the effects of widowhood on social support from significant others

Journal of Community Psychology Volume 20, October 1992

The Effects of Widowhood from Significant

on Social Others

Support

Alfred Dean, Georg E. Matt, and Patricia Wood San Diego State University

The effects of widowhood on social support from significant others are variously predicted by the decremental model, the continuity model, and the compensatory model. This study distinctly tested for these possible effects to discern whether they vary with specific types and sources of support. We examined possible changes over 22 months by comparing two recently widowed groups with matched controls of married and unmarried persons, each from a community sample. Findings were consistent with the continuity model: Widowhood was not associated with decrements or increases in expressive, instrumental, or confidant support, or direct or telephone interactions. Independent of widowhood, the stability of support varied by type and source. Methodological strategies are suggested to further distinguish possible changes prior to and during widowhood.

A substantial literature indicates that social support has positive effects on health and well-being and may also reduce the adverse effects of potential stressors (Cohen & Wills, 1985). Research on the supportive relationships of widowed persons would thus appear to be of distinct importance. Existing theoretical perspectives have proposed three competing and consequentially variant effects of widowhood on social support received from others: (1) that it leads to decreases in social support; (2) that prior levels of support will remain stable; and (3) that social support will increase in an apparent attempt to compensate for the loss of the spouse. As will be discussed subsequently, the present study attempts to investigate these effects further in view of several important limitations of existing research. Specifically, previous studies: (1) have not distinguished specific types of social support: (2) have frequently been based on cross-sectional comparisons of married and widowed persons as opposed to longitudinal studies of changes associated with widowhood; (3) have sometimes appeared to regard these three different effects of widowhood as mutually exclusive, as opposed to compatible and dynamic outcomes that may vary by sources of support, by type of support, and over time; and (4) have led to inconsistent and conflicting findings that may be due to variations in methods, in the sociodemographic and cohort characteristics of samples, and in the recency of widowhood.

Need to Discern Types and Sources of Social Support

Previous research concerning the effects of widowhood on the relationships of elderly persons have typically measured their frequency of interaction with specific types of significant others, including adult children, other relatives, friends, sometimes neighbors, as well as formal and informal social participation (Ferraro, 1984; Ferraro & Barresi, 1982). Such measures are frequently used to discern the existence and magnitude of social

This research was supported by Grant No. MH41781 from the Center on Aging, National Institute of Mental Health (Alfred Dean, Principal Investigator). Direct all correspondence to Alfred Dean, Social Sup- ports, Aging and Health Project, San Diego State University, 6505 Alvarado Road, Suite 212, San Diego, CA 92120.

309

3 10 DEAN, MATT, AND WOOD

support. Although the frequency of interaction of elderly persons with various network members is of interest, it remains important to describe further the quality and content of social interactions in ways that reveal the provision of specific types of social support (House & Kahn, 1985; Sauer & Coward, 1985). This is a major objective of the present study.

Various types of social support such as expressive support, instrumental support, the presence of a confidant, and frequency of interaction are of distinct importance. They reflect different psychosocial functions, and they appear to have different effects on health and well-being (Dean, Kolody, Wood, & Ensel, 1989b; Lin, Dean, & Ensel, 1986). There is also evidence that the nature and effects of social support vary by source (Chappell, 1983; Dean, Kolody, & Wood, 1990). Conceivably, the effects of widowhood on social support may also vary by type and/or by source of support.

Illustratively, numerous studies indicate that the sheer frequency with which elderly persons interact with significant others is associated with various measures of morale and subjective well-being; but that generally, interaction with friends has the strongest effects (Lee & Ishii-Kuntz, 1987). On the other hand, adult children typically are the most important sources of instrumental support of obvious significance to the health and functioning of elderly persons (Chappell, 1983). Dean, Kolody, Wood, and Ensel (1989a, b) examined the effects of various types of support provided by adult children on depression in elderly persons. They observed that instrumental support did not influence depression, but that expressive support did, particularly if it communicated caring and concern. Dean et al. (1990) further examined whether support of this type from different sources had different effects on depression. Ranked in terms of magnitude of effect, expressive support from the spouse, friends, and adult children was of descend- ing order of importance. A recent study further observed that expressive support from friends, and frequency of face-to-face interaction with friends, had independent effects on depression among elderly persons living alone or with others (Dean, Kolody, Wood, & Matt, 1992).

Confiding relationships also may be distinguished from frequency of interaction and other types of support, and several studies indicate that the presence or absence of a confidant may have direct or stress-buffering effects on the psychological well-being of the elderly (e.g., Lowenthal & Haven, 1968). It is thus apparent that the possible effects of widowhood on these various types of support is of considerable interest.

In the absence of previous empirical research or relevant theory, it is premature to offer specific hypotheses regarding expected changes in social supports associated wtih widowhood. To illustrate possible changes of interest, however, one might speculate that instrumental and expressive support from adult children might be distinctly mobilized in the event of acute illness prior to the death of the parent-spouse and expectably decline thereafter. Similarly, support from friends might be constrained prior to the death, and increase thereafter. In summary, this study will empirically examine the effects of widowhood on these various types of support, thus providing for a test of the three models in a manner that permits an extension of previous research as well as comparison with it.

Existing Theoretical Perspectives Two apparently competing theoretical orientations provide the framework for much

of the research on widowhood and social interaction (Ferraro, 1984; Ferraro & Barresi, 1982). The first, termed the decremental model, conceives widowhood as implicating

EFFECTS OF WIDOWHOOD 311

a major role loss that leads to the disruption of supportive relationships. Illustratively, Rosow (1973) suggests that role losses lead to a decrease in social participation. Similarly, Miller (1965) suggests that role losses may result in a breakdown in identity, which causes a decrease in participation. Role losses may occur at a time when social disengagement is occurring as part of the aging process (Cumming & Henry, 1961). Some observers also note that social relationships are a function of marital status as well as sex, and that the death of the spouse may constrain social relationships (Petrowsky, 1976). Despite the variety of these specific formulations, each leads to the same predicted outcome: a decrement in level of social ties, social interactions, and social supports from the level existing prior to widowhood. Thus, Field and Minkler (1988) aptly refer to the decremental model as a social problem perspective. To the extent that the decremental model is correct, widowed persons not only have to cope with the loss of their spouse, they have diminished coping resources and experience additional psychosocial deprivation.

Evidence for decremental effects in widowhood has been mixed. As noted by Petrowsky (1976), early studies suggested that the widowed are more socially isolated than their married counterparts, implying increased social deprivation. (See, for example, Berardo, 1967, and Pihlblad & Adams, 1972.) By contrast, in his own study, Petrowsky (1976) failed to observe marital status differences and proposed that this discrepancy may be due to the large proportion of age peers available for support in the community from which this sample was drawn, and perhaps even changes in widowhood as a social status. However, some later studies have also suggested a con- striction in social networks associated with the death of the spouse and friends and decreased contact with dispersed children and friends (Kahn, 1979; Wan, 1982). In a critical review of research in this area, Ferraro and Barresi (1982) also noted inconsistent findings and suggested that these may be due to variations in sociodemographic characteristics (age, sex, and ethnicity), limited attention to these variables in multivariate analysis, and variations in methods. Two additional methodological limitations of previous studies were also noted by these authors. Most studies have been cross-sectional as opposed to longitudinal. Thus, they have compared the social interactions of widowed persons to married persons without explicit knowledge of their characteristics prior to widowhood. Second, most studies have not controlled for the recency of widowhood.

In contrast to the decremental model, the continuity model, apparently stemming from the work of Atchley (1971), suggests that personal patterns of social participation and levels of interactions in social networks are established early in life and are fairly stable over the life course. Findings from a number of longitudinal studies are consistent with the continuity model (Busse et al., 1985; Field & Minkler, 1988; Palmore, 1981). Specifically, these studies indicate that most elderly persons maintain their social networks and levels of involvement consistent with their earlier lives. In a specific attempt to discern whether continuities of social interaction were influenced by widowhood, Ferraro and Barresi (1982) conducted a rigorous multivariate, longitudinal study that controlled for the recency of widowhood. They observed a substantial stability in levels of interactions with family, friends, and neighbors for persons widowed between 1 and 4 years. Those widowed more than 4 years reflected decreases in family interaction. Thus, they suggest that their findings seriously challenge the decremental model. To the extent that the continuity model is correct, widowed persons, while experiencing the loss of the distinctive supportive functions of the spouse, at least experience continuity in the supportive functions of other network members.

312 DEAN, MATT, AND WOOD

Empirical support for the continuity model is inferred from the lack of statistically significant differences in social support between marital status groups in a cross-sectional design, or between support levels before and after widowhood in a longitudinal design. This reasoning is subject to several potential pitfalls. The logic of statistical hypothesis testing does not allow one to prove the null hypothesis. Failure to reject the null hypothesis may indicate a zero-difference in the population, or it may reflect a small population difference for which the statistical test had insufficient statistical power to detect it with high probability. Consequently, the continuity model as represented in the null hypothesis cannot be proven directly. Therefore, the empirical evidence should be interpreted as only tentatively consistent with the continuity model, acknowledging that statistically more powerful studies may indeed detect existing differences.

Typically conceived as part of the continuity model but distinct in its prediction of the outcomes of widowhood is the concept of compensatory support. For example, Palmore (1968) has reported that older people may compensate for losses in one type of social interaction by increasing their participation in other types of social interaction. Because this effect is distinct from stability, we will refer to it here as the cornpen- satory model. The potential implications of the compensatory principle are clear: To the extent that compensatory support occurs, it may serve to assist widowed persons to cope with the psychosocial consequences of widowhood with increased levels of social support.

There is some evidence for compensatory support. Lopata (1973) reported that widows showed a slight increase in interaction with children during the first year of widowhood. Ferraro (1984) and Kohen (1983) observed that widowhood led to an im- mediate increase in the probability of having an intimate friend for both older men and women.

Conflicting and qualifying findings are also evidenced. Lowenthal and Haven (1968) observed that widows were less likely than married persons to have an intimate friend. Pihlblad and Adams (1972) also made this finding for widows but observed that the opposite was true for men who had been widowed for a short time. On the other hand, Berardo (1970) found that married men were more likely to have an intimate friend than were recent widowers.

Wan and Ode11 (1983), utilizing data from the Longitudinal Retirement History Survey, analyzed panel data on men in their sixties. Controlling for previous levels of interaction, network size, and other independent variables, they observed higher levels of interaction with parents, children, and friends among the most recently widowed men (within a 2-year interval) compared to other marital status groups and compared to men widowed 2 years or longer. They also observed that those widowed 2 years or more had the lowest levels of interaction. These findings, like those of Ferraro and Barresi (1982), suggest a decrease in level of support over time for the widowed.

Using data from the Longitudinal Retirement History Study, Morgan (1984) examined the effects of widowhood (which occurred during a 6-year interval). It should be noted that the recency of widowhood was not controlled in this study. Morgan found that the average frequency of interaction with available kin increased for both married and widowed persons over time, with the greatest increase among widows. However, the total number of contacts decreased for both widows and widowers due to the loss of family members. Regression analyses indicated that these changes were not due to age, race, health, or income. This study illustrates how findings may vary with specific interaction measures, and that evidence for different effects may be found in the same


study. It is noteworthy that the statistically reliable decremental effects as reflected in a large sample (N = 5,119) were small (R2 = .004). By contrast, total family interaction levels prior to widowhood were a strong predictor of postwidowhood interaction (R2 = .188), consistent with the continuity hypothesis.

The more recent studies of the effects of widowhood on social interaction reflect two advances for assessing changes in support relationships associated with widowhood: (1) the examination of widowhood as a process in longitudinal designs and (2) the attempt to control for other variables that may influence changes in social interaction. In this regard, the recent literature on caregiving has pointed to illness, caregiving, bereavement, and other variables that may co-vary with widowhood over time. Rele- vant research, for example, indicates that the spouse and adult children are distinctly important caregivers (Stone, Cafferata, & Sangl, 1987); that the magnitude, types, and sources of support may change in association with acute, chronic, or fatal illnesses (Johnson & Catalano, 1983); and that supportive relationships may change as a function of caregiving stress and the processes of grief (Bass & Bowman, 1990; George & Gwyther, 1984; Norris & Murrell, 1987). Critiques of the caregiving literature have nonetheless also noted the need to apply longitudinal designs and to consider the total support network (Barer & Johnson, 1990).

Specific Aims of the Present Study

Widowhood may be conceptualized as the loss of a significant supportive relationship. Thus conceived, related questions arise: What is the nature of the support received from significant others and how is this influenced by widowhood? Our review of previous work on this topic revealed a number of merits and limitations with regard to theory, research methods, and empirical findings. Merits of the three identified theoretical models include: (1) They contain some substantive conceptualizations of social relationships prior to and subsequent to widowhood; (2) they lead to specific, relevant, and testable hypotheses regarding the effects of widowhood on supportive relationships; and (3) they offer potential explanations for empirical findings consistent with their predictions. Nonetheless, in our view, these theoretical models also require further refinements: Although they sometimes appear to be treated as competing models of the effects of widowhood, they are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Theory and some evidence suggest that these effects may vary by type or source of support, over time, and in association with other independent variables.

Utilizing a two-wave panel design, the basic objective of the present study was to examine the influence of widowhood on the stability or change in specific types and sources of support over a 22-month interval. As noted previously, the question of whether the effects of widowhood vary by type and source of support has not been previously examined and is a matter of theoretical, empirical and applied interest.

It was also expected that the effects of widowhood on social support may be influenced by a variety of related contextual factors such as illness and caregiving activities prior to the death of the spouse. Based on a broader investigation of life events, social support, and health among elderly persons, the present study afforded some data with which to explore this issue. Finally, we note that although the design and data would not permit us to discern dynamic changes over short intervals of time, they would permit us to describe changes over a 22-month period among widowed and nonwidowed controls and to control for the influence of age, sex, and other relevant variables. In the Methods section to follow, we describe further the nature, merits, and limitations of this design.


Methods Sample

The data reported here were part of a larger investigation of stress, social support, and mental health of elderly persons. Data were collected in two waves at an interval of approximately 22 months using structured interview schedules. The first wave was collected between October, 1985, and May, 1986, and the second wave between August, 1987, and March, 1988. The target population was individuals 50 years of age and older from the Albany-Schenectady-Rensselaer SMSA in the state of New York. Specifically, 150 males and 150 females in each of the age groups 50-64, 65-74, 75-84, and 85 + were to be sampled. A multistage, disproportionate stratified random sampling procedure was used to meet the sex and age quotas. The final sample consists of 1,174 respondents that closely approximate the targeted age and sex quotas. Seven hundred and forty-nine respondents (64%) completed both sets of interviews. Detailed characteristics of the total sample are described elsewhere (Dean et al., 1989a).

In the present study, a subsample of recently widowed and matched controls (N = 147) formed the basis of the analysis. The recently widowed groups were composed of those individuals who had been widowed during the 2 years prior to the first wave of interviews (WIDOWED-1; N = 29) and a second group of individuals who had become widowed in the period between the first and second interview (WIDOWED-2; N = 20). Two control groups were selected to match the WIDOWED-1 and WIDOWED-2 groups on age, sex, and level of expressive support received from children at T1. The first matched control group was randomly selected from among all available matches among the married (MARRIED; N = 49); a second matched control group was selected from among the not married (NOT MARRIED; N = 49). Approximately 80% of the NOT MARRIED were long-term widowed (median was 12.2 years with a range of 4 to 30 years); the others were divorced, separated, or never married. Age and sex characteristics of the four marital status groups comprising this subsample are sum- marized in Table 1.

Table 1 Age and Sex Characteristics of Marital Status Groups

N Mean age Percent (years) female

WIDOWED-2

Married Not married

Total

WIDOWED- 1 20 29 49 49

147

76.9 71 . I 73.1 73.6

73.7

50 72 63 63

62

Design Figure 1 depicts the design underlying this study. Because respondents could not

be randomly assigned to the four conditions, the design of this study was quasi- experimental (nonequivalent control group design; Cook & Campbell, 1979). For group WIDOWED-I, widowhood occurred within 2 years prior to the first interview; the T1 and T2 assessments are two follow-up assessments. For group WIDOWED-2, widowhood occurred between T1 and T2; thus, T1 can be considered a pretest and T2 a posttest.


WIDOWED-1 X 0 0

WIDOWED-2 0 X 0

MARRIED 0 0

NOT MARRIED 0 0

Notes. X = Widowhood; 0 = Observation.

FIGURE 1 . Nonequivalent Control Group Design for Examining the Effects of Widowhood on Social Support.

The two assessments for the matched control groups MARRIED and NOT MARRIED provided baseline data for levels of and changes in outcome measures that can be expected in the absence of widowhood.

Although we attempted to match the two control groups on relevant characteristics, this process cannot result in the same equivalence as in a randomized experiment. There are two major reasons for this. First, the four groups were likely to differ on an infinite number of characteristics. To match the groups on age, sex, and caring and concern from children at T1 made them more comparable on these characteristics but still not equivalent. Second, because of the different life expectancies among men and women, widowers tend to be older than widows. In other words, if husbands survive their wives they tend to be older than wives surviving their husbands. This has the effect that persons in the WIDOWED-1 group were younger (71 years versus 77 years) and were more likely to be female (72% versus 50%) than persons in the WIDOWED-2 group.

The Assessment of Change This design allowed us to examine change and stability in two ways. The first con-

cerns between-group differences in the mean levels of support observed at T1 and T2. We examined whether the change in support betwen T1 and T2 differed between the four groups. Separate repeated measures ANOVAs (repeated-factor Time: T1, T2; between-factor Group: WIDOW-1, WIDOW-2, MARRIED, NOT MARRIED) were conducted, and group by time interaction effects and time main effects were examined. If widowhood is associated with a decrease or a compensatory increase in support, we expect to observe group by time interaction (i.e., different Tl-T2 changes between groups). The examination of simple effects and post hoc comparisons reveals whether such changes reflect decreases or increases in support.

The second type of change concerns interindividual differences in change within groups. Regardless of between-group differences in support, widowhood may have different effects for different people within each group. For instance, for some persons, widowhood may lead to increases in some types of support, whereas for others widowhood may lead to a decrease. To address this question, we examined whether the relative levels of support within groups remained the same or differed at T1 and T2.Zero-order correlations between support received at T1 and T2 were calculated for each of the four groups. For each support measure, the four T1 -T2 correlations were tested for differences via a x2 test with 3 degrees of freedom (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). This test addresses the question whether stability of support differs between groups. If widowhood led to


increases in support in some but decreases in support in other persons, we would expect that Tl-T2 correlations would be lower for the widowed groups than for the married and unmarried groups. On the other hand, if T1-T2 correlations for the four groups were of similar magnitudes, this would indicate that differential changes in support for the widowed were comparable to differential changes in support in the absence of widowhood.

Measures As previously discussed, social support is a complex and multifaceted construct.

We thus examined the effects of widowhood on five different types of social support (expressive, instrumental, confidant, and the frequency of face-to-face and telephone interaction) and three providers (children, relatives, friends).

A five-item measure of one type of expressive support, termed “caring and concern,” was employed to assess expressive support received from children, relatives, and friends, during the 6 months preceding the interview. The scale measured the frequency with which each source exhibited the following behaviors during the last 6 months: shows you that helshe likes you; gives you support when bad things happen; shows concern when you are sick; shares good times with you; and shows concern when you are unhappy. This scale shows high internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha = .88, .90, .90). For a further discussion of the concep- tualization, measurement, and effects of this type of expressive support, see Dean et al. (1990).

Confidant support was assessed by asking: “During the past 6 months has there been anyone in particular you confided in or talked to about yourself or your problems?”

Interaction frequency was assessed on two variables: face-to-face contact (i.e., seeing children, relatives, friends) and telephone contact (i.e., talking to children, relatives, friends). Response categories and codes were: 1 = once a year or less; 2 = several times a year; 3 = monthly; 4 = weekly; and 5 = daily.

A two-item measure of instrumental support was employed to assess assistance from children, relatives, and friends during the preceding 6 months. The scale scores measured the frequency with which the following help was provided by each source: help with everyday tasks around the household such as preparation of meals and cleaning; help with health or medical needs such as providing transportation to a physician. This scale has moderate internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha = .73, .72, .69).

Undesirable life events occurring during the 6 months prior to the interview were measured on a 140-item scale described elsewhere (Lin et al., 1986) and consisted of items adopted from Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend (1978), Holmes and Rahe (1967), and Myers, Lindenthal, and Pepper (1975). The score represents a simple count of all undesirable events except death of the spouse, which was excluded to avoid confounding of recent widowhood with other life events.

The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) was employed as a measure of depressive symptomatology. This 20-item instrument has been widely used and reflects acceptable validity and reliability (Radloff, 1977).

Expressive support: Caring and concern.

Con$dant support.

Frequency of interaction.

Instrumental support.

Undesirable life events.

CES-D.


SCL-42. The 42-item version of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (Derogatis, Lipman, Rickels, Uhlenhuth, & Covi, 1974) was used to provide an overall rating of psychological distress. Its psychometric properties have been well established, and it is frequently used in epidemiological research.

A 17-item activities of daily living (ADL) index was employed to assess levels of disability or impairment on a 3-point scale: 0 = “can do,” 1 = “can do with difficulty,” and 2 = “cannot do.” The items were adapted from standard sources (Duke University Center for the Study of Aging and Human Development, 1978; Katz, 1983) and showed high internal consistency (Cronbach’s Alpha = .89).

Disability.

Results

Equivalence of Matched Groups at TI The equivalance of the four matched groups at T1 was examined by conducting

analyses of variance (ANOVA) on measures of social supports, life events, psychological distress, disability, and depression. The ANOVAs revealed that at T1, the four matched groups were equivalent (i.e., p > .lo) on undesirable life events, disability (ADL), depression (CES-D), psychological and physical symptoms (SCL), caring and concern (from children, relatives, and friends), instrumental support (from relatives, children, and friends), frequency seeing relatives and children, and frequency talking to children and relatives. However, differences still existed (see Table 3, column labeled Marital Status at T1) on confidant, F(3,151) = 3.0, p < .05, highest for WIDOWED-1; frequency seeing friends, F(3,118) = 3.49, p < .05, highest for NOT MARRIED; and frequency talking to friends, F(3,114) = 3.19, p < .05, highest for NOT MARRIED. However, lack of equivalence on some variables does not necessarily imply reliable between-group differences. To test for between-group differences, a much more conservative rejection criterion would need to be applied. In fact, after applying a simple Bonferroni adjustment (Maxwell & Delaney, 1990) to control for the 17 ANOVAs (p < .05/17 = .0029), none of the T1-group difference comes close to being statistically significant. Therefore, we concluded that the groups were sufficiently equivalent to continue with further analyses.

Levels of Support Table 2 gives the means and standard deviations of support by marital status and

time of assessment. We will briefly describe these levels to illustrate the nature of support and frequencies of interactions reported by our respondents. Compared to relatives and friends, levels of caring and concern and instrumental support were highest from children. On a scale from 0 to 10, the mean scores for caring and concern from children were between 9 and 10 (i.e., respondents typically endorsed the “frequently” response), whereas they were between 6 and 8 (i.e., “sometimes” to “frequently”) for friends and relatives. The instrumental support scale had a range from 0 to 4; children received average scores between 1 and 3 (i.e., “sometimes” to “frequently”), whereas friends and relatives scored between 0 and 1 (i.e., “hardly ever” to “sometimes”). Between 33% and 70% of all respondents reported having a confidant. Our respondents reported similar frequencies for seeing children, relatives, and friends, suggesting that they saw these support providers “1-4 times a month” to “several times a week.” Our respondents reported talking to their children “several times a week” and to friends and relatives “1-4 times a month” to “several times a week.”


Table 2 Levels of Social Support Measures by Marital Status and Time

Marital status

WIDOWED-2 WIDOWED-1 Married Not married

Type and source of support M SD M SD M SD M SD

Caring (range

and concern = 0-10)

Children

Relatives

Friends

Instrumental support (range = 0-4)

Children

Relatives

Friends

Confidant (070)

Frequency seeing (range = 1-5)

Children

Relatives

Friends

Frequency talking (range = 1-5)

Children

Relatives

Friends

T1 T2 T1

T1 T2

T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2

TI T2

T1 T2 T1 T2 TI T2

T1 T2 TI T2 T1 T2

9.6 (0.72) 9.2 (1.40) 6.7 (3.60) 7.6 (3.10) 6.2 (3.60) 7.2 (3.20)

2.4 (1.70) 2.5 (1.70)

.68 (0.89)

.90 (1.40)

.90 (1.30)

.45 (1.10)

35 70

4.10 (1.10) 3.90 (1.20) 3.80 (1.10) 3.20 (1.40) 3.80 (1.10) 3.90 (1.00)

4.40 (1.60) 4.10 (0.92) 3.40 (1.30) 3.40 (1.50) 3.30 (1.40) 2.60 (1.40)

9.1 (1.60) 8.8 (2.60) 7.8 (3.30) 8.2 (2.60) 6.8 (3.40) 7.1 (3.60)

2.0 (1.60) 1.6 (1.70) .93 (1.50) .78 (1.10) .52 (0.99) .45 (0.78)

66 55

4.30 (0.86) 3.50 (1.10) 3.90 (1.20) 3.00 (1.20) 4.00 (0.98) 3.40 (0.73)

4.50 (0.73) 4.10 (0.82) 3.80 (1.00) 3.40 (1.30) 3.60 (1.30) 2.70 (1.10)

9.1 (1.90) 9.1 (2.40) 7.8 (2.80) 8.5 (2.50) 6.6 (3.20) 7.3 (3.80)

1.5 (1.50) 1.2 (1.40) .71 (1.20) .61 (1.10) .39 (0.86) .37 (0.63)

33 50

3.50 (1.20) 3.20 (1.20) 3.70 (1.00) 3.40 (1.20) 3.70 (1.10) 3.60 (1.02)

4.00 (1.10) 3.70 (1.03) 3.80 (1.20) 3.30 (1.40) 3.40 (1.20) 3.20 (1.40)

9.1 (1.80) 9.0 (2.10) 7.5 (3.30) 7.5 (3.20) 6.9 (3.20) 7.0 (3.40)

1.3 (1.50) 1.5 (1.60) .44 (0.83) .80 (1.40) .33 (0.66) .57 (1.00)

43 55

3.80 (1.25) 3.20 (1.20) 3.50 (1.30) 2.90 (1.20) 4.30 (0.79) 3.80 (1.00)

4.30 (1.20) 3.80 (1.10) 3.50 (1.30) 3.30 (1.40) 4.20 (1.00) 4.00 (1.20)

Decremen tal, Con tin uity, and Compensatory Models The following analyses address three hypotheses concerning the possible impact

of widowhood on social ties and support. According to the decremental hypothesis, widowhood should be associated with a decrease in social contact and supports. The continuity hypothesis suggests that patterns of contact and support continue after widowhood. The compensation hypothesis indicates that the loss of the spouse will be partly compensated for by increased levels of support from other sources. To address these hypotheses, we first performed a repeated measures ANOVA for each support measure testing for main effects of time (i.e., Were there common changes across all groups?) and for time by group interaction effects (i.e., Were there different change


Table 3 F-Test Values for Marital Status and Time Eflects on Social Support

Marital status Marital status at T1 by time Time

Fvalue dfa F value dfb Fvalue dfb

Care and concern Children Relatives Friends

.45

.64

.24

.17

.37

.36

Instrumental support Children 2.52 1.36 Relatives 1.22 1.09 Friends .33 1.43

Confidant 2.90* (3,142) 2.41

1.36 2.29 2.40

.27

.37 2.54

6.33

Frequency seeing Children Relatives Friends

2.32 1.45 26.89** (1,114) 1.13 1.55 28.24** (1,137) 3.03* (3,110) 1.79 5.91

Frequency talking Children 1.09 . I8 6.83 Relatives 1.05 .76 3.62 Friends 2.96* (3,106) 1.53 9.80* (1,106)

Notes. *p < .005; **p < .001; "degrees of freedom for Fvalues exceedingp < .05; bdegrees of freedom for F values exceeding p < .0038 (Le., Bonferroni adjusted p < .05/13 = ,0038).

patterns across groups?). Second, we examined interindividual differences in support changes through correlation analyses of support levels reported at T1 and T2.

Table 3 summarizes the repeated measures ANOVA results for the 13 support measures. To control for increased Type I error because of the 13 ANOVAs, we set the Type I error rate t o p = .05/13 = .0038.

The analyses indicated no statistically reliable time by group interaction. (See Table 3, column labeled Marital Status by Time.) This is the case even if one relaxes the alpha level to p < .05. This suggests that the four groups displayed similar magnitudes of change in indicators of social support ranging from frequency of interaction, instrumental support, and expressive support and across different sources of support. Because of the lack of marital status by group interaction effects for any of the 1 3 social support measures, there is no evidence for compensatory or decremental changes in support because of widowhood.

The analyses show main effects of time for several indicators of frequency of interaction. (See Table 3, column labeled Time.) This suggests that regardless of marital status, the frequency of seeing children, F(1,114) = 26.89; p < .0038, and seeing relatives, F(1,137) = 28.24; p < .0038, and the frequency of talking to friends, F(1,106) = 9.80; p < .0038, declined between T1 and T2. This decrease in frequency of interaction may reflect an aging effect common to the widowed, married, and unmarried.

It has been suggested that patterns of social supports may differ for persons who act as caregivers to their spouses prior to death and those who did not. For instance, Johnson and Catalan0 (1983) have suggested that caregivers may receive increased levels of support during the period

Changes in mean levels of support.

Exploration of the potential influence of caregiving.


preceding death of the spouse rather than after death, during bereavement. If this is the case, combining caregiving and noncaregiving spouses may wash out any compensatory changes in social supports after the death of the spouse. Although our study was not specifically designed for careful examination of caregiving issues, our interview data on life events included two questions that allow exploration of this issue. Specifically, the interview questions asked whether the respondent’s spouse had either a serious illness or a serious injury in the 6 months prior to the interview.

Assuming that a serious illness or injury to the spouse is associated with various forms and degrees of caregiving by the healthy spouse, we compared changes in social support for persons widowed at T2 who reported serious illness or injury of their spouse (N = 5) with those who did not (N = 15). Repeated measures ANOVAs were performed with the various social support measures as dependent variables, and time (Tl, T2) and group (illness/injury of spouse, no illness/injury of spouse) as independent variables. None of the group differences and none of the group by time interactions reached or even approached conventional levels of statistical significance (i.e., p = < .05). Although these findings do not support the hypothesis that changes in support vary as a function of caregiver status, the findings have to be interpreted cautiously because of the low statistical power resulting from small sample sizes. Thus, although these findings are only tentative, they suggest that in the present study, compensatory changes in social supports are unlikely to have occurred even after taking into account the potential caregiver role of the respondent.

Table 4 summarizes the correlations between support reported at T1 and T2 by group for the 13 indicators of social support. High

Interindividual diferences in change.

Table 4 Stability Coeffirients (Tl-T2 Correlations) for Social Supporf Measures

WIDOWED-2 WIDOWED-1 Married Unmarried ,y*(d’ = 3) rwa

Caring and concern Children - .30 .Il*** .29* .go*** 26.4*** - Relatives .22 .42* .12 .21 1.6 .22* Friends .11*** .29 .44*** .48*** 3.1 .41***

Instrumental support Children .45* .54** .44*** .52*** .4 .49*** Relatives .46* .34* .20** .oo 3.1 .19* Friends .36 .34* .08 .31* 1.7 .21*

Confidant .02 .22 .35** .28* 1.6 .26**

Seeing Children .go*** .54** .go*** .57*** 5.4 .69*** Relatives .42* .45** .25* .58*** 3.6 .43*** Friends .10 .34 .25 .36* .8 .29**

Talking Children . l l .42* .58*** .52*** 3.1 .48*** Relatives .58** .45** .32* .54’** 2.2 .46*** Friends .10 .26 .25 .10 .3 .22*

arw = average correlation weighted by sample size. *p < .05; **p <.01; ***p <.001.

EFFECTS OF WIDOWHOOD 32 1

correlations indicate low interindividual differences in change (i.e., no change, or everybody changed in the same direction and by a similar amount). A low correlation indicates interindividual differences in direction or magnitude of change. To examine whether widowhood may be associated with differential change patterns, we first tested for differences in Tl-T2 correlations between the four groups (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). If such differences were detected, we would then continue by examining whether Tl-T2 correlations for the widowed are different from those of the married and unmarried. If Tl-T2 correlations did not differ between groups, we calculated a sample size weighted r to indicate the magnitude of stability in social support reported at T1 and T2 common to all four groups.

Except for caring and concern from children, ~ ~ ( 3 ) = 26.4; p < .001, we do not find any differences in the stability of support between the widowed, married, and unmarried. In other words, widowhood is not associated with more interindividual diflerences in support change than one observes over the same period of time for married and unmarried persons. With respect to caring and concern from children, further examination suggests that the statistically nonsignificant correlation for group WIDOWED-2 is the result of ceiling effects and restricted range rather than differences between marital groups. Of the 20 cases in the WIDOWED-2 group, 15 had indicated the highest possible level of support from their children at T1 (i.e., a score of 10) whereas five cases had indicated slightly lower but still high support levels (i.e., scores of 8 or 9).

The weighted Tl-T2 correlations are all statistically significant (p < .05), indicating some stability in support for all support indicators. However, there are some clear differences in the stability of support. The most stable types of support are instrumental support from children (r2 = .24), caring and concern from friends (r2 = .22), seeing and talking to children (r2 = .48; r2 = .23), and seeing and talking to relatives (r2 = .18; r2 = .21). The least stable types of support are caring and concern from relatives (r2 = .05), instrumental support from relatives and friends (r2 = .04; r2 = .04), the availability of a confidant (r2 = .07), and seeing and talking to friends (r2 = .08; r2 = .05).

Because the magnitude of a correlation is limited by the reliability of the variables correlated, we examined the internal consistency of those measures involving multi-item scales. More specifically, we examined whether differences in reliability of the various support measures could explain the observed differences in Tl-T2 correlations. Inter- nal consistency estimates for the three caring and concern scales in the four groups vary in a narrow range between .85 and .89. Estimates for the instrumental support scales vary between .68 and .74. These data suggest that differences in the reliability of the caring and concern scales cannot explain the differences in T 1 -T2 correlations between different providers on these scales. However, the relatively lower reliabilities of the instrumental support measures have attenuated the observed correlations. The attenua- tion corrected correlations (Allen & Yen, 1979) for instrumental support are .70 (.49), .27 (. 19), and .30 (.21) for children, relatives, and friends, respectively (uncorrected correlations are in parentheses).

Discussion This study further addresses the impact of widowhood on social support. Three

models characterize existing theory: the decremental model, which predicts a decrease in social support from significant others; the continuity model, which predicts stability of support; and the compensation model, which predicts increases in support. The present study is distinct from previous studies in that we examined different types and providers


of support, employed a prospective longitudinal design, and compared two groups of recently widowed to groups of matched married and unmarried persons.

For the first group (WIDOWED-2), widowhood occurred between T1 and T2, and the two assessments covered the time before and after widowhood (i.e., a 22-month interval). The second group (WIDOWED-1) were widowed within 2 years prior to T1; for them the Tl-T2 interval covered the years 3 and 4 after widowhood. The third group had been married during that time. The fourth group was unmarried at T1 and T2 and consisted mostly of long-term widows and widowers. Thus the four groups reflect different time periods of widowhood and different marital status groups. The assessments of the matched control groups provided baseline data for levels of social support and changes in support that can be expected in the absence of recent widowhood. Moreover, we examined changes in mean levels of support and interindividual differences in change within groups. This design thus provided for an examination of stability or changes by marital status, types of support and/or source, and also distinguished possible changes over time that were independent of widowhood.

We have examined the initial equivalence among the marital status groups and found them to be comparable on most though not all variables. The few existing differences were not statistically reliable after controlling for the number of nonindependent tests. Even if one is not willing to concur with the assumption of initial equivalence among groups, the pattern of obtained findings is inconsistent with nonequivalence. Our analyses examined between-group differences in change between Time 1 and Time 2 independent of the initial level (i.e., group by time interaction). If differences in initial level had in- teracted with marital status, one would expect that this would be reflected in different change patterns across the groups (e.g., less change for groups with higher initial support), rather than in suppressing between-group differences in change. However, we observed that support changes in the presence of widowhood were comparable to those in the absence of widowhood. Therefore, we conclude that a few initial differences between the four groups should not have influenced our findings.

Over a 22-month interval, we find no support for the decremental or compensatory models. None of the time by group interaction effects were statistically significant, suggesting that changes in mean levels of support for the recently widowed do not differ reliably from changes observed for the married and unmarried. Hence, we conclude that, compared to the married and unmarried, widowhood was not associated with a general decrease of support or a compensation in support by type or provider. Our findings are thus consistent with continuity theory and some related studies of widowhood and social interaction.

A distinct objective of this study was to discern whether the effects of widowhood varied by specific types and providers of support, and it is thus important to note that continuity was tentatively supported for expressive support, instrumental support, the availability of a confidant, face-to-face interactions, and telephone interaction. Moreover, continuity was indicated for supports provided by adult children, other relatives, and friends.

As we pointed out before, the continuity of social support in the presence of widowhood is inferred from the lack of statistically reliable differences between marital status groups. Although one would expect such findings if the continuity model were true, the same findings are to be expected if group differences are too small to be detected reliably given the statistical power of the study. In the present study, the statistical power is approximately .70 to detect a main effect between marital groups or a group by time


interaction effect of what Cohen (1988) calls a “medium effect size” cf = .25, p = .05). This effect size reflects average group differences of approximately ?h of the within-group standard deviation. Thus, our chances to detect effects of this magnitude were reasonably high. However, if group differences are of a magnitude that Cohen (1988) refers to as “small effect size,” statistical power decreases to an unsatisfactory .14. Thus, the evidence we interpret as consistent with the continuity modei is also consistent with the possibility of small differences between groups.

Our findings with regard to interindividual differences in change within groups are also consistent with the continuity model. Additionally, they afford observations on the stability of supports which, though independent of widowhood, are of inherent interest. We found some stability for all forms of support over the 22-month interval. We observed similar change patterns within all four groups, indicating that widowhood was not associated with more interindividual differences in change than are found among the married or unmarried. However, independent of widowhood, some types of support appeared to be more stable than others.

Overall, children provided the most stable supports in terms of instrumental support and frequency of interactions. Supports from friends and relatives were more variable. Examination of the reliability of support measures suggested that the differences in the stability of support could not be explained by differences in the reliability of support measures. Despite statistically significant temporal stability in support and the absence of marital status differences in the stability support over time, we observed variation in social support over time (i.e., 1 - 4 in Table 4). The variation in support observed is noteworthy, because it may imply dynamic changes in support. It should also be noted that independent of widowhood, we observed decreases in interaction with adult children, relatives, and friends over time, consistent with some previous studies. The reason for this observation is not clear and also merits further study.

Having discerned these patterns of continuity and stability, it remains to consider their possible implications. Whereas decreases in social support could be expected to increase psychological distress (Lin & Ensel, 1984), the observed stability of social support would appear to be a propitious finding-providing continuity in the context of a major life change and thus, possibly, favorable mental health effects. The fact that we find no evidence for compensatory increases in social support may imply unmet needs for increased support in the early stages of widowhood. Despite the continuity of support, we do observe variations over time, by type, and by source. Because cross-sectional studies indicate that friends distinctly influence the subjective well-being of elderly persons, the observed relative instability of support from friends is of particular interest. Instability may have adverse mental health effects. On the other hand, instability may indicate variations in support needs and the dynamic availability of friend support and thus may have beneficial health effects. Further research on the stability of support, its predictors, and its effects is needed.

Notwithstanding the theoretical arguments and empirical support for the continuity model, further research is needed to provide a more detailed picture of aging, needs for social support, the provision of social support, and the possible conditions under which decremental or compensatory support may occur. In particular, this will require the application of additional prospective studies with multiple, briefer, and theoretically defined intervals prior to and subsequent to widowhood. This should include references to possible process variables and stages, notably the occurrence of acute or chronic life- threatening illness, the need for and experience of caregiving, of dying, death, and grief.


Although important studies are emerging on these topics, the need for more comprehen- sive methodological and theoretical approaches remains. Finally, we would note that studies of widowhood and social support are typically based on self-reports from widowed persons. The inclusion of other network members in future studies would enlarge our perspective of these processes. Although obviously challenging, these lines of investigation would substantially increase our understanding of the dynamics of aging, widowhood, and social support.

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