the effects of pre-teaching vocabulary, along with peer

St. Catherine University St. Catherine University

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Masters of Arts in Education Action Research Papers Education

12-2017

The Effects of Pre-teaching Vocabulary, Along with Peer The Effects of Pre-teaching Vocabulary, Along with Peer

Collaboration, on Student Comprehension of Social Studies Texts Collaboration, on Student Comprehension of Social Studies Texts

at St. Cloud Tech High School at St. Cloud Tech High School

Molly Denne St. Catherine University

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Denne, Molly. (2017). The Effects of Pre-teaching Vocabulary, Along with Peer Collaboration, on Student Comprehension of Social Studies Texts at St. Cloud Tech High School. Retrieved from Sophia, the St. Catherine University repository website: https://sophia.stkate.edu/maed/228

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Running head: INCREASING COMPREHENSION

The Effects of Pre-teaching Vocabulary, Along with Peer Collaboration, on Student

Comprehension of Social Studies Texts at St. Cloud Tech High School

Submitted on December 9, 2017

in fulfillment of final requirements for the MAED degree

Molly Denne

Saint Catherine University

St. Paul, Minnesota

Advisor Siri Anderson Date December 9, 2017

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Abstract

This action research project looked at the impact that pre-teaching vocabulary, along with peer

collaboration, had on student comprehension of 5-12 social studies texts. Sixty students in a 10th

grade World History class received instruction that included pre-teaching of vocabulary terms

that students would be exposed to in a reading of the week through use of direct instruction,

elaboration, application, and transfer using the Frayer Model, and group interactions. Student

discussions of the article of the week engaged peers in collaborating around the work. Data was

collected on vocabulary assessments, comprehension assessments, discussion checklists, and

field notes. The students received the intervention four times over four weeks. The findings

suggest that pre-teaching vocabulary was effective in helping students learn social studies

vocabulary; however, students overall struggled to comprehend readings. Throughout the

intervention, some students made improvements in their comprehension discussions; however,

almost half of the students did not improve their comprehension through discussing. Future work

will investigate differentiated instruction and the team-based learning approach in order to help

students of all backgrounds learn the course content. This is important as the data demonstrated

that white students benefited most from the intervention.

Keywords: comprehension, vocabulary, social studies, peer collaboration

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Complexities in our digitally mediated adult lives require analytical, creative, and

evaluative skills to engage fully in social, civic, and financial opportunities. Social studies

educators must teach critical thinking skills that will allow students the opportunity to take part

in the political process (Ogle, Klemp, &McBride, 2007). Although critical thinking skills are a

requirement for future citizens, students cannot apply higher-order thinking to texts that she or he

cannot first comprehend (Ogle et al.).

As a high social studies teacher, I see a diverse group of men and women every day. My

classroom is composed of students primarily from Africa and the United States. I teach in a

setting where over half of my students read below grade level. For several of my students,

English is their second, if not third language, and is not spoken in the home. Readings are

assigned in my social studies class, but with the diversity and the inability of many of my

students to read the materials put in front of them, it is difficult for the students to gain social

studies knowledge from the readings.

Social studies textbooks tend to be dry and dense. Moreover, primary source documents

tend to be difficult to break down, dissect, and understand. Future citizens of a successful

democracy will need to be able to read, understand, and analyze complex texts so that they can

be productive in workforce and civic responsibilities. These skills require comprehension first.

Standardized testing data, administrative reflection, and students’ performance on

formative assessments all indicate that 10th grade World History students in my setting struggle

to comprehend informational texts. Students struggle because they read below grade level and,

perhaps, because they are not being taught the reading comprehension skills necessary to analyze

complex texts. Because of this, I am looking to apply the teaching strategies of pre-teaching

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vocabulary and peer collaboration to determine if they influence students’ reading

comprehension in my social studies class.

Evidence in many subject areas and in special educational settings suggests that

comprehension improves when students are pre-taught vocabulary terms (Connor & Lagares,

2007) and collaboration occurs (McKeown, Beck, & Blake, 2009). This action research project

addressed two questions over the course of four weeks: 1) What effect does pre-teaching

vocabulary have on student comprehension in 10th grade social studies? 2) What effect does peer

collaboration have on student comprehension in 10th grade social studies?

Review of Literature

This literature review highlights the instructional strategies that increase reading

comprehension in secondary social studies classrooms and the theory that supports this model of

learning. Schema Theory states that students process information by making connections to what

they already know (Stott, 2001). Because of this, this literature review highlights strategies, such

as pre-teaching vocabulary, that apply Schema Theory. First, comprehension increases when

educators focus on strategies that teach vocabulary before beginning instruction of a new unit

(Connor & Lagares, 2007; Hall, 2004; Swanson, et al., 2015; Myers & Savage, 2005;

McClanahan, 2009, McCollin et al., 2010; Minarik & Lintner, 2011; Vaughn et al., 2013).

Second, comprehension improves when content and comprehension skills are taught

simultaneously (Connor & Lagares, 2007; Hall, 2004; McClanahan, 2009; Minarik & Lintner,

2011). Finally, collaborative work such as reciprocal teaching and peer tutoring has been shown

to increase student’s reading comprehension (Boardman et al., 2015; Connor & Lagares, 2007;

Hall, 2004; Mastropieri et al., 2003; McClanahan, 2009; McCollin et al., 2010; McKeown et al.;

Minarik & Lintner, 2011; Myers & Savage, 2005; Swanson et al., 2015; Vaughn et al., 2013).

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Pre-teaching Vocabulary

The first step to providing students with the tools to be successful in comprehending

social studies texts is to teach vocabulary that is relevant to the reading. Comprehension

increases when students understand the definitions of the words that they will encounter before

reading social studies texts (Hall, 2004). Educators can use many different strategies to teach

vocabulary. McCollin, et al., (2010) found using graphic organizers and word maps increased

comprehension. Connor and Lagares (2007) and Myers & Savage (2005) found that building

new concepts with previous knowledge helped students improve their comprehension. This

comprehension strategy has students circle words in a text that are unfamiliar to them. Teachers

can then use the circled terms to create student reviews in which the teacher relates the unknown

words to students’ unique backgrounds. The Schema Theory also supports the importance of pre-

teaching vocabulary by building on what students already know (Stott, 2001). Furthermore,

Swanson et al. (2015) found that focusing on short lists of five to seven words for each

instructional unit was most effective in increasing student comprehension. However, differences

were found in the instructional approaches used to teach the short list of terms, which according

to Lewis, Walpole, & McKenna (2014) must be chosen very carefully by the instructor. Swanson

et al. (2015) found that this short list of words should be noted and discussed each day of the

unit--incorporating both text and visuals--to facilitate students’ understanding of each term.

Furthermore, they discovered comprehension improved when group activities were incorporated

around the vocabulary terms. Vaughn et al. (2013) incorporated the same instructional methods

in pre-teaching vocabulary as Swanson et al. (2015); however, they found short lists should be

presented by the teacher first and should be practiced daily with turn and talk activities. Both

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Marzano (2004) and (Lewis, Walpole, & McKenna, 2014, p. 69) echo the importance of having

students practice the vocabulary throughout the unit.

Although Hall (2004), like Myers & Savage (2005) and Lewis et. al. (2014), supported

the importance of teaching unfamiliar vocabulary first, their studies stated that comprehension

increased the most when educators used the semantic feature analysis. This method consists of

having students work with the vocabulary terms after the teacher provides students with the

definitions and a two- column sheet: one column containing the vocabulary words and one listing

the ideas students will encounter within the text. Next, students need to predict relationships

between the ideas in the text and the vocabulary term, based on the definition they received. The

relationships may be positive, negative, or indifferent. While students read, they must confirm or

correct their initial thoughts on the relationship, and make corrections when predictions are

inaccurate (Hall, 2004).

Finally, student comprehension can increase by using mnemonic devices to teach

unfamiliar vocabulary words. According to Minarik and Lintner (2011), all research they studied

showed that “vocabulary instruction using mnemonic devices was an effective practice for

students struggling with reading or learning difficult vocabulary” (p. 54). McClanahan (2009)

also discussed the importance of using mnemonic devices but used them in a different way.

Minarik and Lintner (2011) explained using mnemonic devices where each letter represents a

word that students need to know, such as CHESS to represent culture, human-environment

interaction, economics, social structure and state building. In contrast, McClanahan (2009) found

it beneficial, when encountering new vocabulary, to use a word which represents an applicable

step by step process. Instead of using the word to help remember the meaning, students use the

word as a method to dissect new vocabulary.



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According to McCollin et al. (2010), mnemonic devices are critical but also important is

having students practice the new terms in conversation, hearing adults say the words, and being

exposed to the unfamiliar vocabulary throughout a unit. Although all researchers agreed with an

emphasis on pre-teaching vocabulary, affording multiple exposures to new terms, and limiting

the number of vocabulary words taught, their suggested instructional methods for the instruction

of these words used slightly different techniques.

Teaching Content and Comprehension Simultaneously

After students have mastered applicable vocabulary, it is important that teachers use

instructional strategies that teach students both content and comprehension (Swanson et al.,

2015). Several teaching methods have demonstrated effectiveness in secondary social studies

classrooms. Mastropieri et al. (2003) found that students had better comprehension when they

used the paragraph restatement strategy. Students who use this approach answer basic knowledge

questions on the reading and then write a ten-word summary when they finish reading.

Boardman et al. (2015), echoed the importance of including brief summaries after reading, but

also argued that strategies during reading were important. For example, stopping after each

sentence to determine if the sentence was understood and going through a comprehension

checklist if not, could aid in comprehension. Pausing after each paragraph, rehearsing new

information through highlighting, and taking the new vocabulary and thinking critically about it,

aid in comprehension as well. Further studies examine the role of the educator in including and

developing thought-provoking questions about the text as critical (McCollin et al., 2010).

McCollin et al. (2010) also found that students comprehend more when the students write the

questions themselves.

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Hall (2004) did not find questioning and summarizing to be the most effective reading

strategies to improve student comprehension. Instead, Hall (2004) found text-structure based

strategies to be most helpful in improving comprehension. This approach asks students to look at

the organization of the writing and for the educator to help students understand how to find the

main idea, how to locate supporting evidence and how to put ideas in words that are not directly

out of the text (Hall, 2004).

In keeping with the Schema Theory of learning, Connor and Lagares (2007) suggested

from their studies that it was not just about students writing down what they read, like the

paragraph restatement and text structure based strategies teach, but that they had to make

connections to what they already knew to increase comprehension. Because of this, Lagares's

students are encouraged to make connections by describing what they find surprising, important,

and confusing. Additionally, students must make connections to other readings, class, and self

when reading social studies texts (Connor & Lagares, 2007).

According to McClanahan (2009), researchers found the following strategies to be

effective in improving comprehension: “using surface structure and organization; accessing

previous knowledge, setting purpose, and monitoring progress using a Know-Want to Know-

Learn-(K-W-L) type chart (as cited in Ogle, 1989); using context to define words; identifying the

main idea; and summarizing” (p. 107). Moreillon (2007) also found the K-W-L chart to aid in

comprehension, noting it helps teachers meet students where they begin their learning.

Something as simple as reading the text aloud to students can increase their understanding of the

text (Reed, Swanson, Petscher, & Vaughn, 2014). Perhaps even more exciting for teachers is that

researchers found that it is not so much the strategy that is effective, but that educators teach both

content and comprehension skills simultaneously (McClanahan, 2009).

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Peer Collaboration and Peer Tutoring

Although research is inconsistent with the best way to teach reading comprehension,

nearly all researchers agreed that students have better comprehension when they collaborate with

their peers. In fact, Connor and Lagares (2007) stated that “group work is central to creating and

maintaining a dynamic, inclusive classroom” (p. 20). Collaboration can be in the form of

reciprocal teaching, group discussions, or peer tutoring. According to McClanahan (2009),

reciprocal teaching encompasses several steps including making predictions, writing questions,

summarizing what you read, and clarifying any uncertainty in the text. The reciprocal teaching

strategy is unique from the instructional strategies mentioned above in that students work

collaboratively. Vaughn et al. (2013) supported reciprocal teaching and team-based approaches--

but discussed different strategies to improve comprehension. For example, he found that the

group, of four to five students, needed to engage in activities such as monitoring reading and

summarizing to be effective.

Vaughn’s (2013) group reading strategy includes several critical components. First,

students should read relevant course texts individually and follow the reading up with a brief

quiz. Next, students should engage in discussion with their team about their choices and the

correct responses using notes. During this step, teachers should present students with feedback

immediately following their responses. Finally, the educator should review the questions

students had difficulties with, and follow up with activities that promote higher-order thinking.

While McClanahan (2009) and Vaughn et al. (2013), discussed reciprocal teaching as an

effective strategy for increasing comprehension, Hall (2004) found studies had conflicting

results. For example, struggling readers made gains in summary writing, but not strong gains in

comprehension. Boardman et al. (2015), found collaborative instruction to be meaningful to

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student comprehension but noted that educators should group students in an intentional manner

and should be assigned roles.

Peer tutoring has been found to be exceptionally beneficial to students that have learning

disabilities, but also for students who do not (Mastropieri et al., 2003). Peer tutoring involves

having students work through reading the text together. Both Mastropieri et al. (2003) and

Maclanhan (2009) discussed this instructional strategy in which the stronger student reads

through the passage before the student who is a weaker reader. In this approach, both students

read the same passage. The skilled reader may clarify and provide guidance in areas of weakness

for the struggling reader. Maclanhan (2009) found that students benefited from discussing

comprehension questions together, while Mastropieri et al., (2003) concluded that students

should answer the comprehension questions and write summaries individually. Furthermore,

groups should receive study sheets. These studies found that students who engaged in peer-

tutoring performed much higher on both unit and cumulative exams in comparison to students

who received traditional instruction.

Literature Review Synthesis

A variety of activities increase the reading comprehension of students in grades 5-12

social studies materials. It is important for teachers to begin units providing students with the

vocabulary knowledge necessary to complete the readings (Hall, 2004; Connor & Lagares, 2007;

Swanson et al., 2015; Minarik & Lintner, 2011; McClanahan, 2009). Teaching vocabulary can be

powerful in a variety of ways including: making relationships between the familiar and

unfamiliar, using semantic feature analysis, and creating mnemonic devices. Vocabulary lays the

foundation, but the unit should provide students with lessons in both content and reading

strategies to increase overall comprehension (Connor & Lagares, 2007; Hall, 2004; McClanahan,


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2009; Minarik & Lintner, 2011). Several comprehension strategies are beneficial including

paragraph restatement strategy, text structure base, and making connections in reading (Connor

& Lagares, 2007; Hall, 2004; Mastropieri et al., 2003).

The strategies mentioned above are useful. Additionally, all research points to a positive

correlation between collaborative work and student comprehension (Connor & Lagares, 2007;

Hall, 2004; McClanahan, 2009; Mastropieri et al., 2003; McKeown et al., 2009; Minarik &

Lintner, 2011). Reciprocal teaching and peer tutoring are two effective ways teachers can engage

their students in collaborative work in social studies courses. Although all researchers provided

useful strategies to improve comprehension, the overwhelming research that supports pre-

teaching of vocabulary and peer collaboration cannot be denied. Furthermore, the Schema

Theory states that students learn new information by connecting new information to what they

already know (Stott, 2001). Pre-teaching vocabulary and peer collaboration will provide students

the opportunity to make the connections prior to, during, and after reading. According to the

literature review and the Schema theory, comprehension improves when pre-teaching vocabulary

and peer collaboration are used. Because of this, I have chosen to implement these two strategies

in my action research project.

Methodology

This investigative study combined both qualitative and quantitative design elements. Data

was collected through both observations and artifacts for the purposes of triangulation. Tests

were given for both understanding key vocabulary and comprehension of social studies texts. For

the purposes of triangulation, and to evaluate the extent to which collaboration improved

comprehension, observational data was collected through recorded discussions. Field notes were

made and collected throughout implementation of the intervention to provide insight into how

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the new literacy strategies impacted student comprehension and classroom dynamics.

Additionally, records were kept reflecting on what worked and what did not as I grew into new

practices.

The population of this study included sixty 10th grade students at an urban technical high

school. The students were enrolled in a required world history course. The study was

administered during the students’ first trimester. The sample contained 31 females and 29 males.

The sample population represents the community, which includes a large population of diverse

learners. Nine of the 60 students were identified as limited English proficiency. Seventeen of the

students came from homes where English was not their first language. Furthermore, over 50

percent of the students qualified for free-and-reduced price lunches.

Assessments were given for both understanding key vocabulary and comprehension of

social studies texts. The key vocabulary tests (Appendices A-D) contained three multiple choice

questions, each with four options, aimed at identifying the definition of one of the pre-taught

vocabulary terms. The comprehension assessments (Appendices E-H) also contained three

multiple choice questions, each with four answers to choose from. The questions assessed the

students’ understanding of the main idea of the text. Specifically, I wanted to know if through

discussing the article, students could develop an understanding of the main idea of the article.

The intervention was implemented four times over four weeks. Results from weekly assessments

were compared to see if students appeared to be making improvements in their reading

comprehension.

Observational data (Appendix K) was collected through student recordings of discussions

to provide insight into the extent to which students utilized the group collaboration opportunity

effectively to improve their comprehension of the text. Moreover, the recordings provided

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valuable insight into the students’ understanding of the vocabulary and social studies text. The

recordings were evaluated using a discussion checklist (Appendix I) that listened for the

student’s understanding of the text, their use of pre-taught vocabulary words, and their ability to

use text evidence in their responses. In addition to evaluating the discussions, scores were

compared from the written individual student comprehension assessment with the oral

comprehension documented while the groups responded to the discussion questions (Appendix

J). This comparison looked to see if the conversation helped facilitate improved understanding

for students who did not fully comprehend the text on their own.

Observational data (Appendix K) was collected through field notes/ journals. The field

notes were detailed observations made during pre-teaching vocabulary, independent reading, and

peer collaboration. The notes were intended to help guide the research in that I could evaluate the

process and adjust as needed. Furthermore, the field notes provided insight into how what I

observed validated or contradicted what the data showed, and provided evidence of events

occurring in the classroom that could have impacted the findings.

The intervention was conducted as illustrated in the following paragraph. Each of the

students received a Frayer Model handout (Appendix L) and four key vocabulary terms to

explicate. The Frayer Model handout asked for the definition of the term, examples of the term,

non-examples of the term, and characteristics of the term. Each of the terms were pre-taught

using a PowerPoint presentation that addressed the definitions of each of the ways students

needed to work with the vocabulary. Pictures were also used to help students identify the

meaning of the vocabulary analysis and application activities. The definitions of the terms were

shared with students through direct instruction. The students then spent time writing down their

examples, non-examples, and characteristics independently. After students completed the Frayer

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Model handout, they interacted with their classmates to review their responses. The ideas were

shared during whole group instruction in which students were called on at random.

• Twenty-four hours after students completed their Frayer Model handout, they

engaged in writing a story that incorporated the vocabulary terms.

• Forty-eight hours after students completed the Frayer Model handout, they

engaged in a conversation that asked them to apply the new terms. The

conversation was structured as a game. The pair that finished the conversation

first, having each partner use the four terms, won.

• Seventy-two hours after the students were introduced to the vocabulary terms they

completed a three question, multiple choice, vocabulary quiz that assessed them

on their understanding of three of the four key vocabulary terms.

Data indicated student understanding of the vocabulary. The data also provided results to

compare with the findings of the comprehension assessment. Specifically, it could be determined

if there was a correlation between pre-teaching vocabulary and the students’ ability to

comprehend a social studies text.

Following the vocabulary quiz, students were provided a handout from a social studies

text. Students were required to pre-read all the headings within the text. Then, students followed

along while the teacher read the text to the class. After the text was read out loud, the students

were instructed on how to annotate the text. Students were required to highlight the main idea of

every paragraph, circle words that they did not understand the meaning of (and look up the

definitions), and write any aha moments or confusing concepts off to the side.

After students annotated the text, they summarized the reading at the bottom of the article

in three to four sentences. The summaries had to contain at least two of the words or phrases that

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they had highlighted and two of the four vocabulary terms from their Frayer Model handout.

Following independent reading and summarizing of the article, students completed a three

question, four option multiple-choice assessment about the main idea of the text.

This data was compared with the results on the vocabulary test to identify correlations

between pre-teaching of vocabulary and comprehension of social studies texts. Following the

comprehension assessment, students were assigned to groups that had been established

randomly. Once in groups, students assigned each other one of four roles: timer, recorder,

manager, or note taker. The timer made sure that the group devoted two minutes to each question

and provided a reminder at the one minute mark. The recorder provided the computer for

recording the discussion, started the recording when the discussion began, and stopped the

recording when the discussion was over. The manager kept the group on task and ensured that

the group members were fulfilling their responsibilities as assigned. The note taker wrote down

key phrases and/ or ideas as the discussion was happening and asked group members for

clarification/ restatement.

Once assigning roles, students were to record their conversation using the discussion

feature on Schoology, answering the following questions about the reading:

• What was the main idea of the text?

• How were people who lived at this time impacted by what happened?

• How would history have unfolded differently, had this event never happened?

Groups received instructions to spend two minutes discussing each question. A checklist

was used to review recordings for evidence of students’ use of key comprehension strategies.

Recordings and the checklist were gathered to help the teacher understand the extent to which

the discussions and peer collaboration were helping the students to understand the text.

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Furthermore, the results were meant to help account for differences in student learning. For

example, it was hoped that some students verbalize better than they can complete a multiple-

choice assessment and they might be able to demonstrate their understanding in the context of a

dialogue with peers.

Throughout the study, field notes were created. The field notes identified observations

made during pre-teaching vocabulary, independent reading, and group collaboration to guide

each of the four cycles and to provide valuable insight into student actions and interactions

throughout the intervention.

The qualitative data gathered--field notes and observation records--were analyzed to

identify themes emerging from the first completed observation cycle for Prehistoric Times:

Using Fire and Tools in the Stone Age.

Remaining field notes were coded based on the categories that emerged after the first

cycle. Themes were identified and patterns that emerged throughout the intervention were

documented and evaluated for potential relationships and implications. Field notes were also

coded and analyzed, then compared to facilitate triangulation.

The quantitative data gathered--vocabulary assessments, comprehension assessments, and

discussion checklists--were analyzed. The checklist addressed the following prompts to evaluate

students’ discussions (See Appendix I):

• Did students participate in the discussion by answering the questions effectively?

• Did students support their responses using evidence from the text?

• Did students include pre-taught vocabulary terms in their discussion?

The mean and median scores, and overall results from each of the four interventions were

considered. Specifically, the scores students received on both the vocabulary and comprehension

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assessment were recorded. Then, the mean and median scores were calculated for each

assessment to determine the success of the intervention each week. The mean and median scores

were compared to see if vocabulary knowledge correlated positively with student comprehension

of the texts.

Analysis of Data

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects pre-teaching vocabulary and peer

collaboration had on student comprehension of tenth grade social studies texts. Students

completed multiple-choice vocabulary quizzes after an introduction to vocabulary terms using

direct instruction, peer collaboration, and applying their knowledge by completing a Frayer

Model graphic organizer.

A checklist of key comprehension strategies was used to tally the number of students

exhibiting these behaviors during a recorded small group discussion of the reading (Appendix I).

These discussion checklists provided insight into students’ comprehension. Comparing findings

with both the vocabulary and comprehension assessments elicited evidence of potential impacts

of the group discussion on individual student’s comprehension. Perhaps most importantly,

teacher field notes from vocabulary instruction and student discussions guided re-instruction of

individual students, small groups or whole class curricular responses, and identified areas for

improvement in the intervention.

The subjects of this study were 10th grade students enrolled in a required world history

course in the fall of 2017. Data was gathered during two class periods. Table 1 demonstrates that

60 students were subjects in the study: 31 were female, 29 were male.

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Table 1

Demographics

Class period

Total

students Female Male

Special Education English Learners

6 30 16 14 8 3

7 30 15 15 6 6

Pre-teaching vocabulary to improve student comprehension

To determine the effect that pre-teaching vocabulary had on student comprehension in

10th grade social studies, several instructional strategies were used to reinforce vocabulary

knowledge including: direct instruction, peer collaboration, and application of knowledge by

completing a Frayer Model graphic organizer on selected terms. The terms were carefully

selected from the social studies texts that students were going to encounter during the week’s

readings (please refer to the methodology for details regarding this selection process).

Week one students read Prehistoric Times: Using Fire and Tools in the Stone Age. The

second week the students read the article Civilizations Emerge on the World Stage. During the

third week, students focused on reading How and Why the Egyptians Made their Mummies.

Finally, during week four, the students read Ancient Greek Thinkers, Truth Seekers.

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Table 2

Weekly Median Score on Vocabulary Assessment

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Median Score 3 3 3 2

Figure 1. Student Scores Each Week.

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Figure 2. Overall Vocabulary Scores

Based on the teacher’s experience with the students’ word knowledge generally, more

students seem to have learned the new vocabulary using this intervention than was happening

with prior methods. Lower results in week four may have been the result of the Frayer Model

having been assigned as homework, rather than being completed in class as it was for the

previous three weeks, due to conflicts with homecoming events at the school. Students did not

receive the same amount of pre-teaching of the terms in week four, and it would appear that our

failure to discuss and review the terms as a class resulted in students receiving lower scores on

their assessment. This supports a conclusion that effectively pre-teaching vocabulary terms in

class improved students’ understanding of social studies terminology.

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Table 3

Comprehension Quiz Results as Averages

Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4

Median Score 1 2 2 1

Figure 3: Student Comprehension Scores Throughout the Study

Although students performed relatively well on their vocabulary assessment (Figure 1),

they did not do well on the reading comprehension assessments which were measured by a three

question, multiple-choice assessment completed at the end of each week of the intervention. The

complexity of the comprehension questions was high. Teacher observations and data analysis

identified language proficiency as one of the barriers to reading comprehension. Nine of the 60

students in the class have limited English proficiency according to school records. Those nine

students never scored over a one on the comprehension assessments, and the vast majority scored

a zero on each assessment.

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Of those nine students, all but one showed proficiency on their vocabulary assessments

(see Appendix A-D), suggesting that knowing the vocabulary was not enough to facilitate their

overall comprehension of the assigned readings. When students are reading well below grade

level, the few critical vocabulary terms were not enough to help them comprehend complex

questions of an entire text written at a tenth-grade reading level.

Data collected during cycles one and two from the completed Frayer Model handout

positively correlated with the results on the comprehension assessment. Students who did well on

the Frayer model, also did well on the comprehension assessment.

Field notes taken during pre-teaching of vocabulary and the comprehension assessment

indicated that students struggled with more than just the few terms covered. Some students may

have memorized the terms for the vocabulary assessment, but did not truly understand their

meaning and were unable to understand them in the context of the article. The fact that students

could define the critical terms, but could not pass the comprehension quiz or the Frayer Model

handout made it clear to me that I needed to revamp the process of the study.

Consequently, in weeks three and four, the assigned readings were differentiated. The

Frayer model was not used as an assessment during these weeks. The first two weeks of data

helped me understand that several students were reading six or seven years behind grade level.

Students who demonstrated a low-grade equivalent were assigned the same article with a

reduced lexile level using NEWSELA, a website that allows articles to be assigned at multiple

lexile levels.

Results indicated that despite the changed intervention, students still struggled to

comprehend their readings (Table 3 and Figure 3). The median score during weeks two and three

remained unchanged, and week four actually saw a decrease (Table 3). Field notes indicate that

23


during week four attention and engagement was low due to homecoming activities. Having to

make up quizzes and assignments proved challenging as students missed in-class instruction.

The data on the comprehension assessments makes it clear that the intervention produced

few gains in reading comprehension--even when instruction was changed and reading level was

adjusted. Based on the results I would conclude that students need several instructional strategies

to increase their reading comprehension and that differentiation needs to be about more than

simply reducing the Lexile levels for the students. Instead, the differentiation needs to happen

through the design of the lesson itself. Specifically, some students would benefit from varied

means of being able to take in new content information such as pictures, video, or making

learning concrete or kinesthetic, rather than relying on reading as the source of new content

information.

Figure 4. Changes in Comprehension by Ethnicity

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According to changes in their reading comprehension scores, just 23 percent of the

students demonstrated growth during the intervention. When comparing growth by ethnic

groups, students who improved the most consistently as a result of the intervention were

disproportionately white (Figure 4). Specifically, 64 percent of the most significant improvement

scores happened for white students, despite the fact that only 42 percent of the students in the

study were white. Somali students overwhelmingly saw little or no growth with just 13 percent

of the total Somali population seeing any growth at all. 18 percent of the African American

students saw growth, while 36 percent of all white students seeing growth. When thinking about

the little growth seen in the Somali population it needs to be taken into account that of the 23

Somali students, nine, or 39 percent of the Somali students in the study, are limited English

proficient. Two of those 13 students saw growth, while 11 did not. The students who are limited

English proficient need a whole different set of comprehension strategies than students in my

class who are not. Examining comprehension strategies for ELL students will be useful to

explore in future studies.

African America students made limited gains as well. Only 18 percent of African

American students included in the study saw growth. Again, this references back to

understanding that the strategies that work for some students do not work for all. The strategies

implemented to increase comprehension in this study benefited white students the most. Perhaps

African American students’ backgrounds call for a different set of instructional strategies based

on their experiences.

25


Figure 5. Comprehension Scores by Week

The study was adjusted during week three for the purposes of ensuring students were

reading articles at their level. Furthermore, after two weeks of gathering data that demonstrated

students were not comprehending the text as illustrated in Figure 5, I found it necessary to adjust

the order students received the intervention. Additionally, I redesigned the process of the

intervention by having students engage in their discussion prior to taking the comprehension

assessment, instead of directly after reading and completing their summary. My field notes

determined that students had some understanding of the text when they verbalized their

knowledge. I wanted to allow students the opportunity to clarify and elaborate on their

understanding. After adjusting the design; however, students did not make gains. Throughout the

four week intervention, fewer than 30 percent of the students comprehended the social studies

texts. The peak week was week two where 28 percent of the students answered all the

comprehension questions correctly. This compares with weeks one and four where 15 percent

answered three comprehension questions correctly and week three where 25 percent did.

26


Peer collaboration and student comprehension

Table 4 and Figure 6 demonstrate the student’s understanding of the social studies texts as

shown by answering questions effectively, citing text evidence, and using pre-taught vocabulary

terms in their discussion.

Table 4

Percentage of Students Who Included the Following in their Discussion

Week Answered questions effectively

Cited text evidence Included pre-taught vocabulary terms

1 38% 17% 10% 2 38% 35% 42% 3 58% 42% 30% 4 37% 38% 53%

Figure 6. Discussion Results by Week.

27


Students made gains each week in both answering questions effectively and citing text evidence,

except for week four. Students also made gains from week one to week three on including pre-

taught vocabulary terms in their discussions. Although students showed gains over time, 42% of

the students still did not verbalize their comprehension by week three, and week four proved

even more difficult. Included in the 42% were students who refused to participate as recorded

during observations. Only two of the English learners in the class attempted to engage in the

discussion also noted from field notes.

Although more than half of the students did not show growth in their discussion

participation, those that did show growth were varied by socio economic status, race, and gender.

This is important in that it appears that discussion had a broader impact than the other elements

of the intervention. There is not one group that benefits more than the other. When comparing

the results of the comprehension assessment with the discussion component, the comprehension

assessment benefited white students most; whereas the discussion benefited all students equally.

This provides important insight into designing interventions that promote growth for all students.

Despite modest growth across diverse populations, the results however, are hard to

analyze as I couple them with field notes. Field notes note that in both weeks one and three

students struggled with the technology necessary to effectively record their discussions. Students

spent class time trying to get a device to record, instead of discussing. Once the technology

worked, the students appeared rushed. This could explain why students did not see gains in

including vocabulary terms during week three. Field notes also provide insight to the lack of

comprehension demonstrated in week one. I failed to pre-teach the checklist so students did not

know what I was looking for. When the checklist was shown to students prior to discussing in

week two, several more students demonstrated their understanding of the text during their

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recorded discussions. As students became more comfortable with the process of recording

discussions, they supported one another more in their roles and helped one another to

comprehend the text. Although some groups became more supportive over time, some groups

had a member that did not participate in the discussion throughout the intervention. This caused

stress in the group as other group members demonstrated frustration towards the non-participant

during the discussion. Feelings of anger could impact performance for all of the participants.

It should be noted that several students were absent on the days of discussion and had to

make it up later, with most students missing during week four. Because of this, the results

include students who did not follow the typical intervention, in that much more time had passed

since the article was assigned. This could have contributed further to the decrease in the number

of students who could answer the questions correctly during week four.

Overall, this data provides little evidence that peer collaboration improves

comprehension as an isolated strategy, as it is hard to know if students performed better on the

discussion because they knew the expectations or if they truly comprehended the text. Still, the

evidence suggests that diverse populations may benefit from peer collaboration and, when done

correctly, could promote student learning.

Action Plan

Teaching in secondary classrooms presents unique challenges to educators. When

students get to the secondary level, they are expected to have reading comprehension skills

sufficient to be able to gain new content knowledge through reading. The truth is, many students

do not come prepared. One student may be reading at a first-grade reading level, while the

student next to him (who may appear to be fluent in higher-level texts) may also struggle to

comprehend grade level texts. Because of this challenge, secondary level educators need to do

29


more than assign readings and cover content through direct instruction. Teachers must use

several instructional strategies focused on increasing reading comprehension skills for all

students.

The purpose of this action research was to investigate the effects that pre-teaching

vocabulary and student discussion had on comprehension of social studies texts. The evidence in

my study did not support a correlation between being pre-taught vocabulary and an ability to

comprehend a complex social studies text.

Addressing the correlation between peer collaboration and student comprehension of

social studies texts proves less disappointing, there were some students from all ethnicities,

genders, socio-economic status, and special education needs who demonstrated some improved

skills in peer collaboration assignments over the four-week intervention.

This action research has provided me with insight into the strategies of pre-teaching

vocabulary and peer collaboration. Evidence of teaching strategies that work in an educational

setting have been noted as well as a new action plan to make the process of peer collaboration

even more effective.

First, although the comprehension assessment results were disappointing each week,

students’ knowledge of vocabulary improved through pre-teaching. Swanson et al. (2015)

discussed the importance of creating short list of words and discussing them each day of the unit,

incorporating both text and visuals to facilitate students’ understanding of each term. This was

evident in the data that was gathered throughout the intervention. For example, students who

were exposed to the vocabulary 24 and 48 hours after first being introduced to the terms in a

meaningful way had great success on the vocabulary assessment. Furthermore, the Frayer model

proved to be impactful to student’s learning of important vocabulary in that the application

30


forced them to find relationships between the unfamiliar and the familiar. McCollin, et al.,

(2010) found that using graphic organizers and word maps increased comprehension. Moreover,

Connor and Lagares (2007) and M & Savage, (2005), found that building new concepts with

previous knowledge helped students improve their comprehension. The Frayer model

incorporated both strategies suggested through the review of the literature and proved successful

strategies in pre-teaching vocabulary. Last, pre-teaching vocabulary by including pictures and

description of the words was valuable to the students. Field notes point to student engagement

and deeper understanding of terms when introduced using the pre-teaching strategies mentioned

above. This is incredibly encouraging and provides me with an area of professional growth as

students in grades 5-12, in my setting, can benefit educationally from expanding their vocabulary

knowledge.

Second, in analyzing the data and looking at how pre-teaching vocabulary impacts

student understanding of social studies texts, it is important to note that the observations made

through field notes, along with the data, indicate that some students improved their

comprehension when there was an extrinsic motivator: specifically, a grade. Through field notes

during week one, I determined that students were not engaged in the reading process and that

several students did not finish reading the article prior to taking the comprehension assessment.

This was made clear when I heard students discussing that they did not read the entire article or

try on the comprehension assessment because they did not think it was going to be graded on

accuracy. Students who engaged in this conversation moved from not comprehending the

reading at all to answering all questions accurately by week two. In week two, 35 of the 60

students received a two or a three on the quiz, while in week three 28 students also answered two

or more questions accurately. This is far greater than the 19 students who showed proficiency in

31


week one. Furthermore, the number of students who did not answer any of the comprehension

questions accurately declined by almost 75% from weeks one through three. Lack of effort and

poor homework completion, which was noted in field notes, could explain this phenomenon.

Moving forward, I need to continually remind students of the why and to provide clarity into

what the purpose of the assignment and/ or assessment is to set them up for success. Poor

homework completion shed light however, on the lack of motivation from several students

within my setting. Through field notes, it was noted throughout every lesson that many students

lacked motivation to complete any part of the intervention, especially completing the annotations

and reading the text. Perhaps these students would comprehend social studies texts if they were

open to the strategies presented and engaged in the material. This is an idea for further research:

Will a more engaging lesson, that motivates students in my setting to read, produce better

results? The results of the intervention make it clear that I need to carefully review my

curriculum and make sure that what I teach is engaging to students. This is an area of growth for

me to consider as I move forward. I must find relevant articles that spark student’s natural

curiosity as the article on mummification and early civilizations produced better results than the

articles on prehistoric peoples and ancient Greece.

Third, analyzing the data solidifies the importance of differentiated instruction. This

intervention did not aim to assess differentiation so all the students received the same instruction,

except for the adjusted Lexile leveled readings introduced in week three. Still, adjusted Lexile

levels could not be reduced enough to meet my student’s needs. Specifically, data indicated that

both English learners and special education students understood the four terms I pre-taught. But

they still didn’t appear to comprehend the readings. Lack of vocabulary knowledge was evident

in reviewing the student’s readings where they were required to circle words that they did not

32


understand. Many students in the study could have benefited from exposure to more terms. Not

only were the English learners and special education students put at a disadvantage because

differentiation did not occur, but my students reading above the lexile of the assigned article

were as well. Field notes demonstrated that students that read on or above grade level were

disengaged during the read out loud and could have made better use of their time. These students

also could have been pushed to higher levels of learning through more complex texts as

comprehension was not an issue for them. Taking into consideration the diverse population I

work with, it became evident that differentiation must occur in my setting. Specifically, small

group and individualized learning are instructional approaches I would like to explore as I

continue to comprehension strategies in my course.

Fourth, peer collaboration allowed some students to demonstrate comprehension not

evident in the written assessment, but many students were not successful. Field notes provide

insight to the lack of comprehension demonstrated during instruction in week one. I failed to pre-

teach the checklist so students did not know what I was looking for. When the checklist was

shown to students prior to collaboration in week two, several more students demonstrated

understanding of the text through discussion. Furthermore, as students became more comfortable

with the process of recording discussions which was noted in observations, they better supported

one another in their roles and helped push their peers to comprehend the text. It is critical, as I

move forward, to pre-teach not only the vocabulary, but also what peer collaboration looks like.

It is important to provide students with an example for them to follow so they are clear on the

expectations. I also would like to provide an opportunity for students to engage in a practice

round before being graded. The large gains made in demonstrating understanding of the main

idea through collaboration between weeks two and three demonstrate the role that practice plays

33


in supporting student comprehension in this way. Because this intervention took place over just

four short weeks, there was insufficient time to develop fully the peer collaboration skills of my

students.

Finally, the process that was used to collect data during peer collaboration put students at

a disadvantage. Students were so hung up on filling the requirements listed on the checklist that

their discussions lacked the depth, breadth, and discovery that truly should occur during peer

collaboration. Furthermore, the two minute time limit set on each question cut students off in the

middle of good discussions where a deeper understanding could have led to greater

comprehension on the part of struggling students. Even more, struggling students did not have

enough time to provide their input or demonstrate understanding of the text as everyone

processes at a different speed. Overall, the requirements for the discussions were too

cumbersome to let the students demonstrate their knowledge on the article and to truly explore

the ideas. Moving forward, students will explore articles in my course through peer collaboration

by using the team- based learning approach that has been proven to be effective (McLanahan,

2009; Mastropieri et. al., 2003; Vaughn et al., 2013). This approach incorporates many elements

of the intervention including reading, completing a quiz, and engaging in discussion, but

collaboration occurs around the quiz itself to promote student comprehension. I believe that a

collaborative quiz could provide a framework for providing an in-depth understanding of the

article. Furthermore, this model asks students to engage in follow up activities that promote

higher-order thinking (Vaughn et al., 2013).

34


References

Boardman, A. G., Klingner, J. K., Buckley, P., Annamma, S., & Lasser, C. J. (2015). The

efficacy of collaborative strategic reading in middle school science and social studies

classes. Reading and Writing, 28(9), 1257-1283. Retrieved from

doi:http://dx.doi.org.pearl.stkate.edu/10.1007/s11145-015-9570-3

Connor, D. J., & Lagares, C. (2007). Facing high stakes in high school: 25 successful strategies

from an inclusive social studies classroom. Teaching Exceptional Children, 40(2), 18-27.

Retrieved from

http://pearl.stkate.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/201152818?accounti

d=26879

Dieker, L. A., & Little, M. (2005). Secondary reading: Not just for reading teachers anymore.

Intervention in School and Clinic, 40(5), 276-283. Retrieved from

http://pearl.stkate.edu/docview/211713555?accountid=26879

Hall, L. A. (2004). Comprehending expository text: Promising strategies for struggling reader

and students with reading disabilities? Reading Research and Instruction, 44(2), 75-95.

Retrieved from


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Lewis, W. E., Walpole, S., & McKenna, M. C. (2014). Cracking the common core:

choosing and using texts in grades 6-12. New York: The Guilford Press.

Marzano, R. J. (2004). Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement: Research

http://dx.doi.org.pearl.stkate.edu/10.1007/s11145-015-9570-3

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on What Works in Schools. Alexandria, VA: Assoc. for Supervision and Curriculum

Development.

Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E., & Graetz, J. E. (2003). Reading comprehension instruction

for secondary students: Challenges for struggling students and teachers. Learning

Disability Quarterly, 26(2), 103. Retrieved from


d=26879

McClanahan, B. (2009). Help! I have kids who can't read in my world history class! Preventing

School Failure, 53(2), 105-111. Retrieved from


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McCollin, M., O'Shea, D., J., & McQuiston, K. (2010). Improving vocabulary and

comprehension skills of secondary-level students from diverse backgrounds. Preventing

School Failure, 54(2), 133-136. Retrieved from

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216294?accountid=26879

McKeown, M. G., Beck, I. L., & Blake, R. G. K. (2009). Rethinking reading comprehension

instruction: A comparison of instruction for strategies and content approaches. Reading

Research Quarterly, 44(3), 218-253. Retrieved from


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Minarik, D. W., & Lintner, T. (2011). The push for inclusive classrooms and the impact on





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social studies design and delivery. Social Studies Review, 50(1), 52-55. Retrieved from


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Moreillon, J. (2007). Collaborative Strategies for Teaching Reading Comprehension:

Maximizing Your Impact. Retrieved from https://ebookcentral-proquest-

com.pearl.stkate.edu/lib/stkate-ebooks/reader.action?docID=3001627

Myers & Savage, T. (2005). Enhancing student comprehension of social studies material. The

Social Studies, 96(1), 18-23. Retrieved from

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780484?accountid=26879

Ogle, D., Klemp, R., McBride, B. (2007). Chapter 1. Reading Social Studies Texts. Retrieved

October 10, 2017, from

http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/106010/chapters/Reading-Social-Studies-

Texts.aspx

Reed, D. K., Swanson, E., Petscher, Y., & Vaughn, S. (2014, August). The effects of teacher

read-alouds and student silent reading on predominantly bilingual high school seniors’

learning and retention of social studies content. Retrieved September 23, 2017, from

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4557877/

Stott, N. (2001). Helping ESL Students Become Better Readers: Schema Theory Applications

and Limitations. The Internet TESL Journal, Vii(11). Retrieved September 26, 2017, from

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Stott-Schema.html

Swanson, E., Wanzek, J., Vaughn, S., Roberts, G., & Fall, A. (2015). Improving reading





https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4557877/

http://iteslj.org/Articles/Stott-Schema.html

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comprehension and social studies knowledge among middle school students with

disabilities. Exceptional Children, 81(4), 426-442. Retrieved from

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tid=26879

Vaughn, S., Swanson, E. A., Roberts, G., Wanzek, J., Stillman-Spisak, S. J., Solis, M., &

Simmons, D. (2013). Improving reading comprehension and Social Studies knowledge

in middle school. Reading Research Quarterly, 48(1), 77-93. Retrieved from

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4F34167PQ/1?accountid=26879



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Appendix A

Vocabulary Assessment: Prehistoric Times: Using Fire and Tools in the Stone Age

Directions: Prior to reading the article Prehistoric Times: Using Fire and Tools in the Stone Age, students will answer the questions below. Chose the answer or phrase that best answers the question.

1. To revolutionize something is to a. follow through b. make a big deal c. make a major change d. give up

2. The term subsequent means something that a. comes after b. comes before c. changes d. stays the same

3. The Inca were civilized, they a. were well organized and well ordered. b. were well mannered. c. liked to help others. d. hunted and gathered for survival.



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Appendix B Vocabulary Assessment: The First Civilizations Emerge on the World Stage

Directions: Prior to reading the article The First Civilizations Emerge on the World Stage, students will answer the questions below. Chose the answer or phrase that best answers the question.

1. The Romans used a system of coerced labor to build roads. Coerced means a. hard work b. great pay c. forced work d. negotiated work

2. They were an agrarian society. Agrarian means a. they were industrialized b. they were farmers c. they hunted and gathered d. they had settled societies with large cities

3. When humans first domesticated the cow they a. tamed them and kept them for use on the farm. b. started hunting them for food. c. watched them in the wild. d. drove them into new lands.

https://newsela.com/articles/BHP-U7-2-agrarian-civilizations-intro/id/3820/



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Appendix C Vocabulary Assessment: How and Why the Egyptians Made Their Mummies

Directions: Prior to reading the article How and Why the Egyptians Made Their Mummies, students will answer the questions below. Chose the answer or phrase that best answers the question. 1. She never ceases to amaze me means she never a. continues b. likes c. stops d. begins

2. Someone’s divine nature is another word for a. like a god b. hopeful c. beautiful d. Pessimistic

3. A noble is a person with a. high social and political status. b. the king or queen. c. great accuracy when hunting. d. kindness and devotion.

https://newsela.com/articles/lib-ushistory-egypt-mummy/id/26626/



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Appendix D

Vocabulary Assessment: Ancient Greek Thinkers, Truth-Seekers

Directions: Prior to reading the article Ancient Greek Thinkers, Truth-Seekers, students will answer the questions below. Chose the answer or phrase that best answers the question.

1. Innovative is the same as a. new and original b. habitual c. customary d. well refined

2. It is one of our fundamental principles means it is a. radical b. an essential part c. attractive d. for everyone

3. Those are democratic ideas means that they are a. equal. b. liberal. c. restrictive. d. tyrannical.

https://newsela.com/articles/lib-ushistory-ancient-greek-thinkers/id/26135/




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Appendix E Comprehension Assessment

Name: Date: Comprehension Assessment Prehistoric Times: Using Fire and Tools in the Stone Age

Directions: After reading the article Prehistoric Times: Using Fire and Tools in the Stone Age, students will answer the questions below. Chose the answer or phrase that best answers the question. 1. Read the paragraph from the introduction [paragraphs 1-3]. Today, we don't necessarily think of fire or tools as technologies. However, the definition of technology is the "practical application of knowledge in a certain area." So, learning how to tame and use fire was a very important technological advance. It helped the human race move forward. How does the paragraph support a MAIN idea of the article? a. It describes the important role of controlled fire in our lives today. b. It explains how the use of fire can be thought of as a technological breakthrough. c. It defines technology and shows how modern technology has improved the human race. d. It shows how early humans learned to use fire before the development of technology. 2. Which excerpt BEST supports the article's central idea? a. People of the Stone Age did not have the luxury of turning on the TV. They could not watch programs that offered home repair tips. b. Uncontrolled fire terrified our ancestors and still has the power to terrify today. Forest and house fires are still terrible problems. c. There is disagreement as to exactly when humans first controlled the use of fire. If early humans controlled it, how did they start a fire? d. Advances in tool-making technology led to advances in agriculture, and farming revolutionized the world and set early humans on a course toward modernity. 3. Based on the article, what is one reason scientists think the earliest humans did not know how to make fire? a. Scientists have found cookware from less than 50,000 years ago. b. Evidence of controlled fires dates only to about a million years ago. c. Flint stones have only been found where Cro-Magnons lived. d. Evidence of campfires can be dated to about 2 million years ago.

Write the words you highlighted in the reading here:



43


Write a sentence using …. in the box below PRIOR to your group discussion activity. You will be reading this sentence aloud in the part of your recorded conversation. The main idea of this reading is:

Check your sentence. Did you include evidence from the text to support your idea?

44


Appendix F

Comprehension Assessment

Name: Date: Comprehension Assessment The First Civilizations Emerge on the World Stage

Directions: After reading the article The First Civilizations Emerge on the World Stage, students will answer the questions below. Chose the answer or phrase that best answers the question.

1. Which of the following sentences from the article BEST develops a central idea?

a. Four of the earliest agrarian civilizations occurred in fertile river valleys, utilizing plants and animals that had been domesticated earlier as their foundations.

b. At the same time, ambitious priests and rulers could take opportunities to control the food surpluses to increase their own power.

c. Small islands in the Pacific did not have the resources to create full-scale agrarian civilizations, but their smaller states and chiefdoms had features similar to those around the world.

d. All early civilizations engaged in warfare except, perhaps, in the Indus Valley, where some arrowheads and spears have been found but no swords, helmets, shields, or chariots.

2. Read the following sentence from the article. It seems that only centralized state control can effectively integrate and support large populations of people. Which of the following selections from the article BEST supports the given statement?

a. It would have political, social, and economic hierarchies, meaning that a few elite people at the top, maybe about 10 percent, had more wealth and power than the remaining 90 percent.

b. The increased cultivation and development of available resources caused the world’s population to grow dramatically, from perhaps 6 million in 8000 BCE to maybe 50 million in 3000 BCE.

c. We can only guess that people needed leadership to manage projects like large-scale irrigation or distribution of surplus food. They also needed armed protection against neighboring groups.

d. Small islands in the Pacific did not have the resources to create full-scale agrarian civilizations, but their smaller states and chiefdoms had features similar to those around the world

3. Which answer choice is an accurate and objective summary of the article?

a. Due to lack of resources, civilizations failed to develop and thrive in certain areas of the world; it was the responsibility of neighboring civilizations to help them to develop.

b. Cities, states and civilizations all developed at the same time in different areas of the world; the ability of these societies to function depends on how close they are to coastal areas.



45


c. The domestication of animals such as dogs and horses had a huge impact on the development of early civilizations; societies that were unable to organize themselves were conquered.

d. All civilizations require organization of resources, central authority, and social classes to thrive; how they developed and used these things differed from place to place.


Write a sentence using …. in the box below PRIOR to your group discussion activity. You will be reading this sentence aloud in the part of your recorded conversation. The main idea of this reading is:


46


Appendix G


Name: Date: Comprehension Assessment How and Why the Egyptians Made Their Mummies Directions: After reading the article How and Why the Egyptians Made Their Mummies, students will answer the questions below. Chose the answer or phrase that best answers the question.

1. Based on information in the article, which of these statements is TRUE?

a. Thoth judged the dead in the Hall of Truth. b. During mummification the heart was weighed. c. The Egyptians believed the brain was special. d. Souls that were waiting to be judged were in limbo.

2. Overall, the article is organized around ........

a. a person and an event. a. a belief and a practice. b. a person and a practice

e. a belief and a person. 3. Which of the following aspects of the article is NOT thoroughly discussed?

a. how we know about the Egyptian practice of mummification b. why Egyptians embalmed bodies as a part of mummification c. what the Egyptians believed about the soul and afterlife d. how Egyptians embalmed bodies as a part of mummification


Write a sentence using …. in the box below PRIOR to your group discussion activity. You will be reading this sentence aloud in the part of your recorded conversation.



47


The main idea of this reading is:


48


Appendix H


Name: Date: Comprehension Assessment Ancient Greek Thinkers, Truth-Seekers

Directions: After reading the article Ancient Greek Thinkers, Truth-Seekers, students will answer the questions below. Chose the answer or phrase that best answers the question. 1. Which of the following MOST influenced the abundance of new ideas in ancient Greece? a. wealth b. democracy c. intelligence d. Business 2. Plato would be MOST likely to agree with which of the following statements? a. Everyone has the right to an education so that they can help rule. b. Although democracy is not perfect, it is the best form of government. c. All classes within Athenian society should be part of decision making. d. Only educated individuals should have the right to rule the Athenian society. 3. Read the introduction [paragraphs 1-3]. What purpose does the introduction serve in developing the main idea of the article? a. It highlights that ancient Greek philosophers had innovative ideas that sometimes challenged societal traditions. b. It introduces the reader to the risk involved with being an Athenian philosopher who used the Socratic method. c. It summarizes the advancements made by one of ancient Greece's most controversial and renowned philosophers. d. It introduces the reader to the political instability in Athens that shaped the lives of philosophers at that time. Write the words you highlighted in the reading here:

Write a sentence using …. in the box below PRIOR to your group discussion activity. You will be reading this sentence aloud in the part of your recorded conversation.





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The main idea of this reading is:


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Appendix I Group Collaboration Checklist

Group Member One:

Student participated in the discussion by answering the questions effectively.

Student supported their responses using text evidence.

Student included pre-taught vocabulary terms in their discussion.

Comments:

Group Member Two:




Comments:

Group Member Three:




Comments:

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Group Member Four:




Comments:

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Appendix J

Group Discussion Questions

Directions: In your small groups, discuss the answers to the following questions. Allow only

two minutes to discuss each of the questions. Assign the following roles in your group:

● _______________________ Timer- Makes sure that the group devotes two minutes to

each question. Provides a reminder at the one minute mark.

● _______________________ Recorder- Provides the computer for recording the

discussion. Starts the recording when the discussion begins and stops the recording when

the discussion is over.

● _______________________ Manager- Keeps the group on task. Ensures that the group

members are fulfilling their responsibilities as assigned.

● _______________________ Note Taker- Writes down key phrases and/ or ideas as the

discussion is happening. Asks group members for clarification/ restatement.

Before you begin, complete the following tasks individually:

1. Complete the three questions vocabulary assessment.

2. Listen to the text being read aloud to the class.

3. Read the text again, highlighting ONE word or phrase in each paragraph that is important

to the main idea in that paragraph.

4. Write a sentence at the bottom of the reading using at least TWO of the words or phrases

you have highlighted that explains the main idea of the reading. Circle the evidence in the

text that supports your conclusion.

5. Complete the post-reading comprehension assessment.

As a group, arrange yourselves around the recording device. Proceed through the following

questions.

1. Each person share in one sentence what you believe the main idea of the text is. You

must use evidence from the text to support your statement.

2. How were the people who lived at this time impacted by what happened or what was

invented?

3. How would history have unfolded differently, had this event or discovery not happened?

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Appendix K

Field Notes/ Journal

Date:

Article:

1. Prehistoric Times: Using Fire and

Tools in the Stone Age

2. The First Civilizations Emerge on

the World Stage

3. How and Why the Egyptians Made

Their Mummies

4. Ancient Greek Thinkers, Truth-

Seekers

Observations during pre- teaching of vocabulary:

Reflections:

Observations during independent reading:

Reflection:









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Observations during peer collaboration:

Reflection:

Proposed changes for next cycle based on observations?

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Appendix L

Frayer Model Handout

Term:

Definition Characteristics

Examples

Non- Examples

Term:


Examples

Non- Examples

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Term:


Examples

Non- Examples

Term:


Examples

Non- Examples

the effects of pre-teaching vocabulary, along with peer

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