Pergamon

Person. indirid. Diff: Vol. 24. No. 4, pp. 513-520. 1998 0 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Printed in Great Britain PII: S0191-8869(97)0021%8 0191.8869198 $19.00+0.00

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATTITUDES TO CHOCOLATE QUESTIONNAIRE

David Benton,* Karen Greenfield and Michael Morgan

Department of Psychology, University of Wales, Swansea, Swansea SA2 8PP, Wales, U.K.

(Received 19 June 1997)

Summary-Two hundred and twenty-six females and 104 young adult males indicated the extent to which 80 comments concerning chocolate applied to them. Factor analysis indicated that three factors accounted for these data. The first factor was weighted on questions that indicated a craving for chocolate and the tendency to seek comfort from chocolate under emotionally stressful conditions: it was labelled craving. The second factor was weighted with comments that reported that negative feelings were associated with eating chocolate and dissatisfaction with weight and body image: it was labelled guilt. A third factor reflected a functional approach, for example chocolate was used to give energy when taking exercise or if a meal was missed. Craving but not guilt was associated with the eating of chocolate bars. A high guilt score was associated with a tendency to report symptoms such as bingeing and vomiting. 0 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

INTRODUCTION

Weingarten and Elston (1991) found that 97% of women and 68% of men experienced food cravings. There is strong evidence that food cravings are highly selective, with chocolate being the most commonly and intensely craved item (Rozin et al., 1991; Rodin et al., 1991; Hill et al., 1991). Although food cravings are commonly experienced there is a paucity of research on the topic. Weingarten and Elston (1990) reviewed the area and concluded: “Unfortunately development of an operational definition of and an appropriate instrument for measuring craving has been low priority” .“The craving concept is ripe for analysis”.

To date the scientific use of the term, food-craving, has been essentially a restatement of the lay definition of a strong desire or urge for a particular food. Typically subjects have been asked to rate their desire to eat a particular food. Necessarily the use of a single item scale is unreliable and it implicitly assumes that the desire can be accounted for using only one dimension. Without adequate measurement it is impossible for the understanding of the phenomenon of food craving to advance.

In contrast studies of drugs of abuse have started to explore the possibility that several dimensions underlie craving (Tiffany, 1992, 1993; Tiffany 8t Drobes, 1991). The possibility that a similar approach may prove to be of value in the area of food-craving was therefore considered. In fact it is commonly suggested that the drugs abuse and eating disorders reflect similar underlying processes (Levison et al., 1983; Cooper, 1989). As chocolate is by far the most commonly craved food the dimensions that underlie chocolate-craving were explored; a method of measuring and quantifying the response to chocolate was developed and related to various responses to chocolate.

METHOD

Subjects

Two hundred and twenty-six female and 104 male undergraduates, M = 21.6 years, filled in two questionnaires, anonymously. As all subjects from teaching groups filled in the questionnaires the sample was not self-selected on the basis of having a particular interest in chocolate.

An estimate of the weekly consumption of chocolate bars and chocolate containing foods, was obtained. The response to 80 statements concerning chocolate was elicited. These statements were

*To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dr D. Benton, University of Wales, Swansea, Department of Psychology, Singleton Park, Swansea SA3 SPP, U.K.

513

514 David Benton et al.

developed from comments heard in exploratory interviews, the study of the existing literature on food-craving and craving for drugs of abuse. The areas covered included difficulty in controlling chocolate consumption, anticipation of a pleasant experience, anticipation of a negative experience, expected relief of negative mood, experience of craving and concern about weight/body image. Following each statement was a 100 mm line with “very much like me” at one end and “not at all like me” at the other. A point on the line was marked to indicate how closely the statement matched their own feelings. The response was measured with a ruler so that 0 mm indicated that the statement did not reflect the subject’s feelings and 100 mm that it did very strongly.

To establish the relationship between the response to the questionnaires and chocolate intake, a group of 40 female and 27 male undergraduates were recruited, A4 = 20.3 years. They earned chocolate buttons by pressing the space-bar on a computer under a progressive-ratio schedule. The number of presses required to earn a chocolate button increased after each reinforcement according

to a fixed ratio, 2,4, 8, 16, 32, 64, and so on. A brief low pitched tone indicated that a response had been made and a longer, higher pitched tone sounded when a reinforcement had been earned. During this procedure no visual information was presented to the subject via the computer screen. The subjects were allowed to rest for a maximum of 59 s after which the procedure automatically terminated. The measure obtained was the breaking point, the number of reinforcements made before choosing to finish the task. The breaking point was related to the three scores on the chocolate attitudes questionnaire using Pearsons correlations.

Statistical analysis

The response to the 80 questions were subject to factor analysis using principal component analysis and varimax rotation. As initial analysis of the data from males and females resulted in a very similar factor structure they were treated as one sample. To examine the interaction between the Craving and Guilt, arbitrarily, those females whose scores were in the top and bottom 30% of the range were distinguished. Four groups were created: high Craving/high Guilt N = 34; high Craving/low Guilt N = 14; low Craving/high Guilt N = 7; low Craving/low Guilt N = 19. These

groups were examined using a two way analysis of variance Craving x Guilt.

RESULTS

The factor analysis produced three factors, with eigenvalues over one, that could be readily interpreted and accounted for 33.2, 14.1 and 6.1% of the variance (eigenvalues 7.96, 3.38, 1.46). The questions that weighted heavily on these factors are listed in Table 1.

The first factor was labelled craving and was associated with considerable preoccupation with chocolate and was associated with acts of compulsion. In fact the questions fell into two groups. Firstly chocolate is a source of some distraction; it is “overpowering”, “preys on my mind”, you cannot “take it or leave it” and “can’t get it out of my head”. The second group of questions that weighted on factor one reflected a weakness for chocolate when under emotional stress; it is eaten “when I am bored”, “to cheer me up”, “ when I am upset” and “when I am down”. Possibly eating “in the afternoon” is a response to feelings of fatigue later in the day. The coupling of these two groups of questions suggest a link between negative mood and an intense desire to consume chocolate. Those scoring heavily on this factor liked the taste and mouth-feel of chocolate.

The second factor also included two types of question. Firstly there are comments associating chocolate with negative experiences. I feel “unattractive”, “sick”, “guilty”, “depressed”, “unhealthy” after eating chocolate. It is not surprising that after eating chocolate “I often wish I hadn’t”. Associated with this guilt are comments related to weight and body shape: “I often diet”, “I look at the calorific value of a chocolate snack”, “If I ate less chocolate I think I would have a better figure”. The second factor was labelled “guilt”.

The third factor reflected a pragmatic approach to chocolate. It is eaten when it serves some useful purpose; “to keep my energy levels up when doing physical exercise”, “in the winter when it is colder”, “only when I am hungry” and “as a reward when everything is going well”. The third factor was labelled “functional approach”. Questions that weighted heavily and relatively selectively

Attitudes to chocolate 515

Table I. Factors underlying the preference for and use of chocolate

Factor

I eat chocolate to cheer me up when I am down I often eat chocolate when I am bored I eat more chocolate than is good for me 1 never crave chocolate I like to indulge in chocolate My desire for chocolate often seems overpowering The thought of chocolate often distracts me from what I am doing (e.g. watching television) I usually find myself wanting chocolate during theafternoon If I crave chocolate I cannot get it out of my headuntIl I eat some I often go into a shop for something else and end up buying chocolate Chocolate often preys on my mind When I am upset chocolate comforts me I would describe my craving for chocolate as more intense than a simple desire or longing Nothing but chocolate will satisfy my chocolate cravings Even when 1 do not really want anymore I will carry on eatmg chocolate I like the taste of chocolate I like the creamy melt in the mouth feel of chocolate.

0.71 -0.06 0.18 0.66 0.02 0.18 0.69 0.05 -0.13

-0.61 0.12 -0.27 0.74 -0.11 0.08 0.75 -0.04 -0.22 0.64 0.06 -0.26 0.67 -0.22 0.12 0.65 -0.15 -0.22 0.77 -0.05 0.06 0.66 -0.14 -0.32 0.68 -0.05 0.18 0.66 -0.13 -0.34 0.65 -0.20 -0.10 0.72 0.09 -0.14 0.62 -0.16 0.28 0 56 - 0.26 0.19

Fmtor 2. Guflr I feel unattractive when I have eaten chocolate 0.48 0.53 -0.08 1 am happy wth my body image -0.30 -0.44 0.09 1 often feel sick after eating chocolate 0.16 0.54 0.04 I am often on one kind of diet or another 0.33 0.54 -0.10 I consider chocolate to be high in fat and of poor nutritional value 0.17 0.50 -0.07 After eating chocolate I often wish I hadn’t 0.33 0.73 0.04 1 feel guilty after eating chocolate 0.41 0.75 -0.05 I feel depressed and dissatisfied with hfe after eating chocolate 0.32 0.62 -0.04 1 feel unhealthy after 1 have eaten chocolate 0.36 0.68 -0.08 I always look at the calorific value of a chocolate snack before I eat it 0.21 0.46 -0.15 If I resist the temptation to eat chocolate I feelmore in control of my life 0.35 0.59 0.02 If I ate less chocolate I would have a better figure 0.47 0.44 -0.12

Factor 3. Functional approrrcl~

I do not think chocolate is bad for you if eaten as part of a balanced diet -0.01 0.00 0.33 I eat chocolate as a rward when everything is gomgreally well for me 0.49 0.07 0.39 Eating anythmg sweet will take away my desire for chocolate -0.02 0.29 0.41 I can usually walk past vending machmes withoutfeeling any urge to buy chocolate -0.51 0.15 0.35 I eat chocolate only when 1 am hungry -0.24 0.15 0.35 Although I never really diet I do watch what I eat -0.13 0.06 0.33 I sometimes do not buy chocolate because I cannot afford it 0.05 0.08 0.37 I crave non-chocolate sweets just as often as chocolate -0.14 0.16 0.44 I eat chocolate to keep energy levels up when I am doing physical exercise 0.27 -0.14 0.37 I eat more chocolate in the winter when It is colder 0.41 -0.01 0.33 1 like the sweetness of chocolate 0.56 -0.09 0.40

I -

2 3

on the three dimensions were chosen to produce the “Attitude to chocolate questionnaire” (Table

2). The split-half reliability of the craving factor, adjusted using the Spearman-Brown formula, was

0.91. The reliability of the guilt scale was also 0.91 whereas for the functional scale it was 0.51, reflecting the shortness of the scale. The sample size in all cases was 330.

Although the factor structure was similar in both genders, the males scored significantly lower on the craving (A4 = 31.9 cf = 49.4, P < 0.001) and guilt scales (M = 17.8 cf = 42.6, P < O.OOl), although their responses to the functional scale did not differ (A4 = 44 cf = 46.5, ns.). Table 3 presents normative data for both genders on each of the three scales.

Chocolate intake

The number of chocolate bars consumed varied from O-21 per week, the average intake of males (4.5 + 5.0) and females (5.0 + 5.0) did not differ. When chocolate containing food items were added, to produce a total chocolate score, intake varied from O-50 items per week. Again the average intake of females (9.1 f7.12) and males (8.7k7.3) did not differ. Based on the criterion groups, established by looking at the extreme thirds of the distributions, Fig. 1 shows the association between Craving, Guilt and the number of chocolate bars eaten a week. Craving strongly influenced

516 David Benton et al.

Table 2. Attitude to chocolate questionnaire

1. 1 eat chocolate to cheer me up when I am down. (C) 2. My desire for chocolate often seems overpowering. (C) 3. I feel unattractive after I have eaten chocolate. (G) 4. I often feel sick after eatmg chocolate. (G) 5. I eat chocolate as a reward when everything is going really well for me. (F) 6. I am often on one kind of diet or another. (G) 7. The thought of chocolate often distracts me from what 1 am doing (e.g. watching TV). (C) 8. 1 usually find myself wanting chocolate during the afternoon. (C) 9. 1 consider chocolate to be high in fat and to be of poor nutritional value. (G)

10. After eating chocolate 1 often wish I hadn‘t. (G) II. I feel guilty after eating chocolate. (G) 12. I eat chocolate only when 1 am hungry. (F) 13. Chocolate often preys on my mind. (C) 14. I feel unhealthy after I have eaten chocolate. (G) 15. I always look at the calorific value of a chocolate snack before 1 eat it. (G) 16. If I resist the temptation to eat chocolate I feel more in control of my life. (G) 17. Nothmg else but chocolate ~111 satisfy my chocolate cravings. (C) 18. Even when I do not really want any more chocolate I will often carry on eating it. (C) 19. 1 eat chocolate to keep my energy levels up when I am doing physical exercise. (F) 20. I eat more chocolate in the wmter when It 1s colder. (F) 21. I often go into a shop for something else and end up buying chocolate. (C) 22. I feel depressed and dlssat&ied with life after eating chocolate. (G) 23. I often eat chocolate when I am bored. (C) 24. I like to indulge in chocolate. (C)

The above 24 questions were chosen because they weighted heavily on one of the three factors listed in Table 1. Subjects respond to each question by placing a pencil mark on a 100 mm line with “Not at all like me” at one end and “Very much like me” at the other. The responses to the IO questions with a (C) after them were added and divided by IO to produce a “Craving” score. Similarly the responses to the questlons with a (G) after them were added and divided by IO to produce a “Guilt” score. Finally the four questions with a (F) afterwards were added and divided by 4 to produce a “Functional” score. If the FunctIonal scale IS not required the four questions can be ignored.

Table 3. Normative data for the craving. guilt and functional dimensmns of the attitude to chocolate questionnaire

Females Males

Percentile Guilt Craving Functional Guilt Craving Functional

5% 6.0 6.3 10.2 10% 9.6 15.0 16.7 15% 11.4 21.3 22.0 20% 14.8 26.7 25.2 25% 18.5 30.9 26.7 30% 20.4 33.6 29.2 35% 23.2 37.5 32.5 40% 25.2 39.2 35.0 45% 27. I 42.6 38.0 50% 34.4 45.5 39.7 55% 38.0 49.4 41.7 60% 42.3 53.6 44.7 65% 45.9 56.0 46.7 70% 50.6 58.9 49.7 75% 54.1 65.5 52.5 80% 58.7 67.9 57 0 85% 64.1 71.1 59.5 90% 70.4 77.3 63.5 95% 77.9 83.8 61.5

100% 79.5 100.0 99.7

Mean+S.D. 446(21.8) 46.8(21.8) 16.1(7.3)

The data are based on the responses of 226 females and 104 males.

2.9 2.5 3.0 6.4 4.2 10.2 7.1 7.1 16.5 9.9 Il.0 23.0

10.1 13.0 26.7 10.9 16.5 28.2 11.9 18.9 30.0 13.0 22.4 33.7 166 25.7 36.2 18 3 21.1 39.0 19.7 2X.4 41.5 20.7 33.6 43.8 22.1 36.3 46.2 24.0 38.6 48.2 24.9 43.0 52.5 30.6 46.7 53.8 34.4 50.4 57.5 45.9 56.0 63.0 55.9 65.3 70.5 70.6 81.4 97.0

21.2(15.5) 29.5(19.4) 15.6(7.9)

the intake of chocolate (F(1,72) = 25.83, P < 0.001) whereas Guilt had a non-significant influence (F(l,72) = 1.51, ns.).

Table 4 reports the relationship between the number of reinforcements earned in the progressive- ratio study and scores on the questionnaire. Again there was a significant correlation between craving and chocolate intake; those with a higher craving score were prepared to work harder to receive a chocolate button. Neither the craving nor functional scales were significantly associated with performance on this task.

Attitudes to chocolate 517

HIGH CRAVING LOW CRAVING

I LOW GUILT

Fig. I. The relationship between craving, guilt and the eating of chocolate bars. Women were distinguished who fell into the top and bottom 30% of the range for experiencing craving for and guilt about, chocolate.

High craving but not guilt was associated with the eating of a higher number of chocolate bars.

Table 4. Correlatvms between reinforcements earned in the progressive ratio task and response to the attitudes

to chocolate questionnaire

Correlation

Craving 0 23 Guilt 0.12 Functional 0.12

P < 0.03 “.S. “S.

Figure 2 reports the response to the question “I sometimes force myself to be sick after eating chocolate”. There was a significantly greater tendency for those with higher scores on the Guilt factor to report that this applied to them (F( 1,72) = 4.15, P < 0.04), although scores on the Craving dimension did not influence answers to this question (F(1,72) = 0.28, n.s.). When the comment

5 20

i7j W

mE HIGH GUILT

0 t $5

ii0 cl LOW GUILT

9x 0

50 8e 10

g

: B5 rt La

I 1 HIGH CRAVING LOW CRAVING

Fig. 2. The relationship between craving, guilt and inducing vomiting after eating chocolate. Guilt but not craving was associated with the answering of this question.

518 David Benton et al.

HIGH CRAVING

HIGH GUILT

cl LOW GUILT

LOW CRAVING

Fig. 3. The relationship between craving, guilt and carrying on eating chocolate when you do not want anymore. Both Guilt and Craving were associated with the answering of this question.

HIGH CRAVING

HIGH GUILT

n LOW GUILT

LOW CRAVING

Fig. 4. The relationship between craving, guilt and bingeing. Both Guilt and Craving were associated with the answering of this question.

“Even when I do not really want chocolate I carry on eating it” was examined, Fig. 3 illustrates that both high Guilt (F(1,72) = 5.33, P < 0.02) and high Craving (F(1,72) = 79.78, P < 0.001) were associated with a greater tendency to agree that this comment applied to them. Similarly when the comment “I sometimes do not eat chocolate for several days and then eat a large amount in one go” was analysed, both Guilt (F( 1,72) = 11.66, P < 0.001) and Craving reached statistical significance (F(1,72) = 6.02, P < 0.01). Figure 4 illustrates that although both Guilt and Craving were influential. Guilt had the stronger influence. In no instance did the interaction Guilt x Craving reach statistical significance.

DISCUSSION

&human et al. (1987) found that a group who reported “self-medicating with chocolate” were more likely to have personality traits associated with hysteroid dysphoria, a syndrome characterized

Attitudes to chocolate 519

by episodes of depression in response to feeling rejected. Hill et al., (1991) found that the experience

of strong food cravings was associated with being more bored, anxious and having a dysphoric

mood. Lester and Bernard (1991) found that although a desire for chocolate was associated with

depression it was not related to suicidal thoughts. Chocolate is by far the most commonly craved food in the pre-menstrual stage, a time often associated with dysphoria (Bancroft et al., 1988). Thus there is considerable evidence that food-cravings in genera1 and chocolate-craving in particular, are

associated with mood disturbance. However, in contrast to most previous research, the present

study has not examined subjects chosen because of their abnormal eating patterns or psychiatric

complaints. The finding of an association between the experience of chocolate craving, and its

consumption during periods of emotional stress (Factor l), is of interest as it confirms previous

observations, but also because it demonstrates the phenomenon in the normal population.

The craving score was predictive of chocolate intake in two conditions; firstly it predicted the

reported consumption of chocolate (Fig.1) and the work expended to earn chocolate rewards under

the progressive-ratio schedule (Table 4). The association between chocolate-craving, intake and lowered mood has been experimentally demonstrated by Willner et al. (in press). They manipulated

mood by playing either happy or depressing music and found that listening to depressing music

increased craving scores on the attitudes to chocolate questionnaire. Listening to depressing music

also increased the work expended in the same progressive-ratio schedule used in the present study

when chocolate, but not the chocolate substitute carob, was offered as a reward.

The finding of orthogonal Guilt and Craving factors may prove to be of importance; high

chocolate craving is not necessarily associated with guilt. As there was no reason to believe that any

of the present sample suffered with an eating disorder it was surprising that there was a small but

significant tendency to report behaviours that give rise for concern and may reflect a predisposition to eating disorders. A high Guilt score was associated with a tendency to report that you were likely

to make yourself vomit (Fig. 2), eat large amounts in one sitting (Fig. 4) and to carry on eating chocolate when it was not really wanted (Fig. 3). There is an assumption in those suffering with eating disorders that food cravings result from, or at least accompany, dieting or restrained eating

(Striegel-Moore et al., 1986; Wardle 1987). Mitchell et al. (1985) found that 70% of bulimic women attributed the onset of bingeing to food-cravings, most commonly for sweet items. Although the

present samples were not chosen because they displayed eating disorders the resulting findings (Figs

2, 3 and 4) suggest that a factor other than craving should be considered. The tendency to binge

and vomit was associated more with guilt than with the craving factor. Although no conclusion

should be drawn from the present sample a prediction that could be considered is that a pre-

disposition to eating disorders is associated with the experience of high cravings and high guilt. Addiction to drugs of abuse can reflect the stimulation of one of two mechanisms. Distinct

neural systems have been described by which drugs that induce craving can either give pleasure or

alternatively decrease distress (Wise, 1988). Drug cravings can result from the stimulating of either of these mechanisms; there is a biological basis for drug cravings that is not rooted in withdrawal

distress or other source of negative affect. It is often assumed that drugs of abuse act by stimulating mechanisms that are more normally involved in the control of feeding and drinking. It is possible to see chocolate craving as a reflection of both types of neural mechanism. A high craving score

was associated with a positive view of the physical characteristics of chocolate such as taste and

mouth-fee1 (Table 1). It is known that the pleasant taste of chocolate plays a large part in making

it attractive, other factors such as caffeine seem relatively unimportant (Rozin et al., 1991). Drugs

that are positively reinforcing tend to be craved. It is easy to suggest that the uniquely attractive combination of sweetness, chocolate taste and mouth-fee1 make chocolate more positively rein-

forcing than other foods; craving therefore results. Other drugs that become craved reduce distress.

The association between craving-related questions on factor one and the eating of chocolate in emotionally distressing situations suggests that cravings may also reflect the neural mechanisms important in reducing distress. Thus it is possible that the high frequency of chocolate craving reflects its ability to tap both types of neural mechanism that underlie craving.

A measurement instrument has been developed that provides a quantitative estimate of the fundamental attitudes to chocolate. Some preliminary examinations of these factors suggest that they will prove useful in understanding both normal and abnormal responses to this food item.

520 David Benton et al.

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