the effect of college preparatory curriculum and … · century workplace. the study will examine...
TRANSCRIPT
THE EFFECT OF COLLEGE PREPARATORY
CURRICULUM AND ADVANCED PLACEMENT
CURRICULUM
ON ACT PERFORMANCE
A Dissertation
Presented to
The Faculty of the Education Department
Carson-Newman University
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the
Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
By
Kevin Coy Cline
May 2017
ii
Copyright 2017 by Kevin Coy Cline
All Rights Reserved.
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Abstract
This quantitative study analyzed the effect of Advanced Placement courses and ACT composite and
percentile relative to the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System. In addition, study analyzed the
effect of College Preparatory courses and ACT composite and percentile relative to the Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System. The study was established to determine what, if any, impact
curriculum path had on ACT performance. The study included over 400 Tennessee high seniors in
one school. The highest ACT performance was compared to the number of Advanced Placement
courses using a Bivariate Pearson Correlation Coefficient. In addition, the highest ACT performance
was compared to the number of College Preparatory courses using a Bivariate Pearson Correlation
Coefficient. Results indicate a gross increase in ACT scores in both Advanced Placement and College
Preparatory courses. There was statistically significant positive effects associated with the scores of
students enrolled in Advanced Placement Courses. However, there was not a significant correlation
with students that took College Preparatory courses. The findings from this study support the use of
rigorous curriculum to increase ACT scores in a high school setting.
Keywords: advanced placement, college preparatory, ACT, curriculum, academic achievement
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Acknowledgements
This would not have been possible without my entire committee. Dr. Deborah Hayes, I am
thankful for your direction and guidance. You have been supportive and shown great wisdom and care
throughout this process. I am thankful for you and all your support. Dr. Ernie Walker, our journey did
not start with this project but in my early years as a graduate student. You have not only grown to be a
great mentor to me but also a great friend. I am thankful for your support throughout my graduate
work. I would not be here today without you and your great influence. Dr. P. Mark Taylor, you have
been very supportive throughout this entire process. I appreciate all you have done for me throughout
my graduate career. You have guided me through many difficult courses and topics, and for that I am
thankful. Dr. Samuel Hollingshead, you have been a great mentor and help guide me throughout this
entire project. Finally, I want to thank Carson-Newman University. As incoming freshman
undergraduate student, you believed in me and provided me a place to grow intellectually and
spiritually. Thank you for your truth, beauty and goodness.
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Dedication
This study is dedicated to foremost to Jesus. I would have no hope if not your grace and
mercy. Throughout this process I found motivation and comfort in Jeremiah 29:11 “For I know the
plans that I have for you, plans to prosper and not to harm you, plans to give you hope and a future”.
This study is also dedicated to my family. Thank you, Mandy. You have been supportive and
made this adventure possible with all your sacrifices. You have taken care of our boys when I was
away and never complained. You are my rock and my love. I cherish you, and as Proverbs 31:10
says, “An excellent wife, a Godly women? She is worth for more than rubies.” To my sons, Brody
and Rex, I love you. I hope to make you as proud of me as I am of you. I am thankful to be your dad,
and I am reminded of this in Psalms 127:3, “Sons are indeed a heritage from the Lord, children, a
reward.”
To my Grandfather and Grandmother, David and Laverne. You sacrificed and helped raise me
to reach this point. I am forever grateful for your love and sacrifice. To my Mother-in-law and Father-
in-law, I am grateful for all of your help and support. You have been provided me with wisdom,
grace, and love. I am thankful for you and all your support. I love you as my own parents. To my
sister Amy, thank you for all your love and support. To my Great aunt Sue, I am thankful for your
continual words of encouragement. To my Aunt Carolyn and Uncle Robert, you have supported me
and my dreams since I was a child, and I am thankful for your love and support. To my Aunt Kelly
and Uncle Tim, you have supported me since childhood, and I am thankful and grateful for all you
have done.
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In Memoriam
To my grandmother, “Jama”. I am forever grateful for your love and sacrifice. You became a
mother to me and never wavered in your commitment. You cared for me and ensured I was well. You
took me to church, where I met my Savior. You were my biggest fan. Though you left this earth
before my journey was complete, I always knew you were near. In times of discouragement, I could
hear your voice encouraging me along the way. In times of celebration, I knew you were looking
down. I love you, and I hope I have made you proud.
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Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Study ..................................................................................................... 2
Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 2
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................................ 3
Significance of the Study ..................................................................................................... 4
Theoretical Foundation ........................................................................................................ 4
Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 5
Limitations ........................................................................................................................... 6
Delimitations ....................................................................................................................... 7
Definitions of Terms ............................................................................................................ 7
Organization of the Document .......................................................................................... 11
2. Review of Literature .................................................................................................... 12
Advanced Placement Curriculum ...................................................................................... 12
College Preparatory Curriculum ........................................................................................ 24
ACT ................................................................................................................................... 33
Instructional Leadership .................................................................................................... 39
Academic Press ................................................................................................................. 34
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 41
3. Research Methodology ................................................................................................ 42
Background ........................................................................................................................ 42
Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 42
Sample ............................................................................................................................... 43
Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 43
Statistical Analysis ............................................................................................................ 45
Instruments ........................................................................................................................ 45
Research Procedures .......................................................................................................... 46
Time Frame ....................................................................................................................... 47
Contributions ..................................................................................................................... 47
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 48
4. Results of Analysis ....................................................................................................... 50
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 50
Results ............................................................................................................................... 54
Relevant Findings .............................................................................................................. 66
Summary ............................................................................................................................ 67
3. Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 69
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 69
Results ............................................................................................................................... 70
Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 71
Implications ....................................................................................................................... 75
Recommendations for Further Study ................................................................................. 76
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 78
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List of Tables
Figure 4.1 ........................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 4.2 ........................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 4.3 ........................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 4.4 ........................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 4.5 ........................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 4.6 ........................................................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.7 ........................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 4.8 ........................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 4.9 ........................................................................................................................... 62
Figure 4.10 ......................................................................................................................... 65
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List of Figures
Figure 4.1 ........................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.2 ........................................................................................................................... 61
Figure 4.3 ........................................................................................................................... 64
Figure 4.4 ........................................................................................................................... 66
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CHAPTER 1: Introduction
Introduction
Leadership is often regarded as the single most critical factor in the success or failure of
organizations (Bass, 1990). Research has indicated that highly effective schools are led by quality
principals (Murphy, & Torre, 2014). Schools are different from many organizations because
students, teachers and community are not selected but instead are inherited. Therefore, the factors that
can be changed are limited in order to impact the product of a school, the students’ growth and
development. Even though the changes a leader can make are a limited number of factors, academic
achievement can be influenced (Murphy & Torre, 2014). Therefore, in order to become an impactful
school leader, it is imperative to understand the impactful variables that must be utilized in order to
leverage school improvement.
The literature review and study will focus primarily on the impact of curriculum on student
achievement. In a recent study, a team of researchers led by Dr. Robert J. Marzano reported that three
of the most impactful duties of school leaders are centered on school curriculum (Marzano, Waters, &
McNulty, 2014). First, school leaders must establish clear goals and keep these goals in the forefront
of the school’s attention. School leaders should set a goal for students to become college and career
ready for the 21st century, viable curriculum is imperative for students to achieve the goal (Alexander
& Cook, 1982). Secondly, school leaders must monitor the effectiveness of school practices and the
impact on student learning (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2014). School leaders must examine the
current curriculum to determine its viability to meet the needs of the students, and prepare them for
the 21st century workplace (Whitaker, 2003). Finally, school leaders must have current knowledge
about curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2014).
School leaders can truly impact only a few variables within a school setting; however, the ability to
impact a viable curriculum is crucial for student success (Alexander & Cook, 1982).
Background
The purpose of the study was to identify a curriculum path to prepare students for the 21st
century workplace. The study will examine the impact of curriculum on student learning and college
and career readiness and will use the American College Test, known as ACT as a measure of
curriculum effectiveness. Due to the complexity of the study, other factors were examined. The first
is the ACT and its college and career readiness benchmarks. The second is the Advanced Placement
curriculum and its impact on students’ ACT college and career readiness benchmark performance.
The third is the College Preparatory Curriculum and its impact on students ACT college and career
readiness benchmark performance. Finally, the study examined the Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment System and its projection and performance application for students and their ACT college
and career readiness benchmark.
The impact of curriculum, Advanced Placement, and College Preparatory Curriculum have
been researched; however, this study investigated the impact of each curriculum on the students
projected percentile for ACT composite. There is very limited research comparing each curriculum
relative to the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System Project ACT Percentile; therefore, the
study will provide school leaders correlational data to help determine the most beneficial curriculum
for their school that will provide the greatest impact for student achievement.
Statement of the Problem
Schools are failing to prepare the majority students for college and career readiness (Marzano
& Toth, 2014). In 2008 nearly three-quarters of all students who took and passed a college
preparatory class in high school where nonetheless unprepared for college work. The lack of rigor in
many courses is still prevalent despite the large amounts of research correlating academic
achievement and rigor in the classroom (Louis, Murphy, & Smylie, 2016). Schools must press
students academically in order to increase student achievement. Student achievement is a complex
measure, but research is clear that students will improve when introduced to rigorous curriculum.
Therefore, the dilemma many high schools face is to determine the most appropriate curriculum.
Viable curriculum is imperative to student success, and consequently academic achievement
(Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005). Selection of curriculum must be determined based upon
research and best practices. Schools do not have the additional funds to conduct their own
longitudinal study or the financial freedom to try multiple curricula. Therefore, schools must make
appropriate decisions with school resources, personnel and curriculum in order to provide students
with the greatest opportunity for academic achievement.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to determine if there is a correlation among the curriculum paths
and ACT performance. In order to determine the most suited curriculum for students, the study was
designed to determine which course path can help students perform their best on the ACT exam. The
two primary course paths that will be examined are College Preparatory and Advanced Placement.
The study will look specifically at the students’ performance on the ACT. The course path was
selected because it is one of the few variables that schools and school leaders can impact.
The ACT was selected as the benchmark for academic achievement because it can make a
substantial impact on a student’s ability to access post-secondary education and credentials (Hoar &
Scott, 2016). Post-secondary education and credentials are imperative for students to attain
employment that provides a living wage. In a recent study, it was found that students who graduated
high school without post-secondary credentials on average earned $9,161 yearly (Hoar & Scott,
2016). In addition, by 2020 roughly 58% of all Tennessee jobs will require postsecondary education.
The ACT was selected as the common measure because it is the only common standardized
assessment that students on various curriculum paths are assessed. Therefore, the data gained from
the ACT exam will be comparable regardless of the curriculum path each student has taken.
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study was the ability to determine an effective curriculum for a school.
The ability to provide high quality curriculum is perhaps one of the most important roles of a school
administrator (Whitaker, 2003). Great school leaders are instructional leaders, and instructional
leaders can make substantial impact on student learning (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2005).
Resources are limited for many school leaders, making it imperative that they implement an effective
curriculum from the onset. The concept of effective curriculum and implementation is significant. In
fact, Todd Whitaker (2003) wrote, “The only way a principal can improve a school is to hire better
teachers, or to improve the teacher who are already there” (p.8). Therefore, the role of an instructional
leader is very valuable to the concept of school improvement and student achievement.
The study is significant because the results can be used to determine where resources should
be used for schools. The study can also be used as a platform for positive change in schools, and it
can help guide instructional leaders with informed results. Instructional leaders have control over few
variables but fortunately curriculum is one of them. Finally, if the study is utilized appropriately, it
can have an impact on student learning for high schools facing curricular decisions.
Theoretical Foundation
The goal of every school and school leader should be to educate all students helping them
fulfill their greatest potential. However, there are trends showing that many schools are not successful
in this complex endeavor (Marzano & Toth, 2014). In particular, schools with low socioeconomic and
minority students struggle to educate students adequately (Marzano & Toth, 2014). Academic press
has been found to be correlated with and predictive of student achievement at the school level
(Mitchell, Kensler, & Tschannen-Moran, 2015). Academic press is the degree in which environmental
factors press for student achievement on a school-wide basis (Murphy, Weil, Hallinger, & Mitman,
1982). In fact, academic press has been found to be effective in overcoming student achievement
obstacles of student achievement including low socioeconomic status, minority status and poor
parental involvement (Smith & Kearney, 2012).
Academic press has nine important norms (Murphy, 2016). These norms are as follows:
academic care, challenge, task-focused goals, active learning, engagement and vitality, cooperative
learning, meaningfulness, student anchored learning and evidence-based decision making and
feedback (Murphy, 2016). The curriculum focus of academic press is two-fold (Murphy, 2016).
Academic press demands a more stimulating and academically rigorous curriculum. The curriculum
must have an emphasis on critical thinking and problem solving. These improvements have been
found to increase student engagement and intrinsically motivate students (Early, Rogge, & Deci,
2014; Darling-Hammond, 2000). The impact of academic press is that students are more engaged,
and therefore greater rates of student learning and retention will take place in the classroom (Murphy,
2016).
Research Questions
The study is designed to determine if there is a correlation between a student’s coursework and
the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT. The study has two primary research
questions that will guide the statistical analysis.
1. What is the correlation between Advanced Placement Courses and a student’s Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
2. What is the correlation between College Preparatory Courses and a student’s Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
The goal of the study and literature review was to determine if there is a statistical correlation
in which an informed decision can be made to determine which curriculum, Advanced Placement or
College Preparatory, has the greatest impact on a student’s Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
growth on the ACT. Therefore, the research questions was analyzed with the Pearson Product-
Moment Correlation to determine if there is a correlation (Lund, A., & Lund, M., 2013). The results
will be analyzed in order to determine the correlation between Advanced Placement Courses and a
student’s Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT. In addition, the results will be
analyzed to determine if there is there is a correlation between College Preparatory Courses and a
student’s Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT. In conclusion, an analysis can
then take place to determine which course path Advanced Placement of College Preparatory has the
greatest impact on a student’s Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT.
Limitations
When studying academic achievement in schools, variables can affect the outcomes of
research. There are two categories of limitations in this study that should be discussed. The first
limitation category of this study is the classroom teacher. Teacher quality and effectiveness is a
common limitation found throughout educational research. Teachers are limitations because they vary
in their quality and effectiveness. In addition to teacher quality, classroom rigor is a limitation when
comparing student performance with various teachers. The curriculum is standardized for College
Preparatory and Advanced Placement; however, the teacher’s rigor and influence in the class cause
limitations with the study. Student motivation can play a significant role in performance, and teachers
can impact this area significantly (Anderson, 2016; Murphy, 2016). Therefore, a teacher’s ability to
motivate students must be listed as a limitation.
The second categorical limitation found in the study was the sample population of students.
Students have many uncontrollable variables. These variables include, but are not limited to:
motivation, socioeconomic status, aptitude, health, and overall ability to perform. However, the study
does account for this variable as much as possible by utilizing the Tennessee Value Added
Assessment data. The study was designed to examine how students perform relative to their projected
performance and not overall performance. However, the limitations should not impede the results of
the study from being used to make when making curricula decisions.
Delimitations.
The delimitations in this study are centered on the sample and the time frame in which study
took place. The first delimitation is the population of the sample. The population was selected for
convenience from a large high school in East Tennessee. The sample was selected for convenience
but the sample is still worthy of research. The sample size will include approximately 500 students.
The students from the school are diverse socioeconomically. In contrast, the 93% of the student
population is Caucasian and is very limited within the realm of ethnic diversity. In contrast, the
curriculum the students have access to is diverse. Students will have access to a broad range of
curriculum opportunities from twenty Advanced Placement Courses to over thirty Career and
Technical Education Courses and many options in between. The transcripts for students will be
analyzed over the course of their high school careers. However, the ACT data utilized for the data
analysis came from the two state testing dates that are available to Tennessee students. There are
several delimitations to the population to the study, but the delimitations should not greatly minimize
the interpretation of the results.
Definition of Terms
Academic press. Academic press is defined as the degree to which environmental forces
press for student achievement on a school-wide basis, including various policies, practices,
expectations norms and rewards for staff and students (Murphy, Weil, Hallinger, & Mitman, 1982).
These forces and variables are the DNA of school improvement, and each of them must be directed
toward academic achievement in order for a school to reach its full potential. The norms of academic
press are broken into three primary categories (Murphy, 2016). The first category is school
influences. School influences are typically discussed as: instructional leadership, evidence based
decision, goals, expectations, and curriculum. The second category is student influences. These
stimuli are typically regarded as: cooperative learning, rigor, meaningful work, care and engagement.
The final category is the teacher. These influences are characteristically: care, challenging, student
centered, meaningful, and engagement.
Advanced Placement. Advanced Placement courses are optional coursework in high school
that allow students the option of receiving credit for introductory college level courses (Sadler & Tai,
2007). The student earns college credit based upon their performance on the Advanced Placement
exam (College Board, 2006). The exams are scored between a one and five, and the five represents
top level A work in the corresponding college course. Each score below represents a letter grade
sequentially, with the score of three representing a low B to mid-level C performance in the
corresponding college course (College Board, 2006). Each individual college has the right to accept
Advanced Placement credit and determine what score represents each course for the specific college
(Sadler & Tai, 2007).
Advanced Placement courses have three primary hallmarks that are found throughout each
course (College Board, 2013). The first is that each course has an emphasis on 21st-century skills that
include critical thinking, inquiry, reasoning and communication. Secondly, the Advanced Placement
course is modeled upon the corresponding introductory college course, and in particular that content
mirrors the depth and breadth of a typical introductory college course. Finally, Advanced Placement
content has been organized by recommendations from national disciplinary organizations and
curriculum studies at colleges and universities (College Board, 2013).
American College Testing. The ACT is a college readiness standardized assessment for high
school achievement and college admissions that is used by many higher education institutions
primarily in the United States and Canada (ACT, 2016). The test has four required sections and one
relatively new optional addition. The required sections are English, Mathematics, Reading and
Science. The optional section is the writing assessment. The test has a composite score range of one
to thirty-six, with a composite of twenty-one indicating a student is college and career ready. The test
is typically offered six times per year. The test does not officially require prerequisite courses;
however, the test is designed for high school students that are fluent in English.
College Preparatory Curriculum. College Preparatory Curriculum is a general term used to
describe coursework designed to prepare students for college (Jackson, 2014). The College
Preparatory Curriculum relative to the study is coursework that has been framed around Common
Core State Standards. The coursework is designed for students to complete by the end of the twelfth
grade. The academic core of the curriculum is four math courses, four language arts course, three
science courses and three social studies courses. These courses are required in order to earn a regular
high school diploma. The Preparatory Curriculum is designed for students to be both college ready
and career ready. The curriculum is centered on Common Core, and it is aligned to ACT standards.
Therefore, the state of Tennessee utilizes ACT to determine if students are college and career ready
upon graduation.
School. This familiar term has a vast and complex meaning for those in school improvement.
The literature reviewed and the research that is contained within this study will focus on two primary
areas within the term school: curriculum and school culture. Research has found a correlation
between school curriculum and a student’s school experience and academic achievement (Hoy,
Sweetland, & Smith, 2002; Alexander, & Cook, 1982). Therefore, it is relevant for school leaders to
examine and ensure that a high quality curriculum is available to students. In addition to curriculum,
the research reviewed in this study will look at the impact of school culture on academic achievement.
School culture is defined as, “Those facets of organization that reflect underlying assumptions,
guiding decisions, behavior, and beliefs within organizations” (Scribner, Cockrell, K., Cockrell, D., &
Valentine, 1999). Schools that serve students well are typically defined by two supports, strong
academic press and a supportive culture (Murphy & Torre, 2014). When schools achieved an
equilibrium of nurture and academic rigor, it was found to be very effective for students, and therefore
schools (Murphy & Torre, 2014; Hoy, Sweetland, & Smith, 2002).
Student. For the purpose of this literature review and study, the term student will refer to high
school teenagers in grades nine through twelve. In particular, the study will address academic
achievement and the variables in which this can be affected. For example, a student’s academic
achievement is correlated with their buoyancy in the face of academic challenge and setback (Collie,
Martin, Malmberg, Hall & Ginns, 2015). In addition, motivation and choice will be examined, as
much research has pointed to these areas attributed to academic success (Anderson, 2016).
Teacher. The focus will be on two attributes. The first is that teachers provide instruction to
students that builds the cognitively complex skills necessary to prepare them for college and career
readiness in the 21st century (Marzano, & Toth, 2014). In addition, teachers must also care for
students and provide them support for their complete development (Conner, Miles, & Pope, 2014). In
fact, a recent study of teacher support in high performing schools found that the teachers must not
only express care but take steps to show care for students in order for teachers to seen as having
general care and respect from their students (Conner, Miles, & Pope, 2014).
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System. There are several value-added assessment
models, but the Tennessee model is one of the most influential models in the country (Kupermintz,
2003). The Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System has three primary statistical models
(Kupermintz, 2003). The first is a system model that estimates the average performance of a particular
school system for each year, grade and core academic subject. The second piece is the school model,
which estimates average performance for a particular school within a system. The final model is the
teacher model, and the teacher model estimates the average student performance associated with the
teacher.
The Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System measures the growth or lack of growth in
student achievement as represented with high-stakes standardized tests (Price, 2014). In a recent study
on the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System, Todd Price described the model by writing,
With this model (Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System) the supposition was that the
student would be the control variable; all the other extraneous variables including socio-
economic status, class size, and prior achievement could be removed with the only variable
remaining the teacher (2014, p. 218).
In other words, the model could predict if teachers were effective or not based upon the student’s
achievement relative to their peer’s performance who are similar within the extraneous variables.
Organization of the Document
This research study was organized into five chapters. The first chapter contained a brief
introduction, background information and states the problem. The chapter then outlines the purpose
and significance of the study. These areas are followed by discussing the theoretical framework.
In the first chapter, the two primary research questions are clearly stated. The limitations and
delimitations are provided. A list of definitions and terms relative to the study are listed to help guide
the reader. Chapter two provides an overview of studies through a literature review. This includes a
review of previous findings and a discussion of theories that relate to the study. Finally, chapter two
includes an evidence-based discussion that the study is necessary to fill research gaps that are
presented. Chapter three provides an overview of the methodology involved in this study.
Specifically, chapter three discusses data analysis procedures and the type of data utilized. The fourth
chapter reviews the results of the study including any correlation found between curriculum and
student performance relative to their Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System Projected ACT
Percentile and the student’s actual percentile score. Finally, chapter five discusses the conclusions
drawn from the study and provides recommendations for future studies.
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
Advanced Placement Coursework
Introduction. An essential reform in education is to increase the number of students in our
nation’s public schools taking advanced math and science courses (Kelley-Kemple, Proger, &
Roderick, 2011). Graduating from high school in America does not prepare students for a complex
and global economy. Taking more advanced classes in high school will increase the capacity of the
students graduating, and therefore make America more competitive in the global market (Jackson,
2014). In order to increase the number of students engaged in rigorous coursework, schools and
districts have turned to Advanced Placement Courses by College Board (Kelley-Kemple, Proger, &
Roderick, 2011). Coursework that was once reserved for high-achieving students is available to
students across wide array of backgrounds.
Advanced Placement Background. The College Board organization created the Advanced
Placement program in 1955 (Hansen, 2005). Advanced Placement coursework is designed to allow
highly motivated high school students the option of receiving credit for and bypassing introductory
college level courses (Sadler, & Tai, 2007). Students can earn college credit at participating higher
education institutions by passing Advance Placement exams (College Board, 2016). The exams are
created and scored by the College Entrance Examination Board (Sadler, & Tai, 2007). However, the
amount of credit varies from institution to institution, but College Board provides recommendations
for acceptance based upon the students score. For example, an Advanced Placement score of five
indicates an A in the corresponding college course. The coursework and requirements within the
Advance Placement course are aligned with the exam and are created to prepare the student for
college level work. In order to ensure the content is standardized, there are several requirements to
create and maintain Advanced Placement coursework.
The Advanced Placement program of the College Board offers thirty-five courses in both
science and non-science disciplines (College Board, 2016). The courses are taught around the United
States by over 110,000 high school teachers in more than 13,000 schools (Sadler, & Tai, 2007;
Hansen, 2005). The program has expanded to include around 700,000 students per year that take over
one million Advanced Placement exams each year (Hansen, 2005). The Advanced Placement exams
are central to the programming as the exams are the means to earn college credit. Currently, over
ninety percent of the nation’s colleges and universities have an Advanced Placement policy granting
students credit, placement or both for student’s earning a qualifying score.
Advanced Placement Requirements. Advanced Placement courses are rigorous academic
courses that are built upon the commitment, passion and hard work of students and educators from
both secondary and higher education (College Board, 2016). Advance Placement courses are directed
by College Board, which serves as the accreditation board and governing body. In order to be
considered an Advanced Placement course, a course audit must take place. This course audit must
include a syllabus that meets or exceeds the academic rigor expectations from College Board.
Therefore, the expectations and rigor of Advanced Placement courses are standardized by the
approval of the course audit.
In addition, all faculty that are responsible for Advanced Placement courses participate in a
must the week long Advanced Placement Summer Institute (College Board, 2016). The required
trainings are intended to standardize teacher practice and content for the Advanced Placement courses
that are offered around the world. Educators are also strongly encouraged to attend one full day
workshop during each academic year and join the online Advance Placement Teacher Community.
The recommended one day training is intended to remediate teachers to standardize instruction and
content to the Advanced Placement requirements. College Board has restrictions regarding Advanced
Placement coursework and examination; however, many schools are turning to Advanced Placement
to increase the rigor in many courses (Iatarola, Conger & Long, 2011).
Advanced Placement courses and exams are intertwined and are created and redesigned with a
consistent platform with a primary platform of attributes (College Board, 2013). The first is that
Advanced Placement courses and exams are created and redesigned with a greater emphasis on 21st
century skills. The skills emphasized include: critical thinking, inquiry, reasoning, and
communication. These skills are rigorous and prepare students to be productive in the 21st century
economy. The curriculum in each course is modeled after introductory college courses. Advanced
Placement courses curriculum is designed to resemble the breadth of the content covered and the
required depth of understanding from the typically introductory college course. The design of the
courses are not isolated to the College Board executive team members; the Advanced Placement
curriculum is derived from the support of many different organizations.
The third hallmark for redesigned or new Advanced Placement course is that standards for
each course are informed by three primary sources (College Board, 2013). The first recommendations
for standards are from national recognized disciplinary organizations. These organizations are the
leading voices for many reform efforts within their discipline, and therefore are nationally recognized
as experts in their field. The next recommendations for standards are from four-year higher education
institutions. This connection to higher education institutions provides a linear connection that allows
the content to align with the expectations of colleges and universities around the country. Finally, the
standards are influenced by leading pedagogical and measurement practices. This informs not only
the teaching practices, but also the student work associated with the standards. In addition, the
standards and practices associated with the framework for each coursed are also thoroughly designed
to fulfil the goal of advanced placement coursework.
Advanced Placement courses are designed with frameworks that tie concepts, themes, and
skills within each course to a set of key learning objectives (College Board, 2013). In addition, the
redesigned and new curriculum frameworks are validated by several faculty members from dozens of
leading institutions of higher education. Finally, the exams tie each question on the test to the
evidence required to demonstrate student achievement of each learning objective. This comprehensive
approach has contributed to the success that Advanced Placement courses have had with students
from each demographic and achievement level.
Advanced Placement Course Offerings. At the very minimum, high schools are required to
offer courses mandated by the state and local district for graduation (Iatarola, Conger & Long, 2011).
Students to earn specified number of credits in the major content areas (e.g., four credits in English,
three credits in mathematics, three credits in lab science and three credits in social science). The credit
format allows schools some flexibility in the curriculum that they offered for their student population.
For example, English III is typically reserved for junior level students in Tennessee, but students in
many schools have the option to take Advanced Placement English Language (Cooney, McKillip &
Smith, 2013). Districts choose to offer Advanced Placement courses for several reasons; however,
there are three primary causes for adding the coursework for students.
Districts choose to offer Advanced Placement courses for students so that they can have the
opportunity to be admitted to selective colleges (Duffett & Farkas, 2009). Colleges have moved their
acceptance to a more rigorous process that includes analyzing a student’s transcript for academic rigor
and not focusing solely on the student’s grade point average (Cooney, McKillip & Smith, 2013). In
addition to college admission, high schools are offering the advanced placement coursework for
students to have the opportunity to earn college credit concurrently with high school graduation
requirements (Porter & Polikoff, 2009). Finally, many high schools are offering Advanced Placement
courses in an attempt to increase the overall rigor in the course offerings at the local school level
(Iatarola, Conger & Long, 2011). The ability to increase classroom rigor is correlated to increased
academic achievement (Marzano & Toth, 2014). Therefore, the popularity of Advanced Placement
courses is increasing for many of America’s public schools (Iatarola, Conger & Long, 2011).
The determination of course offerings goes beyond a desire for college admissions, college
credit, and increased rigor for many schools. There is a strong correlation between student body size
and Advanced Placement course offerings (Iatarola, Conger & Long, 2011). In fact, only three
percent of schools offer Advanced Placement courses with a student population of 22-365.
Contrastingly, 100% of schools with a student population of 2,224 and above offer Advanced
Placement courses. In addition to school size, many schools offer Advanced Placement courses when
they have a student population with prior academic achievement standards warranting advanced
coursework. School size and prior academic achievement are the two primary driving forces for
expanded and more rigorous coursework. However, many are realizing the benefit of this coursework
and the benefit of challenging students from low achieving and low socioeconomic backgrounds
(Kerr, 2014).
The Benefits of Advanced Placement Coursework. Rigorous coursework, and in particular,
advanced classes are important for all students, but they important in particular to students from
diverse backgrounds (Kerr, 2014). The importance of the coursework is found in lost future
opportunities for many students. All students that take advanced coursework are much more likely to
graduate from high school (Smydo, 2007). In addition to success in high school, students that enroll
in advanced courses are much more likely to be successful in college after high school (Kerr, 2014).
Grade point average and ACT have historically been found to be strong indicators of a student’s
success in college. However, a recent study found that Grade Point Average more than ACT is
becoming a strong predictor of college success (Roderick, Holsapple, Kelley-Kemple & Johnson,
2014). A student’s high school preparation translates into their high chance of earning a college
degree. Therefore, highlighting the importance of rigorous course offerings and quality instruction in
high school.
In 2003 a reform in Dallas, Texas started that gave incentives to students and teachers in
Advanced Placement Coursework (Jackson, 2013). The reform mandated that each student and
teacher would receive monetary payments for completing Advanced Placement coursework. In
addition to passing the course, in order to be eligible for the monetary payment a student must also
pass the College Board exam. In addition, to increase Advanced Placement scores, the unintended
effect was a substantial increase in enrollment for Advanced Placement courses. The study conducted
by Dr. Jackson found several important statistics for instructional leaders considering or reforming
their Advanced Placement coursework (Jackson, 2013).
In a 2013 study conducted by Dr. Jackson on the effects of Advanced Placement courses it
was found that Advance Placement courses have a positive effect on student achievement after just
one year of offering the course (Jackson, 2013). Specifically, students enrolled in an Advanced
Placement course are much more likely to persist beyond their freshman year of college. In addition
to persisting beyond their freshman year, students that completed an Advanced Placement course
were more likely to graduate from a four year college. Similar to other studies, there are positive
effects for students from all backgrounds, but in particular positive impacts for students from diverse
backgrounds were correlated with Advanced Placement programs (Kerr, 2014; Jackson, 2013; Kelley-
Kemple, Proger & Roderick, 2011; Sadler & Tai, 2007). The positive impacts includes college
attendance, degree completion, and therefore high wage earning.
Advanced Placement courses also have a significant impact on a student’s college grade point
average (Sadler & Tai, 2007). However, the impact takes time to become statistically significant
(Geiser & Santelices, 2005). Interestingly, there was not a significant difference among students that
took Advanced Placement courses in high school and those that did not take Advanced Placement
courses. However, students that successfully completed Advanced Placement courses in high school
had a significantly higher grade point average by the end of their second year of college than their
peers that did not take Advanced Placement courses. In addition to grade point average differences,
there was also a statistically significant finding that students that focused on a program of study in
high school through Advanced Placement coursework were much more likely to continue their
focused study in college than their peers that did not take Advanced Placement coursework (Byrd,
Ellington, Gross, Jago & Stern, 2007).
Advanced Placement programs are successful because of the high academic standards and
goals for student learning (Byrd, Ellington, Gross, Jago & Stern, 2007). These high standards and
goals are not only set by College Board, but the expectations are communicated well to teachers,
students and parents. The high expectations set by teachers and schools are correlated with increased
student’s achievement (Murphy & Torre, 2016). In addition to the high expectations from the course
work, the exams for Advanced Placement are well aligned to the standards set by College Board
(Byrd, Ellington, Gross, Jago & Stern, 2007). The alignment of the exam allows the classroom
instruction to be designed specifically for student performance with college level work in the high
school setting.
The student work of Advanced Placement courses is designed to allow students to gain college
level content, but the courses are also developed to allow students to gain college level competencies
(Byrd, Ellington, Gross, Jago & Stern, 2007). Advanced Placement coursework expects students to
make sense of complex and contradictory text and information. Students must be able to write and
defend their opinions on material in an intelligent manner. In addition, students must be able to apply
their knowledge in creative and productive ways. These rigorous and high level academic skills are
imperative to student success in college and beyond (Marzano & Toth, 2014).
Student perceptions of Advanced Placement courses provide an insight into the view of a
student in these rigorous courses. In a recent study conducted by a team of researchers in 2013 they
found, 79% of students thought their Advanced Placement courses were challenging (Cooney,
McKillip & Smith, 2013). In addition, 76% of the students indicated that courses they took required
the students to put “a lot of effort” into the course in order to experience success. The majority of
students, 93%, report that their Advanced Placement courses were somewhat or much higher quality
than their other high school courses. In contrast, only seven percent of the student’s surveyed
indicated that the course was too difficult for the students to understand. These student statistics
provide positive insight to the design and intent of the Advanced Placement coursework many high
schools are expanding.
In the study, students were asked to elaborate on the depth of the content in Advanced
Placement courses, the researcher reported several comments highlight the rigor of the coursework
(Cooney, McKillip & Smith, 2013). When students were asked to describe the rigor of the Advanced
Placement content the students said, “My AP courses went at a faster pace, and we were able to cover
more content and went into greater depth so that we could better understand the curriculum” (Cooney,
McKillip & Smith, 2013, p. 10). The student perspective was a depiction of the notion behind
Advanced Placement courses in high school settings. These courses were designed to challenge
students and allow them to experience college level work in the high school setting.
The student survey also provided great insight regarding the impact of the Advanced
Placement curriculum and the instructor. In the Cooney led study a student surveyed said, “The other
course expected the least of students while AP courses expected the most out of the students”
(Cooney, McKillip & Smith, 2013, p. 10). The high expectations set by the classroom instructor play
a significant role in a student’s academic performance (Alexander & Cook, 1982). The Advanced
Placement coursework allows teacher to create a rigorous environment around the framework of the
course.
In addition to the demanding nature of the content, the students reported their instructors were
just as demanding (Cooney, McKillip & Smith, 2013). The study found that 83% of the students
agreed or strongly agreed that their Advanced Placement teachers were passionate about their subject
areas. The study also reported that 86% of the students agreed or strongly agreed that their Advanced
Placement teachers had high expectations for their performance in class. These two statistics
undoubtedly contribute the success of Advanced Placement course. The passion for teaching and
learning combined with high expectations of the teacher create a climate of academic press (Murphy
& Torre, 2016). Academic press is correlated to academic achievement, and therefore a contributor
the success of Advanced Placement programs (Lee, Smith, Perry & Smylie, 1999).
Concerns of Advanced Placement Coursework. Although Advance Placement programs
have been highlighted across the country as successful models, there are challenges within the
program. First, the programming is not comprehensive across the all schools, with 43% of American
High Schools offering Advanced Placement coursework (Hansen, 2005). In addition to 43% of high
schools not offering the program, 34% of the near 700,000 students enrolled in Advanced Placement
programs do not take the correlating exam. Therefore, the effectiveness of the programming is
subject to much scrutiny as only two-thirds of the students are contributing to the successful data. In
addition, to significant numbers of students not testing, Advanced Placement programs across the
country under represent minority populations (Kerr, 2014; Hansen, 2005). In addition to the concerns
the program is facing at the High School level, there have also been many concerns regarding the
viability of the college curriculum with College Board’s programming.
There was a growing number of university faculty that feel the Advanced Placement
programming in many schools are inadequate for college coursework (Sadler & Tai, 2007; Hansen,
2005). The growing indication of inadequacy can partially be traced to the significant gap of qualified
teachers in the growing field of Advanced Placement coursework (Hansen, 2005). Concerns have
also been raised about the exams that actually award the credit to the reciprocating universities. First,
students that score high on the Advanced Placement exam do not consistently attain levels
commensurate of their College Board performance (Sadler & Tai, 2007).
There are several possibilities for the lack of alignment of performance. First, the Advanced
Placement exam may not fully reflect the content of the college course it was designed to represent
(Sadler & Tai, 2007). Secondly, the scoring of the exams could be inflated, and therefore over-
projecting student performance in college curriculum. In another perspective the scores are accurate
for the exam given, but the content covered by the exam is insufficient to truly represent the college
coursework required to be highly successful. Finally, researchers have suggested that perhaps
students perform poorly in college classes they have already had through the Advanced Placement
program because they are simply bored from already taking a similar course (Sadler & Tai, 2007).
Advanced Placement has become one of the most highly regarded and utilized programs in education;
however, the program is not perfect and schools must acknowledges the obstacles presented with the
program.
Classroom teachers have also voiced several concerns regarding Advanced Placement
coursework. Students should not take too many courses at one time because it lessens their
engagement in each course (Hansen, 2005). The rigorous nature of the classes, and the overall nature
of high school students should prohibit large classes in order to provide the quality instruction needed
for the students. In addition to class size, teachers were concerned about the lack of preparation of
Advanced Placement students for the rigorous coursework. In addition to the student concerns,
teachers also complained about the increase in workload for teaching Advanced Placement courses
without compensation for additional work (Hansen, 2005).
There is a strong correlation between student body size and Advanced Placement course
offerings, and because of this trend, many schools in rural and low income areas are turning toward
online Advanced Placement courses (Iatarola, Conger & Long, 2011; Marcel, 2003). However, this
option has not been a successful venture. Students enrolled in online Advanced Placement courses
perform much more poorly than their peers in traditional or blended settings (Marcel, 2003). In
addition, to the student’s poor performance, nearly 25% of the students originally enrolled online
Advanced Placement courses withdraw prior to completing the course. The study also explored the
students experience beyond their exam score and found that many of the positive attributes many
students cite for Advanced Placement course was not found in the online setting.
The students enrolled in online coursework expressed frustrations with the isolation of taking
the course online (Marcel, 2003). The students felt that the isolations from peers’ face to face
interaction inhibited the ability to work through problems collaboratively and increased the time spent
reading and exploring the topic in isolation. In addition to the concerns of isolation, many students
felt ill-prepared to take an online course on such an advanced topic without the instructor readily
available to answer questions and guide their thoughts. The format of online learning also presents a
more narrowed pathway for learning strategies, and students felt they had to absorb the material rather
than apply the core concepts of the course.
Finally, the students felt isolated from the instructor and the material (Marcel, 2003). Highly
effective teachers make connections with students, and therefore are able to assist them in a much
more fluid and effective way (Murphy, 2016). The online format made mentoring students
problematic for the instructor and made creating productive relationships difficult (Marcel, 2013).
The sole use of the online curriculum format for teaching in K4-12 education has not been a
successful model. The lack of success and issues presented with the format highlight the need for
instructors to connect to the student (Murphy, 2016).
Advanced Placement Recommendations. Advanced Placement coursework has provided
opportunities for students to experience academic success (College Board, 2013). The programming
has enabled many students to earn college credit prior to enrollment and prepared students to endure
and succeed with the academic rigor of college (Jackson, 2014). The program, however, does have
areas in which improvement can be made. Therefore, there are six recommendations for improvement
for the Advanced Placement program. The first area for improvement is to provide guidance and
assistance to prepare students to for Advanced Placement coursework (Hansen, 2005). This
improvement could come from Pre-Advanced Placement programming that would enable middle
school students to develop the pre-requisite skills and knowledge to succeed in the more rigorous
coursework in high school. In addition to preparation for students, a more comprehensive approach to
teacher training could benefit the overall student experience (Hansen, 2005). The training approach
should also be supportive and continuing in nature, and not a one time workshop. The preparation is
very important to the overall success of the program, but the program itself must be structured
appropriately in order to enable students and teachers to experience the desired success.
In a report from the Thomas B. Fordham institute, the researchers suggested that College
Board should clarify and organize the course so that one can clearly identify the core content (Byrd,
Ellington, Gross, Jago & Stern, 2007). The ability to identify the core content enables students and
teachers to focus on the most important information for long term success in the course and beyond.
When new courses are implemented or redesigned, the content should not be diluted to focus solely
on the big ideas of the content but rather should be a focus on building foundational skills and
knowledge as well (Byrd, Ellington, Gross, Jago & Stern, 2007; Hansen, 2005). Finally, the College
Board should monitor Advanced Placement teachers’ grading policies to ensure the rigorous
expectations are aligned to the teachers grading policies (Byrd, Ellington, Gross, Jago & Stern, 2007;
Sadler & Tai, 2007). These recommendations can make a positive impact for Advanced Placement
and its overall goal to provide rigorous coursework to high school students that will prepare them for
four year institutions of higher learning.
College Preparatory Curriculum
Introduction. College preparatory curriculum is a series of courses designed for high school
students to complete in order to meet the stringent scholastic requirement for entry into college and
universities (Gray, Wang & Malizia, 1995). For many years in America, public schools college
preparatory curriculum was reserved for less than half of all students. The college preparatory
curriculum was utilized by elite students, and the programming was judged upon the rate at which
students were accepted to college and universities. However, in 2005 the National Governors
Association led the charge in strengthening high school graduation requirements. These are rigorous
courses and steeper graduation requirements are found by utilizing college preparatory curriculum.
The requirements for college preparatory programs typically included: four English courses, three
mathematics courses, three laboratory sciences, and three social science courses (Allensworth, Nomi,
Montgomery & Lee, 2010). These changes swept the nation, and there have been mixed reviews on
the success of the college preparatory curriculum for all students (Brown & Schwartz, 2014).
Attending high school for many years was considered elective in nature. Students chose to join
the work force, armed services or family farms, but as the American economy began to evolve, so did
American public schools (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010). More students began to
attend high school in the early to mid-1900s. There were two primary philosophies that schools and
governing bodies followed (Lee & Ready, 2009). The first philosophy was that all students,
regardless of their desired future, should be enrolled in college preparatory curriculum so that the
students will be prepared for any path they seek. The second philosophy was that a student’s
secondary education should be driven by their future occupation or education. Schools should offer a
wide range of courses from academic to vocational in order to prepare students for their specific
future. Until the last the several years the majority of high schools followed the Cardinal Principles of
Education that designed schools for social efficiency and allowed student choice (Lee & Ready,
2009).
The majority of high school curriculum was structured by differentiated methodology in the
twentieth century (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010). Schools offered students options
that include a diverse range of academic and vocational offerings. In particular, the academic
coursework had mixed levels of rigor and difficulty. The model was viewed as a democratic model of
education, but the lack of control resulted in varying experiences for students across the country. In
particular, there were wide gaps of academic achievement and opportunity found with students that
were minorities and low socioeconomic statuses (Brown & Schwartz, 2014; Gray, Wang & Malizia,
1995). The varying experiences resulted in criticism of the model. This criticism soon turned into a
movement for change that was led by several prominent groups including: National Governors
Association, ACT and Achieve (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010). The movement
created significant changes that are impacting students, parents, teachers and schools today.
The Reasons for the College Preparatory Movement. The comprehensive model and
differentiated curriculum enjoyed wide spread support through the 1970s, but by the 1980s, the model
was under criticism (Lee & Ready, 2009). The criticism came from several factors, but the major
contribution came from the landmark study, A Nation at Risk (United States, 1983). The report from
the study describe America’s public high schools as cafeteria style with little rigor. A Nation at Risk
report had two central themes regarding the educational system. First, the United States economy and
competitiveness was directly tied to the public education. Therefore, schools had to adapt to the
changing economy and workplace. Secondly, the report found that the educational footing of
America was being damaged by apathy (United States, 1983). The report called for standardized
curriculum that was more rigorous and aligned to the needs of the country.
In addition to the call from A Nation at Risk for standardized curriculum in America, there was
a movement from educational experts for standards-based reform as well. The mainstay for successful
organizations is common goals and a shared sense of the organizational purpose (Schmoker &
Marzano, 1999). The standards-based movement called for schools, and therefore teachers to utilize
common standards so that it would enhance an organizations ability to plan and act.
A Nation at Risk joined with the standards based movement, and their call for change started the
change in curriculum throughout high schools in America (Lee & Ready, 2009)
The academic coursework prior to adoption of college preparatory curriculum had mixed
levels of rigor and difficulty. Students that where in minority groups and low socioeconomic statuses
where not getting opportunities in high school to access college preparatory curriculum (Brown &
Schwartz, 2014; Gray, Wang & Malizia, 1995). These varying opportunities available to at-risk
students resulted in criticism from various organizations citing the lack of opportunity created a wide
social and economic gap (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010). This gap began to show
itself in lack of minority and low socioeconomic students not only enrolling in college but also the
over representation of these student groups in remedial work in college classrooms (Attewell, Lavin,
Domina & Levey, 2006). These disparities contributed to the criticism and swell of support for
curriculum reform in America’s public high schools.
The final areas in which the democratic or comprehensive curriculum model was criticized
reflected social shifts in thought. First, the initial purpose of college preparatory curriculum was
designed to prepare affluent and intelligent students for universities. However, society began to
change its perspective on college and wanted more students to have the option to attend if they chose
(Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010; Gray, Wang & Malizia, 1995). Secondly, society,
driven by the business leaders and economic experts, wanted schools to focus more the quality of the
students that graduate high school and less on students simply graduating. In other words, businesses
need high quality individuals, and not those whom have earned watered down high school diploma.
Thirdly, student aspirations have changed significantly over the years. In 1973, only 52% of high
school seniors reported an intent to seek post-secondary education (Gray, Wang & Malizia, 1995).
Students have realized in the current economic climate that they must earn post-secondary credentials,
and therefore the importance of the high-quality and viable curriculum is magnified. The criticism
soon turned into a movement for change that was led by several prominent groups including: National
Governors Association, ACT and Achieve (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010).
College Preparatory Curriculum. The movement of college preparatory curriculum in high
schools was a 20 year journey from various studies and reports that began in the 1980s.
However, the criticism turned to action when the prominent National Association of Governors
supported the move toward college preparatory curriculum. Twenty-one states and the District of
Columbia have adopted a college preparatory curriculum for high school graduation requirements
(Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010). The changes did not make a significant impact on
students that were already college bound as most were surpassing the requirements before the
adoption of college preparatory curriculum (Lee & Ready, 2009). However, there was significant
impact on the students that where non-college bound as the enrollment college preparatory courses
has increased, while the enrollment in technical education programs has declined. The impact of the
adoption of college preparatory curriculum extends beyond college preparatory enrollment.
A key element in the policy shift of college preparatory curriculum was the elimination of
remedial courses (Lee & Ready, 2009). In the past high schools offered remedial language arts,
mathematics and sciences course instead of college preparatory level courses for students that were on
the non-college or technical path (Harwell, Medhanie, Post, Norman & Dupuis, 2012; Lee & Ready,
2009). The final impact for students is that all students regardless of the academic, social or
emotional issues are enrolled in college preparatory curriculum (Mulroy, 2011). The standardized
college preparatory curriculum includes several mainstays throughout the schools.
The typical college preparatory programs includes: four English courses, three mathematics
courses, three laboratory sciences, and three social science courses (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery
& Lee, 2010). The four English courses include: survey literature, American literature, European
literature and world literature. These courses are designed to provide a rounded literature experience
to prepare students for college level coursework. In addition to the literature requirements, the
mathematics courses include algebra, geometry and advanced algebra. Similarly to the English
courses, the mathematics courses are designed to provide students with well-rounded and rigorous
courses to prepare students for college level mathematics (Gray, Wang & Malizia, 1995). Science
courses that are required for college preparatory programs are structured around lab sciences. The
required science courses for college preparatory curriculum are biology, earth, and chemistry or
physics (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010). These sciences are structured similar to the
mathematics requirements in that they are topical in nature. In addition to the topical requirements,
there is a significant emphasis on laboratory component of each course. Finally, the social sciences
were outlined with more flexibility. The typical requirement for college preparatory coursework is
world history, United States history and an elective course with local control in the field of social
sciences. These courses and requirements comprise the modern version of college preparatory
curriculum that is used around public high schools in the United States.
Positive Impact of College Preparatory Curriculum. The adoption of college preparatory
curriculum is evident in many areas of America’s high schools, and there have been positive impacts
for students. The impact is evident for lower skilled students (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery &
Lee, 2010). The number of the lowest skill students taking college preparatory classes has increased
with the implementation of college preparatory courses. In addition, academically non-competitive
students enrolled in college preparatory curriculum take more rigorous mathematics and science
courses compared to averages of schools without required college preparatory curriculum (Gray,
Wang & Malizia, 1995). The impact for students goes beyond a transcript, but the college preparatory
curriculum also contributes intrinsically for students as well. Students that struggled academically
reported they felt the quality of their education was higher when enrolled in college preparatory
curriculum. The curriculum impacts students intrinsically, but it also helps maintain academic equity.
A reform effort was started in Chicago public high schools in 1997 (Allensworth, Nomi,
Montgomery & Lee, 2010). The reform mandated college-preparatory curriculum for all students in
high school. The requirements for each student were: four years of English courses, three years of
mathematics courses, three years of laboratory sciences, and three years of social science. Nearly 7
years after the reform actually started nearly all Chicago public high school students entering ninth
grade were enrolled in college preparatory curriculum. Many states began to adopt the Chicago
model, and began to require all students to enroll into college preparatory curriculum (Mulroy, 2011).
The Chicago reform caused a ripple effect, and has become a landmark study for college preparatory
curriculum mandates.
In a report from a study of Chicago’s college preparatory curriculum, researchers stated, “To
be clear, curriculum requirements have important equity benefits and can play a role in efforts to
improve students’ high school experiences and their preparation for college” (Allensworth, Nomi,
Montgomery & Lee, 2010, p. 8). College preparatory requirements ensure that schools are providing
rigorous curriculum to all students regardless of their ethnicity or socioeconomic status. The college
preparatory requirements combat the associations between social background and academic
performance that often channeled minority and low-income students toward less rigorous courses
(Lee & Ready, 2009). College preparatory curriculum has had a substantial impact on America’s high
schools; however, the impact of these changes has not all been positive.
Negative Impact of College Preparatory Curriculum. College preparatory curriculum for
all students is a great idea; however, the application of the thought is more difficult than a simple
reform. In an recent article, Dr. Schwartz wrote, “We have allowed a very important idea – that all
students need a solid foundation of core academic knowledge and skills – to morph into a not-so-good
idea: that all students need to be prepared to attend a four-year college” (Brown & Schwartz, 2014, p.
57). The first negative impact is that college preparatory curriculum was passed as a mandate and
forced high school students to complete coursework they were ill-prepared to complete too quickly
(Adams, 2014; Brown & Schwartz, 2014). The process of educating students is one that takes many
years, and the reform of high school curriculum did not allow for elementary and middle schools to
prepare students and in particular, non-college going students, adequately for the new requirements in
high school.
Since the college preparatory curriculum has been implemented across high schools, there has
not been a statistically significant impact on student achievement (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery
& Lee, 2010). Test scores in math and English have been unaffected by increase in college
preparatory curriculum. In addition to a lack of improvement on test scores, non-college students are
more likely to have chronic absenteeism when attending a high school with college preparatory
curriculum (Mulroy, 2011). Students, and in particular struggling students, are more likely to fail
academic classes in college preparatory curriculum than in the comprehensive model (Allensworth,
Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010; Lee & Ready, 2009). These negative attributes have contributed to
a decreased graduation rate for many schools and districts (Mulroy, 2011; Allensworth, Nomi,
Montgomery & Lee, 2010). The negative impact of mandatory college preparatory curriculum
reaches past high school.
Students enrolled in mandatory college preparatory curriculum have seen little to no
significant growth academically; therefore, many researchers believe that college preparatory classes
have been watered down to meet the needs of the students (Brown & Schwartz, 2014; Allensworth,
Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010; Lee & Ready, 2009). Therefore, students enrolling in college are
less prepared and contributing to higher enrollment in remedial coursework in college (Harwell et al.,
2012; Attewell, Lavin, Domina & Levey, 2006; Gray, Wang & Malizia, 1995). Finally, college
graduation rates have remained around slightly less than 50% even with the increase in students
completing college preparatory curriculum (Harwell et al., 2012; Gray, Wang & Malizia, 1995).
These negative attributes of college preparatory curriculum have led to many recommendations for
research and improvement.
Recommendations for College Preparatory Curriculum. The ability for all students to
have access to college preparatory curriculum is critical for students to be able to navigate and
succeed in the ever changing global economy that students enter after leaving high school (Cahill,
2016). College readiness means postsecondary education, which includes training centers, two year
colleges and four year universities. College preparatory curriculum should not be viewed as vocation
training, but instead, it should viewed as an opportunity for students explore all the career
opportunities available to them and the required training to attain the goal. College preparatory
curriculum play a tremendous role in student preparation, equity and school improvement; however,
curriculum improvement cannot be the sole reform expected to impact student achievement (Belasco
& Trivette, 2015).
According to Lee and Ready college preparatory curriculum was adopted rapidly by many
state boards of education and implemented quickly across many states. The initial implementation
sought standardization of curriculum, but recent research has pointed to a more effective platform of
utilizing horizontal and vertical alignment (Lee & Ready, 2009). Horizontal alignment fits the
original intent of the curriculum reform with creating standardize sequences for each college
preparatory curriculum in order to best prepare students. However, the vertical alignment that has
taken hold in many high schools has been found successful. Vertical alignment means that schools
have varying levels of college preparatory courses to meet the needs for the students. Many schools
are electing to offer regular, honors and advanced placement level courses to motivate and challenge
all students (Lee & Ready, 2009). The success of vertical alignment within college preparatory
curriculum has been challenged in the recent economic decline (Guzy, 2014). Leaders should protect
the successful initiative from budgetary constraints and maintain the programming within the overall
curriculum. After the curriculum is aligned vertically and horizontally, the focus must shift to the
practice of teaching.
The college preparatory curriculum reform will not reach its full potential without addressing
instructional practices and engagement (Kim J., Kim, Desjardins & McCall, 2015; Allensworth,
Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010). Educational leaders must focus on improving the instructional
practices that take place in each classroom from day to day in order to realize the full impact of the
more rigorous curriculum. In addition to instructional practices, schools and teachers must improve
student engagement. If students are not engaged in the curriculum, then they will not experience the
complete benefit of the program. A team of researchers led by Dr. Allensworth concluded,
Getting the content and structure of courses right is just the first step. Real improvements in
learning will require states and districts to develop strategies that get students excited about
learning, attending class regularly, and working hard in their courses (Allensworth, Nomi,
Montgomery & Lee, 2010, p. 11).
The approach to improvement in complex organizations must be a multifaceted approach in order to
reach the fullest potential. In conclusion, research is clear that schools must address the whole student
and not simply add additional programming or courses (Slabbert & Friedrich-Nel, 2015). The college
preparatory initiative will not reach its fullest potential without addressing the social, emotional,
economic and academic needs of each student; therefore, educational reform must be holistic in nature
at the global and school level.
ACT
Importance. The design of education to is to prepare students for their future. A large portion
of this preparation is centered on employment, and securing a viable career (Maruyama, 2012).
Students are graduating high school and entering one of the most competitive employment
environments in history. American students are competing with student around the world (Katz,
2007). Jobs in America that require advanced skill and knowledge are growing, and the future
economic success is dependent upon a greater number of students earning postsecondary education
than before (Bowing, Chingos, & McPherson, 2009). Therefore, schools are tasked with the
important job of preparing students for postsecondary education.
ACT Benchmarking. The importance of students earning postsecondary credentials has
increased, and schools have been pressured to produce more students ready for this environment.
Therefore, many states and schools have turned to ACT in order to determine if students are prepared
for postsecondary education. ACT has a longstanding tradition with providing a college readiness
benchmark exam. This exam is referred to as ACT, and is widely accepted for admission to many
universities. High schools are not only trying to ensure students are admitted to these institutions of
higher learning, but to also make sure they are prepared and successful (Somerville & Yi, 2002).
Research has shown that students are much more likely to be successful in postsecondary education if
the student meets the benchmark standards before entering higher education institutions (Achieve,
2004).
Principals of Benchmarking. College readiness is an accumulation of knowledge and
experiences that prepare students for college (Maruyama, 2012). In order to determine the readiness
many states and schools have turned to ACT benchmark exams. In an empirical study involving over
16,000 students examined student’s benchmark data, and tracked their success through postsecondary
education. The study concluded there were seven principles of benchmarking that ensure the most
effective and reliable data (Maruyama et al., 2008). The first principle is benchmark should be
logical and consequential (Maruyama, 2012). Benchmark exams should be related to student
coursework, and in sequence. The second principle is for benchmarks to acknowledge their
limitations. ACT benchmarks are predictors of a students’ success in postsecondary, but there are
many other variables including GPA, socioeconomic status and coursework (Desjardins & Lindsay,
2008). The third principle is us defining readiness in different approaches (Maruyama, 2012).
Readiness should focus on a number of factors in order to triangulate readiness with benchmarking,
GPA, and social measures (Stemler, 2012).
The fourth principle of benchmarking is that each scores representation of probability of
success is valuable (Maruyama, 2012). Thresholds are very efficient for goals and admission
standards, but scores must be utilized for each student’s skills (Greene & Forster, 2003). The fifth
principle is to use as much information as possible that is already being collected (Maruyama, 2012).
Multiple measures reduce variability of data, and provide a truer picture of potential success (Schmitt,
2012). The sixth principle of benchmarking is that data is tied to attributes that students can act upon
(Maruyama, 2012). Student should be able to use data to identify weaknesses and pursue
improvement to improve rate of success. The final principle of benchmarking is that the process of
defining postsecondary readiness is critical, and should involve all stakeholders. Labels are powerful
motivators, or deterrents. Benchmarking is a valuable tool, but it must be constructed and utilized
with the big picture in mind.
Academic Press
Introduction. Academic press is the degree which environmental forces press for student
achievement on a schoolwide basis (Murhpy, Weil, Hallinger, & Mitman, 1982). Academic press
manifests itself by establishing an environment in which teachers believe that student can succeed
academically, and therefore press students to meet the rising expectations (Mitchel, Kinsler,
&Tschannen-Moran, 2015). Schools with academic press are considered to be schools that set high
expectations, create a thoughtful and organized learning environment and staff members give
additional effort to ensure student success (Hoy, & Hannum, 1997). Schools with this environment
have not only teachers and administrators with high expectations, but students begin to value hard
work and academic achievement as well (Mitchel, Kinsler, &Tschannen-Moran, 2015). Academic
press can be observed within the confines of a school through caring culture, student engagement and
rigorous curriculum (Louis, Murphy, & Smylie, 2016; Marzano & Toth, 2014; Tschannen-Moran, &
Gareis, 2015).
Caring culture. Academic press includes a caring school culture, and this must start with the
instructional leader (Louis, Murphy, & Smylie, 2016). There are four guiding principles for
developing a cultural of care within a school. First, leaders must act based upon knowledge and
understanding of the needs that are developed out of sufficient attentiveness to and engrossment with
the students. School leaders must know their students and learn their needs first hand in order to truly
design an effective plan for caring. Second, the caring actions of school leaders are motivated by
advancing the success and personal well-being of the students. The direction of a school must be on
what is best for the students and not what is best for the teachers and leadership. Third, caring leaders
should recognize and acknowledge the ones cared for. Finally, caring should not be left to the
leadership team completely, each staff member at the school should be stakeholder in creating a
caring environment (Conner, Miles, & Pope, 2014).
In order to create a culture of caring, the school leader must first engage the school community
in the vision and mission of becoming a caring school (Louis, Murphy, & Smylie, 2016). The leader
sets the tone for school initiatives, and the leader must be cognizant of the importance of their actions
(Collie, Martin, Malmberg, Hall, & Ginns, 2015). However, a leader cannot fully understand the
complexity of a school without support; therefore, the school must be assessed thoroughly to
determine the strengths, weaknesses, avenues for caring and resources available (Louis, Murphy, &
Smylie, 2016). The assessment is key to the success of the culture and will allow the leaders to create
the programs to meet the needs of the school. Leaders should not utilize standardized programming
without determining the true needs of the school (Murphy & Torre, 2016). The information collected
in the assessment of care should be used to create a supportive culture for the school community.
These supports must be put in place in order to maintain a culture of care and support within the
school and community. Finally, the school must cultivate larger systems of caring that incorporate
various other stakeholders and partnerships (Chase, Hillard, Geldof, Warren, & Lerner, 2014).
Creating a caring environment is a part of academic press and, therefore the overall success of a
school (Louis, Murphy, & Smylie, 2016).
Student engagement. In addition to being cared for, students that are engaged in learning are
much more likely to experience academic success (Louis, Murphy, & Smylie, 2016). In a recent
study by Marzano and Toth, the research found that up to 60% of high school students become
chronically disengaged from school (2014). These disengaged students are much less likely to be
prepared for college and career. Students that attend high performing schools are less likely to be
disengaged and less likely to experience academic anxiety (Conner, Miles, & Pope, 2014). The
positive effects of well-prepared teachers and academic rigor can be stronger than the influences of
student background factors such as poverty, language background, and minority status (Darling-
Hammond, 2000). Therefore, the effectiveness of academic is substantial for school improvement
and academic achievement.
Rigorous Curriculum. Rigorous curriculum allows student and teachers to succeed
(Tschannen-Moran, & Gareis, 2015). Teachers need models and training to help them reach the level
of rigor required to prepare students for college and career readiness (Marzano & Toth, 2014). A core
piece to instructional leadership is to facilitate the creation of a rigorous curriculum school-wide
(Tschannen-Moran, & Gareis, 2015). In 2014 a Marzano and Toth study on classroom rigor was
conducted by the Marzano foundation, they found only six percent of lessons a teacher conducts
throughout the year were devoted to complex and more rigorous tasks (2014). Secondly, they found
that 58% of class time was used to introduce new topics. These statistics show a pattern of declining
rigor in the average class, and this is detrimental academic achievement (Smith & Kearney, 2012).
Therefore, instructional leaders must focus on increasing rigor in classrooms. Well-prepared teachers
can increase student achievement in spite of background effects of poverty, language and minority
statues alike (Darling-Hammond, 2000).
Instructional leaders must facilitate the growth of classroom rigor. There are thirteen primary
steps outlined by the Marzano Center for Learning Sciences (Marzano & Toth, 2014). The first is
identifying critical content. Teachers spend too much time teaching material that is not necessary and
sometimes not even a part of their curriculum. Teachers must identify critical pieces of work for their
subject and ensure these are taught with rigor and fidelity. Next, teachers should allow students to
preview content, and in particular, the critical pieces should be highlighted. This task sounds simple,
but a teacher must be well prepared in order to complete it. The third piece to increasing rigor is to
organize content so that students can interact with it (Marzano & Toth, 2014). Therefore, students
should be in class settings that facilitate their interaction with the content. In addition, the teacher
should systematically engage student groups in process and generating conclusions about the content.
The fifth strategy is to have student elaborate on the content. The content should be oriented so that
the students must make inferences regarding the content. The ability to elaborate and take ownership
of the curriculum as a student is tremendously important for building engagement and mastery
(Collie, Martin, Malmberg, Hall, & Ginns, 2015).
The sixth step is to assist students in recording and representing knowledge (Marzano & Toth,
2014). The instructor should allow the students to create their own representation of the content and
processes. The seventh part of increasing the rigor in a classroom lesson is to manage response rates
with tiered questioning. The instructor controls the depth and breadth of the class by asking questions
designed to take them to the instructional goal. The teacher can lead the classroom to instructional
goal; however, the teacher must be well prepared in order conduct such a class of growth (Darling-
Hammond, 2000).
In addition to guiding students through questioning, teachers must also review content
(Marzano & Toth, 2014). Therefore, the instructor delivers the student a review of the content that
highlights the key points of the lesson. The ninth key is to enable students to practice skills, strategies
and processes. Students must be able to perform tasks in order to reach the higher levels of classroom
rigor. The four remaining strategies are directly tied to student actions. The tenth piece is helping
students examine similarities and differences. This strategy allows students to compare, classify, and
create analogies and metaphors. The eleventh piece is to help students examine their own reason.
Students should be able to produce and defend claims by examining their own reasoning. The final
strategy is that students are regularly engaged in cognitively complex tasks. Students should not be
engaged in complex only at the end of each unit but throughout it. Rigor builds engagement, and
engagement is crucial for academic achievement and school improvement (Early, Rogge, & Deci,
2014).
Summary. In summary, academic press is imperative for sustained school improvement
success (Tschannen-Moran., & Gareis). Academic press is linked to overcoming many of the issues
facing schools today, including language, poverty, and minority status. Academic press should be the
foundation in which school improvement is built. However, academic press is multifaceted, and not
simply more rigor in the classroom (Louis, Murphy, & Smylie, 2016). School improvement cannot
come from a standardized program, rather it must be created and drafted through assessment and first-
hand knowledge of the school (Murphy, & Torre, 2016). Academic press must be a balanced
approach that hits all angles of the school, but each piece must be directed toward academic
improvement.
Instructional Leadership
Introduction. Instructional leadership is a topic that has emerged throughout educational
research (Hallinger, 2003). Effective principals are ideally stronger leaders with a focus on
curriculum and instruction (Mitchell, Kensler, Tschannen-Moran, 2015; Hoy, Sweetland, & Smith,
2002). There are three primary areas of focus for instructional leaders. First, instructional leaders
define and promote the school’s mission. School leaders collaborate and effectively communicate the
schools mission. Secondly, the instructional leader manages instructional programming. Identifying
and effectively managing school curriculum and programming is imperative for school leadership.
Finally, the instructional leader promotes a positive school climate. The schools climate is regulated
and determined by the attitude and action of the school leader (Tschannen-Moran, & Gareis, 2015).
These three areas within a leadership role in a school create the influence of an instructional leader
(Mitchell, Kensler, Tschannen-Moran, 2015).
Importance. States, schools and therefore school leaders are experiencing greater pressure
for schools to perform in the era of accountability and ever changing economic landscape (Mitchell,
Kensler, Tschannen-Moran, 2015; Balfanz, Herzog, & Iver, 2007). In a 2015 study by Mitchell,
Kensler, Tschannen-Moran concluded,
“Instructional leadership was positively correlated with academic achievement in the bivariate
correlational analysis and had an indirect effect on academic achievement in the combined
model. In fact, school academic press and instructional leadership had the strongest effect on
academic achievement” (p. 245, 2015). Instructional leadership makes a significant impact on
academic achievement, and therefore is relevant to school improvement strategies.
School Mission. One of the keys to effective instructional leadership is defining and
promoting the school’s mission. Reviews of theoretical and empirical research have indicated that
instructional leadership has one of the strongest impacts on school performance through shaping the
schools mission to an academic focus (Mitchell, Kensler, Tschannen-Moran, 2015). The belief in the
schools mission can shape teachers behaviors and outcomes, and therefore impact student
achievement (Tschannen-Moran, & Gareis, 2015). The school’s mission manifests itself from the
instructional leader’s vision to the teachers, and through the students (Mitchell, Kensler, Tschannen-
Moran, 2015). Schools must focus on academic achievement in order to not only improve, but also to
reach each students full potential. Research demonstrated that when teachers work collectively for the
same goals and mission, then schools will be more productive and likely to achieve each goal
(Scribner, Cockrell, K., Cockrell, D., Valentine, 1999). Effective school leaders can communicate
and unite teachers, students and stakeholders around the school mission (Mitchell, Kensler,
Tschannen-Moran, 2015). However, the in order for academic progress to manifest itself through a
school mission, the programming must be aligned with the mission (Hoy, Sweetland, & Smith, 2002).
Programming. Instructional leaders manage academic programming (Hoy, Sweetland, &
Smith, 2002). Identifying and effectively managing school curriculum and programming is
imperative for highly effective school leadership. Rigorous curriculum is imperative for student
achievement (Murphy, Weil, Hallinger, & Mitman, 1982). Rigorous and aligned academic
programming is a persistent variable in student achievement (Tschannen-Moran, & Gareis, 2015).
Therefore, instructional leaders must work to not only push students academically, but to also meet
the needs of the student and the mission of the school. The instructional leader must be able to
recognize the areas of weakness in the school, and create a climate that is continually monitoring
progress with the desire for improvement (Balfanz, Herzog, & Iver, 2007).
Climate. Research has and is currently pointing to the importance of caring in order to
develop more effective adult cultures and to improve student learning (Louis, Murphy, & Smylie,
2016). In a study led by educational researcher Dr. Hoy, he stated, “We were successful in finding a
variable, collective efficacy that was more important in explaining school achievement than
socioeconomic status” (Hoy, Sweetland, & Smith, p. 89, 2002). The research found that a positive
climate can contribute student learning as much or more than socioeconomic status. This finding is
important because changing the cultural is feasible, but not the economic status of each child. The
climate set by the instructional leader will filter to the students, and therefore it is imperative for
school improvement that leaders create a culture of care to reach the full potential the organization
(Louis, Murphy, & Smylie, 2016).
Conclusion. States, schools and school leaders were tasked to prepare students for an
continually evolving economy (Balfanz, Herzog, & Iver, 2007). Schools experience tremendous
pressure to improve student achievement through accountability (Mitchell, Kensler, Tschannen-
Moran, 2015). Research has shown that effective principals are instructional leaders. These leaders
have a focus on curriculum and instruction, and strong leadership skills (Mitchell, Kensler,
Tschannen-Moran, 2015; Hoy, Sweetland, & Smith, 2002). The three primary areas of focus are:
school’s mission, instructional programming and school climate. These three areas of focus create the
instructional leadership role in a school (Mitchell, Kensler, Tschannen-Moran, 2015). Though the task
of an instructional leader is great, the impact is just as immense.
Chapter 3: Methodology
Background
The study was designed to determine if there is a correlation between curriculum paths and a
student’s percentile for the ACT composite score relative to their Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment projection. The study analyzed college preparatory and Advanced Placement curriculum.
College preparatory curriculum is designed to prepare high school students to meet the requirements
for admission to colleges and universities (Gray, Wang & Malizia, 1995). The requirements for
college preparatory programs included: four English courses, three mathematics courses, three
laboratory sciences, and three social science courses (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010).
Advanced Placement courses are rigorous academic courses that are designed to provide university
level instruction and content in high school classrooms (College Board, 2016). Advanced Placement
courses are directed by College Board, which serves as the accreditation board and governing body.
There is limited research comparing each curriculum relative to the Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment System Project ACT Percentile. The study has provided school leaders correlational data
to assist in determining the most advantageous curriculum for their school that will provide the
greatest impact for student achievement.
Research Questions
Research has shown a strong correlation of the positive impact of academic press and student
achievement (Smith & Kearney, 2012). However, academic press is not as easily determined in a
high school setting with varied courses and programs of study. Therefore, the study was designed to
determine if a there was a correlation between a student’s specific coursework and Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment growth on the ACT. The study had two primary research questions that will
guided the statistical analysis.
These questions are:
1. What is the correlation between Advanced Placement Courses and a students’ Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
2. What is the correlation between College Prep Courses and a students’ Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
The research questions utilized in this study were correlational, and were analyzed using the
Pearson Product Moment Correlation. This statistical test was be used to determine if there is a
correlation among a student’s performance on the ACT, and the curriculum students utilize during
their high school academic career. In order to determine if there was a correlation a large sample size
was been selected.
Sample
The sample for the study was four hundred and eighty nine senior students at a rural high
school in east Tennessee. This sample was chosen for four significant reasons. First, the sample was
chosen for convenience. The student data needed for this study was easily accessible and convenient
for the researcher. Secondly, the senior class member’s eligible for this study is four hundred and
eighty nine students. This large sample size created a worthy sample size for the study. Thirdly, the
school had a diverse student population with students in socioeconomic and academic backgrounds.
Finally, the school is a comprehensive high school. Students took courses from Advanced Placement
and college preparatory to work based learning classes on local farms. The sample size, combined
with the academic diversity, socioeconomic diversity and convenience, enabled the students from the
high school to be a solid fit for the study. In order to insure the sample was utilized appropriately data
collection procedures are outlined in the methodology.
Date Collection
Data was collected from three primary sources. First, each student’s transcript was reviewed to
determine the number of Advanced Placement courses taken by the student. Each Advanced
Placement course counted as one point for the student’s course total. Secondly, each student’s
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT projected percentile was recorded. This projected
ACT percentile was compared to the actual percentile scored by the student on the ACT test. Thirdly,
the student’s ACT percentile was accessed by the ACT School Report. The student’s ACT percentile
was compared to the projected ACT percentile. These data points provided the basis for the study and
subsequent discussion for future implications.
Advanced Placement courses are rigorous academic courses that are built upon the
commitment, passion and hard work of student and educators from both secondary and higher
education (College Board, 2016). Each course and instructor are governed by College Board.
Advanced Placement courses are audited on an annual basis. Course audits must include a syllabus
that meets or exceeds the academic rigor expectations from College Board. Expectations and rigor of
Advanced Placement courses are standardized through the course audit. In addition to a course audit,
all instructors of Advanced Placement courses must attend the Advanced Placement Summer Institute.
In addition, College Board recommends educators to attend a workshop during each academic year.
Finally, educators are encouraged to join the online Advance Placement Teacher Community. These
procedures are designed to standardize the instruction and rigor in classrooms around the world
utilizing Advanced Placement courses.
College preparatory curriculum is designed to prepare high school students to meet for
requirements for admission to colleges and universities (Gray, Wang & Malizia, 1995).
The requirements for college preparatory programs include: four English courses, three mathematics
courses, three laboratory sciences, and three social science courses (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery
& Lee, 2010). The four English courses include: survey literature, American literature, European
literature and world literature. The mathematics courses include; algebra, geometry and advanced
algebra. The requirements for science courses for college preparatory curriculum are biology, earth,
and chemistry or physics (Allensworth, Nomi, Montgomery & Lee, 2010). Finally, the typical
requirement for college preparatory coursework in social science is world history, United States
history and an elective course with local control in the field of social sciences. These courses are the
core of college preparatory curriculum that is used for public high schools in the United States.
Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis chosen for the study was the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation, or
commonly referred to as the Pearson R. The Pearson R is a measure of strength of a linear association
between two variables (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, & Walker, 2014). A Pearson R draws a line of best fit
through the data of two variables and is denoted by R. The Pearson correlation coefficient signifies
the strength of the correlation of the data. The value 0 indicates that there is no association between
the two variables. A value greater than 0 indicates a positive association. As the Pearson correlation
coefficient increases, it indicates that as the value of one variable increases so does the value of the
other variable. A value less than 0 indicates a negative association; as the value of variable increase,
the other value of the variable decreases.
Instruments
The Pearson R is widely accepted as a reliable statistical analysis of data (Ary, Jacobs,
Sorensen, & Walker, 2014). In order for reliable conclusions to be drawn from a Pearson R, there are
five assumptions that must be made in the study (Lund, A., & Lund, M., 2013). First, the variables
must be interval or ratio measurements. The number of Advanced Placement courses, and ACT
percentile were set on intervals of one. Secondly, the variables must be approximately normally
distributed. The variables were normally distributed. Thirdly, there is a linear relationship between
the two variables. The variables had a linear relationship determined by the intervals. Fourthly, the
outliers were kept to a minimum or removed. The outliers will be kept to a minimum. Finally, there
is homoscedasticity of the data. Homoscedasticity is the assumption that variance around the
regression line is the same for all values of the predictor variable. These assumptions allow for
conclusions to be drawn from the use of a Pearson R analysis of data.
The Pearson Product Moment Correlation is widely accepted among researchers and
statisticians (Lund, A., & Lund, M., 2013). However, the Pearson R value cannot simply be seen as
predictor that variable x, directly affects variable y. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation does
not take into consideration whether a variable has been classified as dependent or independent. The
Pearson R does not make a theory behind the selection of each variable. Therefore, the researcher
must determine the causation behind the correlation. The statistical analysis will determine if there is
a relationship, but the researcher must determine the cause.
The Pearson R does not take into consideration whether a variable has been classified as a
dependent or independent variable (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, & Walker, 2014). In addition, the study
was completed in part as ex post facto research. The data in the study were found in several databases.
The data were collected for research purposes, and not for any other purpose. The number of
Advance Placement Courses, ACT Percentile Projections, and the ACT Percentile cannot be
manipulated or altered. Therefore, the two variables explored were the number of AP courses and the
student’s ACT Percentile, relative to the Tennessee Value Added Assessment System ACT Percentile
Projection.
Research Procedures
The structure of the data collection was done by integrating the data into an Excel spreadsheet.
The first column was the student’s name. This information was removed for data publication and
protected in order to keep student information anonymous. The name was placed so that there is
reference point for information verification. The second column was the number of Advanced
Placement courses the student took through their senior year of high school. For example, if a student
had taken the three advanced placement course, then the value in the cell would be three. In addition
to the name and number of Advanced Placement courses taken by the student, the third column was
the student’s Tennessee Value Added Assessment System ACT Projected Percentile. The fourth
column was the student’s ACT State Percentile from the School ACT report. The fifth column was
the difference between the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Projected Percentile and
the ACT Percentile from the School ACT report. The values utilized during the statistical analysis
was the number of Advanced Placement Courses, and the difference between the Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment System ACT Projected Percentile and the ACT Percentile from the School ACT
report.
The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation was found by analyzing the linear relationship
between the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System Projected ACT Percentile and the students
actual ACT Percentile. The relationship was determined by the Pearson Correlation Coefficient or the
Pearson R. A value of 0 indicates that there is no association between the number of Advanced
Placement Courses and students performance on the ACT relative to their project percentile.
A value greater than 0 indicates that there is a positive association between the number of Advanced
Placement Courses and students performance on the ACT relative to their project percentile. A value
less than 0 indicates that there is a negative association between the number of Advanced Placement
Courses and students performance on the ACT relative to their project percentile.
Time Period of Study
The time period for the study was 2013-2017 through ex post facto data collection. Student
transcripts were analyzed starting from their freshman year of high school which was the 2013-2014
school year. The data analyzation was completed in the spring semester of 2017.
Contributions
The analysis of the data from the study contributed to educational leaders that currently have
an Advanced Placement Program, or those school considering an Advanced Placement Program. A
value greater than 0 indicates that there is a positive association between the number of Advanced
Placement Courses and students performance on the ACT relative to their project percentile. A
positive correlation between the number of Advanced Placement Courses and students performance
on the ACT relative to their project percentile shows that students out perform their anticipated
performance on the ACT compared to their peers. In other words, students that took Advanced
Placement courses grew at a greater rate than students that were enrolled less rigorous coursework.
Conclusion
The design of this study was to determine if there was a correlation between each curriculum
and a student’s performance on the ACT relative to their Tennessee Value Added Assessment
projection. The study analyzed college preparatory and Advanced Placement curriculum. College
preparatory curriculum is designed to prepare students to meet the general requirements for admission
to colleges and universities (Gray, Wang & Malizia, 1995). Advanced Placement courses are
academic courses that are designed to provide university level rigor in high school classrooms
(College Board, 2016). The study had two research questions that will guide the statistical analysis of
the collected data. These questions were:
1. What is the correlation between Advanced Placement Courses and a students’
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
2. What is the correlation between College Prep Courses and a students’ Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
Since the research questions utilized in this study were correlational they were analyzed using the
Pearson Product Moment Correlation.
The sample for the study was the senior class at a large rural high school in east Tennessee.
The sample size combined with the academic and socioeconomic diversity enable the senior class of
the selected high school to be a fit for the study. The statistical instrument for the study was the
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation. The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation is a measure of
strength of a linear association between two variables (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, & Walker, 2014). The
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation was found by analyzing the linear relationship between the
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System Projected ACT Percentile and the number of advanced
placement courses. The strength of the correlation has been determined by the Pearson Correlation
Coefficient. The study has contributed to a body of research that will enable school leaders to make
informed curricular decisions.
Chapter 4: Results of Analysis
Introduction
Schools are not preparing the of majority students for college and careers (Marzano &
Toth, 2014). Many courses are lacking rigor despite the research correlating academic achievement
and rigor in the classroom (Louis, Murphy, & Smylie, 2016). Highly effective schools push students
academically in order to increase student achievement. Student achievement is a multifaceted
measure, but research shows that rigorous curriculum can positively impact student achievement.
Schools must ensure they are providing students with a rigorous curriculum that meets the needs of
their students. The review of literature and study were designed to provide evidence of the strong of
correlation between Advanced Placement Courses and student’s actual performance on the ACT
relative to their Tennessee Value-Added Assessment projected performance.
The study is a quantitative study that utilized Pearson Product-Moment Correlation to
determine if there is a correlation between a student’s course path and their performance on the ACT
relative to their Tennessee Value-Added Assessment projected performance. It was designed to
determine if there is a correlation between the Advanced Placement or College Preparatory course
path and growth on the ACT. The study has two primary research questions that will guide the
statistical analysis.
1. What is the correlation between Advanced Placement Courses and a student’s Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
2. What is the correlation between College Preparatory Courses and a student’s Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
The intent of the study and literature review was to gather and provide evidence in which an
informed decision can be made by each school leader for the most effective curriculum for their
school. The research questions were analyzed with the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation to
determine if there is a correlation (Lund, A., & Lund, M., 2013). The results will be analyzed in order
to determine the correlation between Advanced Placement Courses and a student’s Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment growth on the ACT. The two-tailed Pearson Product-Moment Correlation enabled
an analysis to determine which course path Advanced Placement or College Preparatory has the
strongest correlation on a student’s Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT.
Measurement level can be categorized into two types (SPSS 24 User Guide, 2016). These
types are categorical and scale data, and each type has specific characteristics. Categorical data has a
limited number of distinct values or categories. Categorical variables can be string or numeric
variables. Categorical data is broken down as ordinal, or nominal (SPSS 24 User Guide, 2016).
Ordinal data is a variable that represents categories with intrinsic ranking. A variable is typically
nominal when its values represent categories with no intrinsic ranking. Categorical data can be
utilized by either ordinal or nominal; however, data can also be categorized as scale. Scale data is
measured on an interval or ratio scale (SPSS 23.00 IBM Knowledge Center, 2016). Scale data values
indicate both the order of values and the distance between values.
The data from a rural high school in East Tennessee were analyzed. The sample included four
hundred and seventy seven- 477 students that had each necessary measure for the study. Twenty-six
percent of the students enrolled and completed at least one Advanced Placement program. The school
provided an extensive Advanced Placement Program, and the state mandated College Preparatory
Program. See Appendix 1 for Advanced Placement data. Table 4.1 outlines the population of the
students included in the analysis.
Table 4.1
Population of Student Data Analyzed
Number of
Students
Percent of
Students
Student Group School 477 100%
Advanced
Placement
123
26%
College
Preparatory
354 74%
Four hundred and seventy-seven students were analyzed. One hundred and twenty-
three students took at least one Advanced Placement course. Table 4.2 outlines the population of
students that took Advanced Placement courses in the analysis.
Table 4.2
Population of Advanced Placement Students Analyzed
Number of Advanced
Placement Courses
Number of
Students
Percent of
Students
12 2 2%
11 1 1%
10 1 1%
9 2 2%
8 3 2%
7 6 4%
6 8 7%
5 12 10%
4 18 14%
3 10 8%
2 34 28%
1 26 21%
The student population in the school experienced positive gains overall. In each category the
students outperformed the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment projection for both percentile and
composite ACT scores. The academic growth for students taking both Advanced Placement and
College Preparatory courses are listed in table 4.3.
Table 4.3
Population Sample Academic Growth
Student Course Path Projected
ACT State
Percentile
Average
Performed
ACT State
Percentile
Average
Projected
ACT State
Composite
Average
Performed
ACT State
Composite
Average
College Preparatory 17.9 43.6 45.7 18.6
Advanced Placement 78.7 80.1 24.4 25.5
Results
A two-tailed bivariate correlation Pearson R correlating the difference in Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment ACT State Percentile projection and the student’s highest performed score was
compared to the number Advanced Placement courses in which each student enrolled and completed.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .010. This value is considered statistically insignificant. In
addition, a two-tailed bivariate correlation Pearson R correlating the difference in Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment ACT Composite projection and the student’s highest performed score was
compared to the number Advanced Placement courses in which each student enrolled and completed.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .143. This value is considered statistically significant. There
is a minimal correlation with completing Advanced Placement Coursework and academic growth
beyond the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment ACT Composite.
The study had two primary research questions that guided the statistical analysis. The first
question is:
1. What is the correlation between Advanced Placement Courses and a student’s Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
The second question is:
2. What is the correlation between College Preparatory Courses and a student’s Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
The nature of the two-tailed bivariate Pearson correlation coefficient allows for statically
analysis to be both positive and negative. Therefore, the analysis of each set data was used to
determine the correlations. There were four hundred and seventy-seven-477students in the study. The
ACT composite was 20.37. See frequencies in table 4.4.
Table 4.4
ACT Student Composite Frequency Table
N Valid 477
Missing 0
Mean 20.3782
Median 20.0000
Mode 22.00
Range 23.00
Minimum 12.00
Maximum 35.00
The average difference between ACT percentile and Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System for
all students regardless of course work was 2.22. Therefore, the average student outperformed their
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System projection. See frequencies in table 4.5.
Table 4.5
ACT Percentile Difference
N Valid 477
Missing 0
Mean 2.2227
Median 2.0000
Mode .00
Range 109.00
Minimum -38.00
Maximum 71.00
The average difference between ACT Composite and Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
System for all students regardless of course work was .792. Therefore, the average student
outperformed Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System projection. See frequencies in table 4.6.
Table 4.6
ACT Composite Difference
N Valid 476
Missing 0
Mean .7920
Median 1.0000
Mode 1.00
Range 16.00
Minimum -5.00
Maximum 11.00
The data analyzed using a two-tailed bivariate Pearson correlation coefficient in SPSS Version
24. The data were analyzed by comparing the difference of the performed and projected Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of Advanced Placement courses.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .010. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient indicates there is
not a statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of Advanced Placement
courses. See correlations in table 4.7.
Table 4.7
Percentile & Advanced Placement Correlations
ACT
Percentile
Difference
Advanced
Placement
Classes
ACT Percentile
Difference
Pearson
Correlation
1 .010
Sig. (2-tailed) .821
N 476 476
Advanced
Placement Classes
Pearson
Correlation
.010 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .821
N 476 476
In addition to the correlational table, a scatter plot was created in order to analyze the data.
The scatter plot was created in SPSS Version 24 using the data from Appendix A. A scatter plot is a
graph designed to show the relationship between two variables. Scatter plots visually analyze the data
to determine whether X and Y are linearly related. In this scatter plot, X is the ACT Percentile
Difference. The Y is Advanced Placement Courses. In order to determine if a scatter plot has a linear
relationship, a trend line is drawn to come as close as possible to all the data points. However, a linear
trend line cannot be drawn in a manner to represent all the data points. Similarly to figure 4.6 the
graph does not display a linear relationship between ACT Percentile Difference and Advanced
Placement Courses. See the scatter plot in figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1. Scatter Plot Advanced Placement Courses and ACT Percentile
Figure 4.1. The scatter plot shows the relationship between the numbers of Advanced
Placement courses and the difference between the ACT Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
System percentile projection and the performed score. The scatter plot was created with data
from Appendix A through SPSS Version 24.
In addition to analyzing the ACT Percentile, the ACT Composite difference was analyzed very
similarly. The ACT Composite was analyzed using a two-tailed bivariate Pearson correlation
coefficient in SPSS Version 24. The data were analyzed by comparing the difference of the
performed and projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the
number of Advanced Placement courses. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .143. The Pearson
Correlation Coefficient indicates there is a statistically significant relationship between difference of
the performed and projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the
number of Advanced Placement courses. See correlations in table 4.8.
Table 4.8
Composite and Advanced Placement Correlations
ACT
Composite
Difference
Advanced
Placement
Classes
ACT Composite
Difference
Pearson
Correlation
1 .143**
Sig. (2-tailed) .002
N 476 476
Advanced Placement
Classes
Pearson
Correlation
.143** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .002
N 476 476
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
In addition to the correlational table, a scatter plot was created in order to analyze the data.
The scatter plat was created in SPSS Version 24 using the data from Appendix A. A scatter plot is a
graph designed to visually represent the relationship between two variables. Scatter plots visually
represent the data to determine whether X and Y are linearly related. In this scatter plot, X is the ACT
Percentile Composite Difference. The variable Y represents Advanced Placement Courses. The
relationship between the ACT Percentile Composite Difference and Advanced Placement Courses is
minimally linear. Therefore, the graph represents a minimal correlation. The minimal correlation
indicates that there is a positive relationship between the number of Advanced Placement Courses a
student completes and outperforming between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite. See the scatter plot in figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2. Scatter Plot Advanced Placement Courses and ACT Composite
Figure 4.2. The scatter plot shows the relationship between the numbers of Advanced
Placement courses and the difference between the ACT Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
System composite projection and the performed score. The scatter plot was created with data
from Appendix A through SPSS Version 24.
The data were analyzed using a two-tailed bivariate Pearson correlation coefficient in SPSS
Version 24. The data were analyzed by comparing the difference of the performed and projected
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of College Preparatory
courses. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.004. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient
indicates there is not a statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and
projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of College
Preparatory courses. See correlations in table 4.9.
Table 4.9
Percentile and College Preparatory Correlations
ACT
Percentile
Difference
College
Preparatory
Courses
ACT Percentile
Difference
Pearson
Correlation
1 -.004
Sig. (2-tailed) .927
N 476 476
College Preparatory
Courses
Pearson
Correlation
-.004 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .927
N 476 476
In addition to the correlational table, a scatter plot was created in order to analyze the data.
The scatter plot was created in SPSS Version 24 using the data from Appendix A. A scatter plot is a
graph designed to show the relationship between two variables. Scatter plots visually analyze the data
to determine whether X and Y are linearly related. In this scatter plot, X is the ACT Percentile
Difference. The Y is College Preparatory Courses. In order to determine if a scatter plot has a linear
relationship, a trend line is drawn to come as close as possible to all the data points. However, a linear
trend line cannot be drawn in a manner to represent all the data points. Similarly to figure 4.9, the
graph does not display a linear relationship between ACT Percentile Difference and College
Preparatory Courses. See the scatter plot in figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3. Scatter Plot College Preparatory Courses and ACT Percentile
Figure 4.3. The scatter plot shows the relationship between the numbers of College
Preparatory courses and the difference between the ACT Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
System percentile projection and the performed score. The scatter plot was created with data
from Appendix A through SPSS Version 24.
The data were also analyzed using a two-tailed bivariate Pearson correlation coefficient in
SPSS Version 24. The data were analyzed by comparing the difference of the performed and
projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of College
Preparatory courses. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.129. The Pearson Correlation
Coefficient indicates there is a statistically significant negative relationship between difference of the
performed and projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number
of College Preparatory courses. See correlations in table 4.10.
Table 4.10
Percentile and College Preparatory Correlations
ACT
Composite
Difference
College
Preparatory
Courses
ACT Composite
Difference
Pearson
Correlation
1 -.129**
Sig. (2-tailed) .005
N 476 476
College Preparatory
Courses
Pearson
Correlation
-.129** 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .005
N 476 476
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
In addition to the correlational table, a scatter plot was created in order to analyze the data.
The scatter plat was created in SPSS Version 24 using the data from Appendix A. In this scatter plot,
X is the ACT Percentile Composite Difference. The variable Y represents College Preparatory
Courses. The relationship between the ACT Composite Difference and College Preparatory Courses
is minimally linear. Therefore, the graph represents a minimal correlation. The minimal correlation
indicates that there is a negative relationship between the number of College Preparatory Courses a
student completes and outperforming between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite. See the scatter plot in figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4. Scatter Plot College Preparatory Courses and ACT Composite
Figure 4.4. The scatter plot shows the relationship between the numbers of College
Preparatory courses and the difference between the ACT Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
System composite projection and the performed score. The scatter plot was created with data
from Appendix A through SPSS Version 24.
Relevant Findings
There were several relevant findings within the study outside of the correlational analysis of
the Advanced Placement courses, Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Percentile and
ACT Composite difference. First, the average percentile gain for all students was 2.22. See figure 4.4.
Secondly, the average composite gain for all students was .796. See figure 4.5. These improvements
are significantly higher than many schools with more than 500 students testing. The improvements
place the school in the 85th percentile for school growth (ACT, 2016). Therefore, the school is
facilitating student growth throughout the entire programming.
Summary
The study analyzed the student data with a two-tailed bivariate Pearson Correlation
Coefficient. The study compared the difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of Advanced Placement courses. The
Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .010, and therefore indicates there is not a statistically significant
relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
System ACT percentile and the number of Advanced Placement courses. However, the correlation
between the difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System
ACT Composite and the number of Advanced Placement courses. The Pearson Correlation
Coefficient was .143. Therefore, the Pearson Correlation Coefficient indicates there is a statistically
significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of Advanced Placement courses.
In addition, a comparison of the difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of College Preparatory courses. The
Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.004, and therefore indicates there is not a statistically
significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of College Preparatory courses. However, the
study found a correlation between the difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of College Preparatory courses. The
Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.129. Therefore, the Pearson Correlation Coefficient indicates
there is a statistically significant negative relationship between difference of the performed and
projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of College
Preparatory courses.
CHAPTER 5: Conclusion
Introduction
Leadership is the most critical influence in the success of organizations (Bass, 1990).
Research has suggested that highly effective schools are led by effective principals (Murphy, & Torre,
2014). In order to become an impactful school leader, it is imperative to understand the variables that
must be utilized in order to leverage school improvement. The literature review and study focused on
the impact of curriculum on student achievement. The most impactful responsibilities of school
leaders are centered on school curriculum (Marzano, Waters, & McNulty, 2014). School leaders must
examine their current curriculum to determine its viability to meet the needs of the students and
prepare them for the 21st century workplace (Whitaker, 2003). School leaders can influence few
variables within a school setting; however, the ability to ensure a viable curriculum is available to all
students is crucial for success (Alexander & Cook, 1982).
The purpose of the study was to examine the impact of curriculum on student learning through
the lenses of college and career readiness. The ACT was the measure used to determine the
curriculum’s impact on preparing students for college and career readiness. The impact of
curriculum, Advanced Placement, and College Preparatory Curriculum have been researched;
however, the impact of each curriculum on the students’ projected percentile for ACT composite was
assessed. There is very limited research comparing each curriculum relative to the Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment System Project ACT Percentile; therefore, the study has provided school leaders
correlational data to aid in determining the most beneficial curriculum for their school that will
provide the greatest impact for student achievement.
The study was designed to determine if there was a correlation between a student’s
coursework and the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT. The study had two
primary research questions that guided the statistical analysis.
1. What is the correlation between Advanced Placement Courses and a student’s
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
2. What is the correlation between College Preparatory Courses and a student’s
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT?
The objective of the study and literature review was to determine if there is a statistical
correlation in which an informed decision can be made to determine which curriculum, Advanced
Placement or College Preparatory, has the greatest impact on a student’s Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment growth on the ACT. Therefore, the research questions were analyzed with the Pearson
Product-Moment Correlation to determine if there is a correlation (Lund, A., & Lund, M., 2013). The
results have been analyzed and will be discussed in order to determine the correlation between
Advanced Placement Courses and a student’s Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the
ACT. In addition, the results have been analyzed to determine if there is there is a correlation
between College Preparatory Courses and a student’s Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on
the ACT. In conclusion, the analyzed data can be used to assist in determining which course path
Advanced Placement or College Preparatory has the greatest impact on a student’s Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment growth on the ACT.
Results
A two-tailed bivariate correlation Pearson R correlating the difference in Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment ACT State Percentile projection and the student’s highest performed score was
compared to the number Advanced Placement courses in which each student enrolled and completed.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .010. This value is considered statistically insignificant.
However, a two-tailed bivariate correlation Pearson R correlating the difference in Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment ACT Composite projection and the student’s highest performed score was
compared to the number Advanced Placement courses in which each student enrolled and completed.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .143. This value is considered statistically significant.
Therefore, there is a minimal correlation with completing Advanced Placement Coursework and
academic growth beyond the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment ACT Composite.
A two-tailed bivariate correlation Pearson R correlating the difference in Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment ACT State Percentile projection and the student’s highest performed score was
compared to the number College Preparatory courses in which each student enrolled and completed.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.004. This value is considered statistically insignificant. In
addition, a two-tailed bivariate correlation Pearson R correlating the difference in Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment ACT Composite projection and the student’s highest performed score was
compared to the number College Preparatory courses in which each student enrolled and completed.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.129. This value is considered statistically significant.
Therefore, there is a minimal negative correlation with completing College Preparatory Coursework
and academic growth beyond the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment ACT Composite. In order to
adequately summarize this information it is important to break down the responses to each of the
research questions individually. The study had two primary research questions that guided the
statistical analysis.
Research Question One. The first question is: What is the correlation between Advanced
Placement Courses and a student’s Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the ACT? The
data was analyzed using a two-tailed bivariate Pearson correlation coefficient in SPSS Version 24.
The data were analyzed by comparing the difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of Advanced Placement courses. The
Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .010, and therefore there is not a statistically significant
relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
System ACT percentile and the number of Advanced Placement courses.
In addition to comparing the ACT percentile, an analysis was performed on the ACT
composite score. The ACT Composite was analyzed using a two-tailed bivariate Pearson correlation
coefficient in SPSS Version 24. The data was analyzed by comparing the difference of the performed
and projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of
Advanced Placement courses. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .143, and therefore there is a
statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of Advanced Placement courses.
Research Question Two. The second question is: What is the correlation between
Advanced Placement Courses and a student’s Tennessee Value-Added Assessment growth on the
ACT? The data was analyzed using a two-tailed bivariate Pearson correlation coefficient in SPSS
Version 24. The data was analyzed by comparing the difference of the performed and projected
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of College Preparatory
courses. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.004, and therefore there is not a statistically
significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of College Preparatory courses.
In addition to comparing the ACT percentile, an analysis was performed on the ACT
composite score. The ACT Composite was analyzed using a two-tailed bivariate Pearson correlation
coefficient in SPSS Version 24. The data was analyzed by comparing the difference of the performed
and projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of
College Preparatory courses. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.129, and therefore there is a
statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of preparatory courses.
The results comparing College Preparatory courses and Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
System ACT percentile found a Pearson Correlation Coefficient of -.004. Therefore there is not a
statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of College Preparatory courses.
There is not a clear correlation between the number of College Preparatory courses and improving the
ACT percentile for students.
Discussion
A two-tailed bivariate correlation Pearson R correlating the difference in Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment ACT State Percentile projection and the student’s highest performed score was
compared to the number Advanced Placement courses in which each student enrolled and completed.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .010. This value is considered statistically insignificant.
However, a two-tailed bivariate correlation Pearson R correlating the difference in Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment ACT Composite projection and the student’s highest performed score was
compared to the number Advanced Placement courses in which each student enrolled and completed.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .143. This value is considered statistically significant.
Therefore, there is a minimal correlation with completing Advanced Placement Coursework and
academic growth beyond the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment ACT Composite.
A two-tailed bivariate correlation Pearson R correlating the difference in Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment ACT State Percentile projection and the student’s highest performed score was
compared to the number College Preparatory courses in which each student enrolled and completed.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.004. The value is considered statistically insignificant.
However, a two-tailed bivariate correlation Pearson R correlating the difference in Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment ACT Composite projection and the student’s highest performed score was
compared to the number College Preparatory courses in which each student enrolled and completed.
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.129. This value is considered statistically significant.
However, it is a minimal correlation with completing College Preparatory courses and ACT
Composite regression relative to the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment ACT projected composite.
The results of comparing the difference of the performed and projected Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of Advanced Placement courses was .010,
and therefore there is not a statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed
and projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of
Advanced Placement courses. In this study there is not a clear correlation between the number of
Advanced Placement courses and improving the ACT percentile for students.
Contrastingly, the analysis performed on Advanced Placement courses and ACT composite
score found there was a slight correlation. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .143, and
therefore there is a statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and
projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of Advanced
Placement courses. However, when analyzing the entire set of data, including the scatter plot
generated in SPSS Version 24, there is practically not a statistical correlation between Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of Advanced Placement courses.
The time and effort placed in Advanced Placement courses are not returning the investment through
improved ACT scores.
The correlation was slightly positive when comparing the number of Advanced Placement
courses and ACT composite. However, this minimal correlation should questions many instructional
leaders strategic plan for increasing student college and career readiness. If college and career
readiness is the goal of a high school, and the most typical measure for this readiness is ACT, then
Advanced Placement Curriculum is not a very efficient way to raise student ACT scores. There are
five major contributing factors to consider when exploring the minimal correlation. First, students
that pursue and enroll in Advanced Placement courses are academically motivated. Therefore, it
would be expected for the students to outperform there Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System
ACT projection. Second, there are stringent requirements for students to enter Advanced Placement
courses. Therefore, the majority of students taking Advanced Placement courses are intelligent
students that should perform well on the ACT. Third, parental support plays a key role in student
success in school. Students that are enrolled in Advanced Placement courses must pay for their exam,
pay for additional resources outside of class, and spend hours each week outside of class studying.
Fourth, many Advanced Placement courses have fewer students than the comparable College
Preparatory course, and therefore the instructor gets to spend more time with each student. Finally,
because of the requirements to enroll and complete Advanced Placement courses student and
stakeholder expectations are very high for the vast majority of students enrolled in these courses.
Therefore, an argument can be made that even without Advanced Placement courses students that are
motivated, intelligent, and have stakeholder support and expectations would perform better than their
peers without each attribute or support structure.
As a school leader, the results from the study creates an interesting dynamic. If the goal of
school is to move the entire student body closer to be college and career ready as defined by ACT
scores then there are three considerations for school leaders when making curricular decisions
regarding Advanced Placement programming. First, Advanced Placement programming might not be
the best use of resources to raise ACT scores. This is contrasting to popular belief, but this study
found a minimal correlation that was practically insignificant. School leaders should consider the
implications for the entire school when creating or expanding Advanced Placement programming.
Finally, Advanced Placement course have their place in school, but this should not come at the cost of
other valuable programming, nor as a means to raise ACT scores.
The results comparing College Preparatory courses and Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
System ACT percentile found a Pearson Correlation Coefficient of -.004. Therefore, there is not a
statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of College Preparatory courses.
There is not a clear correlation between the number of College Preparatory courses and improving the
ACT percentile for students.
The analysis performed on College Preparatory courses and ACT composite score found there
was a minimal negative correlation. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.129, and therefore
there is a statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of College Preparatory
courses. However, the correlation was negative. Therefore, the more College Preparatory courses a
student enrolled and completed, there was slight regression of ACT Composite performance relative
to the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System projection.
All students in Tennessee earning a standard high school diploma are required to take College
Preparatory courses for graduation. However, the students that are taking all required College
Preparatory course because of graduation requirements are not improving their ACT score. There are
three considerations that should be drawn from the results of this study. First, students perform more
poorly on the ACT be taking all required College Preparatory courses because these students are not
motivated to perform at a higher level. In addition, many students that take only required College
Preparatory course and nothing else more advanced will never use the material beyond high school
because they entering the workforce through high school certification or attending trade school.
Secondly, because of the increase in Advanced Placement courses, the number of sections for College
Preparatory courses has decreased, therefore, the average class size for standard college preparatory
courses has increased. This limits the amount of attention that each student can receive from the
instructor on a daily basis. Finally, students that are now in College Preparatory courses have lower
expectations from themselves, stakeholders, and staff because they are not enrolled in Advanced
Placement courses. Requiring all students regardless of their post-secondary plans to take College
Preparatory courses is not improving their ACT score, and therefore not improving their college and
career readiness.
It is worth noting that students in the school experienced positive gains overall. In both
Advanced Placement and College Preparatory paths, the students outperformed the Tennessee Value-
Added Assessment projection for both percentile and composite ACT scores. The average difference
between ACT Composite and Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System for all students regardless
of course work was .792. Therefore, the average student outperformed their Tennessee Value-Added
Assessment System projection. The average difference between ACT percentile and Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System for all students regardless of course work was 2.22. Therefore, the
average student outperformed their Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System projection. These
academic gains on both areas analyzed could certainly affect correlational data, but should highlight
the overall academic success of the school.
Implications
The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .010, and therefore indicates there is not a
statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of Advanced Placement courses.
However, the study found a correlation between the difference of the performed and projected
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of Advanced
Placement courses. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was .143. Therefore, the Pearson Correlation
Coefficient indicates there is a statistically significant relationship between difference of the
performed and projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the
number of Advanced Placement courses. However, this correlation is relatively minimal, and the
scatter plot portrays the data as practically not correlated. In this study, increasing Advanced
Placement courses is not a practical means to raise a student’s ACT score, particularly when
considering the time, expenses and effort that takes place to create and maintain Advanced Placement
programming.
The results comparing College Preparatory courses and Tennessee Value-Added Assessment
System ACT percentile found a Pearson Correlation Coefficient of -.004. Therefore there is not a
statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and projected Tennessee
Value-Added Assessment System ACT percentile and the number of College Preparatory courses.
Contrastingly, the analysis performed on College Preparatory courses and ACT composite score
found there was a minimal negative correlation. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient was -.129, and
therefore there is a statistically significant relationship between difference of the performed and
projected Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System ACT Composite and the number of College
Preparatory courses. However, the correlation was negative. The students that were enrolled in
mandated College Preparatory Curriculum did not correlate with increasing ACT composite scores.
Therefore, schools and stakeholders must be cognizant of the lack of growth in mandated courses, and
consider other viable options for 21st century skills for students.
Recommendations for Further Study
There are three primary recommendations for future study. The first recommendations is to
expand the number of schools and types involved within the study. The expanded schools and types
of schools involved should strive to expand demographically. The results of the study would be more
applicable if the demographics were more diverse. The expanded schools and types would also allow
for more allowance of school instructional initiatives. The school involved in this study is
outperforming ACT projections across each type of coursework, and therefore could have contributed
to the minimal correlations found. Finally, the expanded number of schools and type should include
schools of various performance levels. This would allow researchers to curricular effectiveness in
poorly performing schools.
The second recommendation for further research is to analyze performance relative to each
course for Advanced Placement courses. This study analyzed the impact of a student taking any
Advanced Placement course on their ACT composite and percentile. However, a further study could
involve investigating each class and then correlating section on the ACT. For example, if a student
took Advanced Placement Math courses, then only look at the relative performance of the Math
section on the ACT. If a student took Advanced Placement science courses, then correlate with the
relative performance of the science section on the ACT. If a student took Advanced Placement
humanities courses, then correlate with the relative performance of the reading section on the ACT.
Finally, if a student took Advanced Placement English course, then correlate with the relative
performance of the English section on the ACT.
The third recommendation for further research is to analyze performance relative to each
course for College Preparatory courses. This study analyzed the impact of a student taking any
College Preparatory course on their ACT composite and percentile. However, a further study could
involve looking at each class and then correlating section on the ACT. If a student took College
Preparatory math courses, then only look at the relative performance of the Math section on the ACT.
If a student took College Preparatory science courses, then correlate with the relative performance of
the science section on the ACT. If a student took College Preparatory humanities courses, then
correlate with the relative performance of the reading section on the ACT. Finally, if a student took
College Preparatory English course, then correlate with the relative performance of the English
section on the ACT. These recommendations would assist in further studies in order to identify
correlational relationships and relative ACT performance more specifically.
Conclusion
Overall, the study did not yield conclusions that concise and directional. The statistical
analysis found only minimal correlations, and each of these correlations were practically not
statistically significant. Many researchers have found rigorous curriculum to be a viable course to
academic improvement, but in this study neither Advanced Placement nor College Preparatory
curriculum appeared to make a significant impact on student learning.
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Appendix A
Advanced Placement Student Tennessee Value-Added Assessment and ACT Achievement Data
Student Composite State
Percentile
Projected
State
Percentile
Projected
ACT
Composite
Composite
Difference
Percentile
Difference
AP
Classes
Student 34 99 98 32 2 1 12
Student 30 95 81 24 6 14 12
Student 30 95 96 30 0 0 11
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 10
Student 34 99 95 30 4 4 9
Student 32 98 91 28 4 7 9
Student 32 98 96 30 2 2 8
Student 31 97 93 28 3 4 8
Student 29 94 93 28 1 1 8
Student 31 97 88 27 4 9 7
Student 30 95 88 27 3 7 7
Student 33 99 95 30 3 4 7
Student 24 79 81 24 0 0 7
Student 27 89 88 27 0 0 7
Student 25 83 88 27 -2 -5 7
Student 24 79 81 24 0 0 6
Student 30 95 93 28 2 2 6
Student 32 98 91 28 4 7 6
Student 25 83 81 24 1 2 6
Student 30 95 93 28 2 2 6
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 6
Student 32 98 93 28 4 5 6
Student 34 99 96 30 4 3 6
Student 28 92 88 27 1 4 5
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 5
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 5
Student 29 94 91 28 1 3 5
Student 25 83 85 26 -1 -2 5
Student 27 89 81 24 3 8 5
Student 24 79 81 24 0 0 5
Student 28 92 81 24 4 11 5
Student 22 69 81 24 -2 -12 5
Student 21 63 77 23 -2 -14 5
Student 35 99 96 30 5 3 5
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 5
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 5
Student 29 94 93 28 1 1 4
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 4
Student 33 99 93 28 5 6 4
Student 22 69 59 20 2 10 4
Student 23 75 81 24 -1 -6 4
Student 24 79 85 26 -2 -6 4
Student 28 92 85 26 2 7 4
Student 28 92 72 22 6 20 4
Student 30 95 85 26 4 10 4
Student 24 79 77 23 1 2 4
Student 27 89 91 28 -1 -2 4
Student 27 89 85 26 1 4 4
Student 28 92 88 27 1 4 4
Student 25 83 81 24 1 2 4
Student 25 83 81 24 1 2 4
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 4
Student 29 94 93 28 1 1 4
Student 22 69 77 23 -1 -4 4
Student 28 92 85 26 2 7 4
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 3
Student 21 63 66 21 0 0 3
Student 23 75 85 26 -3 -10 3
Student 27 89 88 27 0 0 3
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 3
Student 25 83 85 26 -1 -2 3
Student 25 83 72 22 3 11 3
Student 29 94 91 28 1 3 3
Student 27 89 85 26 1 4 3
Student 25 83 88 27 -2 -5 3
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 3
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 2
Student 29 94 91 28 1 3 2
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 2
Student 22 69 77 23 -1 -8 2
Student 27 89 85 26 1 4 2
Student 16 28 53 19 -3 -25 2
Student 22 69 59 20 2 10 2
Student 27 89 81 24 3 8 2
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 2
Student 26 86 77 23 3 6 2
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 2
Student 24 79 72 22 2 6 2
Student 20 57 66 21 -1 -9 2
Student 28 92 85 26 2 7 2
Student 26 86 85 26 0 0 2
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 2
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 2
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 2
Student 24 79 66 21 3 13 2
Student 22 69 53 19 3 16 2
Student 23 75 88 27 -4 -13 2
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 2
Student 25 83 81 24 1 2 2
Student 20 57 53 19 1 4 2
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 2
Student 28 92 88 27 1 4 2
Student 29 94 85 26 3 9 2
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 2
Student 25 83 72 22 3 11 2
Student 23 75 81 24 -1 -6 2
Student 24 79 88 27 -3 -9 2
Student 21 63 72 22 -1 -9 2
Student 24 79 85 26 -2 -6 2
Student 29 94 95 30 -1 -1 2
Student 26 86 66 21 5 20 2
Student 27 89 88 27 0 0 1
Student 24 79 77 23 1 2 1
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 1
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 1
Student 24 79 81 24 0 0 1
Student 24 79 77 23 1 2 1
Student 17 35 45 18 -1 -10 1
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 1
Student 17 35 38 17 0 0 1
Student 24 79 72 22 2 6 1
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 1
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 1
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 1
Student 25 83 77 23 2 6 1
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 1
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 1
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 1
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 1
Student 24 79 45 18 6 34 1
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 1
Student 25 83 77 23 2 6 1
Appendix B
College Preparatory Student Tennessee Value-Added Assessment and ACT Achievement Data
Student Composite State
Percentile
Projected
State
Percentile
Projected
ACT
Composite
Composite
Difference
Percentile
Difference
College
Preparatory
Classes
Student 28 92 88 27 1 4 1
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 1
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 1
Student 29 94 91 28 1 3 1
Student 25 83 85 26 -1 -2 1
Student 27 89 81 24 3 8 1
Student 24 79 81 24 0 0 1
Student 28 92 81 24 4 11 1
Student 22 69 81 24 -2 -12 1
Student 21 63 77 23 -2 -14 1
Student 35 99 96 30 5 3 1
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 1
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 1
Student 29 94 93 28 1 1 2
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 2
Student 33 99 93 28 5 6 2
Student 22 69 59 20 2 10 2
Student 23 75 81 24 -1 -6 2
Student 24 79 85 26 -2 -6 2
Student 28 92 85 26 2 7 2
Student 28 92 72 22 6 20 2
Student 30 95 85 26 4 10 2
Student 24 79 77 23 1 2 2
Student 27 89 91 28 -1 -2 2
Student 27 89 85 26 1 4 2
Student 28 92 88 27 1 4 2
Student 25 83 81 24 1 2 2
Student 25 83 81 24 1 2 2
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 2
Student 29 94 93 28 1 1 2
Student 22 69 77 23 -1 -4 2
Student 28 92 85 26 2 7 2
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 3
Student 21 63 66 21 0 0 3
Student 23 75 85 26 -3 -10 3
Student 27 89 88 27 0 0 3
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 3
Student 25 83 85 26 -1 -2 3
Student 25 83 72 22 3 11 3
Student 29 94 91 28 1 3 3
Student 27 89 85 26 1 4 3
Student 25 83 88 27 -2 -5 3
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 3
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 4
Student 29 94 91 28 1 3 4
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 4
Student 22 69 77 23 -1 -8 4
Student 27 89 85 26 1 4 4
Student 16 28 53 19 -3 -25 4
Student 22 69 59 20 2 10 4
Student 27 89 81 24 3 8 4
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 4
Student 26 86 77 23 3 6 4
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 4
Student 24 79 72 22 2 6 4
Student 20 57 66 21 -1 -9 4
Student 28 92 85 26 2 7 4
Student 26 86 85 26 0 0 4
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 4
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 4
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 4
Student 24 79 66 21 3 13 4
Student 22 69 53 19 3 16 4
Student 23 75 88 27 -4 -13 4
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 4
Student 25 83 81 24 1 2 4
Student 20 57 53 19 1 4 4
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 4
Student 28 92 88 27 1 4 4
Student 29 94 85 26 3 9 4
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 4
Student 25 83 72 22 3 11 4
Student 23 75 81 24 -1 -6 4
Student 24 79 88 27 -3 -9 4
Student 21 63 72 22 -1 -9 4
Student 24 79 85 26 -2 -6 4
Student 29 94 95 30 -1 -1 4
Student 26 86 66 21 5 20 4
Student 27 89 88 27 0 0 5
Student 24 79 77 23 1 2 5
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 5
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 5
Student 24 79 81 24 0 0 5
Student 24 79 77 23 1 2 5
Student 17 35 45 18 -1 -10 5
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 5
Student 17 35 38 17 0 0 5
Student 24 79 72 22 2 6 5
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 5
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 5
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 5
Student 25 83 77 23 2 6 5
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 5
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 5
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 5
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 5
Student 24 79 45 18 6 34 5
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 5
Student 25 83 77 23 2 6 5
Student 16 28 15 14 2 13 6
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 6
Student 16 28 38 17 -1 -10 6
Student 21 63 77 23 -2 -14 6
Student 17 35 38 17 0 0 6
Student 14 14 9 13 1 5 6
Student 14 14 1 11 3 13 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 16 28 38 17 -1 -10 6
Student 20 57 53 19 1 4 6
Student 20 57 9 13 7 48 6
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 6
Student 13 8 15 14 -1 -7 6
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 6
Student 19 50 66 21 -2 -16 6
Student 21 63 53 19 2 10 6
Student 29 94 81 24 5 13 6
Student 16 28 22 15 1 6 6
Student 21 63 66 21 0 0 6
Student 17 35 45 18 -1 -10 6
Student 19 50 53 19 0 0 6
Student 12 4 1 11 1 3 6
Student 22 69 53 19 3 16 6
Student 19 50 53 19 0 0 6
Student 20 57 53 19 1 4 6
Student 27 89 91 28 -1 -2 6
Student 13 8 22 15 -2 -14 6
Student 17 35 22 15 2 13 6
Student 14 14 1 11 3 13 6
Student 19 50 72 22 -3 -22 6
Student 20 57 38 17 3 19 6
Student 15 21 4 12 3 17 6
Student 17 35 30 16 1 5 6
Student 18 42 38 17 1 4 6
Student 19 50 72 22 -3 -22 6
Student 13 8 30 16 -3 -22 6
Student 25 83 53 19 6 30 6
Student 26 86 81 24 2 5 6
Student 21 63 77 23 -2 -14 6
Student 20 57 30 16 4 27 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 25 83 85 26 -1 -2 6
Student 13 8 9 13 0 0 6
Student 14 14 4 12 2 10 6
Student 16 28 30 16 0 0 6
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 6
Student 23 75 81 24 -1 -6 6
Student 22 69 59 20 2 10 6
Student 16 28 30 16 0 0 6
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 6
Student 18 42 38 17 1 4 6
Student 20 57 45 18 2 12 6
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 6
Student 19 50 59 20 -1 -9 6
Student 13 8 1 11 2 7 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 17 35 53 19 -2 -18 6
Student 22 69 53 19 3 16 6
Student 17 35 22 15 2 13 6
Student 20 57 20 15 5 37 6
Student 21 63 72 22 -1 -9 6
Student 22 69 77 23 1 -8 6
Student 17 35 53 19 -2 -18 6
Student 12 4 1 11 1 3 6
Student 15 21 22 15 0 0 6
Student 19 50 59 20 -1 -9 6
Student 19 50 53 19 0 0 6
Student 19 50 45 18 1 5 6
Student 26 86 85 26 0 0 6
Student 14 14 15 14 0 0 6
Student 18 42 30 16 2 12 6
Student 20 57 77 23 -3 -20 6
Student 28 92 88 27 1 4 6
Student 15 21 22 15 0 0 6
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 6
Student 15 21 22 15 0 0 6
Student 20 57 72 22 -2 -15 6
Student 17 35 38 17 0 0 6
Student 17 35 30 16 1 5 6
Student 19 50 38 17 2 12 6
Student 25 83 59 20 5 24 6
Student 17 35 9 13 4 24 6
Student 22 69 45 18 4 24 6
Student 15 21 30 16 -1 -9 6
Student 19 50 38 17 2 12 6
Student 18 42 30 16 2 12 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 6
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 6
Student 21 63 66 21 0 0 6
Student 17 35 53 19 -2 -18 6
Student 21 63 53 19 2 10 6
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 6
Student 15 21 9 13 2 11 6
Student 20 57 53 19 1 4 6
Student 15 21 22 15 0 0 6
Student 28 92 85 26 2 7 6
Student 19 50 53 19 0 0 6
Student 17 35 45 18 -1 -10 6
Student 22 69 77 23 1 -8 6
Student 17 35 9 13 4 24 6
Student 15 21 9 13 2 11 6
Student 16 28 53 19 -3 -25 6
Student 16 28 9 13 3 19 6
Student 19 50 38 17 2 12 6
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 6
Student 25 83 85 26 -1 -2 6
Student 14 14 15 14 0 0 6
Student 18 42 22 15 3 23 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 18 42 38 17 1 4 6
Student 19 50 38 17 2 12 6
Student 13 8 1 11 2 7 6
Student 14 14 4 12 2 10 6
Student 14 14 30 16 -2 -16 6
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 6
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 6
Student 18 42 30 16 2 12 6
Student 16 28 38 17 -1 -10 6
Student 19 50 53 19 0 0 6
Student 17 35 30 16 1 5 6
Student 15 21 22 15 0 0 6
Student 15 21 4 12 3 17 6
Student 16 28 30 16 0 0 6
Student 20 57 30 16 4 27 6
Student 15 21 1 11 4 13 6
Student 17 35 38 17 0 0 6
Student 21 63 72 22 -1 -9 6
Student 17 35 30 16 1 5 6
Student 17 35 22 15 2 13 6
Student 15 21 30 16 -1 -9 6
Student 17 35 15 14 3 20 6
Student 20 57 45 18 2 12 6
Student 15 21 1 11 4 13 6
Student 17 35 30 16 1 5 6
Student 13 8 1 11 2 7 6
Student 18 42 30 16 2 12 6
Student 20 57 53 19 1 4 6
Student 22 69 59 20 2 10 6
Student 12 4 4 12 0 0 6
Student 19 50 66 21 -2 -16 6
Student 21 63 81 24 -3 -17 6
Student 22 69 53 19 3 16 6
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 17 35 45 18 -1 -10 6
Student 15 21 15 14 1 6 6
Student 22 69 59 20 2 10 6
Student 26 86 81 24 2 5 6
Student 17 35 22 15 2 13 6
Student 17 35 45 18 -1 -10 6
Student 16 28 30 16 0 0 6
Student 14 14 15 14 0 0 6
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 6
Student 16 28 53 19 -3 -25 6
Student 14 14 1 11 3 13 6
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 6
Student 22 69 77 23 1 -8 6
Student 20 57 30 16 4 27 6
Student 14 14 9 13 1 5 6
Student 13 8 1 11 2 7 6
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 6
Student 22 69 59 20 2 10 6
Student 14 14 9 13 1 5 6
Student 16 28 30 16 0 0 6
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 6
Student 15 21 9 13 2 11 6
Student 21 63 66 21 0 0 6
Student 14 14 1 11 3 13 6
Student 14 14 30 16 -2 -16 6
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 6
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 6
Student 19 50 59 20 -1 -9 6
Student 19 50 45 18 1 5 6
Student 15 21 30 16 -1 -9 6
Student 17 35 30 16 1 5 6
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 6
Student 15 21 15 14 1 6 6
Student 17 35 22 15 2 13 6
Student 15 21 9 13 2 11 6
Student 16 28 4 12 4 24 6
Student 26 86 85 26 0 0 6
Student 21 63 66 21 0 0 6
Student 15 21 38 17 -2 -17 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 6
Student 13 8 4 12 -1 4 6
Student 12 4 9 13 -1 -5 6
Student 17 35 38 17 0 0 6
Student 16 28 30 16 0 0 6
Student 21 63 72 22 -1 -9 6
Student 21 63 45 18 3 18 6
Student 13 8 38 17 -4 -30 6
Student 15 21 15 14 1 6 6
Student 29 94 93 28 1 1 6
Student 20 57 72 22 -2 -15 6
Student 24 79 77 23 1 2 6
Student 12 4 1 11 1 3 6
Student 13 8 1 11 2 7 6
Student 15 21 9 13 2 11 6
Student 25 83 93 28 -3 -10 6
Student 14 14 15 14 0 0 6
Student 14 14 15 14 0 0 6
Student 21 63 66 21 0 0 6
Student 16 28 59 20 -4 -32 6
Student 18 42 59 20 -2 -17 6
Student 21 63 72 22 -1 -9 6
Student 19 50 45 18 1 5 6
Student 16 28 15 14 2 13 6
Student 20 57 45 18 2 12 6
Student 13 8 1 11 2 7 6
Student 19 50 38 17 2 12 6
Student 26 86 59 20 6 27 6
Student 16 28 45 18 -2 -17 6
Student 15 21 45 18 -3 -24 6
Student 15 21 45 18 -3 -24 6
Student 17 35 38 17 0 0 6
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 6
Student 15 21 59 20 -5 -38 6
Student 19 50 59 20 -1 -9 6
Student 22 69 1 11 11 67 6
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 6
Student 20 57 66 21 -1 -9 6
Student 14 14 9 13 1 5 6
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 6
Student 19 50 53 19 0 0 6
Student 17 89 45 18 -1 -1 6
Student 19 50 45 18 1 5 6
Student 14 14 30 16 -2 -16 6
Student 13 8 22 15 -2 -14 6
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 6
Student 20 57 30 16 4 27 6
Student 12 4 4 12 0 0 6
Student 20 57 53 19 1 4 6
Student 16 28 22 15 1 6 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 24 79 77 23 1 2 6
Student 14 14 1 11 3 13 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 6
Student 17 35 53 19 -2 -18 6
Student 13 8 15 14 -1 -7 6
Student 17 35 53 19 -2 -18 6
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 6
Student 13 8 22 15 -2 -14 6
Student 20 57 53 19 1 4 6
Student 27 89 81 24 3 8 6
Student 19 50 59 20 -1 -9 6
Student 22 69 77 23 1 -8 6
Student 15 21 22 15 0 -1 6
Student 28 92 88 27 1 4 6
Student 13 8 4 12 -1 4 6
Student 21 63 53 19 2 10 6
Student 22 69 77 23 1 -8 6
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 6
Student 23 75 81 24 -1 -6 6
Student 24 79 45 18 6 34 6
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 6
Student 18 42 38 17 1 4 6
Student 19 50 38 17 2 12 6
Student 19 50 53 19 0 0 6
Student 26 86 91 28 -2 -5 6
Student 23 75 66 21 2 9 6
Student 16 28 30 16 0 0 6
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 6
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 6
Student 20 57 66 21 -1 -9 6
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 15 21 9 13 2 11 6
Student 15 21 9 13 2 11 6
Student 20 57 66 21 -1 -9 6
Student 16 28 38 17 -1 -10 6
Student 13 8 1 11 2 7 6
Student 13 8 1 11 2 7 6
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 6
Student 13 8 15 14 -1 -7 6
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 6
Student 19 50 66 21 -2 -16 6
Student 30 95 91 28 2 4 6
Student 21 63 53 19 2 10 6
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 6
Student 22 69 22 15 7 47 6
Student 23 75 81 24 -1 -6 6
Student 15 21 38 17 -2 -17 6
Student 16 28 9 13 3 19 6
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 6
Student 18 42 30 16 2 12 6
Student 20 57 45 18 2 12 6
Student 18 42 30 16 2 12 6
Student 15 21 15 14 1 6 6
Student 16 28 38 17 -1 -10 6
Student 15 21 15 14 1 6 6
Student 21 63 72 22 -1 -9 6
Student 17 35 30 16 1 5 6
Student 20 57 53 19 1 4 6
Student 25 83 81 24 1 2 6
Student 12 4 1 11 1 3 6
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 6
Student 21 63 77 23 -2 -14 6
Student 16 28 45 18 -2 -17 6
Student 18 42 38 17 1 4 6
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 6
Student 23 75 77 23 0 0 6
Student 20 57 38 17 3 19 6
Student 16 28 22 15 1 6 6
Student 12 4 4 12 0 0 6
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 6
Student 21 63 59 20 1 4 6
Student 23 75 30 16 7 45 6
Student 24 79 72 22 2 6 6
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 6
Student 22 69 59 20 2 10 6
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 6
Student 22 69 59 20 2 10 6
Student 23 75 72 22 1 3 6
Student 13 8 1 11 2 7 6
Student 14 14 22 15 -1 -8 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 17 35 45 18 -1 -10 6
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 6
Student 18 42 45 18 0 0 6
Student 14 14 15 14 0 0 6
Student 21 63 77 23 -2 -14 6
Student 19 50 59 20 -1 -9 6
Student 20 57 66 21 -1 -9 6
Student 18 42 59 20 -2 -2 6
Student 17 35 38 17 0 0 6
Student 19 50 9 13 6 41 6
Student 23 75 53 19 4 22 6
Student 17 35 53 19 -2 -18 6
Student 19 50 66 21 -2 -16 6
Student 22 69 9 13 9 60 6
Student 17 35 30 16 1 5 6
Student 14 14 9 13 1 5 6
Student 24 79 81 24 0 0 6
Student 23 75 4 12 11 71 6
Student 20 57 59 20 0 0 6
Student 21 63 4 12 9 59 6
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 6
Student 19 50 59 20 -1 -9 6
Student 24 79 77 23 1 2 6
Student 22 69 72 22 0 0 6
Student 13 8 22 15 -2 -14 6
Student 18 42 53 19 -1 -11 6
Student 20 57 66 21 -1 -9 6
Student 17 35 45 18 -1 -10 6
Student 19 50 53 19 0 -3 6
Student 25 83 85 26 -1 -2 6
Student 21 63 53 19 2 10 6
Student 20 57 1 11 9 13 6
Student 22 69 66 21 1 3 6
Student 16 28 45 18 -2 -17 6
Appendix C
Tennessee Value-Added Assessment Conversion Chart
ACT Score
Probability of 21
State Percentile
6 0.1 1
7 0.1 1
8 0.1 1
9 0.1 1
10 0.1 1
11 0.1 1
12 0.1 4
13 0.1 8
14 0.1-0.2 14
15 0.2-0.5 21
16 0.6-1.9 28
17 2.0-5.0 35
18 5.1-11.9 42
19 12.0-24.0 50
20 24.1-40.9 57
21 41.0-59.0 63
22 59.1-75.9 69
23 76.0-87.9 75
24 88.0-94.9 79
25 95.0-98.4 83
26 95.5-99.5 86
27 99.6-99.9 89
28 99.9 92
29 99.9 94
30 99.9 95
31 99.9 97
32 99.9 98
33 99.9 99
34 99.9 99
35 99.9 99
36 99.9 99