-up skills (Hamada, 2011, 2015; Kato, 2009).

In shadowing, learners vocalize incoming sound immediately after they catch the sound. This training helps learners integrate authentic English phonemes into their speech knowledge base and end up reinforcing it (Kadota, 2007). Repeated shadowing training eventually makes a great contribution to the development of automatizing bottom-up processing. 2.2 Explicit instruction on sound change

Previous studies have demonstrated that Japanese learners of English have some weak points in listening. Specifically, many studies have proved that grasping sound change that occurs in spoken English is among their weak points. Enomoto (2018) states that sound change is one of the most salient factors of a better understanding of spoken English. This difficulty is related to the difference in rhythmic structures between Japanese and English. Japanese is a mora-timed rhythm language, in which every mora takes the same amount of time to be uttered. English, on the other hand, is a stress-timed rhythm, in which stressed syllables occur at approximately the same intervals. This leads to unique features

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The Efficacy of Shadowing with Instruction of Sound Change: From the Aspects of Learners’ Listening Comprehension Skills, Self-Efficacy, and Costs

of English auditory input such as connected speech, reduced forms, assimilation, elision, and weak verbs, none of which exist in Japanese. Owing to these differences in rhythmic systems between the two languages, spoken English differs from what Japanese learners of English would predict on the basis of visual input.

Some researchers mention the significance of explicit instruction on English sound change (Oga & Orii, 2012). Eshima & Sato (1990) investigated the effects of instruction on sound change for students at the college of technology. They found that the group that received sound change instruction outperformed the control group in all dictation tests, which means that the participants in the treatment group improved their ability to perceive and decode English. According to the investigation of Benesse Educational Research and Development Center (2008), however, only approximately 30 percent of English teachers in junior high school provide instruction on sound change. Kizawa (2013) also states that little explicit instruction on sound change at junior high schools has been conducted.

In spite of the importance of teaching sound change explicitly, the shadowing method attempts to equip learners with knowledge on sound change implicitly, not explicitly. With regard to implementing shadowing, Ogihara (2013) reports on the efficacy of explicit instruction of sound change for shadowing performance. He noticed that his students could not shadow English sentences involving sound change well, such as “pick him up” or “put him in the car”. He investigated to what extent explicit instruction of sound change is effective for shadowing performance. The results show that the group that received instruction on sound change outperformed the other group in shadowing. Thus, the present study investigates the efficacy of shadowing combined with explicit instruction of sound change. 2.3 Self-efficacy

While the efficacy of shadowing has been validated, shadowing cannot exert its maximum effect without investigation of learners’ psychological factors (Hamada, 2011). Little research on listening instruction connected with learners’ psychology and motivation, however, has been conducted.

This decade has witnessed a surge in research on learners’ motivation or psychology. Motivation consists of several factors; among them, self-efficacy is of great importance. Self-efficacy is referred to as the strength of one’s belief in a specific type of activity (Hamada, 2017) or one’s confidence in being able to complete an assigned task or activity (Matsunuma, 2006). Bandura (1993) defines self-efficacy as belief in one’s capability concerning specific tasks.

Bandura (1993) regards self-efficacy as a salient element of motivation. In his theory, three different types of cognitive motivators exist: causal attributions,

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outcome expectancies, and cognized goals. Self-efficacy plays an imperative role in manipulating these three forms. People with strong self-efficacy attribute their failures to their lack of effort. People with low self-efficacy, on the other hand, ascribe failure to defects in their abilities. Furthermore, the development of self-efficacy can effectively promote self-regulated learning, which leads learners to be autonomous (Yoshida, 2013).

Japan is commonly known as an EFL environment in which exposure to English in daily life is limited. It is thus necessary for Japanese learners of English to autonomously allocate study time for English learning outside the classroom. Self-efficacy is considered to play a crucial role in the exploitation of learning opportunities outside the classroom. In Ohno, Nakamura, Sagara & Sakai’s study (2008), university students with higher self-efficacy were reported to be more autonomous learners than their counterparts. According to Yamamori (2004), more than 90 percent of freshmen in the junior high school have high motivation to study at the beginning of the academic year, whereas only 60 percent of them could maintain their strong motivation at the end of the year. When students whose motivation decreased in December and students whose motivation was sustained until the end of year were compared with each other, the level of self-efficacy of the first group after the mid-term examination in July was statically lower. This study indicates that losing self-efficacy leads to failure to continue studying independently. In addition, Bandura (1993) indicates that improved self-efficacy is likely to be applied to other circumstances. The enhancement of listening self-efficacy can expand to English self-efficacy (Hamada, 2011).

As stated in the previous sections, the results of shadowing research have revealed that shadowing leads to the improvement of learners’ listening comprehension skills. Hamada (2011) showed that shadowing training enabled participants to recognize their enhanced listening. A surge of self-efficacy stems from obtaining a sense of accomplishments (Bandura, 1993). This implies that learners who feel the accomplishments of improving listening skills through shadowing training can raise their self-efficacy. 2.4 Costs in learning

For learners, to continue shadowing training and consequently be successful at listening, their motivation needs to be maintained after shadowing lessons in the classroom. Since shadowing is highly cognitive task, the costs associated with shadowing are presumed to be high. Learning costs are defined as the physical or psychological load of a specific activity (Shioya, 1995). Sato (1998) reports that learners are unwilling to employ learning strategies they perceive to have high

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costs. In Murayama & Yoshida’s study (2013), although an expert told learners to utilize effective strategies, the learners did not adopt the strategies if they were high costs. That is, if learners recognize shadowing as high costs, they will engage in shadowing less frequently. Additionally, according to Hamada’s research (2011), there was a negative correlation between listening self-efficacy and costs of shadowing. Hamada reports that high costs may have a negative influence on the enhancement of self-efficacy.

All in all, as stated above, despite the importance of explicit instruction on sound change, a number of Japanese learners of English are not given enough lessons on sound change. In addition, although previous studies demonstrated that shadowing can enable learners to enhance their bottom-up skills, shadowing should not be solely employed but should be combined with the instruction on sound change for a better listening teaching technique. Furthermore, to promote learners to continue studying listening after lessons, teaching techniques employed in the classroom should raise self-efficacy and alleviate costs. Thus, the present study examines the efficacy of shadowing with explicit instruction of sound change and how participants feel about shadowing training from the perspective of not only self-efficacy but also costs for learning.

3. Method

3.1 Research questions The research questions of the present study are as follows: (1) Which is more effective in improving the participants’ listening

comprehension skills, shadowing or shadowing with explicit instruction? (2) Which is more effective for the development of listening self-efficacy,

shadowing or shadowing with explicit instruction? (3) Which teaching technique, shadowing or shadowing with explicit

instruction, can minimize the costs of shadowing practice? 3.2 Participants

In total, 42 university students (male, n = 18; female, n = 24) in the Kansai area of Japan participated in the study. At the time of the experiment, their ages ranged from 18 to 21. All of them were majoring in English. Their English proficiency test scores ranged from 200 to 400 on the TOEIC. On the basis of their scores, their English proficiency level can be interpreted as A2 on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR). The students were divided into two groups; there were 18 students (male, n = 11; female, n = 7) in the shadowing class and 24 students (male, n = 7; female, n = 17) in the shadowing

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with explicit instruction.

3.3 Instruments To assess the development of participants’ listening comprehension skills, 40

listening questions from two sections (Part1 and Part2) of the TOEIC Test New Official Preparation Book (2008) were employed for the pre- and post-tests. The TOEIC was adapted for this study for the following reasons. This test exclusively measures communications skills (TOEIC, 2008) and is considered the best measure of general listening skills (Hamada, 2015). In part1 (Q.1 – Q.10), examinees listen to four statements about a picture. When they hear the statements, they must select the one statement that best describes what they see in the picture. In part2 (Q.11 – Q.40), examinees listen to a question or statement and three responses spoken in English. Then, they must select the best response to the question or statement.

As stated above, neither part of the TOEIC requires examinees to read English sentences, so the test items can minimize the effect of reading skills (Kato, 2009). The same questions were employed for the pretest and posttest, and the participants did not receive any explanations about the test items.

After item analysis was conducted, the 10 items, lowering Cronbach’s alpha of the test, were deleted, leaving 30 items for analysis. Then, Cronbach’s coefficient of the data was considered acceptable (a = .63).

For the measurement of listening self-efficacy, an 8-item questionnaire on a 6-point Likert scale was used (Appendix A). This questionnaire was originally developed by Pintrich & De Groot (1990). Matsunuma (2006) selected 8 items and translated them into Japanese with the assistance of a Japanese junior high school English teacher and a Japanese high school English teacher. Hamada (2011) modified the 8-item questionnaire to evaluate listening self-efficacy.

To measure the costs of each kind of shadowing training, a 10-item questionnaire on a 6-point Likert scale was employed (Appendix B). The items were created by Shioya (1995) to measure the costs of learning behaviors in English study. The items were modified by Hamada (2011) for the measurement of the costs of shadowing. Cronbach’s alphas of listening self-efficacy and costs were .81 and .87, respectively. 3.4 Procedure

A total of 15 classes of listening practice were conducted. The learners were given 90-minute lessons twice a week (Tuesday and Thursday) for four months (30 classes in total). During the listening practice for 15 lessons, the first 15 minutes were used for shadowing practice. Listening training was given according to the

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procedures suggested by Kadota (2007) (Table 1). These steps were already proven to be effective for enhancing listening ability (Hamada, 2011). For the rest of the lessons, general English lessons were given for 75 minutes.

In shadowing with explicit instruction class, basic sound change on English such as linking, weakening, deletion and assimilation was instructed by the author for approximately five minutes each class. Sound change occurred in the textbook for the TOEIC was written on the white board and explained how each sound change occurs explicitly. Students were not required to repeat or read aloud sound change explained on the whiteboard.

Before the listening practice, a pretest on listening was conducted, and the participants responded to the 8-item listening self-efficacy questionnaire. After the 15 lessons, a post-test on listening was conducted, and the participants responded to the listening self-efficacy questionnaire.

To explore participants’ perception toward each instruction, an open-ended questionnaire was conducted.

Table 1. Shadowing procedure used in the experiment

4. Analysis

For the statistical analysis, ANCOVA was used to compare the development of the two groups’ listening comprehension skills. ANCOVA assigns pretest as covariate. ANCOVA statistically controls the effects of continuous variables known as covariates. ANCOVA statistically adjusts the effects of continuous variables. Accordingly, raw scores and adjusted scores are displayed, respectively (shown in Table 2 and 3).

Step Shadowing with Explicit Instruction Group Shadowing Group

1 Listen to the passage

2 Mumbling twice (silently shadow the incoming sounds without text)

3 Parallel reading (shadow while reading the text)

4 Silently check understanding with the text (both English and Japanese translation)

for 3 minutes

5 Instruction of sound change Skip this step

6 Shadowing three times

7 Content shadowing

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As with listening scores, ANCOVA was employed to contrast the improvement of the both groups’ self-efficacy for listening. Adjusted mean scores were calculated (shown in Table5). Original scores of the both groups are seen as raw scores in Table4. As for measurement of costs for shadowing, t-test was employed.

5. Results

Descriptive statistics and statistical analyses were applied to the listening tests. The results in Table 2 show that the listening comprehension skills of both groups improved. For the shadowing group with explicit instruction (hereafter Sh&E), the mean score increased by 1.89, from 14.33 to 16.22, whereas the score of the shadowing group (hereafter SH) increased by 1.22, from 15.39 to 16.61. In ANCOVA, there was no significant differences between the two groups. [ F(2, 40) = 0.16, p = .69, 2 > .01].

Descriptive statistics and statistical analyses were applied to the responses to the listening self-efficacy questionnaire. The mean pretest scores of the Sh&E group and SH group were 2.61 and 2.54 out of 6.00, respectively. The ANCOVA shows significant differences between the Sh&E and SH [ F(2, 40) = 7.05, p < .01,

2= .14]. This indicates that the Sh&E group improved more than the SH group. The mean scores of the costs associated with shadowing were 2.55 in the

Sh&E group and 2.76 in the SH group. The results of the t-test shown in Table 6 revealed that there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups (t = -0.902, p = .372, r = .13).

Table 2. Raw scores of the listening tests

Group Pre Post

M (SD) M (SD) Shadowing 15.39 (3.93) 16.61 (2.81)

Shadowing with Explicit Instruction

14.33 (4.27) 16.22 (4.49)

Note. M = Mean, SD = Standard Deviation

Table 3. Adjusted mean scores of the listening tests

Group Pre Post


Shadowing with Explicit 16.81 (4.27) 16.22 (4.49)

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Instruction

Table 4. Raw scores of self-efficacy questionnaire

Group Pre Post



2.61 (0.68) 3.48 (0.49)

Table 5. Adjusted scores of self-efficacy questionnaire

Group Pre Post



2.54 (0.68) 3.48 (0.49)

Table 6. Scores of cost questionnaire

Group Score M (SD)

Shadowing 2.76 (0.70)

Shadowing with Explicit Instruction 2.55 (0.78)

Figure 1. Scatter plot of the pre and post scores of listening tests.

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Sh represents shadowing group: Sh&E stands for shadowing with explicit instruction group.

Figure 2. Scatter plot of the pre and post scores of self-efficacy. Sh represents shadowing group: Sh&E stands for shadowing with explicit

instruction group.

6. Discussion

6.1 Effects of shadowing with sound change instruction on listening skills As stated in the previous section, there is no significant difference between

the two groups. There may be several reasons for this result. First, this study had no control group. Both groups were provided with

shadowing training, so it is difficult to obtain significant differences. This study did not have a control group because shadowing has been shown to be a valid for improving listening skills. It would therefore be educationally and ethically inappropriate to introduce a less effective teaching method to create a control group (Hamada, 2011).

Second, because shadowing is an on-line task that requires learners to vocalize the speech immediately after they hear it, participants did not have sufficient attention resources to dedicate to sound change while shadowing. Iino (2013) states that in shadowing, learners consume most of their attention resources vocalizing what they hear, so they cannot focus on phonemic or syntactic aspects of English. In dictation, in contrast, learners can afford to use their attention resources to comprehend chunks of English, which often include sound

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change. As the participants were low proficiency, off-line tasks with sound change instruction, such as dictation or repeating might have been more appropriate for them.

Third, learners’ limited vocabulary can impede the development of their listening comprehension skills. Stanovich (1980) showed that a learner needs to know more than ninety-eight percent of vocabulary to comprehend spoken language. All of the participants’ scores on the TOEIC were less than 400 at the beginning of the study. According to the proficiency scale of TOEIC, those whose scores are less than 470 lack basic vocabulary. Although shadowing is effective in bottom-up processing: the perception and decoding of English phonemes, it does not assist in improving comprehension phase (Iino, 2013). Shadowing is considered to allow participants to perceive and decode English sounds effectively, but their paucity of vocabulary prevents their listening process from shifting into the comprehension phase. Additionally, most of the listening questions are composed of Part 2, which requires examinees to utilize their schemata: top-down processing. Since shadowing does not train learners’ top-down processing (Hamada, 2017; Iino, 2013), adding another listening teaching technique that can improve learners’ top-down processing may have yielded more desirable results.

Finally, learners are not explicitly taught sound change in English in junior high or high school. Only 15 classes for the instruction of sound change are insufficient in enabling students to distinguish and decode English sound change.

6.2 Effects of shadowing with sound change instruction on self-efficacy

Regarding listening self-efficacy, there was a significant difference between the two groups (Sh&E and SH). According to previous studies, there are two reasons why participants in the Sh&E group improved their listening self-efficacy to a greater extent than those in the SH group.

First, as the aforementioned Ogihara’s study (2013) revealed, in the present study explicit instruction on sound change can enable students to implement shadowing better and more smoothly. Completing shadowing smoothly and feeling a sense of accomplishment in each shadowing lesson appears to lead students to developing self-efficacy. Hamada’s research (2011) shows that learners become accustomed to decoding English sounds and begin to believe in their capability to complete the shadowing, which ended up enhancing their listening self-efficacy.

Second, since explicit instruction on sound change helps reinforce learners’ bottom-up processing, it led participants to recognizing the incoming sounds more effectively than normal shadowing. Mahieu (2014) revealed that knowledge on sound change can allow students to raise awareness towards sound change occurred in spoken English. It also helped them obtain clear images on English

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sound and build their confidence in listening. Besides, Hamada (2015) suggested, once they began to identify the incoming English efficiently, they successfully build their self-efficacy for listening. In the present study, it is considered that the same results were yielded. 6.3 Effects of shadowing with sound change instruction on costs

In light of the costs associated with shadowing, the results show that there is no significant difference between the Sh&E and SH groups. Although as mentioned Ogihara’s study (2013) revealed that explicit instruction of sound change can allow students to implement shadowing smoothly, the present study did not yield more favorable results. Since shadowing is referred to as a cognitively demanding task, giving only explicit instruction did not function as a panacea. There might be another obstacle that made participants perceive high-costs. One plausible answer is that almost none of the participants had experienced shadowing before they joined this study. As beginners in shadowing, they needed to dedicate most of their attention and concentration to shadowing (Nakayama & Suzuki, 2012). This psychologically great burden made it difficult to alleviate the costs associated with shadowing. In addition, given that the participants’ English proficiency level was quite low, shadowing must be a difficult activity to engage in. Owing to the difficulties in engaging in shadowing even with instruction of sound change, shadowing was perceived as a high-costs task.

7. Further research and educational implications

Further study needs to involve more participants from a wide variety of majors and English proficiency levels. To the best of my knowledge, little research has been conducted to validate the efficacy of shadowing for university students with a high level of English proficiency. Furthermore, more thorough research may shed light on what mechanisms have effects on the development of self-efficacy towards listening.

For pedagogical implications, shadowing with explicit instruction of sound change can effectively foster learners’ listening self-efficacy. Rather than introducing solely shadowing into the classroom, combining shadowing with instruction of sound change is desirable for both the teacher and the learners. As Yoshida (2013) discussed that development of self-efficacy leads learners to promoting self-regulate for learning, teachers are recommended to employ shadowing with explicit instruction on sound change in listening instruction.

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Appendix A Questionnaire Items of Listening Self-Efficacy リスングアンー

まなまなまなまる

まるによまる

リスングスよ成をるがる (I think I can achieve high scores at a listening test.)

えたリスングのににえるがる (I think I can successfully finish assigned listening tasks in lessons.)

リスングの教えたを理るがる (I think I can understand what is taught in lessons for listening.)

リスング学習内容につのたのを知る (I think I know much about studying listening.)

のリスング力る (I think my listening ability is good.)

リスングの学習法を知る (I think I know how to study listening.)

リスングの学習内容を習る

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(I think I can acquire what I do for listening.) リスングが

(I think I am good at listening.) Appendix B Questionnaire Items of Costs

シャーングに関るアンー

まなまなまなまるまるによまる

シャーングしにがる

(I am easily distracted when shadowing.) シャーングをけるの大変

(Continuing shadowing is hard.) シャーングをるの

(Practice shadowing is pain in the neck.) ななシャーングをるになな

(I cannot motivate myself to practice shadowing easily.) シャーングにななな

(I cannot start working on shadowing easily.) シャーングな

(Shadowing is not that bad.) シャーングるのになな

(Shadowing is not painful.) にシャーングをる

(I can start shadowing easily.) にシャーングにがつ

(I can work on shadowing easily.) シャーングに集し

(I can concentrate on shadowing easily.)

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the efficacy of shadowing with instruction of sound change

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