the effects of vocal exercises and information …
TRANSCRIPT
THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES AND INFORMATION
ABOUT THE VOICE ON THE TONE QUALITY AND VOCAL
SELF-IMAGE OF ADOLESCENT FEMALE SINGERS
by
KENNETH LYMAN SIPLEY, B.M.E., M.M.E.
A DISSERTATION
IN
FINE ARTS
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in
Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Approved
August, 1993
V
Copyright 1993, Kenneth Lyman Sipley
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There are many people who have had a share in whatever
success results from this project. Julie Rhodes, Candy
Sisson, and Roland Nitcher deserve many thanks for making
their students available for my research, and for putting
up with my many interruptions of their choral programs.
David Coons' assistance in setting up the statistics
program is much appreciated. Barbi Dickensheet is not only
a capable proofreader, but much more. Her kindness, her
friendliness, and her willingness to help made my work much
easier.
The many hours the members of my committee spent
helping me revise and polish this document provided perhaps
the most significant experience in my degree program. Dr.
Paul Randolph's help with statistics was invaluable. Dr.
Richard Weaver and Dr. John Stinespring provided valuable
points of view. Dr. Robert Henry taught me that an advisor
can also be a friend. The hours spent discussing choral
and vocal techniques with Dr. Kenneth Davis have helped me
clarify my beliefs and knowledge in these areas, and have
helped make me a better choral director, voice teacher, and
singer. Above all, Dr. Donald Tanner's guidance and
friendship have been a source of inspiration both in my
work and in my life. To all these gentlemen I offer a
heartfelt thank you, and more gratitude than I can ever
express.
For my parents and first teachers, Jessie and Clifton
Sipley, whose faith has given me strength to get through
some very difficult times, no expression of thanks could
ever be enough. I still profit from the lessons they
taught so lovingly and so well.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude and love
to my wife, Mary. This is her degree as much as it is
11
mine. Without her comfort, support, and love the past
three years would have been impossible.
Ill
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
ABSTRACT vi
LIST OF TABLES vii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Background and Rationale for the Study... 1
Purpose of the Study 6
Research problems 7
Description of the Study 7
Definitions 9
Organization 10
Limitations 11
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 12
Introduction 12
Voice Mutation in Adolescents 13
Voice Mutation in Males 14
Voice Mutation in Females 15
Singing as a Physical Activity 19
The Classification of Adolescent
Female Voices 20
Vocal Models 24
Vocal Abuse 25
Developing the Voice 28
The Choral Director as Voice Teacher 28
The Aims of Vocal Instruction 30 The Sequence of Categories in
Vocal Development 33
Posture 35
Breath Management 36
Relaxation 38
Phonation 39
Resonance 39
Registration 41
iv
Ill
IV.
V.
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
A.
Articulation 44
Therapy and Exercises 45
The Application of Knowledge to Vocal Instruction 48
The Use of Science and Imagery in Vocal Instruction 50
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 53
Vocal Principles on Which This Study
is Based 53
Hypotheses 53
Pilot Study 55 Methodology of the Main Study 58
RESULTS 63
Student Attitudes 63
Tone Quality 64
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 74
Discussion 74
Student Attitudes 74
Tone Quality 75
Conclusions 78
Summary 82
Student Attitudes 82
Tone Quality 85
Suggestions for Further Research 86
87
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL DEVELOPMENT WHICH FORM THE BASIS OF THE STUDY 102
B. OPEN-ENDED SENTENCE QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN THE PILOT STUDY 109
C. STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEYS 112
D. EXERCISES TESTED IN THE PILOT STUDY 127
E. CALENDAR OF STUDY 136
F. EXERCISES USED IN THE MAIN STUDY 141
G. VOCAL TEST EVALUATION FORM AND INFORMATION
ON JUDGES 150
H. STATISTICAL INFORMATION 153
I. CONSENT FORMS 168 v
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to determine the effects
of vocal exercises and knowledge about the voice and the
vocal development process on the tone quality and vocal
self-image of adolescent female singers. The three levels
of treatment were: vocal exercises, information
(knowledge), and a combination of exercises and knowledge.
Thirty-eight eighth grade students from a West Texas
junior high school participated in the study. Subjects
were randomly divided into four subgroups including a
control group. All subjects were given a student attitude
survey and a vocal test prior to the beginning of
treatment. Each subgroup received a different treatment.
Subgroup 1 received no treatment (control). Subgroup 2
received a program of vocal exercises. Subgroup 3 received
information about the voice (knowledge). Subgroup 4
received a combination of exercises and knowledge.
At the conclusion of the treatment period, all
subjects were once again given a student attitude survey
and vocal test. The vocal tests were taped (both pretest
and posttest). Five judges evaluated the recordings.
Analyses of data using t-tests and ANOVAs were undertaken
to determine if differences existed in tone quality and
self image between pretests and posttests.
Results indicate that the treatment given to Subgroup
4 (a combination of exercises and knowledge) produced a
significant difference in the subject's attitudes toward
their singing voices.
Analysis of the judges' evaluations of the taped
vocal tests showed no statistically significant
differences for the whole group, or for any subgroup or
individual measure. Subgroup 2 showed a slight
percentage increase on some measures. Individual
subjects showed marked improvement.
vi
LIST OF TABLES
1. A Comparison of the Mean of the Pretests to the Mean of the Posttests for the Total Group 66
2. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit, the Upper Confidence Limit of the Mean Differences Between Subgroups 67
3. Subgroup 1 Measures for Individual Categories 67
4. Subgroup 2 Measures for Individual Categories 68
5. Subgroup 3 Measures for Individual Categories 68
6. Subgroup 4 Measures for Individual Categories 69
7 . Comparison of the Judges ' Scores 69
8. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Subgroups 69
9. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Categories 69
10. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings
Among Students 70
11. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Categories....70
12. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Subgroups 70 13. Interactive Effect Between Subgroups and
Categories 70
14. Correlation Between Pretest and Posttest Ratings by Judges. The Upper Value is the Correlation; the Lower Value is the p-Value 71
15. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit, the Upper Confidence Limit, the Difference Between the Means (Pretest to Posttest), and the Significant Differences Between Subgroups (Judges' Ratings) 71
16. Comparison of the Judges to Each Other 72
17. Comparison of the Judges' Ratings of Categories 72
18. T-tests of Judges' Ratings for All Subgroups 73
vii
H.l Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Pretest 156
H.2 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Posttest 157
H.3 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Differences Between Pretests and Posttests 158
H.4 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for All Judges 162
H.5 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 1 163
H.6 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 2 164
H.7 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 3 165
H.8 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 4 166
H.9 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 5 167
Vlll
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background and Rationale for the Study
Adolescence is a time of many changes, ''... an intense
time of becoming... replete with the raging fires of
puberty, dynamic change, and remarkable growth" (Nuss,
1993, p. 37). During these years, young people change
physically and emotionally, as well as in their orientation
to their environment. ''This process is often traumatic and
involves throwing off the vestments of childhood and
learning how to fit into those of adulthood" (Nuss, 1993,
p. 37). All of these changes can affect an adolescent's
attitude toward music.
Physical growth is obvious during adolescence, as
there is an acceleration of the changes which have been
occurring since birth. Whereas in the early grades, most
children are approximately the same height, during
adolescence there are vast differences in height among
young people in the same grade. Secondary gender
characteristics appear—breast development in females,
facial hair in males, and body hair in both. During this
period of rapid growth, there is often an awkwardness in
the coordination of young people. Since singing is an
activity involving muscle movement, this lack of
coordination affects the voice as well.
It was long thought that female voices did not change.
We now know that, since the larynx grows along with the
rest of the body, change does occur (Harrison, 1978).
While the change in females is not as dramatic as in males,
it may be just as traumatic for the adolescent female as
for her male counterpart.
The world of the adolescent expands significantly. In
the early grades a child's environment is defined by home.
school, and the homes of a few friends and relatives.
Throughout the later grades, junior high school, and high
school, young people develop a larger circle of friends
with whom they spend more time. Their mobility increases
as they become responsible for their own transportation,
first on bicycles, in some cases on public transportation,
and, eventually, in automobiles, driven either by
themselves or by peers.
While family members and teachers do not completely
lose their influence over adolescents, young people grow
more cognizant of their peers, and other adults outside
school and home, and may be swayed by new opinions and
standards. Adolescents have a greater number of role
models from which to choose. Musically, these role models
often include singers heard on radio, television, and
recordings.
Adolescents move into a new stage of learning. They
begin to reason, and to reason about their reasoning.
Increasingly, they look at adults not as being far above
them, but as equals in reasoning and decision-making.
Adolescents compare their arguments and thinking with those
of the adults in their environment, and, for good or ill,
see themselves as able to make adult judgments.
All of these changes are important, both to the
adolescent and to the society in which she lives. This
study investigated one aspect of female adolescent growth.
It sought to determine whether vocal exercises and
knowledge about the vocal development and vocal change
processes would make a significant difference in the tone
quality of adolescent female singers, and in their vocal
self-image relative to their singing voices.
The adolescent male voice has been the subject of many
studies. Cooksey (1977a, b, and c), Rutkowski (1981),
Barresi (1986), Coffman (1987), and Johnson (1988) were all
concerned with classifying male changing voices. I. Cooper
(1950, 1953, 1967), Swanson (1960, 1961, 1973, 1977),
Collins (1981, 1982, 1987), and Taylor (1987) were
interested in providing singable literature for male voices
at each stage of the mutation process. Many of these
researchers have had a profound effect on junior high
school choral music.
The changes which occur in boys' voices at this age
are so dramatic that they have, for many years,
overshadowed those which are found in adolescent females.
Boyd (1977) spoke of the lack of change in female voices.
Other authors (Gehrkens, 1936; Ayers & Roduner, 1942)
stated that there are no difficult problems in the female
voice during mutation, and that it is not disruptive to the
singing process. Still other authors (Til, Vars, &
Lounsbury, 1967; Hoffer, 1983) ignored voice mutation in
females entirely.
In recent years, researchers have begun to investigate \
the changes which occur in the female voice during
adolescence. Studies have focused on breath management and
tone (Gackle, 1985, 1987, 1991; Phillips & Fett, 1992),
females' self-perception of their voices (Williams, 1990),
pitch characteristics of females' speaking and singing
voices (Linke, 1953; Michel, Hollein, & Moore, 1966), the
effects of cheerleading on the female singing voice
(Bravender, 1977), registration (Schoenhard & Hollein,
1982), and the difference between chest voice and belting
(Bevan, 1989).
The so-called chest voice and its misuse may cause
significant problems for choral directors and voice
teachers who work with adolescent females (Howard, 1923;
Busch, 1973; Bradley, 1975; Mount, 1982; Harris, 1987;
Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). Young people may form their concept
of acceptable vocal tone more from radio and recordings
than from techniques learned in school (Williams, 1990;
Boardman & Alt, 1992). Adopting popular singers as vocal
models can have serious consequences for the young singer.
Immediately, it will have the effect of limiting vocal
range and the types of music the student can sing (Seth &
Guthrie, 1935; Vennard, 1967; McKinney, 1982; Mount, 1982;
Ingham & Keaton, 1983; Teter & Gray, 1985; Doscher, 1991;
Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). Long-range, forced singing in the
chest voice can cause vocal problems such as chronic
hoarseness and nodules (Brodnitz, 1953; Appelman, 1967;
Bravender, 1977; Stoer & Swank, 1978; Andrews, 1986).
The physical changes which occur during adolescence
often impede successful vocal development (Nuss, 1993).
Private vocal instruction is not available to every
adolescent singer, and choral music educators frequently
lack a background in child and adolescent vocal pedagogy.
A choral program which employs voice building exercises
improves breath control and tone production in middle
school/junior high school females (Gackle, 1978). Choral
directors who spend a few minutes of rehearsal time each
day teaching students proper use of the voice will improve
the vocal tone quality of the singers (Gonzo, 1973;
Robinson & Winold, 1976; Blatt, 1983; Overturf, 1985;
Fiocca, 1986; Guthmiller, 1986). Group voice classes and
choral rehearsals must function as vocal training sessions
for adolescents.
Since most adolescents do not have access to private
vocal instruction, the choral conductor may very well be
the only vocal instructor these singers ever know, it is
necessary, therefore, that he or she be able to instruct
students in the proper use of the vocal mechanism, both to
prevent vocal abuse and to produce the most beautiful vocal
sound of which the singers are capable (Wilson, 1959; Swan,
1973; Decker, 1975; White, 1975; Robinson & Winold, 197 6;
Tovey, 1977; Heffernan, 1982; Corbin, 1983, 1986).
Teaching students proper use of the voice does not
necessarily solve the problem of the adolescent's vocal
self-image. Frequently, adolescent female singers develop
their vocal self-image by adopting popular singers as vocal
models. Unfortunately, young singers may be influenced in
negative ways by these models (M. Cooper, 1970, 1982;
Alderson, 1979; Andrews, 1986). Their desire to emulate
these models may counteract the best efforts of their
teachers. A way must be found to change the adolescent's
concept of good vocal sound.
Substituting adult, female, classically trained
singers as vocal models is not an acceptable answer, since
students may have a difficult time relating to those
voices. Moreover, because of the difference in vocal
maturity between adolescent girls and adult women, these
voices should not be considered models except as the ideal
for which to strive when the voice matures. The only
acceptable model is the properly trained adolescent voice
itself. Outstanding children's choirs might provide
acceptable vocal models, but simply hearing these voices
will probably not change the adolescent female's concept of
good vocal sound. Adolescent singers must be given reasons
to adopt these vocal models and accept that vocal sound as
correct and desirable.
According to Drucker (1969), knowledge (the systematic
organization of information and concepts) is becoming the
foundation of skill. Leaders use knowledge to enable
subordinates to acquire skills more quickly and
successfully than through apprenticeship (experience).
When we acquire skills on the basis of knowledge, we have
learned how to learn. Drucker maintains that knowledge is
not merely information or data gained from a book, but
involves the application of that information to performing
some task or action (such as improving vocal tone).
Young people must be educated about the physical
development of the larynx, the lengthening of the vocal
folds, and the ways in which these and other changes which
occur during the growth process can affect singing and
speaking. The principles of good vocal production must be
explained as thoroughly as possible (Harrison, 1978).
Providing information to singers will allow them to
understand and more effectively apply those concepts in the
development of their own performance skills (Henry, 1992).
Children can only make decisions from what they know
(Madsen & Kuhn, 1978). The more information a singer has
about the way the vocal mechanism works, and the
adjustments she must make in order for that mechanism to
work more efficiently (thereby producing a more satisfying
vocal tone), the more likely that singer is to put forth
the effort which will bring about the desired improvement.
Because of the lack of a systematic vocal pedagogy to
address the problems in the female changing voice, there is
a need for research-supported techniques which will allow
these singers to experience successful vocal development
throughout adolescence.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
effects of vocal exercises, knowledge about the vocal
mechanism and the vocal development process, and the
combination of exercises and knowledge on the vocal tone
quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent
female singers.
Research Problems
The study addressed the following research problems:
1. The effect of a program of vocal exercises on the
vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers;
2. The effect of a program of vocal exercises on the
vocal self-image of adolescent female singers;
3. The effect of providing knowledge about the vocal
mechanism and the vocal development process on the
vocal tone quality of adolescent female singers;
4. The effect of providing knowledge about the vocal
mechanism and the vocal development process on the
vocal self-image of adolescent female singers;
5. The effect of of vocal exercises combined with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal
development process on the vocal tone quality of
adolescent female singers; and
6. The effect of vocal exercises combined with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal
development process on the vocal self-image of
adolescent female singers.
Description of the Study
A group of students (n=38) in the eighth grade of a
West Texas junior high school, all of whom were members of
their school choir program, were divided by random number
selection into four subgroups. All subgroups participated
in the warmup procedure conducted by their choral conductor
at the beginning of each rehearsal. The study covered a
time period of eleven weeks. Subgroup 1 (n=10) received no
training from the investigator. Subgroup 2 (n=10) received
twenty-one instruction sessions comprised of vocal
exercises. Subgroup 3 (n=9) received twenty-one
instruction sessions comprised of information (knowledge)
about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process. Subgroup 4 (n=9) received the same program of
vocal exercises as Subgroup 2, coupled with the information
about the vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process given to Subgroup 3 for twenty-one instruction
sessions. Each instruction session was ten minutes in
length.
Prior to the first daily instruction session, all
subjects were given a semantic differential student
attitude survey. This instrument was designed to determine
the subjects' vocal self-image as it related to their
singing voices. The subjects were also given a vocal
pretest, which consisted of an ascending scale from D4 to
D5, a descending scale from D5 to D4, and America in the
key of F major.
The student attitude survey and the vocal test were
given again following the eleven-week period. The student
attitude survey results (pretest and posttest) were
compared by the investigator. Both vocal tests were tape
recorded for comparison by a panel of choir directors with
considerable expertise in the adolescent voice. These
experts were chosen on the basis of their years of
experience in working with adolescent voices as well as the
success of their own choral music programs.
The components of this study were:
1. The development of a program of vocal exercises y^
designed to address aspects of the tone quality of
adolescent female singers.
2. The administration of a vocal pretest and posttest
to a group of adolescent female singers to
determine if any improvement in vocal tone quality
had occurred.
3. The administration of a semantic differential
student attitude survey (pretest and posttest) to
a group of adolescent female singers to ascertain
8
their attitudes about their voices before and after
the completion of the study.
4. The use of information statements (knowledge) about
the vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process to encourage a group of adolescent female
singers to become actively involved in the vocal
development process.
Definitions
Many of the terms used in the study have, through wide
use, taken on several meanings. Other terms may be
unfamiliar to the reader. For the purpose of this study
these terms are defined as follows.
Adolescence: The period of life between puberty and
maturity. For females, it begins with menarche.
Educationally, Piaget described it as the period of formal
operations, when children begin to reason on an adult
level.
C4: The system devised by the Acoustical Society of
America, and endorsed by the U.S.A. Standards Association,
in which Middle C is represented as C4.
Cambiata: An Italian word meaning "change." The word
has been used by I. Cooper and others to classify the
adolescent male voice during mutation.
Hyperfunction: Excessive use. Vocally, using too much
energy in singing or speaking. The results are a tired
voice, hoarseness, and, eventually, vocal dysfunction.
Hypofunction: Weak or insufficient use. Vocally, not
enough energy used in singing or speaking. The result is a
weak, listless voice. Hypofunction is usually the result
of neurological disorder. In some cases it may be a result
of hyperfunction. Junior high school: Typically, a school which includes
grades seven through nine. Junior high schools may include
only some of these grades (seven and eight, or eight and
nine).
Menarche: The onset of the menstrual cycle.
Mutational chink: During the early stages of the voice
change, the vocal folds in the adolescent female frequently
will close properly in front (anterior) while remaining
open in back (posterior). This incomplete closing results
in a breathy tone, and, at times, incomplete phonation.
The mutational chink disappears with maturation.
Range: The vocal range extends from a person's lowest
sustainable pitch to the highest sustainable pitch,
regardless of the tone quality of those pitches.
Tessitura: While the term usually means the pitch
range of a vocal composition, in this study it will be used
to designate the area of the voice where pitches are
produced easily and without strain. This area also usually
produces the most acceptable tone quality. This definition
is frequently used by authors who are vocal instructors
(Christy, 1961). Vocal nodules: Growths on the vocal folds, usually the
final consequence of hyperfunction. Nodules are hard
tissue which form when the folds are seriously abused over
a long period of time. Voice mutation; The period, during adolescence, when
the vocal cords lengthen. During voice mutation, the voice
is typically changing and unsettled.
Organization
The study consists of five chapters. Chapter I serves
as an introduction, and outlines the parameters of the
study and its organization. Chapter II provides a review
of related research. Chapter III describes the methodology
of the study and includes information on the pilot study
10
which preceded the main study. Chapter IV presents the
results of the study. Chapter V discusses the conclusions
which were drawn from the results.
Limitations
This study was limited to eighth-grade female students
who were members of a junior high school choral program in
West Texas. The results and conclusions do not necessarily
apply to male voices, female voices in the elementary
grades or senior high school, or eighth grade students in
other parts of the United States of America or in any other
country.
11
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction
This chapter will present and discuss research
findings in voice mutation, vocal instruction, and the
application of knowledge to vocal instruction. Vocal
pedagogues and laryngologists have studied the human voice
extensively. The changing voice has been of particular
interest to choral directors and music educators involved
with adolescent students. Research in this area has been
concerned primarily with the physical changes which
accompany and affect voice mutation, the stages of the male
changing voice, the stages of the female changing voice,
and materials for choirs which are comprised of these
voices.
Much of the research in the field of vocal
development, while not specifically targeted at the
changing voice, is nevertheless applicable to adolescent
voices. Vocal abuse in adolescents is of great concern to
laryngologists and voice teachers. There is considerable
controversy over the issue of choral singing for
adolescents, and the age at which voice training should
begin.
Choral directors, in most cases, provide the only
vocal instruction adolescents receive. Many authors
advocate systems of vocal development which could be useful
as components of the choral rehearsal. Most of these
systems involve some sequence of vocal development and
exercises for improving the voice.
There is some disagreement over the ability of amateur
singers to be interested in or to absorb technical
information about the voice and the vocal development
process. While business and industry have accepted
12
knowledge and its application as a more efficient method of
learning skills and completing tasks, imagery is still
accepted by many voice teachers and choral directors as the
most appropriate method for vocal instruction.
Voice Mutation in Adolescents
The period of adolescence is marked by extensive
physical growth. The larynx grows along with the rest of
the body. Biological measures of growth, such as crown-
heel length, were found to be significantly better
predictors of laryngeal growth than was chronological age.
The growth of the larynx was found to be linearly related
to growth in body height (crown-heel length). This
suggests that laryngeal growth may not be laryngeal
specific, but related to growth in height (Kahane, 1975).
Joseph (1965) suggests that vocal growth probably
correlates most highly with skeletal development.
Male laryngeal growth is greater than that of females,
but both do become larger. Kahane (1975) found that, in
general, there were no significant differences between
prepubertal male and female laryngeal measurements. By
puberty, male laryngeal measurements were significantly
greater than those of females, and most adult gender
differences in laryngeal measurements were present.
Since the larynx enlarges with the rest of the body,
everyone experiences voice mutation (Harrison, 1978). The
changes in the length and thickness of the vocal folds
bring about voice mutation in all adolescents. At puberty,
the vocal fold length of females increases by three to four
millimeters, while that of males increases to approximately
one centimeter (Adcock, 1987).
Voice mutation is not limited to adolescence, but is
intensified during this period. The process of mutation is
developmental, not abrupt. Mutation, which starts in early
13
childhood, continues past adolescence. The problems
associated with growth and development toward maturity are
intensified during the junior high school years (Mayer &
Sacher, n.d.).
Voice Mutation in Males
I. Cooper (1967) discovered three stages of voice
mutation in the adolescent male. He used the Italian word
cambiata (changing) to label male voices in the process of
mutation. Cooksey (1977a, b, c) found five stages of voice
mutation in the adolescent male. Barresi (1986) found
three with some substages. Other researchers who worked
with the stages of adolescent male voice mutation were
Rutkowski (1981), Coffman (1987), and Johnson (1988).
Blatt (1983) found that a program of selected
vocalises, systematically administered by a singing teacher
supported by an otorhinolaryngologist, produced significant
improvement in the singing ability of adolescent male
singers. The purpose of his seven-year study was to
determine whether the period of voice mutation could be
successfully bridged by a training program which would
enable continued development of the singing voice without
damaging the maturing structures of the vocal mechanism.
He found no breaks in the voices of any of the participants
in his study. He also discovered that the singing range of
male changing voices was greater than is usually ascribed
to them.
Many authors have advocated that adolescent male
voices must have singing materials specifically tailored to
their vocal ranges in order to protect them from misuse.
The research of I. Cooper (1950, 1953, 1967), Swanson
(1960, 1961, 1973, 1977), Cooper and Kuersteiner (1965),
and Collins (1981, 1982, 1987a, 1987b) was concerned with
the development of choirs comprised wholly or in part of
14
adolescent male voices in all stages of mutation, and with
the availability of quality materials for such choirs.
Collins, working from Cooper's research, developed the
"Cambiata Concept" (1982, pp. 5-9). His own research led
to the founding of The Cambiata Press, whose purpose was to
publish and disseminate choral materials for use by middle
school and junior high school male and mixed choirs.
Adcock (1987) found in working with adolescent male singers
that calling the high male voice "junior high tenor" and
having these singers read the treble clef an octave lower,
produced successful results, both in quality of sound and
in the satisfaction of the singers.
The research discussed above indicates that it is
possible, with careful planning and attention to the
problems of voice mutation, to help adolescent males sing
through the voice change with few difficulties. The choral
director must recognize the limitations of each stage of
voice mutation and create an exercise program which will
help the voice develop properly. Choosing the correct
voice part for each singer, and suitable material for the
choir to sing, is also important. When serious problems
with individual singers are encountered, it may be
advisable or necessary to consult a laryngologist.
Voice Mutation in Females
It was long assumed that females' voices did not
change, but merely developed. Ayers and Roduner (1942)
stated that girls' voices do not present difficult problems
as do boys' voices during adolescence, and that the female
voice matures and settles into adult quality and type,
losing its childlike quality and taking on a heavier, more
vibrant timbre. Gehrkens (1936) found the female's change
to be more gradual and not so extensive as the male's, so
that it did not entirely disrupt the singing voice. He
15
stated that females can usually sing through voice
mutation, often not aware of changes in their voices. Huls
(1957), on the other hand, states that female voices do
undergo mutation during adolescence.
Because females' larynges and vocal folds do not grow
as much as those of males their mutation may be less
dramatic (Harrison, 1978).
This means that the girls [sic] voice change may be less dramatic than the boy's, often unnoticed even by the girl herself. Perhaps it would be better to say unidentified by even the girl herself. Still, the symptoms may be there; an insecurity of pitch, missing notes with varying frequency, the development of noticeable registers, or the shifting of register breaks. Perhaps the choir member just doesn't feel like singing, a very unusual phenomena for her. Girls who have sung soprano with great pleasure may find herself rsici uncomfortable in that part. After a time the new part does not seem right, so back she goes to the original part again. A low voice may switch to soprano and then again to alto. The changing girl's voice does not always finally settle into a new range as can the boy's. Rather it often seems to be making choices for ultimate placement, (p. 14)
The female voice during mutation displays observable
characteristics, which are the results of muscular
immaturity and increased muscular growth. Alderson (1979)
found the characteristics of the female mutational voice to
be thin and breathy, low and husky, and inconsistent in
quality. Similarly, Hoffer (1983) found adolescent female
voices to be breathy and thin in tone quality due to
muscular immaturity and lack of vocal development. Gackle
(1987) found that the female voice has inherent
characteristics which manifest themselves during mutation.
These include:
a. breathiness of tone,
b. hoarseness,
c. incomplete phonation,
16
d. shifting of register breaks, and
e. "cracking in the voice" (p. 1).
In her 1991 study, she found the symptoms of the female
adolescent voice change to be:
a. insecurity of pitch,
b. the development of noticeable register breaks,
c. increased huskiness,
d. decreased and inconsistent range capabilities,
e. voice cracking,
f. hoarseness, and
g. generally uncomfortable singing or difficulty in
phonation.
During voice mutation, weaknesses in the interarytenoid
muscles become apparent in the form of breathy tone
quality, inconsistency with registers, hoarseness,
cracking, and a decrease in basic range (Huff-Gackle,
1985).
Ingram and Rice (1962) found adolescent females
showing loss of high range, strain, and a heavy, breathy,
or rough tone quality. They discovered that not every
female has problems. They suggested several steps to
ensure easier and more enjoyable singing during voice
mutation. These included maintaining good posture, using
correct breathing, developing a vital tone, and refraining
from forcing the voice and over-loud singing.
Lovelace (1964) found that during mutation the female
vocal folds thicken. The tone becomes breathy and
diffused, and the voice has a narrow range of
effectiveness. Williams (1990), in a study involving both
adolescent female singers and adult female general music,
voice, and choral teachers, found that the adults, when
they were adolescents:
17
a. preferred singing high pitches (including solos and
descants), but were asked to sing alto or play the
piano because they could read music,
b. knew their voices were in a state of transition,
c. had a higher range than their peers,
d. felt a loss of control over their voices at times,
e. experienced huskiness and/or breathiness in their
singing and speaking voices, and
f. had frequent sore throats.
Barresi (1986) found that the adolescent female voice
goes through two stages during mutation. As mutation
continues, the huskiness and lack of vocal agility
disappear. By the eleventh grade, register changes, for
most females, should begin to develop.
In her 1985 study, Huff-Gackle defined three stages of
development for the adolescent female voice. Gackle's 1991
study confirmed much of her earlier work. There were some
changes in nomenclature and age ranges for some of the
stages.
Following menarche there is a significant difference
in the way female singers describe their voices. Williams
(1990) found that post-menarcheal females began to show a
preference for singing high or low tones. They were more
able to provide descriptors for their preference than pre-
menarcheal females. Her study also showed that post-
menarcheal females had more trouble singing up to their
highest terminal pitch than pre-menarcheal females. She
believed it was because they did not know how to make the
transition from chest register to head register. Also,
they had not experienced very high pitches with their "new"
voices. Williams cited the need for more study related to
females' self-perception of their singing and speaking
voices, including the need to develop better descriptors.
18
These authors agree that choral directors and voice
teachers must learn to recognize the characteristics and
stages of the female voice during mutation, and help
adolescents sing through the period of voice change with as
little difficulty as possible. These authors also believe
that choral directors who conduct young adolescent voices
must understand the strengths and limitations of the voices
in their choirs.
Singing as a Physical Activity
Adolescents must learn to use their voices properly.
Since the choral director is the only voice teacher most
adolescents ever see, he or she must be able to train these
voices while understanding and working within their
limitations. Huls (1957) believes there is a strong
tendency to overestimate the potential of young singers.
Choral directors, voice teachers, and others who are
responsible for adolescent singers must understand what is
normal for the age group as well as the stage of
development of the individual singer. Huls found that
adolescents are able to develop their singing voices as
long as teachers respect the physical, mental, and
emotional capacities of their students.
Singing has often been compared to athletics because
muscles are involved in both activities. Since singing is
a muscular activity, and singers use their voices in much
the same way athletes develop their skills, training for
the adolescent singer is as necessary and proper as is
instruction and practice for young athletes. Alderson
(1979) concluded that singing is an athletic endeavor, and
the singer is an athlete, because she is involved in muscle
development and conditioned physical response to stimuli
which demand daily practice. Ingham and Keaton (1983)
referred to singers as "laryngeal athletes" (p. 6). The
19
intensity and duration of daily practice sessions need to
be controlled by teachers and choral directors just as they
are controlled by coaches in youth sports programs (Mayer &
Sacher, n.d.).
Singing and athletics both involve skill development.
Phillips (1985, 1986) asserted that singing is a skill, and
that if young children are not taught singing skills
correctly they will learn incorrect habits which will
hinder their development. He concluded that, since members
of boy's choirs and children's choirs do not suffer as a
result of vocal training, no child would be harmed by vocal
instruction if it is done correctly. Children misuse their
voices on the playground and through singing with no
instruction. It is far better to teach them to sing
correctly. In order to do so, choral music educators at
the college level must develop a course in vocal pedagogy
for the young voice. With proper guidance and care
adolescents can safely sing through the pubertal years
(Phillips & Fett, 1992).
The Classification of Adolescent Female Voices
The practice of permanently assigning young adolescent
females to the soprano or alto section can be vocally
harmful. Skoog & Niederbrach (1983) stated that voice
classification is an ongoing process, since the real voice
does not emerge until the singer is taught to use the whole
voice properly.
The coordination of head and chest voice is essential
for good singing, provided the head voice is dominant
(Bradley, 1975). In less-skilled singers of any age, the
upper voice is usually weaker than the lower voice.
Adolescent singers must be taught to blend the two voices
in order to achieve vocal strength through the entire
range. The danger in having females sing alto in junior
20
high school is that by ninth grade they tend to use the
lower register exclusively (Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). If they
use the upper register at all, they have developed a
significant break between the registers. Collins (1982)
agreed with Mayer and Sacher's findings. He found that
college-age and adult female singers with a marked division
between their chest and head voices had been, in most
cases, assigned to the alto part as adolescents, and had
never learned to sing above A4. In many cases, they did
not know they could sing above that pitch. The problem was
worse if the singers were cheerleaders, since they were
taught to yell in their chest voice.
In her 1987 study, Adcock found only one female with
true alto quality out of 600 young adolescent female
subjects tested. Hoffer (1983) also found few true altos
among young adolescent female singers. Most of the singers
he encountered were second sopranos. Ingram and Rice
(1962) found no adolescent contraltos. They observed a
tendency for children in grades four through six to sing in
their lower voices with pushed volume. They stated that no
young voice should be asked to do more than is good for it,
either in volume or in extremes of range (upper or lower).
The lower register, sung forcefully and loudly, is not any
child's natural voice (Thurman, 1988). Even in ninth
grade, the female voice is still developing and must be
treated with care.
All female voices during adolescence should be
referred to as "light soprano" or "rich soprano" (Gackle,
1991, p.21). The presence of a prominent lower register
should not be confused with true (adult) alto quality. All
adolescent female singers should be vocalized through their
entire ranges.
Choral directors should not classify voices
permanently. Thurman (1988) stated that once a singer's
21
voice is classified, he or she becomes that classification,
sometimes for life. "Labeling is disabling" (Ginott, 1972,
p. 100). The diagnosis may become the disease.
Being labeled an alto at ages eleven to fifteen can
cause permanent vocal damage as well as decreasing the
overall vocal range of the singer. Gackle (1991) believed
young girls were assigned to sing alto because:
a. they read music well,
b. they had a good musical ear and could sing harmony
easily,
c. it suddenly became difficult or "hurt" to sing
soprano,
d. it was easier to sing low (chest voice); the singer
could produce more volume with less work, and
e. singing along with the radio or recordings lends
itself to this register.
Harris (1987) found that most females were assigned to
the alto section because they had good pitch matching
skills or could read music well (due to lessons on the
piano or other instrument, or because of some other
previous musical experience). After the vocal pattern has
been established, it is very difficult to break the habit
of carrying the chest voice into the upper register.
Eventually it becomes impossible to move to the top (head)
voice without intensive and patient studio training.
Since adolescent females are neither true altos nor
true sopranos (in the adult usage of these terms) there
remains the problem of assigning them to voice parts for
the purpose of singing in choirs. This can best be solved
by avoiding permanent classification. No young adolescent
female should be assigned permanently to an alto or soprano
section. Because of the lack of true alto voices in the
adolescent years, Adcock (1987) advocates dividing all the
females in the junior high school choir by age and previous
22
musical experience into two even groups, and labeling them
Soprano I and Soprano II. These groups alternate singing
the soprano and alto parts every other song. She found
that this procedure not only allowed the singers to
exercise their full vocal range, but also created senior
high school choristers who were better musicians. Another
researcher who advocated dividing female singers evenly
into two sections and alternating parts was Collins (1982).
In his Cambiata Press music Collins frequently placed the
melody in the second soprano part, and gave the first
sopranos a descant or countermelody. I. Cooper (1953),
Cooper and Kuersteiner (1965), Busch (1973), Skoog and
Niederbrach (1983), and Huff-Gackle (1985) all agree with
the practice of avoiding permanent classification of young
adolescent female voices by alternating between soprano and
alto parts in choral singing.
Ehret (1959, p.35) suggested the use of "travelers"—
selected members of each section who shift to another
section when necessary in order to achieve the desired
balance and/or color. This prevents the problem of a
section or an individual singer having to "make" too much
volume.
If it is necessary, for any reason, to classify
adolescent female voices, the traditional criteria of pitch
range in singing or speaking, voice quality, register
transfers, and ability to sing harmony easily should be
rejected (Thurman, 1988). Williams (1990) found that
tessitura is a significant predictor of most appropriate
classifications for adolescents. Classification involves
identifiable factors of which tessitura is especially
important (Wolverton, 1988).
Several authors condemn the use of adolescent female
tenors. Having females sing tenor commits them to a
frustrating vocal future (Huls, 1957). At the very least
23
it results in months of remedial vocal work in college.
Ingram and Rice (1962) also found no good purpose served in
assigning females to the tenor section. The middle
register (C4 to C5) is the most damaged by having females
sing tenor (Mount, 1982).
The work of these authors suggests that all young
adolescent females should be considered to have soprano
voices. Even if the lower part of a singer's range seems
to predominate, she should vocalize throughout her entire
range. Opportunities should be provided for her to sing
both soprano and alto parts, allowing her to use her full
range, as long as the tessituras of those parts do not
place undue strain on her voice. Excessive singing in the
higher part of the range should be avoided as well as
singing entirely or excessively in the lower register. It
is wise to avoid permanent classification of a young
adolescent female's voice. Her development as a singer
will be much more natural, complete, and free of trouble if
she is allowed to use her entire range in choir singing and
in vocalization.
Vocal Models
Adolescents need to be guided as much as possible in
their selection of vocal models, since the selection of
inappropriate vocal models may lead to serious vocal
problems. If a singer adopts a vocal model, whether
positive (one she wants to emulate) or negative (one she
wants to avoid), she will not fulfill her own vocal
potential (M. Cooper, 1970). Most individuals are not
aware of the vocal images they choose or reject, so they
are not aware of the negative consequences of misusing
their voices in that way. Cooper also found (1982) that
poor or inappropriate vocal models lead to an inappropriate
vocal image (a combination of vocal elements-pitch, tone,
24
focus, quality, breath support-which a person uses to form
the voice she likes). This in turn leads to the wrong
vocal identity (the total sound, which the person feels is
his or her correct voice) for that singer.
When a singer tries to emulate a model, she acts on
what she hears on the outside (Alderson, 1979). She cannot
match that sound because she hears the sound from the
inside of her head. She must trust her teacher's ability
to hear and evaluate her voice correctly and successfully.
The majority of researchers in music education
advocate having elementary children sing in their head
voice (Williams, 1990). Young singers should not use their
lower speaking voice for singing at a dynamic level which
would involve excessive force However, this is what they
hear on the radio and television, on recordings, and when
adults speak to them. Adolescent female singers tend to
imitate the low chest voice of some singers, and the "belt"
voice of others (Boardman & Alt, 1992).
These authors agree that choral directors and voice
teachers who work with young adolescents must provide vocal
models to counteract those their students will tend to
adopt from radio, television, and recordings. They must
find ways to influence young adolescents to value the kind
of tone quality which will allow them to use their voices
properly.
Vocal Abuse
Many of the activities of children and adolescents,
including the use of the speaking voice, make them prime
candidates for vocal abuse. Because young adolescents'
life styles put them in danger of abusing their voices, all
choral directors and voice teachers who work with them must
have sufficient knowledge about the voice to help their
singers establish healthy vocal habits.
25
stoer and Swank (1978) found that vocal nodules occur
more frequently in women than in men. They believe every
beginning voice student should be examined by a
laryngologist in order to discover if any voice pathology
exists, to find any structural abnormality, and to have a
baseline of the vocal folds under normal conditions as a
point of comparison should illness or pathology develop
later.
Brodnitz (1953) agrees that systematic voice training
and frequent examinations by a laryngologist are necessary
as preventive voice care. One cause of hyperfunction (too
much force in the use of the voice) is the lack of voice
training in the schools, coupled with the tenseness of life
and the competitive spirit in society. He found that
hyperfunction eventually leads to hypofunction (weakness in
voice production) when the muscles can no longer stand the
strain.
Mount (1982) also found that hyperfunction leads to
hypofunction. Overuse may cause loss of the upper tones of
the voice due to weakness. Howard (1923), Appelman (1967),
White (1975), and Teter and Gray (1985) all stated that
children and young adolescents are in danger of abusing
their voices. This is due to misuse of the singing voice
as well as the overuse of the speaking voice at loud and
boisterous levels.
The influence of popular vocal models on the speech
habits of females was studied by Linke (1953). He found
that female speaking voices show less frequency range and
pitch variability than corresponding groups of male voices.
His female subjects also employed median frequency levels
located lower in the sustained tone range than males when
speaking. He concluded that women in general tend to use
median speaking pitch levels lower than would seem
advisable for the most effective use of their voices.
26
Linke concluded that the tendency for females to speak with
unduly lowered pitch levels was due to social pressures,
including the preponderance of low-pitched voices among
female personalities of radio, movies, television, and
stage.
Linke found three important detrimental effects of
females speaking too low in their pitch range. The
expressiveness of the female speaking voice is lessened
because of the reduced frequency variability associated
with a lowered pitch level. Females experience increased
incidences of hoarseness due to using an abnormally low
speaking pitch (raising habitual speaking frequency results
in improved voice quality). There are increased injurious
effects due to vocal strain, such as vocal abuse, contact
ulcers, and nodules.
M. Cooper (1982) also found that females may damage
their singing voices by misusing their speaking voices.
Bravender (1977) found that cheerleading encourages vocal
abuse. Long-term (three years or more) cheerleading
results in statistically higher vocal dysfunction and loss
of clarity in the voice. Bravender found two
characteristics of vocal abuse: overuse in duration, force
and range; and faulty production techniques. Vocal abuse
leads to vocal dysfunction. This may take three forms:
vocal strain, permanent muscular atrophy, and vocal
nodules.
Ingham and Keaton (1983) agreed that cheerleading,
along with vocal jazz and singing in musicals, were likely
to cause vocal abuse and nodule development. The hard
glottal attack is also a frequent cause of nodules. Female
rock singers who force their chest voice above A4 are
candidates for nodules. This practice will at the very
least produce hoarseness and breathiness.
27
Because of the mutational chink, young adolescent
female singers should not use tension to achieve a firm,
clear tone since it may lead to vocal abuse. A slightly
breathy tone with an even vibrato is preferable to a clear,
strident sound with no vibrato (Doscher, 1991). The latter
sound will tend to be slightly under pitch, and may damage
the voice over time.
The speech pathologist and music teacher, working as a
team, are considerably more effective in identifying
children with vocal problems or vocal abuse, in educating
classroom teachers in proper voice care, and communicating
with parents (Andrews, 1986). If hyperfunction is
habitual, it will feel normal to the person. In his work,
Andrews spoke about nodules and the negative vocal
behaviors associated with them:
a. hoarse, breathy phonation,
b. low pitch level (speaking and singing) for age and
gender,
c. voice clearest when phonating loudly, poorest when
soft,
d. voice clears somewhat in upper part of pitch range,
e. there is a restricted pitch range, and
f. hyperextension of head and neck.
Andrews also believes that since there are few full-time
speech clinicians in schools, the choral teacher is in the
best position to help students' develop good vocal health
habits.
Developing the Voice
The Choral Director as Voice Teacher
The choral director must be able to function as a
group voice teacher, and must understand vocal development
as well as the limitations of the voices in his or her
choir. Many directors are uninformed, unskilled, or
28
uncommitted to the vocal development of their singers.
"Directors who choose to ignore vocal development for their
choirs are committing a disservice to the choristers'
musical education" (Corbin, 1986, p. 2). McKinney (1982)
stated that vocal faults left uncorrected by the teacher
will eventually be accepted by the teacher.
The amateur singer is more concerned with singing than
with making beautiful music. "It is too easy to sing, but
it is a difficult task to sing well" (Swan, 1973, p. 6). A
special kind of teaching is essential for the development
of adequate choral tone.
Choral directors must possess thorough, practical
knowledge of vocal production and pedagogy (Robinson &
Winold, 1976). They must be able to demonstrate correct
vocal techniques at least satisfactorily. They do not need
to be great vocal artists, but need to be able to isolate,
evaluate, and correct any vocal problems they hear
(Heffernan, 1982). To accomplish this, Heffernan suggests
that choral directors study voice as well as sing in good
choirs.
Choral directors must remember they are responsible
for the vocal health of every member of their choirs
(Robinson & Winold, 1976). A satisfying choral experience
depends on the vocal freedom of every singer. Taking a
vocal approach to choral conducting involves devoting part
of every rehearsal to vocal development. The rehearsal -<
becomes, in part, a group voice lesson.
Voice building exercises need not be limited only to
the warmup period (Tovey, 1977). They can and should be
used whenever a problem occurs.
The choral director must be able to recognize when
tone is properly produced (White, 1975). Swank (1978)
suggests the choir director learn to look at singers as
29
well as listen to them. Problems involving posture and
tension will be visible as well as audible.
No voice should suffer damage as a result of singing
in choir.
Unless a choral conductor makes himself cognizant of the principles of voice production his choral groups will be limited in what they can sing well... The choral conductor must understand how to increase the dynamic potential of the singers without injuring the voices... Voice production is the same for solo and choral singing.(H. R. Wilson, 1959, p. 160)
It is necessary to develop a sequential program for
teaching adolescent singers to sing properly. A concise
source of practical vocal pedagogy is needed for choral
directors (Decker, 1975). The choral rehearsal is often
the only place for choral singers to learn vocal technique.
Fiocca (1986) found that exemplary choral directors:
a. begin rehearsals with warmups,
b. teach good, healthy vocal usage regarding breath
support, tonal placement, intonation,
pronunciation, and articulation,
c. know how to deal with voice mutation, and
d. evidence good vocal pedagogy in that their choirs
produce "fine quality sounds." (p. 80)
The Aims of Vocal Instruction
Vocal instruction in the schools is a distinctly
American idea. School music in the United States was
founded on the principle that children need to know how to
sing well. The idea that the average child could be
trained to sing probably originated in America (Rich,
1946). This was the basis for Lowell Mason's belief (1837)
that music should be included in the curriculum of the
public schools. Unfortunately, music educators seem to
have lost sight of that aim in recent years.
30
Bartholemew (1946) believes that a major step forward
in vocal education will occur when we begin to train voices
at an early age. It is important to build the instrument
first. Children should be taught early to use their voices
properly when singing (Curtis, 1895). Curtis found there
are no incurable monotones. Everyone with normal speech
and hearing can learn to sing.
We know that the ear hears what habit has trained it to hear or a near approximate thereto. Hence, no student will hear or can hear what the teacher does until he has been trained to do so; and much of this ear training will depend finally on his developed ability to reproduce what is to be heard. (Russell, 1931, pp. 246-247)
Teaching children to use their voices properly has
been shown to be an effective means of helping uncertain
singers match pitches more accurately. Vocal coordination
instruction seems to show more promise of helping uncertain
singers than pitch discrimination instruction (Aaron, 1992,
1993). Vocal coordination instruction proved effective in
improving the pitch accuracy and vocal range of children in
grades four through six. Collins (1981) found that the
inability of singers to match pitches was the result of a
lack of understanding about the singing voice. Tests show
a strong correlation between untuneful singing and voice
production difficulties (Joyner, 1969).
More accurate pitch matching is not the only result of
teaching children how to sing correctly. Developing the
child and adolescent voice also leads to more normal speech
habits, better vocal hygiene, and less vocal abuse (Gackle,
1987).
The most effective method of teaching children and
adolescents to sing involves vocalises designed to help the
voice sound free and natural. Alderson (1979) stated that
the voice should be unforced, natural, and flowing. It
31
should be produced so that the singer looks and sounds
comfortable. This sense of comfort must be conveyed to the
audience.
A program of selected vocalises, systematically
administered by a singing teacher, supported by an
otorhinolaryngologist, produced significant improvement in
the singing ability of children (Blatt, 1983). Vocalizing
should enable singers to:
a. sing comfortably through a range of at least two
octaves,
b. sing with accurate intonation,
c. produce an effective vibrato,
d. maintain a steady, controlled vibrato,
e. resonate all pitches effectively,
f. change the coloring of vowels without disturbing
other qualities of tone,
g. sing with dramatic intensity,
h. sing with some measure of agility, and
i. maintain stamina and vocal "freshness" (Guthmiller,
1986. p.14).
Vocal instruction should begin at the latest in the
late elementary grades, so students can have some security
going into adolescence (S. Miller, 1985). Proper use of
the vocal mechanism is not taught thoroughly enough in
either health or music classes. Miller stated that there
needs to be a sequential vocal training program to
accompany and complement the song literature used in
elementary schools. It will also help children learn to
take an interest in their voices. Wassum (1979) stated
that vocal development should be encouraged as a conscious
goal of school music programs.
32
The Sequence of Categories in Vocal Development
Vocal instruction must follow a sequence in order to
be effective. Although there is some disagreement on the
sequence in which vocal principles should be taught, it is
possible to establish an order which can be supported by
the majority of research in the field. Aaron (1992) stated
that the sequence should be posture, breath management,
phonation, and resonance. Collins (1981) agrees that
posture and breathing are the first two topics to be
addressed, followed by tongue position. Corbin (1986)
advocated posture, breathing, tone quality, blend, and
intonation as the proper sequence. Decker (1975) agrees on
posture and breathing, but adds relaxation, resonance, and
diction. Ehmann (1968) also begins his sequence with
posture and breathing, but groups all other topics under
the general heading of choral voice training. Gackle
(1987), speaking specifically about adolescent female
voices, advocated posture, breathing, phonation,
registration, and resonance as the sequence in which the
topics should be taught.
Garretson (1985) begins with posture and breathing,
followed by deep-set vowels and an open throat. Hoffer
(1983) produced a similar list, consisting of posture,
breathing and a relaxed throat. Howard (1923) spoke of
posture, breathing, and tone formation. Heffernan (1982)
stated that there are three elements of vocal technique:
a steady, constant, controlled supply of air; a relaxed,
coordinated set of neck, throat, jaw, and facial muscles;
and resonance (which, he believes, usually followed
naturally if the other two elements were developed).
Gallagher (1978) proposed that exercises and vocalises
should stress relaxation, breath control, phonation,
resonance, range, and articulation. G. Wilson (1991)
33
stated that respiration, resonation, and registration were
the components of a proper sequence of vocal instruction.
McKinney (1982) classified vocal faults according to their
relation to the physical processes of respiration,
phonation, resonation, and articulation.
Phillips' (1986) sequence includes respiration,
phonation, resonant tone production, diction, expression,
and ear training. Robinson and Winold (1976) stated that
posture, breath control, and bridging registers is the
proper sequence, while Roe (1987) advocated posture,
breathing, and pronunciation. Vennard's (1967) sequence
begins with breathing (under which he includes posture),
followed by attack (phonation), registration, resonance,
vowels, and articulation. He believes the last step in the
sequence is coordination of all the elements.
Westerman (1955) states that students can find freedom
in singing through the patterning and conditioning of the
normal actions of posture, respiration, phonation,
resonance, and articulation into a blended whole.
Without good (1) posture, (2) respiration (breathing) cannot be efficient for singing purposes. Without controlled respiration, (3) phonation (tone production) cannot be clear. Without clear phonation (4) resonation (the resounding of tone vibrations within the cavities and from the bony structures of the head) cannot be full, and free from muscle interference; and without full and free resonation, (5) articulation (the pronouncing of words) cannot be accurate and distinct. There is no escape from this framework. Posture is its foundation and articulation is the end product, (pp. 3-4)
Based on the above statements, the most logical and
effective sequence for teaching vocal principles to young
adolescents would seem to be
a. posture,
b. breath management,
c. relaxation,
34
d. phonation,
e. resonance,
f. registration, and
g. articulation.
This sequence might need to be modified for individual
singers, or for groups of singers in other age groups.
There are two reasons for its value in working with young
adolescents. First, it follows Westerman's suggestion of
beginning with the large skeletal muscles (posture) and
working sequentially to smaller muscles. Second, it adds
"relaxation" as a step between breath management and
phonation. Since young adolescents' life styles are so
active, the relaxation of muscles which interfere with free
phonation would seem to be a necessary component of a vocal
instruction program for this age group.
Posture
Posture forms the basis for all vocal development. If
the instrument is to be used efficiently it must be held
correctly. "Before learning to play any instrument one
should learn how to hold it" (Vennard, 1967, p. 19). Mabry
(1992) also advocated learning how to hold the instrument
first. Tall ribs, a tall neck, and "leaning up" are better
methods of eliminating tension than telling singers to
stand up straight (p. 310). A forward head position
deactivates the work of the depressor muscles (those used
in yawning), and emphasizes the work of the elevator
muscles (those used in swallowing). The depressor muscles
lower the larynx, which is the position best suited for
relaxed, easy singing. The elevator muscles raise the
larynx. To counteract any tendency to push the head
forward, Mabry suggested thinking of "balancing a
basketball on a broomstick" (p. 31). Gehrkens, (1936),
Decker (1975, 1977a), McKinney (1982), Barresi (1986),
Corbin (1986), R. Miller (1986), and Herman (1988) all
35
agree on the importance of erect but flexible posture as
the basis of good vocal technique. Vennard (1967)
suggested having the student ask herself, while looking in
the mirror, "Would I pay money to look at that?" (p. 19).
Breath Management
Breath is the motor of the singing mechanism. No
sound can be made in the human larynx without breath.
Breath management is the process by which air is used most
effectively for the sustained sound needed for singing.
Breathing involves expansion of the rib cage at the
sides, in front, and in back (Huls, 1957). There is too
much upper chest and shoulder movement in adolescents.
They must learn that breathing for singing is as natural
and free as breathing for life. Ehmann spoke of the
"breath ring" (1968, p. 16), and agrees that expansion
should occur at the sides, in front and in back. Vennard
advocated the sensations of "in," "down," and "out" as
being representative of proper breathing. The singer
breathes in (through the nose and mouth), down (into the
lungs), and out (the walls of the thorax expand).
The singer must not exaggerate the intake of air (R.
Miller, 1986). If she crowds the lungs by taking too much
air, a quicker rate of expiration will occur. The singer
should take an easy breath and replenish the air she has
used. Instead of yawning (which leads to tension at the
end of the yawn) inhale as though smelling a rose. This
will give the singer a feeling of an open (relaxed) throat
(pharyngeal cavity). Miller also believes that the key to
success in the female chest voice range is not more force,
but more support. In his studio teaching Hartwell (1992)
refers to relaxed, easy inhalation as a "singer's breath".
Doscher (1987) stated that two to three pints of air
are sufficient to sing the longest musical phrase (fifteen
36
to twenty seconds). Since the lung capacity can be as much
as four quarts during deep breathing (the breathing used
for singing), it is not necessary to inhale to the point of
crowding the lungs. Efficiency is more important than
capacity. The singer's object is to keep the ribs up and
out so the abdominal muscles can sustain their leverage for
steady expiration. Any attempt to control the movement of
the diaphragm will result in unnecessary and undesirable
muscular tension in the breathing apparatus, which will
have a negative effect on the tone quality. Too much air
support in order to achieve a larger sound, especially
through the immature pharynx of the young adolescent
singer, will tire the throat muscles and produce tension in
the tongue and soft palate (Doscher, 1991). This will lead
to faulty intonation, and eventually, to serious vocal
problems such as chronic hoarseness and vocal nodules.
Vennard (1967) advocated rib breathing and abdominal
breathing over chest breathing. He stated that chest, or
clavicular breathing is used by out-of-breath athletes.
During this type of breathing phonation is uncontrolled.
Vennard found that, for the most part, women are "chest
breathers", and men are "belly breathers" (p. 27). He
advocated having the singer place one hand on the ribs and
one hand on the abdomen to check for rib and abdominal
breathing. He also suggested that breathing be practiced
while lying on the floor with a book or books on the
abdomen, just below the ribs.
Howard, 1923), Christiansen (1952), Brodnitz (1953),
westerman (1955), Christy (1961), Roe (1970), Swan (1973),
Decker (1975, 1977a), Swank (1978), Alderson (1979),
McKinney (1982), and Barresi (1986) all agree that breath
support or management is important for free, relaxed
singing. When breath is totally responsible for the
support of the voice (no pressure from the jaw, shoulders,
37
eyebrows, or neck) the result will be free, flexible,
singing (G. Wilson, 1991). The quality of the voice
depends upon the quality of the breath just taken (Boardman
& Alt, 1992).
Throughout the research cited above, various terms
have been used by authors for the act of respiration as it
is applied to singing. Some of these are "support",
"control," and "pressure." Corbin's (1986) use of the term
"breath management" (p.5) seems to be the most
representative of the actual act of respiration which the
process of singing requires, although the term "support" is
useful in discussing the work of the "breath ring" during
phonation.
Relaxation
In order for the vocal mechanism to produce a free and
natural tone, there must be a feeling of relaxation in
those muscles in which the presence of tension might impede
correct singing. The secret of normal voice function is
not the relaxation of all muscles, but the use of the
correct muscles with the correct degree of tension
(Brodnitz, 1953). The majority of voice problems are the
result of exaggerated muscle activity. Roe (1970) agrees
with Brodnitz that faulty use of the vocal mechanism is
responsible for most vocal problems—specifically, poor
intonation. Vennard (1967) suggested having the student
feel as if she were a rag doll to encourage the release of
unnecessary tension, letting the body relax completely
before assuming an effective singing posture. The right
way to produce tone is the easy way (Christy, 1961).
Howard (1923), B. Taylor (1936), and Decker (1975,
1977b), all emphasized the need for the release of
unnecessary tension in order to produce a relaxed, free
38
singing tone. A relaxed tongue and a movable lower jaw
will allow the muscles of the throat to function properly.
Phonation
Only when the muscles involved in the vocal mechanism
are free to function properly can accurate, natural
phonation occur. Phonation should be free and easy, with
no unnecessary tensing of muscles to produce a sound.
There is no conscious feeling of muscle action in the vocal
ligaments (Westerman, 1955).
Correct vocal fold position for the commencement of
phonation cannot be achieved through conscious effort (R.
Miller, 1986). Breath activates the vocal fold vibration.
The correct release of tone (cessation of phonation) will
prepare the singer for proper onset of the next tone.
"Sing in the position of breathing—breathe in the position
of singing" (p. 25). Miller stated that the student should
be encouraged to sing as she speaks. This involves
acoustic mobility of the jaw, tongue, and lips. Any
sensation in the larynx probably means tension in the
larynx. If the larynx is properly relaxed there should be
little or no sensation. The natural wider opening of the
mouth to accommodate higher pitches will accomplish most of
the necessary vowel modification. The singer must not use
muscle tension. Vennard (1967) agrees with Miller on the
use of a breathy "H" to eliminate the glottal stroke.
Resonance
One of the most serious mistakes young singers can
make is that of substituting volume for resonance. Young
voices need time and maturation to develop a resonant
sound. It is difficult to achieve consistent sensations in
rapidly growing resonators. Most authors advocate some
form of humming for resonance (Roe, 1970; Decker, 1975).
39
McKinney (1982) categorized resonance faults as the
result of overemphasis on a specific resonator. If the
sound is too bright, there is overemphasis on mouth
resonance. If the sound is too dark, there is overemphasis
on pharyngeal resonance. If the sound is too nasal, there
is overemphasis on nasal resonance.
Agreeing in part with McKinney, R. Miller (1986)
advocated resonator coupling. Neither the mouth nor the
pharynx is more important as a resonator. Both are equally
important. The nasal passages are at best secondary
resonators because of their lack of size. The natural
position of the mouth at rest is the natural position for
speaking and singing. Humming is a good exercise for
developing a favorable resonance balance. The larynx must
not be forced down to produce an unnaturally "dark" sound.
This sound is as undesirable as its extreme opposite, the
"open" or "white" sound. The student should not sing as if
yawning and speaking at the same time. Proper inhalation
should insure proper positioning of the larynx for properly
resonant phonation.
Resonance will improve when the larynx is in a low,
relaxed position. Vennard (1967) proposed three methods
for lowering the larynx:
a. the inhale,
b. the yawn (the beginning of a yawn), and
c. the reflex action after swallowing.
Dropping the jaw prevents tightening the throat and raising
the larynx. A mellow tone feels "down" and "back," while a
brilliant tone feels "up" and "forward" (p. 120). The
singer must accomplish both simultaneously. The tone must
have "focus in front" and "roundness and depth in back"
(p. 215).
Westerman (1955) believed that resonance relieves
strain and effort at the source of vibrations (the vocal
40
folds). He suggested that the singer should aim for a
uniform amount of hum in the voice to produce resonance on
all vowels throughout the total range.
Zimmerman (1968) stated that tone cannot be forced
into the resonating centers. It must be freed to find its
own way there. She spoke of sensing vibration in the
resonance centers.
Toms (1985) proposed an interesting technique he
called "Extensity" (p.16). Extensity is the result of the
mixture of acoustical elements which cause sound to seem
large or small. This is related to pitch and tone rather
than dynamics. He advocated having the student place a
flattened hand on the upper lip, parallel with the floor,
and saying or singing "OH." The sound must come only from
the mouth. As the student sings successively higher
pitches, no change in the tone quality should be allowed.
Once the student is able to produce a resonant "OH"
throughout her range, she should proceed through the other
vowels. This practice will produce a larger sound (more
extensity) by producing more overtones.
Registration
Many young singers, anxious to emulate the popular
singers they adopt as vocal models, develop the lower
register ("chest voice") in order to achieve a loud sound
easily. Singing along with popular recordings forces them
to use this lower register almost exclusively.
There is considerable disagreement among authors as to
what constitutes a register, and how many registers there
are in the voice. McKinney (1982) defined a register as a
particular series of tones produced by the same vibratory
pattern of the vocal cords, and having the same basic
quality (p. 97).
41
Schoenhard and Hollein (1982) believe there are two
registers, high and low. They investigated the question of
a middle register and posed three possible answers.
a. the middle register is laryngeal,
b there is no middle register; it is a blend of the
other two, and
c. the middle register is a vocal tract-related
phenomenon.
According to their study, research supports all three
hypotheses. Brodnitz (1953), a laryngologist who has
worked extensively with singers, would seem to support the
second hypothesis—that the middle register is in reality a
blend of the high and low registers. Brodnitz stated that
there are three registers, marked by breaks which can be
heard in both upward and downward scales. For females, the
registers are:
a. chest register—the entire vocal cord vibrates,
b. head register—only the inner margins of the
highly-tensed cords vibrate while the posterior
part of the cords remain closed, and
c. mixed register (ideal for singing)—color of the
opposing registers are blended; the mixture varies
from equal parts in the middle to larger ratios at
either end.
Vennard (1967) preferred the terms "light mechanism"
and "heavy mechanism" to "head voice" and "chest voice"
(p.66). He stated that there are three approaches to the
problem of registers.
a. idealistic-one register,
b. realistic-three registers, and
c. hypothetical-two registers (light and heavy).
Most beginners tend to sing either all heavy or all light. If they are conscious at all of the other register, they are schizophrenic about it. The unused register (a phrase I wish to coin because I think we
42
will find it useful) is like a different personality to the beginner, something into which he [she} lapses only by accident. He [she] must be taught to use what I call full voice, a blending of both heavy and light quality, (p.73)
Vennard stated that the women's "unused register"
(p. 76) is the chest register. In the light of more recent
research into the vocal habits of adolescent female
singers, it is more likely that the head register is the
unused one among at least a significant portion of this
group.
How to blend the registers is among the most
controversial aspects of vocal pedagogy (Decker, 1975).
Adding more top (light) mechanism will help young singers
improve their intonation when they are learning to let go
of an overly controlled voice (Doscher, 1991). This is
especially helpful when combined with more air flow
(support). Herman (1988) suggested vocalizing from the top
down to counteract the problem of trying to force the low
voice (heavy mechanism) into the upper register.
R. Miller (1986) stated that the voice must be agile
in order to produce a good, free, sostenuto. Working the
chest voice above its breaking point results in register
separation, while working the head voice down into the
chest range results in register combining. Transition
between the registers is accomplished by means of vowel
modification.
It is important for voice teachers to train their
students to sing so that the audience cannot tell in which
register a tone is being produced (Schoenhard & Hollein,
1982). All female singers must be taught to blend the head
and chest registers throughout the entire range (Skoog &
Niederbrach, 1983). There is little range difference in
well-trained voices between sopranos, mezzo sopranos and
contraltos. The differences are in tone quality and
tessitura. 43
In the adolescent female voice, the presence of two
registers seems to be evident. Labeling these registers
the "light mechanism" and the "heavy mechanism" would seem
to be more scientifically correct than using the terms
"head voice" and "chest voice." The young adolescent
female voice must be trained to produce the most resonant
tone possible, within the boundaries of free and natural
singing, throughout the entire vocal range.
Articulation
Proper articulation involves correct vowels separated
by strong but non-interfering consonants. Vowel
articulation will be emphasized in this study, since the
object is to attempt to improve vocal tone, and correct
vowels must precede correct consonants in any program of
vocal tone development. Teaching correct vowel sounds will
help clear up many vocal faults (Christy, 1961).
In addition to incorrect breathing habits and tension
in the vocal mechanism, poor intonation can also be caused
by misformed vowels (Corbin, 1986). Corbin suggested
sustaining the incorrect vowel and gradually changing it to
the correct vowel. She also advocated using a neutral
vowel (designed to change the sound) in place of the text
in a song or choral piece. Swan (1973) and Decker (1975)
also emphasized the importance of forming vowels correctly.
The quality which differentiates consonants from
vowels is the noise factor. For consonants to be
recognized as such, the noise must be exaggerated. This is
the essence of singing words so clearly that they can be
understood in a large hall. Whispering the text eliminates
the tone entirely, and emphasizes the noise factor. This
lets the students know if they are producing consonants
strongly enough. Chanting and intoning phrases, especially
those with diction difficulties, bridges the gap from
44
speaking articulation to singing articulation (Christy,
1961). Singing with no consonants produces a legato phrase
line (Hill, 1992). Replacing the consonants will have the
effect of punctuating the line rather than interrupting it.
Therapy and Exercises
The choir director working with young adolescents
will, at some time, encounter voices which have been
abused. An understanding of voice therapy will help the
director restore some abused voices to good health. It
will also aid him or her in seeking appropriate help for
those voices which need the assistance of a laryngologist
or voice therapist. Creating a program of vocal exercises
designed to develop voices will aid the choral director in
preventing vocal abuse.
Some therapeutical measures used to help people with
abused voices may also be used as part of a program of
vocal instruction for singers. These include chewing, the
Bernoulli effect, and feeling the larynx for signs of
movement.
Chewing is useful in curing vocal nodules (Ingham &
Keaton, 1983). The Bernoulli effect (flowing warm air) is
also effective, as in singing "HAH," with a breathy "H,"
naturally and without overt muscular effort. Chewing and
warm air exercises before singing helps the surfaces of the
vocal mechanism stretch and condition themselves.
Stoer and Swank (1978) stated that chewing helps in
reducing hyperfunction. The jaw, throat, tongue, and lips
are relatively relaxed when chewing. D. K. Wilson (1972)
also advocated chewing therapy for vocal problems. Chewing
therapy is useful for persons who sing or speak with a
tight jaw (Boone, 1971). Chewing therapy also helps voice
patients find their optimal speaking pitch (Brodnitz,
1953).
45
For correcting problems associated with speaking at an
inappropriate pitch (either too high or too low) Stoer and
Swank (1978) advocate having the student place her fingers
on the larynx to feel for movement. At the optimum
speaking pitch there will be little or no laryngeal
movement. They also suggest having the student say "um-hm"
easily and naturally, if it feels different from the
manner in which she usually speaks, she is probably
speaking at an incorrect pitch.
The aim of vocalization is not more power but beauty
and purity (Howard, 1923). High school singers, given
abdominal breathing instructions and ten-minute sessions of
vocalizing and tongue exercises, showed improvement in the
areas of tone quality, normal vibrato, fuller resonation,
and selectivity in articulation (Gonzo, 1973). Gackle
(1987) suggested that the vocalises be sequenced to help
singers become aware of the feeling of the new skill.
Guthmiller (1986) stated that no vocalise has any
intrinsic value. Its only value lies in its ability to
elicit a specific response from singers. Therefore,
exercises must be directed at particular tasks, such as
breathing, vowel production, agility, tongue position, or
support (Hill, 1992).
Exercises should be introduced at various times in
rehearsal, not just at the beginning (Gallagher, 1978).
At the high school level vocalises are highly important in
effecting a particular sound (Overturf, 1985).
Students should vocalize from the top down to
counteract the problem of trying to force the low voice
into the upper register. Women who have sung tenor, or who
have forced their chest voice above the break for any
reason, should use downward vocalization from the head
voice coupled with pianissimo singing (Mount, 1982). They
should start on D5 softly, then crescendo, proceeding
46
downward by half steps, bringing the lighter mechanism
(head voice) down as far as possible. To train the voice
as well as prepare for the rehearsal, altos should be
encouraged to sing with the sopranos, and sopranos with the
altos during warmups (Skoog & Niederbrach, 1985). Skoog
and Niederbrach agree that descending passages will produce
the most significant results for both voices.
Spending too much time learning vocalises, either
because of difficulty or large number, is
counterproductive. Still, there must be enough exercises
to avoid too much repetition. Simpler exercises allow
students and teachers to concentrate on the vocal problem
and the correction of the problem (Swank, 1978). A few
select, basic vocal exercises, used intelligently, are more
effective than an extensive list (Christy, 1961). This
method saves time and effort in developing vocal technique.
Aaron (1992), conversely, states that varying the musical
input is more effective in helping children learn. A
number of different exercises contributed to learning vocal
technique more quickly and more thoroughly. The body of
exercises must be large enough to provide multiple
solutions for vocal problems, and to avoid boredom, but
small enough to avoid spending too much time learning
exercises.
Laryngologists and voice teachers agree that
adolescents, because of their life style, are prime
candidates for vocal abuse. All choral directors and voice
teachers who work with them must have enough knowledge
about the voice to enable them to help their singers
establish healthy vocal habits. This includes providing
vocal models to counteract those that their students will
hear on the radio and television and on recordings. The
choral director must understand the principles of vocal
development thoroughly enough to be able to use the choir
47
rehearsal as a voice class. Those educators who are
responsible for the development of choral music educators
must develop a program of vocal pedagogy appropriate for
use in the choir rehearsal setting. Perhaps audiences will
also need to be educated in the correct vocal sound for
children and adolescents so that they will not ask singers
and choral directors to perform in a way which will be
injurious to young voices.
The Application of Knowledge to Vocal Instruction
The adolescent is an individual who begins to consider
herself the equal of adults, and to judge them, with
complete reciprocity, on the same plane as herself
(Inhelder & Piaget, 1962). She begins to plan the future,
including plans to change society, on either a complete or
limited basis. She changes her thinking concerning what is
real and what is possible. The concrete present is only
one part of future possibilities. She must work out a
conception of life which allows her to assert herself, to
create something new, and to be more successful than her
predecessors. She tries to adapt her ego to her
environment, and her environment to her ego. Inhelder and
Piaget referred to this as "cognitive egocentricism"
(p. 346).
During the Formal Operations Stage (age eleven through
adolescence) the person learns that she can reason, and
that she can imagine many possibilities within a situation.
At about the same time, the adolescent is undergoing cognitive changes. He is adding to concrete operations a formal operational stage. Now, the young person begins to reason about his own reasoning. He pays attention to the form as well as the content of an argument [or] proposal...He now begins to formulate hypotheses and test them. He begins to consider the unreal as well as the real in developing logical thinking (Harrison, 1978, p.15).
48
During these years, parents, teachers, and adult role
models lose ground to peer influence and egocentric
confidence. Each adolescent begins to develop her own
personal value system. Since she is beginning to use her
powers of reason, she will respond, in an adult-like
manner, when presented with information (knowledge) which
respects her intellectual achievements and which challenges
her to apply her reasoning abilities.
Knowledge is used to enable people to acquire skills
quickly and successfully. Knowledge (the systematic
organization of information and concepts) helps people
acquire new skills more quickly and more completely than
through apprenticeship (experience). When people acquire a
skill on a knowledge basis they have learned how to learn.
Drucker (1969) stated that knowledge is becoming the
foundation of skill. "Few things are as badly needed in
growing up as the sense of achievement, which only
performance can give" (p. 316). Drucker believed that
society needs people who can use theory as a basis of skill
for practical application in work.
Holt (1983) states that what makes things difficult or
easy for learners' minds is how much sense they make. Any
subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually
honest way to any learner at any stage of development
(Bruner, 1960). Bruner stated that the act of learning
includes three simultaneous processes: the acquisition of
new information; the transformation of knowledge to fit new
tasks; and evaluation—how information is manipulated in a
correct way for the task.
Drucker (1969) stated that knowledge allows people to
learn skills more quickly and thoroughly than experience
(apprenticeship). By providing knowledge about the voice
and the vocal development process teachers will be more
effective in bringing about the desired changes in their
49
students' singing skills. Harrison (1978) advocated
educating young people about the physical development of
their larynges, the lengthening of the vocal folds, and the
ways in which these changes can affect singing and
speaking. The teacher should explain the principles of
good vocal production, providing information which will
allow his or her students to understand and more
effectively apply concepts in the development of their own
performance skills (Henry, 1992).
The teacher must ask questions (Hill, 1992). By so
doing he or she will force choristers and voice students to
think about what they are doing. Responding to the
questions will foster awareness in the student so she can
analyze what she is doing. Junior high students will
accept vocalises if they see the purpose for them (Swanson,
1961). They should be told that the exercises will stretch
the voice and improve vocal skill in the same way that
exercises and drills used by athletic coaches prepare
players for participation in games.
The Use of Science and Imagery in Vocal Instruction
Knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal
development process seems to help students learn more
quickly and more easily. Until this century, teaching
voice by scientific principles was almost impossible, since
devices used to view the vocal mechanism were at best
primitive. Today, a wide range of instruments exists for
viewing the vocal mechanism, and for measuring the sounds
made by the voice. Decker (1975) found that the literature
on the voice written between 1960 and 1970 exhibited a more
scientific approach to vocal pedagogy than vocal literature
from earlier decades. Still, many voice teachers and
choral directors prefer to teach by describing the
sensations felt by the singer, using a vocabulary full of
50
imagery (Ehmann and Haasemann, 1981; Daniel, 1993). The
use of scientific knowledge makes it possible to accomplish
vocal instruction more efficiently and more thoroughly
Westerman, 1955; Vennard, 1967, R, Miller, 1986).
Swanson (1973) noted three methods of teaching voice:
imitation (student or teacher as a model); mechanistic
(scientific aspects of the voice); imagery (sensations or
feelings described by using phrases from nonmusical fields
of activity). Brodnitz (1953) stated that a choral
director or voice teacher must know the scientific
principles of voice even if he or she chooses to explain
vocal techniques in terms of sensations. He stated that
the sensation of vibration within the body is not a
scientific basis for voice teaching. The sensation of
vibration can, however, be used to make singers aware of
the "feel" of the voice (R. Miller, 1986).
Vennard (1967) found that teaching voice by scientific
principles brings quicker and better results than teaching
by imagery. He believes, however, that imagery is a good
teaching aid if it helps the student free the tone. Both
teacher and student must realize that it is only imagery,
however, and not literally true. Verbal imagery may be an
important means of developing a particular vocal sound
(Overturf, 1985). It is possible and sometimes advisable
to get rid of strain in the voice by psychological means
(Roe, 1970).
Authors such as Brodnitz (1953), Westerman (1955), and
R. Miller (1986) have written extensively on the scientific
basis for vocal instruction. These authors and the others
cited above agree that there is a place in vocal pedagogy
for both science and imagery. The teacher must thoroughly
understand the scientific principles of the vocal
mechanism. He or she must decide how much of that
information should be presented to students. Teaching by
51
scientific principles has been shown to be more effective
and more efficient in developing high quality voices.
Imagery may be used to support the scientific approach.
Both teachers and students must realize that imagery is an
attempt to explain the sensations the student feels or
should feel, and cannot take the place of scientific
understanding.
52
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
Vocal Principles on Which this Study is Based
In order to provide a sound, rational basis for the
exercises and knowledge statements used in this study, a
list of vocal principles was developed from the research
results and author statements cited in the previous chapter
(see Appendix A). The terminology used in these principles
was used by the investigator throughout the study. All
vocal exercises were chosen because they supported and
reinforced these principles. All statements given as
information to the subjects concerning the vocal mechanism
and the vocal development process were derived from these
principles.
Hypotheses
In order to address the research problems stated in
Chapter I, this study investigated the following
statistical hypotheses:
1. Ho Singing in choir does not improve the vocal
tone quality of adolescent female singers.
Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal tone quality
of adolescent female singers.
2. Ho Singing in choir does not improve the vocal
self-image of adolescent female singers.
Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal self-image
of adolescent female singers. 3. Ho The administration of a program of vocal
exercises does not improve the vocal tone
quality of adolescent female singers more than
singing in choir alone.
Hi The administration of a program of vocal
exercises improves the vocal tone quality of
53
adolescent female singers more than singing in
choir alone.
Ho The administration of a program of vocal
exercises does not improve the vocal self-image
of adolescent female singers more than singing
in choir alone.
Hi The administration of a program of vocal
exercises improves the vocal self-image of
adolescent female singers more than singing in
choir alone.
Ho Providing adolescent female singers with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the
vocal development process will improve vocal
tone quality more than singing in choir alone.
Hi That providing adolescent female singers with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the
vocal development process will improve vocal
tone quality more than singing in choir alone.
Ho Providing adolescent female singers with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the
vocal development process will not improve
vocal self-image more than singing in choir
alone. Hi Providing adolescent female singers with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the
vocal development process will produce
significantly greater improvement in vocal
self-image than singing in choir alone.
Ho The administration of a program of vocal
exercises combined with knowledge about the
vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process will not improve vocal tone quality in
adolescent female singers more than either
exercises or knowledge alone.
54
Hi The administration of a program of vocal
exercises combined with knowledge about the
vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process will improve vocal tone quality in
adolescent female singers more than either
exercises or knowledge alone.
8. Ho The administration of a program of vocal
exercises combined with knowledge about the
vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process will not improve vocal self-image in
adolescent female singers more than either
exercises or knowledge alone.
Hi The administration of a program of vocal
exercises combined with knowledge about the
vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process will improve vocal self-image in
adolescent female singers more than either
exercises or knowledge alone.
Pilot Study
A pilot study was conducted in order to develop a list
of descriptors for use in the Student Attitude Survey and
to develop a body of vocal exercises for use in the main
study. Williams (1990) determined that useful descriptors
could be obtained from adolescent female singers. An
instrument (Appendix B) consisting of twenty-five open-
ended sentences (Newell, 1987) was administered to a group
of female singers in grades seven through nine (n=31) to
determine adjectives (descriptors) they would use to
describe their singing voices.
Eleven of the twenty-five sentences were determined to
be relevant to the objectives of the main study. The
single words and short phrases which appeared the most
frequently as completions of these sentences were chosen to
55
serve as descriptors for the Student Attitude Survey. They
were arranged as a series of bipolar adjectives. The Pilot
Student Attitude Survey (Appendix C) was then administered
to a group of female singers in grades seven through nine
(n=32). Included in this version of the Student Attitude
Survey was a place for each subject to evaluate each pair
of adjectives for understandability as they related to the
sentences which they were intended to complete. If the
subjects understood the statement fully, they were
instructed to write the number "1." If they partially
understood the statement they were instructed to write the
number "2." If they did not understand the statement at
all, they were instructed to write the number "3."
Since the pilot study dealt with a small number of
subjects, a statistical analysis was not used in evaluating
responses for inclusion in the Student Attitude Survey for
the main study. Four criteria were chosen for evaluating
the data obtained from the pilot Student Attitude Survey
(Appendix C). Lists were made of the statements which
failed to meet any one of these criteria. First, a list
was made of any statements which received less than ninety
percent responses of "1." Second, a list was made of all
statements which received any responses of "3." Third, a
list was made of all statements which received two or more
"3" responses, or one "3" plus two or more "2" responses.
Finally, a rating system was devised in which a response of
"1" was given one point, a response of "2" was given two
points, and a response of "3" was given four points. Any
response which received a score of over 40 points was
listed. The 40 point criteria was chosen because it
represented a 25 percent increase over a perfect score of
32 (all responses of "1"). All pairs of adjectives were
eliminated which appeared on two or more lists. This
removed all adjective pairs which indicated a lack of
56
understanding on the part of a significant percentage of
the subjects. The Student Attitude Survey form for the
main study consisted of all remaining pairs of adjectives
(Appendix C).
The majority of the exercises used in the pilot study
were derived from choral and vocal pedagogy textbooks,
including Tkach (1948), H. R. Wilson (1955), Ehret (1956),
Christy (1961), Vennard (1967), Zimmerman (1968), Tjernlund
and Filers (1981), and Richard Miller (1986). Some were
generated by the investigator based either on material
found in choral and vocal pedagogy textbooks or from the
investigator's considerable experience as a middle school
choral director and studio voice teacher.
The exercises were grouped according to the sequence
outlined in the previous chapter (posture, breath
management, relaxation, phonation, resonance, registration,
and articulation). They were tested over a period of nine
days using a group of ninth grade female singers (n=ll).
The criteria for acceptance for the main study were: ease
of learning for the subjects; suitability for the age
group; and whether or not they proved to be directly
related to the vocal principles which formed the basis for
this study.
The exercises used in the pilot study are listed in
Appendix D. The daily instruction session was
approximately ten minutes each day. The length of each
instruction session was dependent upon the exercises to be
covered that day, as well as the time spent allowing the
subjects to react verbally to the exercises. The subjects'
reactions were sought in order to determine the suitability
of the exercises to the age group being tested.
The exercises were administered in the following
sequence.
Day 1-posture and breath management,
57
Day 2-posture and breath management,
Day__3-posture, breath management, relaxation, and
phonation.
Day 4-relaxation and phonation,
Day_5-relaxation and phonation,
Day_6-resonance and registration.
Day 7-resonance and registration,
Day_8-resonance and registration, and
Day__9-resonance, registration, and articulation.
Each instruction session was recorded on an Akai model GX
636 reel-to-reel tape deck using two Audio Technica 450D
microphones and Scotch 150 recording tape. After each
instruction session, the investigator reviewed the tape and
decided which exercises would meet the criteria for use in
the main study. Exercises chosen for inclusion in the main
study were those which were learned quickly and easily,
which seemed to improved the vocal performance of the
subjects (in relation to the vocal principles in Appendix
A), and which received positive responses from the
subjects.
Methodology of the Main Study
The study group consisted of eighth grade female
students in a local junior high school (n=38), all of whom
were members of their school choir program. The study was
conducted in the school during the regular choir rehearsal
period.
All subjects were given the Student Attitude Survey at
the beginning of the study. Each daily instruction session
consisted of ten minutes for each group. The groups met
with the investigator three days each week, except when the
school's calendar or other choir activities forced a change
in the schedule. The study lasted for eleven weeks, during
which each subgroup met with the investigator twenty-one
58
times. A full calendar of the study is given in Appendix
E. The sequence in which the groups received instruction
was rotated each day in order to avoid time prejudice on
the part of the investigator and the choral teacher. The
rotation is included in the calendar.
At the beginning of the study all subjects were
recorded singing an ascending scale from D4 to D5, a
descending scale from D5 to D4, and America in F major.
The key of F major was chosen because it lies within the
middle range of the adolescent female voice, and within the
octave most damaged by constant singing in the heavy
mechanism (Mount, 1982). In this key the singer must sing
pitches above Bb4 twice. This is the pitch which seems to
be the breaking point from heavy mechanism to light
mechanism in the adolescent female voice. The recordings
were made using an Akai model GX 636 reel-to-reel tape
recorder, two Audio Technica 450D microphones, and Melody
166 recording tape.
During the study, all subjects received whatever
warmup exercises their choir teacher chose to administer as
part of the normal rehearsal procedure. The remainder of
the instruction was provided by the investigator. The
study group was randomly divided into four subgroups. Each
subject was assigned a number sequentially as she signed up
to be part of the study. Subjects were assigned to
subgroups by choosing every third number from a table of
random numbers. This process was performed by the
instructor.
In order to test the hypotheses, each subgroup
received a different type of daily instruction.
-Subgroup 1 received no further training (control
group);
-Subgroup 2 received ten minutes of vocal exercises;
-Subgroup 3 received ten minutes of information
59
(knowledge) about the vocal mechanism and the vocal
development process;
-Subgroup 4 received ten minutes of vocal exercises
coupled with information (knowledge) about the vocal
mechanism and the vocal development process.
The exercises and information (knowledge) were
presented in the sequence of posture, breath management,
relaxation, phonation, resonance, registration, and
articulation. This sequence is followed in Appendix A
(vocal principles) and Appendix F (exercises). In Appendix
F the exercises are cross-referenced to the vocal
principles in Appendix A.
The exercises were presented to Subgroups 2 and 4 in
the order in which they appear in Appendix F. Information
(knowledge) was presented to Subgroups 3 and 4 in an
informal discussion setting. It was determined that this
format would be most appropriate considering the age of the
subjects. Subgroups 3 and 4 were encouraged to ask
questions about the material presented, both to assure that
they understood the material and to allow them to
participate in the process. Care was taken to insure that
the question and answer process did not take up so much
time that Subgroups 3 and 4 would fall behind Subgroup 2.
The information presented followed the same sequence as the
exercises, so that each subgroup covered the same material
each day.
Following the completion of the eleven-week
instruction period the Student Attitude Survey was again
administered to all subjects to determine if there had been
any change in their vocal self-image. The results of the
pretest and posttest Student Attitude Surveys were
tabulated by the investigator.
An ANOVA was performed to determine if there was a
significant difference between the means of the pretests
60
and posttests for the entire group. A Fisher LSD post hoc
comparison was performed to determine if a significant
difference existed (p=0.05) among any of the subgroups.
Finally, t-tests were run for each category on the Student
Attitude Survey to determine in which categories, if any,
significant changes had occurred between pretest and
posttest scores for each subgroup.
To determine if there had been any changes in tone
quality, the subjects were also recorded again, using the
same scales and song sung at the beginning of the study.
The recordings were made using the same equipment as had
been used previously. Each subject was assigned two
numbers, one for her pretest tape and one for her posttest
tape. The numbers were then placed in random order by
choosing every third number from a table of random numbers.
The recordings were then transferred to cassette tapes
using an Akai HX-IC stereo cassette deck and TDK D90 tape
in the sequence determined by the random number selection.
This process was performed by the investigator.
The recordings were reviewed by a panel of five choral
directors with considerable experience in working with
adolescent female voices. These judges were chosen because
of their reputation in the West Texas vocal and choral
community based on number of years experience, training,
the quality of their own vocal and choral programs, and
their acceptance of the strengths and limitations of
adolescent female voices (Appendix G). Each judge
completed an evaluation form for each recording (Appendix
G). The results of the comparisons were also tabulated by
the investigator.
ANOVAs were performed to determine if there were any
dofferences in the average of the judges' scores
a. among the judges,
b. among the groups,
61
c. among the categories, or
d. among the students,
or any interaction effect
e. between the judges and the categories,
f. between the judges and the groups,
g. between the groups and the test, or
h. between the judges' ratings of pretests and
posttests.
T-tests were also run for each judge's evaluation of each
group (differences in the means of the pretests and
posttests), and for all the judges' evaluations of each
group. Finally, a Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient was performed to determine whether the judges
were consistent in their ratings from pretest to posttest
62
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
Student Attitudes
ANOVA comparison of the means of the differences
between pretest and posttest for the entire group showed a
difference of 0.0672 (Table 1, p. 66). While this
difference was not significant at the 0.05 level, it
approached that level closely enough that further
investigation seemed warranted.
A Fisher LSD post hoc comparison was performed to
determine if any significant differences occurred among the
subgroups for the entire Student Attitude Survey. Table 2
(p. 67) shows the comparisons of the groups. The
confidence level is set at 0.95 (identifying significant
differences at the 0.05 level). Significant differences
existed between Subgroup 1 and Subgroup 4, and between
Subgroup 3 and Subgroup 4.
Tables 3-6 show the individual categories of the
Student Attitude Survey. The labels listed in the Variable
column correspond to the eleven categories in the survey.
The t-tests compared the mean of the pretests with the mean
of the posttests. The Mean column shows the average
differences between the pretest and the posttest.
Significant differences are those below 0.05.
Table 3 (p. 67) shows the results for Subgroup 1
(control). No significant differences existed for this
subgroup from the pretest to the posttest.
Table 4 (p. 68) shows the results for Subgroup 2
(exercises alone). Significant differences between pretest
and posttest existed for Category 4 ("When I sing the first
note of a song I"), and Category 11 ("When I sing from high
to low"). The Category 4 p-value is 0.0158, and the
Category 11 p-value is 0.0204. When half of the p-value is
63
taken (since this is a one-tailed test). Category 5 ("When
I sing I feel tension...") and Category 6 ("If I could
change my voice I would make it") also show significant
differences. The Category 5 p-value is 0.0830 (1/2
p=0.0415), and the Category 6 p-value is 0.0955 (1/2
po=0.0477) .
Table 5 (p. 68) shows the results for Subgroup 3
(knowledge alone). A significant difference (0.0498)
existed in Category 10 ("When I sing from low to high").
When half of the p-value is taken (since this is a one-
tailed test). Category 8 ("The voice part I like best")
also shows a significant difference. The p-value for
Category 8 is 0.0874 (1/2 p=0.0437).
Table 6 (p. 69) shows the results for Subgroup 4
(combination of exercises and knowledge). Significant
differences existed in six of the eleven categories.
Category p-value
1. ("When I sing high my voice feels") 0.0015
3. ("When I inhale to sing I feel") 0.0062
4. ("When I sing the first note of a song") 0.0438
5. ("When I sing I feel: tension/no tension") 0.0003
9. ("When I sing my throat feels") 0.0019
10. ("When I sing from low to high") 0.0169
Tone Quality
Tables 7-13 are analyses of variance for interaction
among the judges, the subgroups, the categories, and the
individual students, and between each pair of variables.
Table 7 (p. 69) shows a significant difference among the
judges. The p-value is 0.0050, well below the .05 level of
significance. Table 8 (p. 69) shows a p-value of 0.8496,
well above the 0.05 level, using the subgroups as a
variable. This indicates that there was no statistically
significant difference among the subgroups as far as change
from pretest to posttest. Table 9 (p. 69) shows the 64
difference between categories. The p-value is 0.0013. The
judges were able to distinguish among the categories in
their evaluation of the subjects. Table 10 (p. 70), with a
p-value of 0.0001, indicates a difference among students.
This indicates that there was a statistically significant
difference in the way the individual students performed on
the vocal test.
There was an interaction effect between the judges and
the vocal test. Table 11 (p. 70) shows a p-value of
0.0005. There was no interaction between the judges and
the subgroups (Table 12, p. 70), or between the subgroups
and the test (Table 13, p. 70). Table 14 (p. 71) shows the
correlation coefficients for each judge on each category
from pretest to posttest. The judges are below the 0.5
level on 60 percent of the categories (15 of 25). Judge #4
is below the 0.5 correlation level on four out of five
categories. Judge #5 is below the 0.5 correlation level on
three out of five categories. Judges #1, 2 and 3 are below
the 0.5 level on three out of five categories. Category 3
(Consistency) shows the weakest correlation (no judge is
above the 0.5 level), and Category 5 (Pitch Matching
Ability) shows the strongest correlation (four judges are
above the 0.5 level). An examination of the p-values in
Table 14 shows that most of them are significantly
different from zero. This is especially true when half of
the p-value is taken (because this is a one-tailed test).
Twenty-three of the twenty-five tests (92 per cent) have a
p-value below 0.05. This indicates a slight relationship
between the judges, and a trend toward a more significant
correlation.
The t-test comparing the subgroups showed no
significant differences among them (Table 15, p. 71).
The t-test comparing the judges to each other shows a
significant difference between Judge #2 and the other
65
judges (Table 16, p. 72). The t-test comparing the
categories with each other shows a significant difference
between the judges' ratings for category #3 (clarity of
tone) and the other categories (Table 17, p. 72)
Table 18 (p. 73) shows the means for all judges for
all subgroups. Subgroup 1 shows a significant difference
in Category 3 (Clarity). The p-value is 0.0026. The
difference in the means, however, is minus, denoting a
significant decrease in clarity, rather than an
improvement. The difference in the means for Subgroup 4
(Clarity) is also minus. When half of the p-value is taken
(since this is a one-tailed test),Subgroup 4 also shows a
siignificant decrease in clarity (p=0.0537; 1/2 p=0.0269).
Subgroup 2 shows significant improvement in Category 2
(Flexibility From High To Low) and Category 5 (Pitch
Matching Ability). The difference for Category 2 is
0.0232. The difference for Category 5 is 0.0245.
Table 1. A Comparison of the Mean of the Pretests to the Mean of the Posttests for the Total Group
DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 3 10.10865249 34 3.8698472965 2.612 0.0672
66
Table 2. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit and the Upper Confidence Limit of the Mean Differences Between Subgroups
GROUP Comparison
Lower Difference Confidence Between Limit Means
Upper Confidence Limit
4 4 4
2 1 3
•0 .1335 0 . 0 0 8 3 0 . 1 8 1 3
0.4203 0.5621 0.7495
0 . 9 7 4 1 1 .1160* 1 .3177*
3 3 3
4 2 1
•1 .3177 •0.8830 •0 .741
•0 .7495 •0.3292 •0.1874
• 0 . 1 8 1 3 * 0 . 2 2 4 6 0 . 3 6 6 5
2 2 2
- 4 - 1 - 3
•0 .9741 •0 .3972 •0 .2246
-0.4203 0.1418 0.3292
0.1335 0.6809 0.8830
1 1 1
- 4 - 2 - 3
•1.1160 •0.6809 •0.3665
-0.5621 -0.1418 0.1874
-0.0083* 0.3972 0.7412
*Comparisons significant at 0.05.
Table 3. Subgroup 1 Measures for Individual Categories
Variable Mean Std Dev p-value
HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW
0.2200000 0.2300000 0.1700000 0.0700000 0.1700000
-0.2700000 -0.1500000 -0.5000000 0.3800000 0.1200000 0.0100000
0.9366607 0.7071853 1.1870131 0.9165758 0.7409453 0.6000926 1.8566697 1.5275252 0.7052186 1.0757943 0.8862530
0.7427461 1.0284770 0.4528907 0.2415070 0.7255423 -1.4228054 -0.2554798 -1.0350983 1.7039616 0.3527378 0.0356814
0.4766 0.3306 0.6613 0.8146 0.4866 0.1885 0.8041 0.3276 0.1226 0.7324 0.9723
•Comparisons significant at 0.05.
67
Table 4. Subgroup 2 Measures for Individual Categories
Variable Mean Std Dev p-value
HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW
0.5100000 0.4300000 0.0200000 0.5000000 0.4400000 0.3600000
-0.8000000 -0.5500000 0.4900000 0.0800000 0.5300000
1.2956766 0.8380533 1.4405246 0.5333333 0.7136759 0.6113737 1.8287822 1.8173546 1.1560950 1.5090836 0.5963780
1.2447255 1.6225452 0.0439045 2.9646353 1.9496274 1.8620690 •1.3833370 •0.9570244 1.3403017 0.1676396 2.8103104
0.2447 0.1391 0.9659 0.0158* 0.0830** 0.0955** 0.1999 0.3636 0.2130 0.8706 0.0204*
*Comparisons significant at 0.05.
**Comparisons significant at 0.05 when half of p is taken
Table 5. Subgroup 3 Measures for Individual Categories
Variable
HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW
Mean
0.0222222 0.1555556 0.1888889
-0.1333333 0.0888889
-0.2444444 -0.6111111 -1.0000000 0.1666667
-0.5111111 0.2666667
Std Dev
0.9351173 0.3468109 0.9993053 0.4272002 0.5797509 0.7923243 1.2190616 1.5411035 0.7193747 0.6641620 0.5958188
t
0.0712923 1.3455941 0.5670606 -0.9363292 0.4599677 -0.9255470 -1.5038890 -1.9466571 0.6950480 -2.3086738 1.3426902
p-value
0.9449 0.2153 0.5862 0.3765 0.6578 0.3818 0.1710 0.0874** 0.5067 0.0498* 0.2162
*Comparisons significant at 0.05.
**Comparisons significant at 0.05 when half of p is taken
68
Table 6. Subgroup 4 Measures for Individual Categories
Variable Mean Std Dev p- value
HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW
1.1777778 0.4666667 0.7000000 0.5222222 1.0777778 0.1666667 0.5000000
-0.2222222 0.7555556 0.7777778 0.7111111
0.7446103 1.1874342 0.5700877 0.6553201 0.5190804 0.6383573 1.3919411 1.6414763 0.4977728 0.7758508 1.1559027
4.7452117 1.1790127 3.6836437 2.3906891 6.2289646 0.7832604 1.0776318 •0.4061385 4.5536168 3.0074511 1.8455994
0.0015* 0.2723 0.0062* 0.0438* 0.0003* 0.4560 0.3126 0.6953 0.0019* 0.0169* 0.1022
*Comparisons significant at 0.05.
Table 7. Comparison of the Judges' Scores
DF Type III MS DF 4 6.6629152705 136
MS 1.7103267974
F Value 3.896
p-value 0.0050
Table 8. Comparison of the Means of the Judges Ratings Among Subgroups
DF Type III MS DF 3 3.0834697856 34
MS 11.605359477
F Value 0.266
p-value 0.8496
Table 9. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Categories
DF Type III MS DF 4 6.0000861656 136
MS 1.2596078431
F Value 4.763
p-value 0.0013
69
Table 10. Comparison of the Means of the Judges' Ratings Among Students
DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 34 11.605359477 167.11 2.3756316533 4.885 0.0001
Table 11. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Categories
DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 16 1.5657894737 592 0.5943029872 2.635 0.0005
Table 12. Interactive Effect Between Judges and Subgroups
DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 12 0.9227875244 136 1.7103267974 0.540 0.8856
Table 13. Interactive Effect Between Subgroups and Categories
DF Type III MS DF MS F Value p-value 12 1.005497076 136 1.2596078431 0.798 0.651
70
Table
JUDGE 1
2
3
4
5
14. Correlation Between Pretest and Posttest Ratings by Judges. The Upper Value is the Correlation; the Lower Value is the p-Value
LOHI 0.44 0.003
0.53 0.000
0.35 0.016
0.25 0.063
0.27 0.048
HILO 0.56 0.000
0.64 0.000
0.39 0.008
0.26 0.057
0.56 0.000
CLARITY 0.48 0.001
0.08 0.312
0.45 0.003
0.43 0.004
0.33 0.020
CONSIST 0.36 0.013
0.42 0.005
0.51 0.000
0.11 0.250
0.58 0.000
1 PITCH 0.69 0.000
0.43 0.004
0.61 0.000
0.61 0.000
0.57 0.000
Table 15. T-tests (LSD) Showing the Lower Confidence Limit, the Upper Confidence Limit, the Difference Between the Means (Pretest to Posttest), and the Significant Differences Between Subgroups (Judges' Ratings)
SUBGROUP Comparison
2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4
1 1 1
3 4 1
2 4 1
2 3 1
2 3 4
Lower Confidence Limit
-0.5175 -0.4331 -0.3632
-0.7549 -0.5683 -0.4989
-0.8393 -0.7372 -0.5833
-0.8752 -0.7735 -0.6891
Difference Between Means
0.1187 0.2031 0.2560
-0.1187 0.0844 0.1373
-0.2031 -0.0844 0.0529
-0.2560 -0.1373 -0.0529
Upper Confidence Limit
0.7549 0.8393 0.8752
0.5175 0.7372 0.7735
0.4331 0.5683 0.6891
0.3632 0.4989 0.5833
71
Table 16. Comparison of the Judges to Each Other
T Grouping A B A A A
Mean 0.0158 -0.2211 0.2579 0.2000 0.0895
N JUDGE 190 1 190 2 190 3 190 4 190 5
Means with the same letter are not significantly different
Table 17. Comparison of the Judges' Ratings of Categories
T Grouping A A B A A
Mean 0.1895 0.2158 -0.2316 0.0737 0.0947
N T 190 190 190 190 190
ES 1 2 3 4 5
(Flexibility Low to High) (Flexibility High To Low) (Clarity) (Consistency) (Pitch Matching Ability)
Means with the same letter are not significantly different
72
Table 18.
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
T-tests of
Mean -0.0600000 0.2200000 -0.3600000 0.0800000 -0.1000000
Mean 0.2600000 0.4600000 -0.0800000 0 0.4200000
Mean 0.3333333 0.0222222
-0.1555556 0.2222222 0.0444444
Mean 0.2444444 0.1333333 -0.3333333 0 0
Judges' Ratings for All Subgroups
GROUP 1 Std Dev 1.1322724 1.0745668 0.8020382 0.8290639 0.9529760
GROUP 2 Std Dev 1.4400964 1.3881422 1.1036119 1.1065667 1.2791898
GROUP 3 Std Dev 1.4301939 1.2337837 1.0650556 1.1259115 1.1862001
GROUP 4 Std Dev 1.2641123 1.1200649 1.1281521 0.9534626 0.9770084
t -0, 1.
-3. 0.
-0,
t 1. 2,
-0, 0 2.
t 1. 0.
-0. 1. 0.
t 1. 0,
-1, 0 0
,3747014 ,4476856 ,1738941 ,6823183 ,7419985
.2766351
.3431974
.5125764
.3216637
.5634719
.1208244
.9797595
.3240045
.2513424
.2971816
.7985494
.9820624
p-value 0.7095 0.1541 0.0026* 0.4983 0.4616
p-value 0.2077 0.0232* 0.6106 1.0000 0.0245*
p-value 0.1251 0.9044 0.3326 0.1923 0.8027
p-value 0.2013 0.4288 0.0537** 1.0000 1.0000
*Comparisons significant at 0.05. **Comparisons significant at 0.05 when half of p is taken
73
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Discussion Student Attitudes
The results presented in Chapter IV would seem to
indicate that the treatments produced changes in the
attitudes of the subjects toward their singing voices.
This is especially true of the treatment given to
Subgroup 4.
While the ANOVA for the entire group (0.0672) is not
significant at the 0.05 level, the difference approaches
significance. Since this figure represents the difference
for the entire group, it was influenced as much by Subgroup
1 (where there were no significant differences for any of
the Student Attitude Survey categories) as by Subgroup 4
(where six categories showed a significant difference).
Because the change approached the 0.05 level of
significance, it can be argued that there was an overall
improvement in the attitudes of the subjects toward their
singing voices.
Table 2 (Chapter IV) shows that there was a
significant difference between Subgroup 4 and Subgroup 1,
and between Subgroup 4 and Subgroup 3. This would seem to
indicate that a combination of exercises and knowledge is
superior to no treatment and to knowledge alone, but not
superior to exercises alone in affecting attitudes. At the
same time, the use of exercises alone is not superior to no
treatment or knowledge alone in affecting attitudes. Taken
together, these results would argue for a program of
exercises plus information (knowledge) about the voice and
vocal development as the most effective treatment to affect
adolescent female singers' attitudes about their singing
voices.
74
Specifically, this approach would appear to affect
positively the attitudes of these singers in regard to:
a. singing in the higher part of the range
(Category 1),
b. inhaling to sing the first note of a song or phrase
(Category 3),
c. singing the first note of a song or phrase
(Category 4),
d. the presence of tension which interferes with
relaxed, free, easy singing (Category 5),
e. a relaxed, comfortable feeling in the throat
(Category 9), and
f. singing from low to high (Category 10).
There was some improvement in the attitude of Subgroup
2 (singing the first note, and singing from high to low),
and Subgroup 3 (singing from low to high). When half of
the p-value is taken. Subgroup 2 showed significant
improvement in reducing tension and desire to change the
singing voice. Subjects in Subgroup 3 showed significant
change in attitude toward which voice part they felt was
best for them. These changes, while significant, would not
seem to be sufficient to indicate an overall attitude
improvement in these subgroups, since a very low percentage
of categories showed statistically significant improvement.
Tone Ouality
The significant difference between Judge #2 and the
rest of the judges (Table 15) may have affected the results
of the study. It is possible that a closer relationship
among the ratings of all the judges might have produced
different results.
The low correlation coefficients in the judges'
scoring (Table 14) may help to explain the lack of
improvement from pretest to posttest. However, since many
75
of the p-values showed a tendency toward significant
difference, it can be argued that changing the parameters
of the study might well produce more significant change in
the vocal tone guality. The results would seem to indicate
that either a longer time period or a longer vocal sample
\ for the judges to rate should be considered.
The results shown in Table 15 would indicate that
none of the treatments was superior to any other, nor to no
treatment, in improving the tone guality of the subgroups.
Since there was no statistically significant difference
among the subgroups, exercises alone, knowledge alone, and
a combination of knowledge and exercises were no more
effective than singing in choir alone (control) for the
entire group.
Various individual subjects showed improvement. In
Subgroup 1, four students improved from pretest to
posttest. The average percentage of gain was 23 percent.
Seven subjects in Subgroup 2 improved an average of 31
percent. In Subgroup 3, four subjects showed an average
improvement of 32 percent. Four subjects in Subgroup 4
showed a 25 percent average improvement.
The seven subjects who improved in Subgroup 2
represent 70 percent of the total subgroup (n=10). The 31
percent average increase for the seven students who showed
improvement in Subgroup 2, and the 32 percent average
increase for four the students who showed improvement in
Subgroup 3 are virtually equal. These percentages would
indicate that the treatments of exercises alone and
knowledge alone did have a positive effect on the tone
quality of many of the subjects in these two subgroups.
The 23 percent average increase for the four subjects
who showed improvement is Subgroup 1 (control) and the 25
percent average increase for the four subjects who showed
improvement in Subgroup 4 were also virtually equal. The
76
improvement in Subgroup 1 would indicate that singing in
choir did have a positive effect on the tone quality of
many of the subjects in this subgroup. Apparently, the
combination of knowledge and exercises (Subgroup 4) is not
superior to singing in choir in improving the vocal tone
quality for the individual subjects involved in this study.
These results seem contradictory. If knowledge alone
and exercises alone cause improvement in the tone quality
of individual subjects, why would the combination of
exercises and knowledge fail to show at least the same
percentage of improvement? The answer may lie in the
individual subjects involved in the study, or in the small
size of each subgroup. Perhaps a larger study group and
larger subgroups would produce different results.
Certainly such a study would produce results which would be
more likely to be representative of the population at
large. It is also possible that the judges needed a longer
sample of the subjects' singing voices in order to make an
accurate assessment.
The judges' rating on clarity (Table 16) shows a
decrease in this category from pretest to posttest. While
Table 18 shows a minus difference in means from pretest to
posttest for all subgroups. Subgroup 1 shows a significant
minus difference (0.0026), as does Subgroup 4 if half of
the p-value is taken. Without more information, or one or
more repetitions of the study using different age groups,
different time periods, or different segments of the school
year, it is impossible to determine what factors caused
this decrease. There are, however, several possible causes
which should be considered.
First, it is possible that a significant portion of
the study group might have been in the period of voice
mutation in which the mutational chink prevented clarity of
tone. While it is difficult to argue that many of the
77
subjects would be at the same stage at the same time (given
the fact that adolescents develop at different rates), all
the subjects were approximately the same chronological age.
This unity of chronological age for the subjects may have
had an effect on the decrease in clarity.
West Texas is an area known for the exacerbation of
allergy problems. The posttests were given in the spring—
a time of year in which allergic reactions are particularly
intense. Finally, several of the subjects had missed
school prior to the posttests. Many of these absences were
due to colds or sore throats.
Subgroup 2 showed significant improvement in Category
2 (Flexibility From High To Low) and Category 5 (Pitch
Matching Ability). It would seem that a program of
exercises does positively affect young adolescent female
voices in these areas. Since there was no improvement in
Subgroup 4 in these categories, further study is needed to
determine whether knowledge works against exercises in
these areas, or whether the lack of significant improvement
was due to the makeup of the subgroups.
Conclusions
The results presented in Chapter IV indicate that some
of the hypotheses should be accepted, and some should be
rejected. Hypotheses 1 was as follows:
Ho Singing in choir does not improve the vocal
tone quality of adolescent female singers.
Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal tone quality
of adolescent female singers.
Since Subgroup 1 (control) showed no significant increase
for any of the categories on the vocal test, the null
hypothesis (HQ) was accepted. For the subjects involved in
this study, singing in choir alone did not appear to
78
improve the tone quality of young adolescent female
singers.
Hypothesis 2 was as follows:
HO Singing in choir does not improve the vocal
self-image of adolescent female singers.
Hi Singing in choir improves the vocal self-image
of adolescent female singers.
Since Subgroup 1 (control) showed no significant
improvement for any of the categories on the Student
Attitude Survey, the null hypothesis (Ho) was accepted.
For the subjects involved in this study, singing in choir
alone did not appear to change the attitudes of young
adolescent female singers in regard to their singing
voices.
Hypothesis 3 was as follows: Ho The administration of a program of vocal
exercises does not improve the vocal tone
quality of adolescent female singers more than
singing in choir alone.
Hi The administration of a program of vocal
exercises improves the vocal tone quality of
adolescent female singers more than singing in
choir alone.
Since Subgroup 2 (exercises alone) showed a significant
improvement in only two of the five categories on the vocal
test (40 percent) it would seem that the null hypothesis
(Ho) should also be accepted. Apparently, for the subjects
involved in this study, a program of vocal exercises alone
does not produce a significant change in the tone quality
of young adolescent female singers. Since there were some
significant differences between pretest and posttest for
this subgroup, more study in this area would seem to be
necessary.
79
Hypothesis 4 was as follows:
Ho The administration of a program of vocal
exercises does not improve the vocal self-image
of adolescent female singers more than singing
in choir alone.
Hi The administration of a program of vocal
exercises improves the vocal self-image of
adolescent female singers more than singing in
choir alone.
Since Subgroup 2 (exercises alone) showed a significant
improvement in only two of the eleven categories on the
Student Attitude Survey (18 percent), it would seem that
the null hypothesis (HQ) should be accepted. Apparently,
for the subjects involved in this study, a program of vocal
exercises alone does not produce a significant change in
the attitudes of young adolescent female singers in regard
to their singing voices. Since there were some significant
differences between pretest and posttest for this subgroup,
more study in this area may be necessary.
Hypothesis 5 was as follows:
Ho Providing adolescent female singers with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the
vocal development process will improve vocal
tone quality more than singing in choir alone.
Hi That providing adolescent female singers with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the
vocal development process will improve vocal
tone quality more than singing in choir alone.
Since Subgroup 3 (knowledge alone) showed no significant
improvement for any of the categories on the vocal test,
the null hypothesis (HQ) was accepted. For the subjects
involved in this study, singing in choir alone did not
appear to change the tone quality of young adolescent
female singers in regard to their singing voices.
80
Hypothesis 6 was as follows:
Ho Providing adolescent female singers with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the
vocal development process will not improve
vocal self-image more than singing in choir
alone.
Hi Providing adolescent female singers with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the
vocal development process will produce
significantly greater improvement in vocal
self-image than singing in choir alone.
Since Subgroup 3 (knowledge alone) showed significant
improvement in only one of the eleven categories on the
Student Attitude Survey (9 percent), it would seem the null
hypothesis (Ho) should also be accepted. For the subjects
involved in this study, the presentation of information
(knowledge) alone would not seem to change the attitudes of
young adolescent female singers in regard to their singing
voices.
Hypothesis 7 was as follows:
Ho The administration of a program of vocal
exercises combined with knowledge about the
vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process will not improve vocal tone quality in
adolescent female singers more than either
exercises or knowledge alone.
Hi The administration of a program of vocal
exercises combined with knowledge about the
vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process will improve vocal tone quality in
adolescent female singers more than either
exercises or knowledge alone.
Since Subgroup 4 (a combination of vocal exercises and
knowledge) showed no significant improvement for any of the
81
categories on the vocal test, the null hypothesis (Ho) was
accepted. For the subjects involved in this study, singing
in choir alone did not appear to change the tone quality of
young adolescent female singers in regard to their singing
voices.
Hypothesis 8 was as follows
Ho The administration of a program of vocal
exercises combined with knowledge about the
vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process will not improve vocal self-image in
adolescent female singers more than either
exercises or knowledge alone.
Hi The administration of a program of vocal
exercises combined with knowledge about the
vocal mechanism and the vocal development
process will improve vocal self-image in
adolescent female singers more than either
exercises or knowledge alone.
Subgroup 4 (a combination of vocal exercises and knowledge)
showed a significant improvement in six of the eleven
categories on the Student Attitude survey (55 percent). In
this case, the null hypothesis (Ho) is rejected, and the
alternative hypothesis (Hi) is accepted. For the subjects
in this study, a program of vocal exercises combined with
knowledge about the vocal mechanism and the vocal
development process did significantly improve the attitudes
of young adolescent female singers in regard to their
singing voices.
Summary
student Attitudes
When the means of the Student Attitude Surveys were
compared by group, pretest to posttest, significant
improvement can be seen in Subgroup 4 (combination of
82
exercises and knowledge). Subgroups 1 (control) and 3
(knowledge alone) did not improve. Subgroup 2 (exercises
alone) improved slightly—enough to warrant further
investigation.
/ Some of the categories in which Subgroup 4 showed
improvement should be of particular interest to choral
directors and voice teachers who work with young adolescent
female singers. Categories 3 ("When I inhale to sing") and
4 ("When I sing the first note of a song") are concerned
with beginning to sing. Exercises and knowledge combined
would seem to make singers more comfortable when beginning
a song or phrase. Since Subgroup 2 also showed improvement
in Category 4, exercises might be more important here than
knowledge. The commencement of phonation is an important
component of the singing process (Westerman, 1955; Vennard,
1967; R. Miller, 1986). Therefore, exercises and
information which help students feel more comfortable about
beginning a song or phrase should be included as part of
the vocal training process.
Categories 5 ("When I sing I feel tension/no tension")
and 9 ("When I sing my throat feels") are concerned with
tension, which is produced by unnecessary muscle activity
(Brodnitz, 1953). This tension interferes with relaxed,
comfortable singing. A program of vocal exercises combined
with knowledge about the vocal mechanism would seem to
eliminate this tension in young singers. Choral directors
and voice teachers who work with young adolescents must
develop a curriculum which provides the necessary
information and vocalises to help these singers reduce the
feeling of tension while singing. If the singer feels more
comfortable as she sings, eventually the vocal tone should
improve.
Category 10 ("When I sing from low to high") showed
improvement by Subgroup 3 as well as Subgroup 4. Knowledge
83
might be the critical factor here. Much of the information
dispensed in this area was concerned with the use and
misuse of the chest voice (heavy mechanism). Perhaps this
information helped these singers understand better the
process by which a transition from low pitches to high
pitches can be accomplished. Misuse of the lower voice is
potentially damaging to young voices. Most authorities
suggest vocalizing singers from the light mechanism into
the heavy mechanism, but solo and choral music demands the
ability to sing from the heavy mechanism upwards as well.
If young singers can become more comfortable in making the
transition from low to high by understanding the process
better, the dissemination of this information should become
an integral part of the rehearsal plan.
Significant change in preference for singing high or
low (Categories 6-8) occurred in Subgroup 2 and Subgroup 3
only when half of the p-value was taken. Neither the vocal
exercises nor the knowledge presented in this study seemed
to have a strong effect on the subjects' attitude toward
their preferred voice part. Many authorities suggest that
permanent classification should be avoided as long as
possible (Harris, 1987; Thurman, 1988; Gackle, 1991).
Dividing the young adolescent females in a choir into two
even sections and calling them Girls I and Girls II (or
other appropriate names) would avoid such classification.
This process agrees with the findings of I Cooper (1953),
Collins (1982), Skoog and Niederbrach (1983), Huff-Gackle
(1985), and Adcock (1987). As these singers matured, they
would not need to consider themselves sopranos or altos
until their voices began to settle into the adult range and
quality.
84
Tone Ouali-hy
Singing is a skill. As a result, learning to sing is
a developmental process. This may be especially true of
the voices of young adolescents. Since this is such an
intense period of change, these voices may need a longer
time to show significant improvement. It is possible that
eleven weeks was not a sufficient time period to affect
change in voices. This study was limited to eleven weeks
due to the choir schedule of the school in which it was
conducted. The choir was involved in so many activities
that there was not time in the school year for a longer
study. Conducting a similar study over a longer time
period might result in more significant improvement.
Incorporating the exercise program and knowledge statements
into the choral rehearsals as an integral part of the
choral program over the course of the entire school year
might also result in more significant improvement. This
would agree with the findings of Gonzo (1973), Robinson and
Winold (1976), Gackle (1978), Blatt (1983), Overturf
(1985), Fiocca (1986), and Guthmiller (1986).
A combination of exercises and knowledge was shown to
bring about significant improvement in the attitudes of
young adolescent female singers toward their singing
voices. Perhaps this perception of improvement by the
subjects in this study will lead to future improvement in
their tone quality. The partial success of the exercise
program (significant improvement in two of the five
categories) for Subgroup 2 would seem to argue for this
conclusion.
85
Suggestions for Further Research
There are many questions left unanswered by this
study. Other exercise programs, methods of presenting
knowledge, and time and group limitations might produce
different results.
Exercises and knowledge presented once or twice each
week over the course of a semester or year would allow the
investigator to discover the effects of a longer time
period. It would also allow for a more comprehensive
program of vocal exercises and presentation of information.
Using entire choruses as subgroups and presenting the
exercises and knowledge as part of the daily rehearsal
would help determine whether familiarity with the teacher
affected the results. Finally, using either a solo (for
individuals) or a choral piece (for entire choruses) as the
vocal test material would provide information on the
effects of exercises and knowledge in a performance-
oriented setting, as well as providing a longer vocal
sample for judges to rate.
86
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101
APPENDIX A
PRINCIPLES OF VOCAL DEVELOPMENT
WHICH FORM THE BASIS
OF THE STUDY
102
Basic Principles of Vocal Development
1. The voices of adolescents are capable of being
developed as long as the physical limitations of the
voices are respected (Huls, 1957; Phillips & Fett,
1992).
2. The process of mutation is developmental, but is
intensified during adolescence (Robinson & Winold,
1976; Mayer & Sacher, n.d.).
3. Avoid classification of adolescent voices (Skoog &
Niederbrach, 1983; Huff-Gackle; 1985, Thurman, 1988;
Mayer & Sacher, n.d.). All female voices should be
considered second sopranos (Hoffer, 1983; Huff-Gackle,
1985).
4. Vocal abuse is very possible for adolescent female
singers (Brodnitz, 1953; M. Cooper, 1970, 1982;
Bravender, 1977; Stoer & Swank, 1978; Ingham & Keaton,
1983; Teter & Gray, 1985; Boardman & Alt, 1992).
5. The singer is an athlete, and the study of singing is
a study of muscle development (Bates, 1907; Westerman,
1955; Alderson, 1979; Ingham & Keaton, 1983). No
muscle involved in singing should ever be set in a
fixed position (Christy, 1961).
6. Healthy vocal technique does not involve strength, but
balance and coordination (Mabry, 1992).
7. Avoid strain in the voice (Howard, 1923;
Harrison, 1978).
8. Teaching voice by scientific principles brings better
and quicker results than by imagery alone (Vennard,
1967). Imagery can be useful as a teaching aid
(Vennard, 1967).
9. Girls with immature voices should not sing entirely or
excessively in chest voice (Rorke, 1947).
103
10. The middle register (C4 to C5) is the area of the
voice most damaged by females singing consistently in
chest voice (Mount, 1982).
11. One primary goal of vocal instruction for adolescent
female singers should be the coordination and blending
of the ("head" and "chest") registers (Curtis, 1895;
Bradley, 1975; Harrison, 1978; Collins, 1981;
McKinney, 1982).
12. The key to success in the lower range is not more
force, but more support (R. Miller, 1986).
13. A slightly breathy tone with an even vibrato is
preferable to a clear, strident tone with no vibrato
(Doscher, 1991).
14. The tonal concept for choral directors and voice
teachers of adolescent female singers must be "soft
and pure" rather than "loud and full" (Huff-Gackle,
1985).
15. Singing by children and adolescents must be vital, not
loud or devitalized (Huls, 1957).
16. Choral directors and voice teachers of adolescent
singers must learn to increase the dynamic potential
of voices without damaging the voices (H.R. Wilson,
1955).
17. Mezzo Forte is the most effective and least harmful
dynamic level for adolescent singers (Bates, 1907;
Howard, 1923; Boyd, 1977; Corbin, 1986). It is
necessary to scale down the dynamic range for
adolescent voices (R. Miller, 1986).
18. Focus on the quality of the voice, not the quantity
(Doscher, 1991; Hill, 1992).
19. Use a variety of exercises (Aaron, 1992,), but not too
many (Christy, 1961). The exercises should be kept
simple and to the point (Christy, 1961).
104
20. The most effective and efficient sequence for vocal
development, as determined from reviewing the research
of all authors consulted, would seem to be posture,
breath management, phonation, relaxation, resonance,
registration, and articulation. For the purpose of
this study, the articulation of vowels will be given
priority over the articulation of consonants and
words.
Posture
1. The singer must first learn how to hold the instrument
(Vennard, 1967; Mabry, 1992).
2. Posture must be regal (Miller, 1986), but flexible
(Decker, 1977b).
3. Beginning from the bottom and working up, line up the
feet, pelvis, spinal column, shoulders, neck, and
head. The head should be balanced on the neck like a
basketball on a broom handle (Mabry, 1992).
4. There should be no tension in the shoulders.
5. Feel that you have tall ribs and a tall neck
(Mabry, 1992).
6. Don't change posture to breathe (R. Miller, 1986).
7. "Would I pay money to look at that?" (Vennard, 1967,
p. 19).
Breath Management
1. Breathe in the position of singing, and sing in the
position of breathing (R. Miller, 1986).
2. The quality of sound depends upon the quality of
breath (Boardman and Alt, 1992).
3. Don't exaggerate the intake of air and crowd the lungs
(Decker, 1977a; R. Miller, 1986).
105
4. Inhale noiselessly through both nose and mouth. Feel
cool spots at the back of the nasal passage and the
throat.
5. Use rib and abdominal breathing, not clavicular
breathing (Huls, 1957; Vennard, 1967).
6. Breathing should be in (through the nose and mouth),
down (into the lungs), and out (the ribs expanding
outward) (Vennard, 1967).
7. Take a "singer's breath"—the relaxed, easy, deep
inhale needed to produce correct phonation (Hartwell,
1992).
8. Expansion should be felt in the front, sides, and back
(Huls, 1957; Roe, 1970).
9. Refer to the lower abdominal area as the "breath ring"
Ehmann, 1968. p. 16).
10. Efficiency is more important than capacity (Doscher,
1987).
11. Keep the feeling of outward expansion (Christy, 1961).
Don't allow the breath ring to collapse.
12. Try to produce the maximum resonance with the minimum
breath (Westerman, 1955).
Relaxation
1. Relaxation is active, not passive; the singer is not
lazy, but relaxed (Decker, 1975, 1977b).
2. Relax the muscles which interfere with good singing.
Sensation in the larynx probably means tension in the
larynx (B. Taylor, 1936).
3. There should be no pressure or interference with the
sound in the throat. There must be complete mobility
of the jaw, tongue, and lips (Howard, 1923; R. Miller,
1986). 4. Dropping the jaw prevents tightening the throat
(Vennard, 1967).
106
5. Chewing therapy will help relax the jaw and tongue
(Brodnitz, 1953; Boone, 1971; Stoer & Swank, 1978;
Ingham & Keaton, 1983).
Phonation
1. There should be no conscious feeling of ligament and
muscle action in the larynx (Westerman, 1955;
Vennard, 1967).
2. Sing in the position of breathing, and breathe in the
position of singing (R. Miller, 1986).
3. When beginning to teach phonation, a clearly aspirated
"H" will produce the proper attack, free from muscle
interference or the glottal stroke (Vennard, 1967).
Resonation
1. Resonation frees the voice from strain and effort at
the source of vibrations (Westerman, 1955).
2. Proper inhalation and proper positioning of the larynx
will produce proper resonation.
3. The tone cannot be forced into the resonating
chambers (Zimmerman, 1968).
4. Dynamics must not be confused with resonance
(R. Miller, 1986).
5. Humming will produce proper resonance (Westerman,
1955; Roe, 1970; R. Miller, 1986).
6. Another method for producing resonance is extensity—
placing the flat hand on the upper lip and insuring
that the sound comes entirely from the mouth (Toms,
1985).
Registration
1. There are two registers (Vennard, 1967, Robinson &
Winold, 1976).
107
2. "Light and heavy mechanisms" are much more accurate
terms than "chest and head registers" (Vennard, 1967).
3. The light and heavy mechanisms must be blended
throughout the entire range (Bradley, 1975; Skoog &
Niederbrach, 1983).
4. Work the voice from C5 down (Curtis, 1895; H.R.
Wilson, 1959; Decker, 1975; Herman, 1988; Williams,
1990).
5. Open mouth more for higher notes (Christy, 1961; R.
Miller, 1986).
6. Supporting lower tones will produce better results
than force (R. Miller, 1986).
Articulation
1. Vowels are produced by the resonant reinforcement of
the sound waves made by modification of the actions of
sucking, chewing, and swallowing (Westerman, 1955).
2. The "UH" vowel is most effective for teaching proper
phonation (Vennard, 1967).
3. Once the "UH" vowel has been established, develop all
other vowels to the place where they have the same
resonance as "UH" (Vennard, 1967; R. Miller, 1986).
108
APPENDIX B
OPEN-ENDED SENTENCE QUESTIONNAIRE
USED IN THE PILOT STUDY
109
Complete the following sentences using whatever words you feel are most appropriate. Do not sign your name to this paper.
When I sing high my voice feels
When I sing high my voice sounds
When I sing low my voice feels
When I sing low my voice sounds
When I inhale to sing I feel
When I sing my posture is
Singing while standing makes me feel
When I sing the first note of a song I
I run out of breath
I wish I could sound like
When I sing I feel tension in_
I sing because
Singing makes me
If I could change my voice I would_
When I sing alone
When I listen to my singing voice live
When I listen to my singing voice on tape
I like to sing ,
My favorite voice part is
The voice part I sing best is
When I sing my throat feels
When I sing from low to high_
110
When I sing from high to low_
I like my voice when
I don't like my voice when
111
APPENDIX C
STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEYS
112
PILOT STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY
Do not put your name on this paper. Circle the answer which best represents the way you feel, in the parenthesis after each answer indicate your understanding of the question with the appropriate number:
(1) I understand the question.
(2) I sort of understand the question.
(3) I don't understand the question at all.
1. When I sing high my voice feels: 1 2 3 4 5 sore comfortable ( )
strained relaxed ( )
squeaky
1 2 pushed
1 2 weak
full ( )
5 comfortable ( )
4 5 strong ( )
like it will crack controlled ( )
uncomfortable comfortable ( )
screechy
1 2 loud
tight
shaky
open ( )
5 soft ( )
5 relaxed ( )
5 steady ( )
113
1 tense
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5 relax(
5 weird natural
heavy light
5 rough smooth
airy chesty (
like it hurts comfortable
scratchy smooth
2.
hoarse
When I sing low my voice feels: 1 2 3 weird
clear
natural
uncomfortable comfortable
heavy
weak
light
5 strong
rough
like it hurts
smooth
5 comfortable
scratchy
1 2 airy
114
smooth
5 chesty
1 tense
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5 relax(
5 hoarse clear
sore comfortable
strained relaxed
squeaky full
pushed comfortable
weak strong
like it will crack controlled
soft loud
3.
tight
shaky
When I inhale to sing I feel: 1 2 3 uncomfortable
relaxed
5 steady
comfortable
hurried relaxed
anxious ready
awkward comfortable
robbed of air full of air
115
dizzy clearheaded ( )
tense
When I sing the first note of a song I: 1 2 3 4 am hesitant
relaxed ( )
am ready ( )
sing softly sing loudly ( )
am not confident am confident ( )
use little energy use lots of energy ( )
miss the pitch 1 2 sometimes always ( )
have trouble 1 2 sometimes always ( )
crack it 1 2. sometimes always ( )
When I sing I feel: in my throat 1 2 tension no tension ( )
in my ears 1_ 2. tension no tension ( )
in my stomach 1 2 _ tension no tension ( )
in my chest 1 2_ tension no tension ( )
116
in my shoulders 1 2 tension no tension
m my jaw 1 2 tension no tension
in my diaphragm 1 2 tension no tension
in my legs 1 2 tension no tension
on high notes 1 2 tension no tension
on low notes 1 2 tension no tension
If I could change my voice I would make it: 1 2 3 4 5. able to go higher able to go lower
higher lower
high only high and low
low only low and high
less strong stronger
softer louder
more forced more natural
My favorite voice part is: 1 -1 _3_ low
117
high
alto soprano
8.
9.
The voice part I sing best is: 1 2 3 low
alto
When I sing my throat feels: 1 2 3 dry
high
5 soprano
moist
rough smooth
tense relaxed
uncomfortable comfortable
clogged
1 2. scratchy
1 2_ tight
strained
it gets harder
1 2 I feel unsure
1 2
clear
5 smooth
5 relaxed
5
I tense up
1 2 1_ I don't like the sound
open
10. When I sing from low to high: 1 2 3 1
It gets easier
4 5 I feel confident
4 5 I relax
5 I like the sound
118
I don't adjust easily I adjust easily ( )
I miss the pitch 1 2 3_ sometimes
my voice 1 2 changes
1 2 gets worse
1 2
never ( )
5 doesn't change ( )
4 5 gets better ( )
4 5 feels less comfortable feels more comfortable ( )
1 2 3 ^ 5 IS more airy is less airy ( )
11.
gets softer
When I sing from high to low: 1 2 3 It gets harder
gets louder ( )
it gets easier ( )
I feel unsure I feel confident ( )
I tense up I relax ( )
I don't like the sound I like the sound ( )
I don't adjust easily
I miss the pitch 1 2 3_ sometimes
my voice 1 2_ changes
1 2 gets worse
119
I adjust easily ( )
never ( )
doesn't change ( )
4 5 gets better ( )
feels less comfortable feels more comfortable ( )
is heavier is lighter ( )
gets louder gets softer ( )
120
MAIN STUDY STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY
Do not put your name on this paper. Circle the answer which best represents the way you feel.
1. When I sing high my voice feels: 1 2 3 4 5 sore comfortable
strained relaxed
squeaky full
pushed comfortable
weak strong
like it will crack controlled
uncomfortable comfortable
shaky steady
tense relaxed
like it hurts comfortable
2.
scratchy
1 2 hoarse
When I sing low my voice feels: 1 ^ 2 3 1 weird
smooth
5 clear
natural
uncomfortable
121
comfortable
weak
like it hurts
strong
5_ comfortable
scratchy smooth
tense relaxed
hoarse clear
sore comfortable
strained relaxed
squeaky full
pushed comfortable
weak strong
soft loud
3.
tight
shaky
When I inhale to sing I feel: 1 2 3 uncomfortable
relaxed
5 steady
comfortable
awkward comfortable
tense 122
relaxed
When I sing the first note of a song I: 1 2 3 4 am hesitant am ready
sing softly sing loudly
am not confident am confident
use little energy
miss the pitch 1 2
use lots of energy
sometimes never
have trouble 1 2 sometimes never
crack it 1 2. sometimes never
When I sing I feel: in my throat 1 2 tension no tension
in my stomach 1 2 tension no tension
in my chest 1 2_ tension no tension
in my shoulders 1 2 tension no tension
in my diaphragm 1 2 tension no tension
123
on high notes 1 2 tension
on low notes 1 2
no tension
tension no tension
6. If I could change my voice I would make it: 1 2 3 4 5 able to go higher able to go lower
higher lower
high only high and low
low only low and high
less strong stronger
softer louder
more forced
7. My favorite voice part is: 1 2 3. low
more natural
high
alto
8. The voice part I sing best is: 1 2 3 low
alto
When I sing my throat feels: 1 2 3 dry
soprano
high
5 soprano
5 moist
124
tense relaxed
uncomfortable comfortable
clogged clear
scratchy smooth
tight relaxed
10.
strained
When I sing from low to high: 1 2 3 it gets harder
open
5 it gets easier
I feel unsure I feel confident
I tense up I relax
I don't like the sound I like the sound
I don't adjust easily
I miss the pitch 1 2 3_ sometimes
my voice: 1 2. gets worse
1 2
I adjust easily
never
gets better
4 5 feels less comfortable feels more comfortable
gets softer gets louder
125
11. When I sing from high to low: 1 2 3 It gets harder
1 2 3 I feel unsure
it gets easier
4 5 I feel confident
1 2 I tense up
1 2 I don't like
1 2
the
3
3 sound
3
4 5 I relc
4 5 I like the sour
4 5 I don't adjust easily
I miss the pitch 1 2 3
I adjust easily
sometimes never
my voice: 1 2
feels less comfortable feels more comfortable
gets louder gets softer
126
APPENDIX D
EXERCISES TESTED IN THE PILOT STUDY
127
A. Posture
1. Fall forward like a rag doll (or a puppet with her
head and neck strings cut). Straighten up slowly, one
vertebra at a time. As you do so, feel as if you are
stacking the vertebrae one on top of the other.
2. Lift your hands over your head. Stretch up as tall
as you can. Feel as much space as possible between
the shoulders and hips. Bring your arms down slowly
and let them hang at your sides. Continue to feel as
much space as possible between your head and your
hips. Think of tall ribs and a tall neck. Keep your
sternum (breastbone) high, but not so high that you
can't raise it further (if you can't raise it a
little, it's too high).
3. Shoulder rolls. Shoulder lifts.
4. Starting from the floor, line up your feet, your hips
(pelvis), your spinal column, your shoulders and your
head. Keep your posture regal, like Queen Elizabeth
(not stiff, but relaxed, as if you had been queen your
whole life).
B. Breath management
1. Sit in a chair. Slump forward so that your chest
touches your lap. Let your arms dangle at your sides.
Inhale and exhale slowly (several times). Feel how
relaxed and "natural" you breathe in this position.
2. Stand up. Try to duplicate that relaxed breathing.
As you inhale and exhale, make sure your sternum
doesn't fall, and your rib cage doesn't collapse.
3. Pant. Pant silently.
4. Inhale while I (you) count to five. Suspend the
breath (don't inhale, exhale, or tense up) while I
(you) count to ten. Exhale while I (you) count to
five. Repeat this exercise several times until it
feels relaxed and natural.
128
5. Inhale for five counts; suspend for five counts;
exhale for five counts. Do the same exercise
immediately for six counts, then seven, and so on up
to ten.
6. Blow out five candles. Repeat this exercise
increasing the number of candles by five each time.
The upper limit should be twenty-five.
7. Exhale on an "H" as long as possible. Don't allow the
breath ring to collapse.
8. Exhale on "SS" as long as possible. Don't allow the
breath ring to collapse.
9. Exhale on "ZZ" as long as possible. Don't allow the
breath ring to collapse.
10. Trill using your tongue (rolled "R") as long as
possible. Don't allow the breath ring to collapse.
C. Relaxation
1. Relaxing the jaw.
a. Starting at the top of your head, pull your hands
slowly down the sides of your face. Feel each
muscle relax, all the way to your jaw.
b. Let your jaw go slack.
c. Nod your head up and down slowly. Keep your jaw
slack. Feel how your jaw closes slightly when you
nod forward, and opens when you nod back.
d. Open and close your jaw using your hand. Get rid
of the resistance to your hand. e. With both hands, move your jaw side to side.
2. Tongue exercises. a. MOV- your tongue side to side. Alternate back and
forth.
b. Push your tongue as far out as you can. Pull it in
as far as you can. Alternate in and out.
c. With your mouth comfortably wide open, touch your
tongue to your top teeth where they meet the roof
129
D.
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
of your mouth. Touch your bottom teeth where they
meet the gum. Alternate up and down. Don't move
your jaw.
Chew. Make the biggest motions you can. Chew as if
you had so much food in your mouth you couldn't close
it (a little kid chewing a big wad of gum).
While chewing with your mouth open, make noises
(mutter, show how much you like your food, grumble
because you don't like it).
Phonation
Sigh. Sigh out loud. Make it as long as possible.
Say "HAH". Use a very breathy "H". Make it as
natural as you can, with no muscle tension. Slowly
lengthen the "HAH" until you are sustaining a pitch
(C5). Repeat several times, inhaling after each one.
Say "um-hum" as if someone were talking to you on the
phone and you were agreeing. Slowly lengthen the
"hum" until you are sustaining a pitch (C5).
Bend over at the waist. Hum (C5). Sing "OH" (C5).
Sing "YUH", "YAH", "PAH", "BAH", five times each on
C5. Don't breathe between them. Sustain the fifth
one.
"Motorboating" (lip trill) on C5.
Hear and feel the first pitch before you sing it.
fS 3 2 2 ^ I ^ ^ ^ — »
I'^'T r r f If 1 ^ 331
Huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh
1 ^ r r ^ 3E
Huh huh huh huh huh
130
10
^
11
i f XE
Huh.
_a s_
? XE
Huh huh huh huh huh 12
(^n^ J J r ^ • ; I
XT
13 Huh.
( ! Q ^ ^ •* ^ ^ ti
Any vowel 14
I '^'r 'r"' XL
15 Any vowel
$
¥ i • •
XT
Any vowel 16
\h' r r ' i xc
Yah yah yah yah yah 17
Yah.
131
18. m ^m Yah yah yah (continue) Repeat with any vowel
#- ^
i m J F i i j r I E.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Resonance
Hum (descending fifth beginning on C5 [key of F]).
Move down a half step and repeat the pattern.
Continue downward through C major. Repeat the
exercise using "NN". Repeat the exercise using "NG".
Hum to a vowel ("UH" first, then other vowels). Begin
on C5 and move down by half steps.
Begin on D5 and glissando (slide) downward to G4. Use
"UH", then all five Italianate vowels. Repeat the
exercise sliding down to D4.
Sing D5 softly (any vowel, but begin with "UH" and
move forward and back). Crescendo slowly. Don't let
the muscles of the throat or face tighten. Proceed
downward by half steps. When you can execute this
exercise, add a diminuendo.
Beginning on D5, sing a nine note descending scale (C
major). Use all vowels.
Extensity: place your hand, sideways, flat against
your upper lip. Sing "OH" (C5). Make sure all the
sound comes from your mouth. Use this position for
the exercises found on the music sheet. Repeat the
exercises using other vowels.
^ f ^ SSL
MM. Ah Repeat with all vowels
132
8. I s tl Z£
MM. MM.
ifu r ir ^ ^ Mee oh ah mee oh eih mee oh ah mee Repeat with "Nee oh ah"
10 i w E TT
No no -0-
no no
11
\¥\' r r I' Hung Oh. Repeat with all vowels
12
^ ^
Ding dong ding dong ding-a dingdong
F. Registration
1.
La la la la la
2.
La la la la la
La la la la la la la la la
133
4.
r ? \ H \—r1 \—1 - f e -•'- ^ ^ fiJ 4
Zang oh zung aw zang oh zung aw
i i fJ fJ \L.
lang oh zung aw zang oh
s V r r m ai
ZZ/ZZ to all vowels
^ ^ -o-
%
i Thy thy thy thy thy Thigh
P -e-
V+ any vowel
8
G.
1
V+ any vowel
Articulation
^^^^m Ee eh Go eh Oh ee
ah ee oo
134
2.
Any vowel or combination of vowels 3.
i f 'T r r iTff 1 I Any vowel
pg f I
Any vowel or combination of vowels
K ^iJ UU -o-
Ah eh ee oh oo
7.
^ f P XE Any vowel or combination of vowels
8.
Any vowel or combination of vowels
135
APPENDIX E
CALENDAR OF STUDY
136
PILOT STUDY
JANUARY
21-Distribution of consent forms
25-Administration of Open-Ended Sentence Instrument
26-Exercises, Day 1 (posture and breath management)
27-Exercises, Day 2 (posture and breath management)
28-Exercises, Day 3 (posture, breath management,
phonation, and relaxation)
29-Exercises, Day 4 (phonation and relaxation)
FEBRUARY
1-Exercises, Day 5 (phonation and relaxation)
2-Exercises, Day 6 (resonance and registration)
3-Exercises, Day 7 (resonance and registration)
4-Exercises, Day 8 (resonance and registration)
5-Administration of Pilot Student Attitude Survey
Exercises, Day 9 (resonance, registration, and
articulation)
MAIN STUDY
FEBRUARY
8-Distribution of consent forms
15-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and
Vocal Test 16-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and
Vocal Test 17-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and
Vocal Test
Instruction Day 1 (Groups 2/3/4)
Introduction
18-Instruction Day 2 (Groups 3/4/2)
Exercises: Al-5
Vocal Principles: Posture 1-6
137
19-Instruction Day 3 (Groups MllZ)
Exercises: Al-5
Bl-2
Vocal Principles: Posture 1-6
Breath Management 1-5
22-Instruction Day 4 (Groups 2/3/4)
Exercises: B2-5
Vocal Principles: Breath Management 4-9
24-Instruction Day 5 (Groups 3/4/2)
Exercises: B4-9
Vocal Principles: Breath Management 4-12
MARCH
1-Instruction Day 6 (Groups 2/3/4)
Exercises: B4-9
Vocal Principles: Breath Management 4-9
3-Instruction Day 7 (Groups 3/4/2)
Exercises: Cl-4
Vocal Principles: Relaxation 1-5
5-Instruction Day 8 (Groups 4/2/3)
Exercises: Cl-4
Vocal Principles: Relaxation 1-5
12-Instruction Day 9 (Groups 4/2/3)
Exercises: Dl-5
Vocal Principles: Phonation 1-3
APRIL
1-Instruction Day 10 (Groups 4/2/3)
Exercises: Dl-5
Vocal Principles: Phonation 1-3
5-Instruction Day 11 (Groups 2/3/4)
Exercises: D6-10
Vocal Principles: Phonation 1-3
138
7-Instruction Day 12 (Groups 3/4/2)
Exercises: Dll
El-3
Vocal Principles: Phonation 1-3
Resonation 1-5
12-Instruction Day 13 (Groups 2/3/4)
Exercises:
Vocal P r inc ip l e s : Resonation 1-5
14- Ins t ruc t ion Day 14 (Groups 3/4/2)
Exercises : El-3
Vocal Principles: Resonation 1-5
16-Instruction Day 15 (Groups 4/2/3)
Exercises: E4
Vocal Principles: Basic Principles 6
Resonation 6
21-Instruction Day 16 (Groups 2/3/4)
Exercises: Fl-3
Vocal Principles: Registration 1-6
22-Instruction Day 17 (Groups 3/4/2)
Exercises: Fl-3
Vocal Principles: Registration 1-6
Basic Principles 9
23-Instruction Day 18 (Groups 4/2/3)
Exercises: F4-6 Vocal Principles: Registration 1-6
Basic Principles 9
26-Instruction Day 19 (Groups 2/3/4)
Exercises: Gl-2
Vocal P r inc ip les : Ar t icula t ion 1-3
27- Ins t ruc t ion Day 20 (Groups 3/4/2)
Exercises : Gl-2 Vocal Principles: Articulation 1-3
139
28-Instruction Day 21 (Groups ^/2/2)
Exercises: G3-4
Vocal Principles: Articulation 1-3
Administration of Student Attitude Survey
29-Administration of Student Attitude Survey and Vocal
Test
30-Administration of Vocal Test
140
APPENDIX F
EXERCISES USED IN THE MAIN STUDY
141
The vocal principles to which each exercise is related
are listed in brackets following the exercise. The list of
vocal principles is intended to be selective rather than
inclusive.
A. Posture
1. Make sure your feet are in a comfortable position.
Fall forward like a rag doll (or a puppet with her
head and neck strings cut). Straighten up slowly, one
vertebra at a time. As you do so, feel as if you are
stacking the vertebrae one on top of the other
[Posture 1, 3].
2. Lift your hands over your head. Stretch up as tall
as you can. Feel as much space as possible between
the shoulders and hips. Bring your arms down slowly
and let them hang at your sides. Continue to feel as
much space as possible between your shoulders and your
hips. Think of tall ribs and a tall neck. Keep your
sternum (breastbone) high, but not so high that you
can't raise it further (if you can't raise it a
little, it's too high) [Posture 1, 4].
3. Shoulder rolls. Shoulder lifts. This exercise should
be repeated any time during an instruction period that
the instructor ascertains the subjects have tension in
the shoulders [Posture 4].
4. Make sure your feet are in a comfortable position,
both side to side and front to back. Starting from
the floor, line up your feet, your legs, your hips
(pelvis), your spinal column, your shoulders and your
head. Keep your posture regal, like Queen Elizabeth
(not stiff, but relaxed, as if you had been queen your
whole life [Posture 2, 3, 6].
5. Your head should sit on your neck like a basketball
balanced on a broomstick [Posture 3].
142
B. Breath management
1. Sit in a chair. Slump forward so that your chest
touches your lap. Let your arms dangle at your sides.
Inhale and exhale slowly (several times). Feel how
relaxed and "natural" you breathe in this position
[Breath Management 2, 3, 5].
2. Stand up. Try to duplicate that relaxed breathing.
As you inhale and exhale, make sure your sternum
doesn't fall, and your rib cage doesn't collapse.
Inhale through your nose. Feel the cool spot in the
back of your throat. Inhale through your mouth. You
can feel that the cool spot is in a different place.
Inhale through both your nose and your mouth. Try to
feel two cool spots. Feel the air going down into the
lower part of your lungs. You should be able to feel
yourself filling up with air in the sides, the front,
and the back. This circle of expansion is called the
"breath ring" [Breath Management 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
8, 9].
3. Pant. Pant silently [Breath Management 3, 5].
4. Inhale while I (you) count to five. Suspend the
breath (don't inhale, exhale, or tense up) while I
(you) count to ten. Keep the breath ring expanded.
Exhale while I (you) count to five. Repeat this
exercise several times until it feels relaxed and
natural. Don't overfill with air. Take only as much
as you can comfortably inhale in five counts. Use
your hands to represent the breath ring remaining
expanded until the end [Breath Management 3, 4, 5,
6, 8, 9, 10, 11].
5. Inhale for five counts; suspend for five counts (keep
the breath ring expanded); exhale for five counts. Do
the same exercise immediately for six counts, then
seven, and so on up to ten. Try to keep the breath
143
ring expanded while you exhale. Don't let it collapse
until the very end. Use your hands to represent the
breath ring remaining expanded until the end [Breath
Management 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11].
6. Blow out five candles. Repeat this exercise
increasing the number of candles by five each time.
The upper limit should be twenty-five [Breath
Management 10].
7. Exhale on an "H" as long as possible. Don't allow the
breath ring to collapse [Breath Management 9, 10, 11].
8. Exhale on "SS" as long as possible. Don't allow the
breath ring to collapse [Breath Management 9, 10, 11].
9. Exhale on "ZZ" as long as possible. Don't allow the
breath ring to collapse [Breath Management 9, 10, 11].
C. Relaxation
1. Relaxing the jaw.
a. Starting at the top of your head, pull your hands
slowly down the sides of your face. Feel each
muscle relax, all the way to your jaw.
b. Let your jaw go slack.
c. Nod your head up and down slowly. Keep your jaw
slack. Feel how your jaw closes slightly when you
nod forward, and opens when you nod back.
d. Open and close your jaw using your hand. Get rid
of the resistance to your hand
[Relaxation 1, 2, 3, 4].
2. Tongue exercises. a. Move your tongue side to side. Alternate back and
forth.
b. Push your tongue as far out as you can. Pull it in
as far as you can. Alternate in and out.
c. With your mouth comfortably wide open, touch your
tongue to your top teeth where they meet the roof
of your mouth. Touch your bottom teeth where they
144
1
meet the gum. Alternate up and down. Don't move your jaw [Relaxation 1, 2, 3].
3. Chew. Make the biggest motions you can. Chew as if
you had so much food in your mouth you couldn't close
it (a little kid chewing a big wad of gum)
[Relaxation 5].
4. While chewing with your mouth open, make noises
(mutter, show how much you like your food, grumble because you don't like it) [Relaxation 5].
D. Phonation
Sigh out loud. Don't let your chest collapse. Make
it as long as possible [Phonation 1, 2, 3].
Say "HAH". Use a very breathy "H". Make it as
natural as you can, with no muscle tension. Slowly
lengthen the "HAH" until you are sustaining a pitch
(C5). Repeat several times, inhaling after each one
[Phonation 3].
Say "um-hum" as if someone were talking to you on the
phone and you were agreeing. Slowly lengthen the
"hum" until you are sustaining a pitch (A4 at first,
then work up to C5 as soon as possible)
[Phonation 1, 2].
Bend over at the waist. Hum (C5). Sing "HOH" (C5)
[Phonation 1,2,3].
Sing "YUH" five times on C5. Don't breathe between
them. Sustain the fifth one [Phonation 2;
Articulation 2].
I Q 1 >> 1 -
\¥'' r r r r Huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh huh
[Phonation 2, 3; Articulation 2].
145
8
3 U2-
1^^ r " r " ^ " ^ Huh huh huh huh huh
[Phonation 2, 3; Articulation 2]
^^N 3E Huh.
[Breath Management 11; Phonation 2, 3;
Articulation 2].
10
11
E.
1
fe'' j " " w P X L
Huh huh huh huh huh [Breath Management 11; Phonation 2, 3;
Articulation 2].
i i P 3X
Huh.
[Breath Management 11; Phonation 2, 3;
Articulation 2].
^ f -o-
Yah yah yah yah yah
[Relaxation 3, 4].
Resonance
Hum on A4. Feel as if the hum fills your entire head
(sensation only, not actual fact). Hum a descending
fifth beginning on C5 (key of F). Move down a half
step and repeat the pattern. Continue downward
146
F.
1
2.
through C major [Breath Management 12; Resonation 1,
2, 3, 4, 5].
Hum to a vowel ("UH" first, then other vowels). Begin
on D5 and move down by half steps [Breath Management
12; Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
Sing D5 softly (any vowel, but begin with "HUH" and
move to the front vowels and then to the back vowels).
Crescendo slowly. Don't let the muscles of the throat
or face tighten. Proceed downward by half steps.
[Breath Management 12; Resonation 1, 2, 3].
Extensity: place your hand, sideways, flat against
your upper lip. Sing "OH" (C5). Make sure all the
sound comes from your mouth. Use this position for
exercises Dll, F5, F6, and F8. Repeat the exercises
using other vowels [Resonation 6].
Registration
^m -o-
Yah. [Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; Registration 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6].
i 4 ^ r r I -6*-* Mee oh ah mee oh ah mee oh ah mee Repeat with "Nee oh ah"
[Resonation 1, 2, 3, 4, 6;
Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 6].
147
I E i • ^ • *
no no No no [Resonat ion 1, 2, 3 , 4; R e g i s t r a t i o n 1, 2, 3 , 4 , 5, 6;
A r t i c u l a t i o n 1, 3 ] .
i ? 7T
^
i ZZ
Hung Oh. Repeat wi th a l l vowels
[Resonat ion 1, 2, 3, 4; R e g i s t r a t i o n 1, 2, 3 , 4, 5]
I ' l ' r r r r xc
La la la la la [Relaxation 3; Registrat ion 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
!<&'• r r ^ XE
La la la la la
[Relaxation 3; Resonation 6;
Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,].
[Registration 4, 5, 6; Articulation 3]
La la la la la la la la la
[Relaxation 3; Resonation 6;
Registration 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,].
[Registration 4, 5, 6; Articulation 3]
148
G.
1.
4.
H.
Articulation
Demonstrate and practice the correct mouth position
for all Italian and common English vowels. Work
especially on the tongue position for the front
vowels (sides of tongue touching the sides of the
teeth, tip of tongue against lower teeth. Push the
middle of the tongue forward for more forward
vowels) [Articulation 1, 3].
^P r r ^ XE ZZ/ZZ to any vowel
[Articulation 1, 2, 3].
I f I' r r - -o-
V+ any vowel
[Articulation 1, 2, 3].
1 Lj L; ^ ^ -o-
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
V+ any vowel
[Articulation 1, 2, 3].
Important reminders every day
Regal posture (Queen Elizabeth).
Inhale through both nose and mouth.
Always keep the breath ring expanded while singing.
Breathe in the position of singing/sing in the
position of breathing.
Until phonation becomes easy and relaxed, begin all
vowels with a breathy "H".
149
APPENDIX G
VOCAL TEST EVALUATION FORM
AND INFORMATION ON JUDGES
150
VOCAL TEST EVALUATION FORM
Please circle the number which best represents your
evaluation for each item, with 1 being the lowest quality,
and 5 being the highest guality.
Tone Quality
Flexibility (singing from low to high)
1 2 3 4 5
Flexibility (singing from high to low)
1 2 3 4 5
Clarity (absence of breathiness without being pushed)
1 2 3 4 5
Consistency (throughout range of exercises)
1 2 3 4 5
Pitch Matching Ability 1 2 3 4 5
Information
Years private teaching experience
Years choral directing experience
Years experience with junior high school female
voices
151
INFORMATION ON JUDGES
JUDGE #1
Years private teaching experience-0
Years choral directing experience-6
Years experience with junior high school female
voices-6
JUDGE #2
Years private teaching experience-12
Years choral directing experience-16
Years experience with junior high school female
voices-12
JUDGE #3
Years private teaching experience-8
Years choral directing experience-12
Years experience with junior high school female
voices-4
JUDGE #4
Years private teaching experience-21
Years choral directing experience-18
Years experience with junior high school female
voices-10
JUDGE #5
Years private teaching experience-0
Years choral directing experience-15
Years experience with junior high school female
voices-14
152
APPENDIX H
STATISTICAL INFORMATION
153
TITLE •STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=7 6 NODATE; DATA SURVEY;
INFILE SIPLEY2; INPUT PP $ GROUP STUDENT $ HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST
THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW; PROC PRINT; PROC IML;
USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); GROUP = X[1:N1,1]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,2:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,2:M]; DIFF = POST-PRIOR; T = GROUP I IDIFF; FACTORS = {GROUP HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE
FAVORITE BEST THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW};
CREATE DIFFER FROM T[COLNAME=FACTORS]; APPEND FROM T;
PROC PRINT NOOBS; TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR TESTS';
PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT; VAR HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE
BEST THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW;
BY GROUP; TITLE2 'T TESTS OF DIFFERENCES'
154
TITLE 'STUDENT ATTITUDE SURVEY TEST RESULTS'• OPTIONS LS=76 NODATE; DATA SURVEY;
INFILE SIPLEY2; INPUT PP $ GROUP STUDENT $ HIGH LOW INHALE FIRST TENSION CHANGE FAVORITE BEST
THROAT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW; *PROC PRINT; PROC IML;
USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); GROUP = X[1:N1,1]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,2:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,2:M]; G = (1:N1)^; DIFF = POST-PRIOR; NAME = {GROUP TEST SUBJECT DIFF}; T =
(GROUP!IJ(N1,1,1) G||DIFF[1:N1,2])/ /
(GROUP I IJ(N1,1,3) G||DIFF[1:N1,4])//
(GROUP|IJ(N1,1,5) Gl|DIFF[1:N1,6])//
(GROUP!IJ(N1,1,7) Gl|DIFF[1:N1,8])//
DIFF[1:N1,1])//(GROUP
DIFF[1:N1,3])//(GROUP
DIFF[1:N1,5])//(GROUP
DIFF[1:N1,7])//(GROUP
DIFF[1:N1,9])//(GR0UP
IGI|DIFF[1:N1,11]);
J(N1,1,2)
J(N1,1,4)
J(N1,1,6)
J(N1,1,8)
J(N1,1,10) (GROUP!IJ(N1,1,9) |G||DIFF[1:N1,10])//
(GROUP]|J(N1,1,11) CREATE DIFFER FROM T[COLNAME=NAME ] ; APPEND FROM T;
*PROC PRINT NOOBS; * TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR TESTS'; PROC GLM DATA=DIFFER;
CLASSES GROUP SUBJECT TEST; MODEL DIFF = GROUP TEST GROUP*TEST SUBJECT(GROUP); RANDOM SUBJECT(GROUP)/TEST; MEANS GROUP TEST/LSD E=SUBJECT(GROUP);
155
Table H.l Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Pretest
o B S
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
P P
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
r-l
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
G R 0 U P
1 1 1
i-i
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
S T U D E N T
02 11 15 17 22 23 25 31 33 37 03 05 07 08 10 18 19 27 29 35 01 04 06 16 20 21
H I 6 H
2.8 2.6 4.1 3.0 2.6 1.7 2.1 1.7 3.3 2.8 3.8 2.4 3.4 2.3 2.5 2.1 4.3 3.3 2.6 4.9 4.2 2.5 2.8 3.2 2.7 2.9
L 0 W
4.5 3.7 3.9 3.4 2.8 2.9 3.3 4.5 2.9 3.8 3.9 3.8 2.5 1.7 4.6 4.1 1.7 4.0 4.3 3.5 5.0 3.6 4.4 4.2 3.1 3.6
I N H A L E
4.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.7 2.3 1.7 3.7 2.3 3.7 2.7 3.0 3.0 2.7 3.0 4.0 4.3 4.7 4.7 3.7 4.7 3.3 3.3 4.0 2.7
F I R S T
3.1 2.9 4.1 2.4 2.0 2.0 2.1 1.9 3.3 2.1 3.7 2.9 3.6 2.3 2.7 1.6 2.9 3.0 2.7 2.6 4.3 3.9 3.4 2.9 3.3 3.0
T E N S I 0 N
4.1 3.0 4.1 2.9 2.7 2.9 2.3 2.6 3.1 3.9 3.6 3.1 3.0 1.7 3.1 3.0 2.9 3.4 3.6 3.9 3.7 2.9 3.7 3.3 3.4 3.0
C H A N G E
4.0 4.1 4.4 3.1 4.0 3.4 4.0 4.3 3.7 3.7 3.9 3.7 3.0 4.0 3.9 3.9 4.0 3.4 3.9 3.6 3.3 3.6 4.4 3.6 3.6 4.0
F A V 0 R I T E
2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 1.5 4.0 1.0 5.0 2.5 4.5 1.0 4.5 5.0 1.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 2.5
B E S T
2.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.5 3.5 2.0 4.5 3.0 4.5 1.0 3.5 4.0 1.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 2.0 5.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 2.5
T H R 0 A T
4.1 2.4 3.7 2.6 2.6 1.1 3.3 2.1 2.6 2.6 3.7 2.6 3.3 1.6 2.7 1.9 3.7 4.1 3.1 3.9 4.0 2.9 3.7 3.6 2.4 2.7
L 0 W
H I G H
3.9 3.2 3.6 2.8 2.9 3.2 2.2 1.4 3.1 2.3 3.6 1.4 2.7 3.2 1.9 4.0 3.1 4.0 3.2 4.7 3.4 3.1 2.9 2.7 3.4 3.2
H I G H
L 0 W
2.6 3.8 3.5 2.6 3.0 2.5 3.3 4.0 2.3 3.6 3.5 2.4 3.6 3.0 3.6 3.1 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.9 3.8 3.6 3.9 4.3 3.1 2.6
27 1 3 30 3.7 3.2 2.7 3.3 3.4 4.4 4.5 4.5 3.4 3.6 2.5 28 1 3 38 3.7 4.3 3.3 3.4 3.7 4.3 4.5 4.5 3.7 3.7 3.5 29 1 3 39 3.9 4.7 4.3 3.3 4.6 4.4 3.0 4.5 4.3 3.9 3.8 30 1 4 09 3.2 3.6 4.0 3.4 2.7 3.6 3.0 3.0 3.6 3.2 3.0 31 1 4 12 2.2 4.3 3.3 2.4 3.0 3.7 2.0 2.0 2.3 1.8 2.0 32 1 4 13 2.5 2.3 3.0 2.6 2.3 3.4 4.5 4.5 2.6 2.7 1.5 33 1 4 14 3.9 4.6 3.3 3.0 3.9 3.4 2.5 2.5 4.6 3.8 3.8 34 1 4 24 2.8 2.2 2.7 2.7 2.0 3.5 4.5 4.0 2.6 2.7 2.4 35 1 4 26 3.9 3.7 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.0 5.0 4.4 5.0 3.1 36 1 4 32 2.8 2.7 4.0 2.7 2.9 3.6 4.0 4.0 2.9 2.8 2.8 37 1 4 34 1.6 4.9 4.0 3.0 3.1 4.1 2.0 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.4 38 1 4 36 3.3 5.0 3.7 3.9 3.6 4.0 2.0 1.5 4.0 3.0 4.1
156
Table H.2 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Posttest
o B S
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65
P
P
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
G R 0 U P
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
S T U D E M T
02 11 15 17 22 23 25 31 33 37 03 05 07 08 10 18 19 27 29 35 01 04 06 16 20 21 30
H I G H
2.2 2.4 4.3 3.4 2.8 3.5 3.9 1.8 2.3 2.3 4.5 4.2 5.0 4.6 3.2 3.2 2.8 2.4 3.0 3.8 2.3 3.9 3.3 3.3 3.4 2.9 3.9
L 0 W
3.8 3.7 4.5 2.8 3.5 2.5 3.9 4.5 4.5 4.3 4.5 4.2 4.5 3.2 4.5 3.9 2.6 3.3 4.1 3.6 5.0 3.7 4.3 4.6 3.5 4.0 3.6
I N H A L E
3.0 3.3 3.7 3.7 2.0 2.7 4.7 3.3 3.0 3.0 3.7 4.7 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.3 4.3 3.7 2.3 3.0 4.3 3.3 3.7 4.7 4.0 2.7 4.0
F I R S T
2.0 2.3 3.3 2.7 2.7 3.7 2.6 2.1 2.3 2.9 4.3 3.0 4.6 3.1 3.3 3.0 2.9 2.7 2.7 3.4 4.1 4.1 3.6 2.1 2.7 2.7 3.9
T E N S I 0 N
3.1 3.3 3.7 3.1 3.0 3.1 4.1 3.3 2.9 3.7 4.3 3.6 4.6 3.1 3.9 3.4 3.0 3.0 3.4 3.4 4.3 3.7 3.6 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.9
C H A N G E
3.0 3.1 3.7 3.5 4.1 3.9 4.0 3.4 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.4 4.9 3.9 4.3 4.0 4.0 3.7 3.7 3.6 4.1 4.3 3.0 4.1 3.6 3.1 4.0
F A V 0 R I T E
3.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 2.5 3.5 4.0 2.0 1.5 5.0 3.0 3.5 5.0 5.0 1.0 2.5 5.0 3.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 1.5 2.0 1.0 4.0 1.0 4.0
B E S T
2.0 2.0 1.0 3.5 3.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 1.5 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 1.0 4.0
T H R 0 A T
3.1 3.0 3.9 2.9 3.1 2.9 3.7 2.6 2.4 3.3 4.0 4.1 4.9 3.6 3.3 3.0 3.6 2.4 3.6 3.0 4.7 3.9 3.9 2.3 3.0 2.7 4.0
L 0 W
H I G H
2.4 2.4 3.6 3.6 3.0 2.6 4.1 3.1 2.7 2.3 3.8 4.0 4.4 4.6 2.7 3.4 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.4 2.2 2.7 3.6 1.6 2.9 2.4 3.9
H I G H
L 0 W
3.8 2.1 3.5 2.0 3.3 3.9 2.8 3.8 2.3 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.6 3.0 3.8 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.4 3.9 4.3 3.8 3.6 4.4 3.3 3.6 3.8
66 2 3 38 3.7 4.7 4.0 3.3 3.0 3.3 3.0 1.5 4.0 3.3 2.9 67 2 3 39 3.1 4.1 3.0 3.1 4.0 3.9 1.5 1.5 3.7 2.7 3.8 68 2 4 09 4.4 4.0 5.0 3.7 4.1 4.4 3.0 2.0 3.9 3.6 4.0 69 2 4 12 3.8 3.5 4.0 3.7 4.3 4.3 5.0 4.0 3.4 3.8 3.1 70 2 4 13 3.5 5.0 3.3 4.0 3.9 3.9 5.0 1.0 3.6 4.8 5.0 71 2 4 14 5.0 4.8 5.0 4.0 4.4 4.1 3.0 3.0 5.0 4.3 3.9 72 2 4 24 3.6 3.7 3.3 2.6 3.6 4.1 3.0 2.5 3.9 2.9 2.9 73 2 4 26 5.0 4.6 5.0 4.6 5.0 4.1 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 3.4 74 2 4 32 3.1 3.3 3.7 2.1 4.4 3.4 4.0 5.0 3.7 3.4 2.5 75 2 4 34 4.5 3.6 5.0 3.7 3.3 3.1 3.0 3.0 3.7 3.6 3.9 76 2 4 36 3.9 5.0 4.0 4.1 4.3 3.4 1 0 1.0 3.9 3.2 3.8
157
Table H.3 Student Attitude Survey Test Results: Differences Between Pretests and Posttests
G R 0 U P
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
H I G H
- 0 . 6 - 0 . 2
0 . 2 0 .4 0 . 2 1 .8 1 .8 0 . 1
- 1 . 0 - 0 . 5
0 . 7 1 .8 1 .6 2 . 3 0 . 7 1 .1
- 1 . 5 - 0 . 9
0 .4 - 1 . 1 - 1 . 9
1.4 0 .5 0 . 1 0 . 7 0 . 0 0 . 2 0 . 0
- 0 . 8 1.2 1 .6 1 .0 1 .1 0 . 8 1 .1 0 . 3 2 . 9 0 . 6
L 0 W
- 0 . 7 0 . 0 0 . 6
- 0 . 6 0 . 7
- 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 0 1 .6 0 . 5 0 . 6 0 . 4 2 . 0 1 .5
- 0 , 1 - 0 . 2
0 . 9 - 0 . 7 - 0 . 2
0 . 1 0 . 0 0 . 1
- 0 . 1 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 4 0 . 4
- 0 . 6 0 . 4
- 0 . 8 2 . 7 0 . 2 1 .5 0 . 9 0 . 6
- 1 . 3 0 . 0
I N H A L E
- 1 . 0 0 . 3
- 0 . 3 0 . 7
- 1 . 0 - 1 . 0
2 . 4 1 .6
- 0 . 7 0 . 7 0 . 0 2 . 0 2 . 0 1 .0 0 . 3
- 0 . 7 0 . 3
- 0 . 6 - 2 . 4 - 1 . 7
0 . 6 - 1 . 4
0 . 4 1.4 0 . 0 0 . 0 1 .3 0 . 7
- 1 . 3 1.0 0 . 7 0 . 3 1 .7 0 . 6 1 .0
- 0 . 3 1.0 0 . 3
F I R S T
- 1 . 1 - 0 . 6 - 0 . 8
0 . 3 0 .7 1.7 0 .5 0 .2
- 1 . 0 0 . 8 0 . 6 0 . 1 1 .0 0 . 8 0 . 6 1.4 0 . 0
- 0 . 3 0 . 0 0 . 8
- 0 . 2 0 .2 0 .2
- 0 . 8 - 0 . 6 - 0 . 3
0 . 6 - 0 . 1 - 0 . 2
0 . 3 1 .3 1.4 1 .0
- 0 . 1 0 .5
- 0 . 6 0 .7 0 .2
T E N S I 0 N
- 1 . 0 0 . 3
- 0 . 4 0 .2 0 . 3 0 .2 1 .8 0 .7
- 0 . 2 - 0 . 2
0 .7 0 .5 1.6 1.4 0 . 8 0 .4 0 . 1
- 0 . 4 - 0 . 2 - 0 . 5
0 .6 0 .8
- 0 . 1 0 .7
- 0 . 4 0 .0 0 .5
- 0 . 7 - 0 . 6
1.4 1 .3 1.6 0 .5 1 .6 0 . 9 1.5 0 .2 0 .7
C H A N G E
- 1 . 0 - 1 . 0 - 0 . 7
0 .4 0 . 1 0 .5 0 .0
- 0 . 9 - 0 . 4
0 . 3 0 .5 0 .7 1.9
- 0 . 1 0 .4 0 . 1 0 .0 0 . 3
- 0 . 2 0 . 0 0 . 8 0 .7
- 1 . 4 0 .5 0 . 0
- 0 . 9 - 0 . 4 - 1 . 0 - 0 . 5
0 . 8 0 .6 0 .5 0 .7 0 .6 0 . 1
- 0 . 2 - 1 . 0 - 0 . 6
F A V 0 R I T E
0 .5 - 1 . 0 - 0 . 5
0 . 0 - 2 . 5
2 . 0 0 . 0 1 .0
- 3 . 5 2 . 5
- 1 . 5 2 . 5 0 .5 0 .0 0 . 0
- 2 . 5 0 .0
- 0 . 5 - 3 . 5 - 3 . 0
1.0 - 2 . 5
1.0 0 .0 0 . 0
- 1 . 5 - 0 . 5 - 1 . 5 - 1 . 5
0 .0 3 . 0 0 .5 0 .5
- 1 . 5 2 . 0 0 . 0 1.0
- 1 . 0
B E S T
- 0 . 5 - 1 . 5 - 2 . 0
0 .5 0 . 0 2 . 5 0 .5 0 . 0
- 2 . 5 - 2 . 0 - 2 . 5
2 . 0 1.5 1 .0 0 . 0
- 3 . 0 - 1 . 0
0 . 0 - 0 . 5 - 3 . 0
0 .5 - 2 . 5
0 .0 1.0 0 .0
- 1 . 5 - 0 . 5 - 3 . 0 - 3 . 0 - 1 . 0
2 . 0 - 3 . 5
0 .5 - 1 . 5
0 . 0 1.0 1.0
- 0 . 5
T H R 0 A T
- 1 . 0 0 . 6 0 .2 0 . 3 0 .5 1.8 0 .4 0 .5
- 0 . 2 0 .7 0 . 3 1.5 1.6 2 . 0 0 . 6 1 .1
- 0 . 1 - 1 . 7
0 .5 - 0 . 9
0 .7 1.0 0 .2
- 1 . 3 0 .6 0 . 0 0 . 6 0 . 3
- 0 . 6 0 . 3 1 .1 1.0 0 .4 1 .3 0 . 6 0 . 8 1.4
- 0 . 1
L 0 W
H I G H
- 1 . 5 - 0 . 8
0 .0 0 .8 0 . 1
- 0 . 6 1.9 1.7
- 0 . 4 0 .0 0 .2 2 . 6 1.7 1.4 0 .8
- 0 . 6 - 1 . 5 - 1 . 9 - 0 . 6 - 1 . 3 - 1 . 2 - 0 . 4
0 .7 - 1 . 1 - 0 . 5 - 0 . 8
0 . 3 - 0 . 4 - 1 . 2
0 .4 2 . 0 2 . 1 0 .5 0 .2 0 .0 0 . 6 1.0 0 .2
H I G H
L 0 W
1.2 - 1 . 7
0 . 0 - 0 . 6
0 . 3 1.4
- 0 . 5 - 0 . 2
0 .0 0 .2 0 . 3 1.2 0 . 0 0 . 0 0 .2 0 .5 1.7 1 .1 0 . 3 0 . 0 0 .5 0 .2
- 0 . 3 0 . 1 0 .2 1.0 1 .3
- 0 . 6 0 . 0 1.0 1 .1 3 . 5 0 . 1 0 .5 0 . 3
- 0 . 3 0 .5
- 0 . 3
158
TITLE 'VOCAL TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=7 6 NODATE; DATA SURVEY;
INFILE SIPLEY3; INPUT PP $ JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH-
*PROC PRINT; PROC IML;
USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); JUDGE = X[1:N1,1]; GROUP = X[1:N1,2]; STUDENT = X[1:N1,3]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,4:M]; POST = X[NH-1:N,4:M]; G = (1:N1)\-DIFF = POST-PRIOR;
{JUDGE GROUP TEST STUDENT DIFF}; NAME = T = (JUDGE (JUDGE (JUDGE (JUDGE (JUDGE CREATE APPEND
DIFF[1:N1,1])// DIFF[1:N1,2])// DIFF[1:N1,3])// DIFF[1:N1,4])// DIFF[1:N1,5]);
TESTS
GROUP J(N1,1,1) STUDENT GROUP J(Nl,1,2) STUDENT GROUP J(Nl,1,3) STUDENT GROUP J(Nl,1,4) STUDENT GROUP J(Nl,1,5) STUDENT
DIFFER FROM T[COLNAME=NAME FROM T;
*PROC PRINT NOOBS; * TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR PROC GLM DATA=DIFFER;
CLASSES JUDGE GROUP STUDENT TEST; MODEL DIFF = JUDGE GROUP TEST STUDENT(GROUP)
JUDGE*TEST JUDGE*GROUP GROUP*TEST JUDGE*STUDENT(GROUP) TEST*STUDENT(GROUP);
RANDOM STUDENT(GROUP) TEST*STUDENT(GROUP) JUDGE*STUDENT(GROUP)/TEST;
MEANS GROUP/LSD E=STUDENT(GROUP) ; MEANS TEST/LSD E=TEST*STUDENT(GROUP); MEANS JUDGE/LSD E=JUDGE*STUDENT(GROUP);
159
TITLE 'VOCAL TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=76 NODATE; DATA SURVEY;
INFILE SIPLEY3; INPUT PP $ JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW HIGH HIGH LOW CLARITY
CONSIST PITCH; ~ *PROC PRINT; PROC IML;
USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); JUDGE = X[1:N1,1]; GROUP = X[1:N1,2]; STUDENT = X[1:N1,3]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,4:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,4:M]; DIFF = POST-PRIOR; T = JUDGE I I GROUP| |STUDENT| |DIFF; FACTORS = {JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY
CONSIST PITCH}; CREATE DIFFER FROM T [ COLNAME=FACTORS ]; APPEND FROM T;
*PROC PRINT NOOBS; * TITLE2 'DIFFERENCES BETWEEN POST AND PRIOR TESTS'; PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT;
VAR LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; BY JUDGE;
PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT; VAR LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; BY JUDGE GROUP; TITLE2 'T TESTS OF DIFFERENCES';
PROC SORT; BY GROUP;
PROC MEANS MEAN STD T PRT; VAR LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH; BY GROUP;
160
TITLE 'VOCAL TEST RESULTS'; OPTIONS LS=76; DATA SURVEY;
INFILE SIPLEY3; INPUT PP $ JUDGE GROUP STUDENT LOW_HIGH HIGH_LOW CLARITY
CONSIST PITCH; PROC IML;
USE SURVEY; READ ALL INTO X; N = NROW(X); Nl = N/2; M = NCOL(X); JUDGE = X[1:N1,1]; PRIOR = X[1:N1,4:M]; POST = X[N1+1:N,4:M]; T = JUDGE I I PRIOR I |POST; FACTORS = {JUDGE LOHIl HILOl CLARITYl CONSISTl PITCH1
LOHI2 HIL02 CLARITY2 C0NSIST2 PITCH2};
CREATE DIFFER FROM T [ COLNAME=FACTORS ] ; APPEND FROM T;
PROC SORT; BY JUDGE;
PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR LOHIl L0HI2; BY JUDGE;
PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR HILOl HIL02; BY JUDGE;
PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR CLARITYl CLARITY2; BY JUDGE;
PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR CONSISTl C0NSIST2; BY JUDGE;
PROC CORR NOSIMPLE; VAR PITCHl PITCH2; BY JUDGE;
161
Table H.4 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for All Subgroups
Variable
LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Mean
0.1052632 0.1842105
-0.3421053 0.2368421
-0.1052632
Mean 0 0
-0.8421053 -0.2105263 -0.0526316
Mean 0.1315789 0.2894737 0.2105263 0.2105263 0.4473684
Mean 0.6315789 0.3947368
-0.2631579 0.0263158 0.2105263
Mean 0.0789474 0.2105263 0.0789474 0.1052632
-0.0263158
JUDGE 1 Std Dev
1.1339830 1.1591064 0.8784604 0.9982203 1.0600733
JUDGE 2 Std Dev 0.9299811 0.7710996 1.1276936 0.8106686 1.3345182
JUDGE 3 Std Dev 1.2119016 1.1603330 0.7766141 0.8433490 0.7951668
JUDGE 4 Std Dev 1.8072086 1.7326666 1.0049663 1.4043724 1.2337132
JUDGE 5 Std Dev 1.3230101 1.0694251 1.0235492 0.8314583 1.0523293
t
0. 0,
-2. 1.
-0.
t 0 0
-4. -1. -0.
t 0. 1. 1. 1. 3.
t 2. 1.
-1. 0. 1.
t 0, 1. 0. 0.
-0.
.5722182
.9796770
.4006528
.4625957
.6121140
.6032767
.6008656
.2431161
.6692846
.5378651
.6710634
.5388307
.4681582
.1543247
.4043794
.6141976
.1155117
.0519230
.3678462
.2135225
.4754674
.7804188
.1541546
Prob>1t1
0.5706 0.3336 0.0215 0.1520 0.5442
Prob>1t1 1.0000 1.0000 0.0001 0.1179 0.8093
Prob>1t1 0.5075 0.1326 0.1031 0.1324 0.0013
Prob>1t1 0.0378 0.1685 0.1150 0.9087 0.2997
Prob>1t1 0.7151 0.2326 0.6372 0.4401 0.8783
162
Table H.5 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 1
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Mean 0 0.4000000
-0.4000000 0.2000000 -0.2000000
Mean 0.1000000 0.5000000
-0.1000000 0.3000000 0.1000000
Mean 0
-0.2222222 -0.4444444 0.2222222
-0.1111111
Mean 0.3333333 0
-0.4444444 0.2222222
-0.2222222
SUBGR0UP=1 Std Dev 0.9428090 0.6992059 0.8432740 0.7888106 0.6324555
SUBGROUP 2 Std Dev 1.2866839 1.3540064 0.8755950 1.1595018 1.3703203
SUBGROUP 3 Std Dev 1.2247449 1.2018504 1.0137938 1.2018504 1.4529663
SUBGROUP 4 Std Dev 1.2247449 1.3228757 0.8819171 0.9718253 0.6666667
t 0 1,
-1, 0,
-1,
t 0. 1.
-0. 0. 0.
t 0
-0. -1, 0.
-0.
t 0. 0
-1. 0.
-1.
.8090681
.5000000
.8017837
.0000000
.2457696
.1677484
.3611576
.8181818
.2307692
,5547002 ,3151919 .5547002 ,2294157
8164966
5118579 6859943 0000000
Prob>1t1 1.0000 0.1039 0.1679 0.4433 0.3434
Prob>1t1 1 1
0.8114 0.2729 0.7263 0.4344 0.8227
Prob>1t1 1.0000 0.5943 0.2249 0.5943 0.8243
Prob>1t1 0.4379 1.0000 0.1690 0.5121 0.3466
163
Table H.6 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 2
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Mean -0.1000000 -0.2000000 -0.9000000 0.1000000 -0.5000000
Mean 0 0
-0.6000000 -0.7000000 0.2000000
Mean 0.2222222 0.1111111 -0.6666667 0
-0.2222222
Mean -0.1111111 0.1111111
-1.2222222 -0.2222222 0.3333333
SUBGROUP 1 Std Dev 0.9944289 0.7888106 0.7378648 0.7378648 0.9718253
SUBGROUP 2 Std Dev 1.0540926 0.8164966 1.5055453 0.8232726 1.8737959
SUBGROUP 3 Std Dev 0.9718253 0.9279607 1.1180340 0.8660254 1.2018504
SUBGROUP 4 Std Dev 0.7817360 0.6009252 1.0929064 0.6666667 1.1180340
t -0, -0, -3, 0,
-1.
t 0 0
-1. -2. 0.
t 0, 0,
-1. 0
-0.
t -0. 0.
-3. -1. 0.
.3179994
.8017837
.8571429
.4285714
.6269784
.2602521
.6887745
.3375264
.6859943
.3592106
.7888544
,5547002
,4264014 ,5547002 ,3549685 ,0000000 ,8944272
Prob>1t1 0.7577 0.4433 0.0039 0.6783 0.1382
Prob>1t1 1.0000 1.0000 0.2393 0.0248 0.7435
Prob>1t1 0.5121 0.7287 0.1114 1.0000 0.5943
Prob>1t1 0.6811 0.5943 0.0100 0.3466 0.3972
164
Table H.7 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 3
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Mean -0.1000000 0.2000000
-0.1000000 0.1000000 0.4000000
Mean -0.2000000 0.7000000 0.1000000 0.1000000 0.6000000
Mean 0.4444444 0.3333333 0.4444444 0.4444444 0.6666667
Mean 0.4444444
-0.1111111 0.4444444 0.2222222 0.1111111
SUBGROUP 1 Std Dev 0.9944289 1.0327956 0.7378648 0.8755950 0.8432740
SUBGROUP 2 Std Dev 1.3165612 1.4181365 0.8755950 0.8755950 0.8432740
SUBGROUP 3 Std Dev 0.7264832 0.7071068 0.7264832 0.8819171 0.7071068
SUBGROUP 4 Std Dev 1.6666667 1.3642255 0.7264832 0.8333333 0.7817360
t -0. 0.
-0. 0. 1.
t -0. 1. 0. 0. 2.
t 1. 1, 1, 1. 2.
t 0.
-0. 1, 0. 0.
.3179994
.6123724
.4285714
.3611576
.5000000
.4803845
.5609177
.3611576
.3611576
.2500000
.8353259
.4142136
.8353259
.5118579
.8284271
.8000000
.2443389
.8353259
.8000000
.4264014
Prob>1t1 0.7577 0.5554 0.6783 0.7263 0.1679
Prob>1t1 0.6424 0.1530 0.7263 0.7263 0.0510
Prob>1t1 0.1038 0.1950 0.1038 0.1690 0.0222
Prob>1t1 0.4468 0.8131 0.1038 0.4468 0.6811
165
Table H.8 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 4
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Mean 0.4000000 0.1000000
-0.3000000 0
-0.1000000
Mean 0.7000000 0.8000000
-0.4000000 -0.1000000 0.8000000
Mean 1.0000000 0.2222222
-0.3333333 0.3333333 0.2222222
Mean 0.4444444 0.4444444 0
-0.1111111 -0.1111111
SUBGROUP 1 Std Dev 1.6465452 1.7919573 0.9486833 1.1547005 1.1005049
SUBGROUP 2 Std Dev 1.9465068 2.0439613 0.8432740 1.3703203 1.2292726
SUBGROUP 3 Std Dev 2.1794495 1.8559215 1.1180340 1.8027756 1.3944334
SUBGROUP 4 Std Dev 1.6666667 1.3333333 1.2247449 1.4529663 1.1666667
t 0. 0.
-1. 0
-0.
t 1. 1.
-1. -0. 2.
t 1, 0,
-0. 0. 0.
t 0, 1. 0
-0. -0.
.7682213
.1764706
.0000000
.2873479
.1372138
.2377055
.5000000
.2307692
.0579830
.3764944
.3592106
.8944272
.5547002
.4780914
.8000000
.0000000
.2294157
.2857143
Prob>1t1 0.4620 0.8638 0.3434 1.0000 0.7804
Prob>1t1 0.2848 0.2471 0.1679 0.8227 0.0697
Prob>1t1 0.2060 0.7287 0.3972 0.5943 0.6454
Prob>1t1 0.4468 0.3466 1.0000 0.8243 0.7824
166
Table H.9 Vocal Test Results: T-Tests of Differences for Judge 5
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Variable LOW-HIGH HIGH-LOW CLARITY CONSIST PITCH
Mean -0.5000000 0.6000000
-0.1000000 0 -0.1000000
Mean 0.7000000 0.3000000 0.6000000 0.4000000 0.4000000
Mean 0
-0.3333333 0.2222222 0.1111111 -0.3333333
Mean 0.1111111 0.2222222
-0.4444444 -0.1111111 -0.1111111
SUBGROUP 1 Std Dev 0.9718253 0.6992059 0.5676462 0.6666667 1.1005049
SUBGROUP 2 Std Dev 1.4944341 1.1595018 1.0749677 1.0749677 0.9660918
SUBGROUP 3 Std Dev 1.6583124 1.3228757 1.0929064 0.7817360 1.0000000
SUBGROUP 4 Std Dev 0.9279607 0.9718253 1.1303883 0.7817360 1.1666667
t -1. 2.
-0. 0
-0.
t 1. 0, 1, 1. 1,
t 0
-0. 0. 0.
-1.
t 0, 0, -1 -0 -0
6269784 7136021 5570860
2873479
,4812258 ,8181818 ,7650452 .1766968 .3093073
.7559289
.6099943
.4264014
.0000000
.3592106
.6859943
.1795356
.4264014
.2857143
Prob>1t1 0.1382 0.0239 0.5911 1.0000 0.7804
Prob>1t1 0.1727 0.4344 0.1114 0.2695 0.2229
Prob>1t1 1.0000 0.4714 0.5588 0.6811 0.3466
Prob>1t1 0.7287 0.5121 0.2721 0.6811 0.7824
167
APPENDIX I
CONSENT FORMS
168
CONSENT FORM J.T. Hutchinson Junior High School Open-ended Sentence Questionnaire
I hereby give my consent for my participation in the project entitled: THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES, POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE VOICE ON THE TONE QUALITY AND VOCAL SELF-IMAGE OF ADOLESCENT FEMALE SINGERS.
I understand that the person responsible for this project is Mr. Kenneth Sipley (742-2270). He has explained that these studies are part of a project that has the following objectives:
1) to determine whether a program of vocal exercises will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.
2) to determine whether positive reinforcement will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.
3) to determine whether supplying information about the voice will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.
He has explained the procedures to be followed and identified which are experimental. I understand that there are no personal rislcs to me in taking part in this study.
It has further been explained to me that the total duration of my participation will be the completion of a 25-item open-ended sentence questionnaire concerning how I feel about my voice. This questionnaire will taJce less than 30 minutes to complete. Only Mr. Sipley will have access to the data collected for this study, and all data will remain strictly confidential.
Mr. Sipley has agreed to answer any inquiries I may have concerning the procedures and has informed me that I may contact the Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects by writing them in care of the Office of Research Services, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, or by calling 742-3884.
Although there is no likelihood that this research project will cause harm to the participants in any way, this paragraph is included in order to safeguard Texas Tech University. If this research project causes any physical injury to participants in this project, treatment is not necessarily available at Texas Tech University or the Student Health Center, nor is there necessarily any insurance carried by the University or its personnel applicable to cover any such injury. Financial compensation for any such injury must be provided through the participant's own insurance program. Further information about these matters may be obtained from Dr. Robert M. Sweazy, Vice
169
Provost for Research, 742-3884, Room 203 Holden Hall, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1035.
I understand that I may not derive any therapeutic treatment from participation in this study. I understand that I may discontinue this study at any time I choose without penalty.
Signature of Subject: Date:
Signature of Parent/Guardian: ^__ Date:
Signature of Project Director: Date:
Signature of Witness to Oral Presentation: Date:
170
CONSENT FORM J.T. Hutchinson Junior High School
Open-ended Sentence Questionnaire and Vocal Exercises
I hereby give my consent for my participation in the project entitled: THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES, POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE VOICE ON THE TONE QUALITY AND VOCAL SELF-IMAGE OF ADOLESCENT FEMALE SINGERS.
I understand that the person responsible for this project is Mr. Kenneth Sipley (742-2270). He has explained that these studies are part of a project that has the following objectives:
1) to determine whether a program of vocal exercises will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.
2) to determine whether positive reinforcement will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.
3) to determine whether supplying information about the voice will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.
He has explained the procedures to be followed and identified which are experimental. I understand that there are no personal risks to me in taking part in this study.
It has further been explained to me that the total duration of my participation will be the completion of a 25-item open-ended sentence questionnaire concerning how I feel about my voice, and nine instruction sessions of vocal exercises, each lasting ten minutes. The questionnaire will take less than 30 minutes to complete. Only Mr. Sipley will have access to the data collected for this study, and all data will remain strictly confidential.
Mr. Sipley has agreed to answer any inquiries I may have concerning the procedures and has informed me that I may contact the Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects by writing them in care of the Office of Research Services, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, or by calling 742-3884.
Although there is no likelihood that this research project will cause harm to the participants in any way, this paragraph is included in order to safeguard Texas Tech University. If this research project causes any physical injury to participants in this project, treatment is not necessarily available at Texas Tech university or the Student Health Center, nor is there necessarily any insurance carried by the University or its personnel applicable to cover any such injury. Financial compensation for any such injury must be provided through the participant's own insurance program. Further information about
171
these matters may be obtained from Dr. Robert M. Sweazy, Vice Provost for Research, 742-3884, Room 203 Holden Hall, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1035.
I understand that I may not derive any therapeutic treatment from participation in this study. I understand that I may discontinue this study at any time I choose without penalty.
Signature of Subject: Date:
S i g n a t u r e of P a r e n t / G u a r d i a n : D a t e :
S i g n a t u r e of P r o j e c t D i r e c t o r : D a t e :
S i g n a t u r e of w i t n e s s t o Ora l P r e s e n t a t i o n : D a t e :
172
CONSENT FORM Frenship Junior High School
I hereby give my consent for my participation in the project entitled: THE EFFECTS OF VOCAL EXERCISES, POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT, AND INFORMATION ABOUT THE VOICE ON THE TONE QUALITY AND VOCAL SELF-IMAGE OF ADOLESCENT FEMALE SINGERS.
I understand that the person responsible for this project is Mr. Kenneth Sipley (742-2270). He has explained that these studies are part of a project that has the following objectives:
1) to determine whether a program of vocal exercises will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.
2) to determine whether positive reinforcement will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.
3) to determine whether supplying information about the voice will improve the tone quality and vocal self-image of a group of adolescent female singers.
He has explained the procedures to be followed and identified which are experimental. I understand that there are no personal risks to me in taking part in this study.
It has further been explained to me that the total duration of my participation will be as follows:
(1) the completion of a student vocal attitude survey at the beginning and the end of the project. The survey will take less than 30 minutes to complete each time.
(2) a vocal survey consisting of scales and a simple song at the beginning and end of the project. This survey will be taped for comparison purposes only, and will take less than five minutes to complete each time. . -, • ^
(3) no more than 36 instruction sessions lasting ten minutes each. -,-, ^ ^
Only Mr. Sipley will have access to the data collected for this study, and all data will remain strictly confidential. Mr SiDley has agreed to answer any inquiries I may have concerning the procedures and has informed me that I may contact ?he Texas Tech University Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects by writing them in care of the Office of Research Services, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409, or by calling 742-3884.
Although there is no likelihood that this research project will n^nse harm to the participants in any way, this paragraph is included in order to safeguard Texas Tech University. If this research project causes any physical injury to participants in
173
this project, treatment is not necessarily available at Texas Tech University or the Student Health Center, nor is there necessarily any insurance carried by the University or its personnel applicable to cover any such injury. Financial compensation for any such injury must be provided through the participant's own insurance program. Further information about these matters may be obtained from Dr. Robert M. Sweazy, Vice Provost for Research, 742-3884, Room 203 Holden Hall, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas 79409-1035.
I understand that I may not derive any therapeutic treatment from participation in this study. I understand that I may discontinue this study at any time I choose without penalty.
Signature of Subject:_ Date:
Signature of Parent/Guardian: Date:
Signature of Project Director : Date:
Signature of witness to Oral Presentation: Date:
174