the development of chordal harmony in greek rebetika and laika music 1930s to 1960s

British Forum for Ethnomusicology

The Development of Chordal Harmony in Greek Rebetika and Laika Music, 1930s to 1960sAuthor(s): Risto Pekka PennanenSource: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 6 (1997), pp. 65-116Published by: British Forum for EthnomusicologyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3060831Accessed: 06/01/2009 20:08

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BRITISH JOURNAL OF ETHNOMUSICOLOGY

The development of chordal harmony in Greek rebetika and laika music, 1930s to 1960s

Risto Pekka Pennanen

This article addresses the effects of chordal harmony on makam- or dromos-based Greek popular music, a feature almost completely ignored in previous research. The goal is to reconsider the asserted rapid Westernization of rebetika and especially laika styles after the World War II. Processes of change examined are Westernization, modernization and Orientalization. The analyses are based on interviews with professional musicians and transcriptions from a large corpus of gramophone recordings. The most important characteristics studied are droning, relative major and minor chords and common-practice and modal harmony in makam-related songs. The analyses lead to a new theory for dromos harmonization. Cultural meanings of developments in Greek popular music are analysed as well. It is evident that many musicians, researchers and listeners have interpreted Greek popular music as more Westernized than it actually is.

rTOHE INTRODUCTION OF CHORDAL HARMONY is a typical sign of Western 1 influence in a non-Western music culture. The aim of this article is to show

how, in spite of Westernization in Greek urban culture and the harmonization of melodies in makam-based compositional systems of Greek popular music called dromoi (sing. dromos "road"), some characteristics of the dromoi have been retained in both rebetika music and its successor laika1. I shall analyse the development of this aspect in Greek popular music in the period from the 1930s to the 1960s and present a theory for dromos harmonization based on performance practice. The period chosen covers important developments from the rise of the bouzouki-based rebetika as a recorded genre in the early 1930s till the birth of new laika sub-styles in the 1960s.

1 Rebetika tragoudia (pl.) once designated songs which were originally performed, listened to and/or danced by rebetes, men of waywardness and non-conformity. Nowadays the term is used for much of pre mid- 1950s non-Western Greek popular music. I use the term "laika" somewhat unconventionally. Usually it is used for "urban Greek popular music" in general as distinct from the rural dimotika music. (For the

debate concerning the terms, see Gauntlett 1982/83:91-2; Dietrich 1987:7 n. 1.) Instead of using the Greek

singular ("rebetiko") for one song and "rebetiki" for the music, I call the music "rebetika music" and one

song a "rebetika song". Laika tragoudia (pl.) are post mid-1950s Greek popular songs. As with rebetika, I

call the music "laika music" and one song "laika song".

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66 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol 6 (1997)

The analysis is primarily based on a corpus of some 1500 commercial rebetika and laika recordings or their reissues. There is a gap in the recorded material between April 1941 and early June 1946 caused by the cessation of recording activities during the Axis occupation of Greece and its aftermath. Owing to the lack of complete and reliable Greek discographies, recording and releasing dates are often undependable (Smith 1989; 1991; Pennanen 1996:244-5). I have had some problems with the dates of issue, which are of vital importance for the chronology. Original recordings and properly edited reissues can be reliably dated because of the available catalogue numbers that reveal the date of release. Occasionally even the matrix numbers indicating the dates of recording are given. However, most Greek reissues contain very sparse information about the original recordings. Fortunately compositions and recordings of a few important rebetika and laika musicians have been partly catalogued (Torp 1993; Hristianopoulos 1994; Maniatis 1994:87-143; Anastasiou 1995; Kleiasiou 1997:400-43; Adamidou 1998:365-94). In addition, many datings are based on information contained in original EMI artiste's recording sheets, including matrix numbers and recording dates, kindly provided by Diane Mueller.

References to bouzouki playing techniques, rebetika performance practices and verbalizations on music are based on private bouzouki lessons and interviews with musicians in Athens, Piraeus and Aegina between the years 1989 and 1998.2

Rebetika can be subdivided into two main styles (Conway Morris 1980). The Oriental style associated with the large refugee population from Asia Minor in the 1920s and 1930s can be called cafe music because of its main performance milieu. Probably for nationalistic reasons, this style is usually called Smyrnaic (smyrneiko) in Greece, which is quite misleading. Only a part of the repertoire originated from the popular music of Izmir (Smyrna): the majority of melodies came from Istanbul, the centre of Ottoman classical and popular music. In the 1920s and 1930s, Greek cafe musicians recorded remakes of Ottoman ?arky and kanto as well as urban and rural tiirkii songs of popular vein (cf. ibid.:82-3; Ayangil 1994; Jouste 1997). There were also many original compositions based on Ottoman tradition. Caf6 musicians mostly used musical instruments capable of producing microintervals (i.e. violin, kemen~e or lyra, kanun, ud, ciimbui), although they also frequently played the guitar, mandolin and accordion. Songs were accompanied by heterophonic melodic lines provided by instruments, and/or rhythmic bass formulae from the ud or guitar. Percussion instruments were sometimes used.

The other main style of rebetika, the bouzouki-based Piraeus style, was associated with the urban sub-culture of Greece. Conway Morris (1980) calls its early stages "teke style" after the most common performance context, i.e. teke or hashish den. The main musical instruments of this style were the bouzouki, its

2 Professional musicians of the older generation consulted for this article were Thanasis Athanasiou (born 1920), Takis Binis (b. 1924), and especially Spyros Kalfopoulos (b. 1923). Younger musicians were

Stelios Biblis (b. 1959), Hristos Kalambokis (b. 1968), Kostas Koukoulinis (b. 1957), Nikos Kralis (b. 1960) and Hristos Spourdalakis (b. 1961).

Pennanen: Chordal harmony in Greek rebetika and laika

miniature version the baglamas and the guitar. The repertoire was based on already existing musical material and original compositions mostly in hasapiko (2/4 or 4/4 time) and various zeibekiko rhythms (slow 4+5/4 for zeibekiko, fast 4+5/4 for kamilieriko and slow 5+4/4 for aptaliko)3. Droning, rhythmic bass tones or chords from the guitar were used for accompaniment. In cadences, the guitar often played the melody in parallel octaves. Around the mid-1930s, some cafe composers and singers started making and recording songs in the fashionable Piraeus style with bouzouki and guitar accompaniment.

The laika style is related to its predecessor, rebetika, in a complex way. Whereas rebetika was originally music of the urban subculture, laika was true popular music of the urban population-just as the basic meaning of the Greek word would suggest. A remarkable shift from the rebetika styles of the 1930s to the direction of what was to become the new laika style seems to have taken place after 1947. Post-war rebetika was often performed in increasingly luxurious bouzouki taverns called kosmikes tavernes ("beau monde taverns") for the higher strata of Greek society. Western popular music was also performed in these taverns by musicians who had few connections with the rebetika tradition, and these musicians also participated in rebetika bands. The repertoire of kosmikes tavernes became remarkably hybrid, and rebetika and Western-style popular music composers produced songs that fit the taste of the new audiences (Gauntlett 1985:12933, 150).4 From the mid-1950s onwards, this yielded a new style of Greek popular music-laika-performed at night-clubs by large electrically amplified ensembles. The new type of bouzouki with four double-courses instead of the traditional three became a virtuoso instrument. Laika vocal styles also differ from those of rebetika. Laika acquired influences from rebetika, Western European, Latin American, North American, Turkish and Egyptian popular music and Indian film music.

Rebetika and laika have been valued very differently by writers on rebetika. While rebetika has often been seen by its proponents as a pure Greek-Oriental (or even Byzantine) style with great artistic value, laika has usually been described using negative attributes such as foreign-influenced, corrupt and commercial (see e.g. Papaioannou 1973:291; Holst 1983 [1975]:59-60; Dragoumis 1975:25; 1984:64; Konstandinidou 1987:78-80 passim). If there has been very little scholarly solid musicological research on rebetika, laika is terra incognita for musicologists. This is largely owing to the myths of authentic music, national

3 There are also fast 5+4/4 pieces that can be called kamilieriko-aptaliko; this term, however, is not

included in the emic vocabulary of rebetika musicians. The distinction between 9/4 pieces in 4+5/4 or

5+4/4 is crucial.

4 The rare sound document recorded by a well-off customer at the Athenian tavern Tzimi tou Hondrou in

1955 gives a hint of the hybrid programme (issued on Venus V-1053). In the live recording, Marika Ninou

sings rebetika hits by Vasilis Tsitsanis and Yiorgos Mitsakis, the popular non-rebetika song "To monopati"

by Yiorgos Mouzakis and the film song "(ikar yucelerden haber sorarim" by Sadettin Kaynak and Vecdi

Bingol and "Gezdigim dikenli ask yollarinda" by Kadri $enqalar', the last two in Turkish.

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68 British Journal of Ethnomusicology, vol. 6 (1997)

music and anti-music which have effectively turned academic researchers away from the newer style. (For the myths, see Kurkela 1989:327-67; 1997:188-92.)5

The most common view in the writings in both popular and scientific veins is that after World War II, increased emphasis on chordal harmony and the spread of functional harmony caused the disappearance of dromoi related to Ottoman makams. Vasilis Tsitsanis (1915-84) has often been mentioned as the most important pioneer in this development (see e.g. Conway Morris 1980:83; Manuel 1989:83). For several reasons, this interpretation of Tsitsanis' role is very questionable (Pennanen 1997:127-8 n. 7).

According to Peter Manuel (1989:78-9, 83), "the traditional modes came to be used essentially as mere scales". He states that modern mainstream bouzouki music continues to use Hitzas-family (e.g. D-E[,-F#-G-A-BV-c-d) and raised- fourth (D-E-F-G#-A-B-c-d; scale of makam Nikriz) scales "with traditional harmonization patterns", while most other dromoi have fallen into disuse.6 Manuel's description and conclusions seem not to be based on the analysis of recorded repertoire. In the dromos equivalent of makam Nikriz (with raised fourth and seventh), the raised fourth degree is frequently lowered even in new compositions. This detail in melodic movement implies that the dromos is not used as a scale to the extent Manuel believes; instead, some traditional melodic formulae and progressions have been retained.7

Cultural processes in Greek popular music

In writings about Greek popular music of the 1940s to 1960s, Westernization has been seen as by far the most significant development. This oversimplified deduction needs reconsideration, in the form of an analysis based on actual sources. A more appropriate interpretation of the development would be that acculturation processes in music during these decades consisted of more than

straightforward adoption of Western musical features. The old was not simply replaced by new Western elements. Commercial recordings reveal that there were at least two other important lines of development, i.e. modernization and Orientalization.

5 Liavas (1994) gives a good summary of the myth of cultural continuity in Greek music from the classical

period to the modem times. 6 With some exceptions, Ottoman makam names are used to refer to the corresponding basic makam

structures in this study. Since nominally equivalent makams and dromoi can refer to dissimilar tonal

structures, I shall specify the system by mentioning the term "makam" or "dromos". In most cases, I shall

follow the convention of almost all Greek bouzouki and dromos books and write down scales with the tone

D as the root of I. This convention coincides with the practice of playing tunes on the standard tuning of

the three-course bouzouki (D'D-A'A'-DD) which favours D-based keys. Thus the fixed theoretical

relationships of Ottoman makams for example in modulation are lost. The key-of-D principle shows the

prevailing dominance of performance practice over systematic theory in rebetika.

7 Lilliestam (1995:30) has defined musical formula as a characteristic motif or pattern that has an easily

recognisable nucleus, although the exact realization of a formula may vary within certain limits.


According to Bruno Nettl (1978:171; 1985:20), modernization can be described as the incidental movement of a system or its components in the direction of Western music and musical life without requiring major changes in those aspects of the non-Western tradition that are central and essential. In Greek popular music there are many excellent examples of the modernization process. Many leading composers and performers of the 1950s and 1960s-Yiorgos Mitsakis, Vasilis Tsitsanis, Manolis Angelopoulos, Stratos Dionysiou, Panos Gavalas, Kaiti Grey, Stelios Kazantzidis, Yiota Lydia-made and recorded more or less modified and modernized remakes of old songs. In addition, traditional melodic formulae in various makams and dromoi were used for compositions and taximi unmetred improvisations. Good examples of new compositions based on earlier melodic models are "Ala turka horepse mou" (1957, HMV AO 5417) by Vasilis Tsitsanis related to "To haremi sto hamam" (1935, Columbia DG 6165) by Anestis Delias (1912-44) in the rebetika equivalent of makam U?ak, and "O kapetanios tou spitiou" (1962, Columbia SCDG 3116) by L. Vamvakaris and Nikos Dalezios based on the dromos Pireotikos-Hitzaskiar song "To bohori" from the beginning of the century. Both traditional and new instruments and techniques, often mixed with each other, were used in the remakes.

The period of Orientalization in Greek popular music is a complex subject that deserves more detailed analysis than is possible here.8 It is often forgotten that Greek urban music culture was not influenced solely by the West in the 1950s and 1960s. Indeed, the effect of "Oriental" music cultures on non-Oriental ones has not been a common research subject among ethnomusicologists. After a decrease from the latter half of the 1930s brought about by the censorship of the Metaxas dictatorship and its repercussions, a considerable amount of melodies from Turkey were recorded in Greek and Turkish after the late 1950s.9 The cover versions gained great popularity. To a lesser extent, Egyptian film songs and instrumentals (e.g. "Cleopatra" by Mohamed Abdel Wahab) were also recorded by Greeks.10? Most Turkish and Egyptian melodies were makam-based, and the Greek cover versions often contained taximia in the corresponding dromoi.

Another important component of Orientalization originated in India. According to the matrix information sheets, the first Greek cover version of an Indian film song was recorded in early 1959. The success of Indian music films in Greece had started some years earlier. Over one hundred films were shown between 1954 and

8 Until 1998, the era was a taboo among many veteran rebetika musicians and in popular writing about

Greek popular music (cf. Gauntlett 1991:19). In his biography, Vasilis Tsitsanis (in Hatzidoulis 1980:39-

44) calls the period "the decade of theft and Indocracy" owing to the fact that some Greek composers tended to copyright compositions of foreign origin. The biography, consisting of interviews plus inaccurate

transcriptions of Tsitsanis' works, contains none of his compositions in Indian style. 9 E.g. "13inanay" as "Siko horepse koukli mou" (1960, HMV AO 5616) and "Zeytinyagly yiyemem, aman"

as "Yiati thes na fygeis" (1961, HMV 7PG 2872). 10 There is at least one early example of the interaction between Greek and Egyptian popular music. The

refrain of "As' ta kolpa" by Panayiotis Toundas, recorded in 1934 by Rita Abatzi (HMV AO 2156), was

used by Mohamed Abdel Wahab in the song "Sahirtou" from the 1935 film "Doumou' El Hob" (reissued on AAA 019). The chronology suggests that Abdel Wahab borrowed the theme from Toundas.

69


1968, after which their popularity waned. At least 105 Greek cover versions of the songs were recorded during the period (Abatzi and Tasoulas, forthcoming). Owing to the success of the Indian film "Mother India" and its music in 1960, some Greek composers started making original melodies in Indian style. Before 1960 there are practically no traces of Indian film music style in original works by Greek composers. (For an important exception, see Pennanen 1995:138.) The Indian hits and Greek original compositions imitating them became popular to the extent that it is even possible to speak of Hinduization in Greek popular music (on the term, see Nettl 1997:5). Indian raga formulae, rhythms, singing style and instrumentation were imitated. One reason for the popularity of Indian songs in Greece was their hybridism, which made it easier for urban Greeks to accept them. (For Western influences in Indian film music, see Manuel 1988:179-84 passim.)

The frequent sudden shifts between parallel major and minor tonalities that became common in Greek popular music of the 1960s originate from the melodic models of Indian film songs in raga Misra Pilu. The peculiarity of this raga is the unstable third degree (cf. Nimbus NI 5365). The most influential model song for Greek composers of the new style was the 3/4 (or 6/4) time (Indian dddra tala) "Dunya men hum" by Naushad Ali in Misra Pilu from the film "Mother India" (for dadra tala, see Manuel 1988:177). The first Greek cover version titled "Den me ponese kaneis" was recorded in 1960. Fig. 1 is an excerpt from a Greek early 1960s laika song in 3/4 time imitating raga Misra Piliu.

Fig. 1: Excerpt from "M' ehoun yelasei dyo mavra matia" by Vasilis Tsitsanis. Recorded in 1961 by Kaiti Grey (HMV 7PG 3004).

A J=1I52 DA

KX &- IpE TV'K(OC- TOCOT- - I0 -- - (rou YE A7

Ppq - KE, KOCp - 5tc Lou! A 1 - 5iKq - w-

q, ,P ClIE- y7r - ym rro - XiT !

Westernization, Orientalization and modernization were often present in a single piece of music, creating a complex hybrid. Many Turkish and Indian songs or original compositions in those styles were accompanied in the Europeanized, rhythmically simplified baion (baido) rhythm of Brazilian origin. (For the original baiao polyrhythm, see Rocha & Pinto 1986:96.)

Table 1 lists several Greek popular songs in chronological order from the 1950s to the early 1960s with some of the main influences of the era. The foreign

title

"To skalopati sou"

"Mambo zeibekano"I

"Laos kai Kolonaki"

"I Kailiopi ap' ti Gouva",2

"Perasmenes mou agapes"$

"Ta limania"

"Ta xena heria"

"I teleftea mera"

"0 kapetanios klaiei"

composer, year

Tsitsanis 1952

Th. Derveniotis 1958

H-iotis 1958

Panos Petsas 1961?

Hiotis 1962

Tsitsanis 1962

Tsitsanis 1962

Zambetas 1962

Tsitsanis 1964

text contents

love

Greek adaptation of mambo

poor/rich, love

social satire

love

longing for beloved

suffering absence from home

love

longing for beloved

rhythm

414 hasapiko

914 zeibekiko 4/4 "mambo"

4/4 swing

914 zeibekiko

4/4 "Latin"

4/4 "bai6n"

4/4 hasapiko 12/8

3/4 d5dra tfila (waltz)

spoken intro free rhythm voc. 3/4 didri tila (waltz) 5/8

melody

dromos H-ouzam 0- 3

minor

minor

minor

dromos Hitzas

rebetika form of makam Htlseynii

minor

riga Mitra Pilil

imitation

minor

vocal

male voc, fem & male harm voc

fem voc

fem voc male harm. voc

male voc male harm. voc

female voc male vocal trio

female voc

female voc

female voc

male voc, fem & male harm voc

instruments influences

bouz, acc, g, b

bouz, g. b, p Latin perc

bouz, acc, brass sec, g, b, dr

bouz, g, b, dr

bouz, acc, g, b, Latin perc

bouz, v, acc, class g. b, jingle dr, darbuka

bouz, acc, p, g, b, dr

2 bouz, v, acc, g, b, dr

2 bouz, acc, g, b, darbuka

rebetika, Italian popular song

laika, Westernized Cuban music

swing, laika

Brazilian music, laika

Latin America, rebetika, USA multipart pop harm.

rebetika, Westernized Brazilian music

rebetika, Italian popular song

Indian film music, laika

Indian film music

Table 1: Greek popular songs from the 1950s to 1960s with some main influences of the era.

I The melody and lyrics contain borrowings from the international hit of 1954 "Mambo Italianso! by Bob Mervil. Similar localization of an international hit was used in the Finnish song "Savonmuan mambo" ("Mambo of

Savonia" of 1956 by Harsy Bergstrm and Jaakko Merenheimno.)MTe Finnish mambo was sung in Savo dialect.

2 A Greek adaptation of the international Latin American hit "Brigitte Bardot" by Braziian Miguel Gustavo, first recorded in 1959. (For details, see Kurkela & Pennanen 1996.)


elements are from Italian popular music, Westernized Latin American music, swing, USA popular song style of the 1950s and Indian film music. There are combinations of rhythms and compositional systems, performance practices and instrumentations that originated from traditions not related to each other.

Some of the new combinations were meant for listening rather than for dancing, which had been one of the main functions of rebetika songs. One of the songs in Table 1, "Mambo zeibekano" starts as a zeibekiko but ends up as a European version of the fashionable mambo. Since mambo was an international hit dance in the 1950s, many young urban Greeks knew how to dance to it. By contrast, the Indian-style "O kapetanios klaiei" consists of a spoken introduction, a free rhythm vocal introduction imitating the Indian Ciltap section, an instrumental section in 3/4 followed by a vocal section, an unmetred instrumental bridge, and a vocal section in 5/8 time. With such variety of sections and rhythms, the song is clearly not intended for dancing.

There are some attempts by Greek sociologists to explain the initial social and cultural reasons for the wave of Oriental songs in Greece in the late 1950s. It has been seen as a reaction against the extreme Westernization of Greek society (cf. Gauntlett 1991:19). Similar reasons have been given for the success of Egyptian film music after the mid-1930s in Turkey during the massive Westernization campaign led by Kemal Atatiirk (cf. Stokes 1992:92-4; Tekelioglu 1996:208). This interpretation stresses domestic cultural, political and social factors, which is typical of modern Hellenocentrism. A wider framework reveals other possible explanations.

Apart from the internal reasons, there were external ones. According to Pekka Gronow (pers. comm. 1997), international waves of ethnic styles (e.g. Gypsy music, Argentinian tango, Hawaiian music and Italian popular song) preceded the final breakthrough and diffusion of rock. Orientalism in popular music was not restricted to Greece. Many Middle Eastern-style songs-e.g. "Uskudara" (1952), "Shish Kebab" (1958), "Hava nagilah" (1961)-were international hits in the 1950s and 1960s, and some of these were also recorded in Greek.1I At the same time, Indian film music was fashionable outside its country, also elsewhere than in Greece. According to Stokes (1992:96), Indian music enjoyed a short period of popularity in Turkey in the 1950s; presumably Stokes means film music.

For the analysis of the development of Greek urban music, it is important to understand that urban Greek music culture was not closed to international waves of influences. Rebetika and especially laika were affected by many kinds of musical traditions from abroad.

"Modal harmony" in rebetika and laika

Chordal harmony has been treated only marginally by most musicologists on fusion musics (but see Zganec 1955:89-90; Manuel 1989; Hughes 1991:17-9).

11 E.g. "Moustafa" by the Egyptian jazz musician Bob Azzam and the French record producer Eddie

Barclay, recorded in 1960 by Manolis Angelopoulos.


This is also the case in research on rebetika. Occasionally chordal accompani- ments have not even been included in the transcriptions and analyses, probably owing to the view that rebetika is basically monodic music (e.g. Dragoumis 1975:19-24; van Straten 1989:69-109 passim). A similar paradigm has sometimes had a distorting effect on the analysis of Greek rural music (e.g. Frye 1973:243-56, 305-6). In writing on rebetika, the evolution of harmony has been sketched only in very broad lines. Musicological studies often contain general arguments with sparse concrete documentation (e.g. Papaioannou 1973:289; Dietrich 1987:161-2; Manuel 1989:79-84).

When discussing chordal harmony in makam-based music, we should start from the melody. The relationship of certain makams with non-equal tempered intervals to chordal harmony has sometimes been seen as black and white, with no possibility of combining the two systems (see Manuel 1989:78, 83; criticized in Pennanen 1997:126). However, musicians have three different ways to react to chordal harmony. Firstly, Arab and Ottoman makams and rural compositional systems in various non-equal tempered intonations have been performed with chordal accompaniment (see Stokes 1992:85-8; cf. Greve 1995:205). Secondly, in some styles the change of intonation is not complete: equal-tempered accompaniment does not prevent the vocal or instrumental soloist from intoning some tones of melodic formulae in a non-equal tempered way. The third possibility is to change the intonation completely into equal temperament while retaining the other basic characteristics of a makam (cf. Signell 1977:46, 126). The adjust- ment of intonation towards equal temperament is a typical modernization tendency in non-Western music cultures (cf. Nettl 1978:161, 165). For example, it is common to adjust makam scale structures slightly to fit Western harmony. (For Egyptian popular music, see Braune 1992.)

Somewhat illogically, when compared with his claim of total incompatibility of non-equal tempered intervals and chordal harmony, Manuel (1989:78) also admits that "in the syncretic musics discussed here, the neutral intervals employed in Hicaz and other traditional modes are generally adjusted to more diatonic pitches when combined with major-minor harmonies." As we shall see, precisely this process has taken place e.g. in dromos Sabah of the bouzouki-based rebetika tradition. Therefore dromos Sabah is used in rebetika and laika, though its Ottoman makam equivalent makam Saba has "prominent neutral intervals" and a "chromatic scale" (Fig. 2a, b; cf. Manuel 1989:83).

There are some basic problems of orientation in the previous studies on harmonized dromoi. Instead of analyses based on actual performance practice, the writers who have accepted the existence of rebetika dromoi in equal temperament have constructed systems based on applications of Western music theory. One of the first to try his hand at harmonizations of Greek folk songs to create folkloristic fusion music with a special music theory was Georges Lambelet (1875-1932). His theory was influenced by analyses from the 1870s by L.-A. Bourgault- Ducoudray (criticized in Konstantzos 1997). Lambelet based his analyses of the melodies he arranged mostly on "Greek modes" and chords which only used notes from within the mode (cf. Powers 1980:418). The arrangements included songs

73


Fig. 2: (a) The scale of Ottoman makam Saba with distances between tones in Holderian commas. (b) Dromos Sabah scale in equal temperament with traditional harmonization. (c) The scale of the octave-repeated dromos Sabah with theoretical harmonization (Payiatis 1987:26; Boukouvalas 1991:96).12 Whole notes are finals and half notes are tonal centres. For standard accidentals in Turkish music, see Appendix.

[2P]a;_ 43 + _

SA-. " ^-r' ^^-' T5 5 9 8 5 6.5 11.5 4 9 5 12 5 9

6.5 6.5

VIIb i IH vib

f i ii-3-5 III IVb+5 v VIb VIIb i

that belonged to the cafe-style repertoire of Ottoman popular music (see Lambelet 1934:142-4, 188-91, 192-3).

The works of Greek non-academic writers on dromoi (primarily authors of bouzouki methods and dromos booklets) are based only loosely on actual performance practice. The scale and harmony concepts of these writers are basically Western. They have written the dromoi down as octave scales, and some of them in their theoretical presentations have built chords on every scale step (see Payiatis 1987; Boukouvalas 1991:94-9). However, the use of all theoretical chord degrees in a dromos composition is conventional neither in rebetika nor in laika performance practice. In addition, many dromos scales produce triads that are not acceptable in popular styles.

In rebetika and laika performance practice, chords are not always based exclusively on scale degrees. Instead, melodies are built around tonal centres and melodic formulae, which leads to a harmonic logic (what I will call "traditional" harmonization) different from the Western one. Tonal centres are dictated by the seyir of each makam. Seyir is a set of rules that conducts the melodic progression in a theoretical scale, thus setting the general melodic outline (Signell 1977:50- 65). However, in Ottoman and Greek popular music seyirs have not been strictly followed by composers and musicians. In particular, instrumental sections in vocal works often avoid classical rules. Still, tonal centres and makam-specific melodic formulae are important for makam identification and classification.

12 In the revised edition of his book, Payiatis abandons the building of chords on every scale step; in

addition, his Sabah octave scale can contain either a perfect or diminished octave (Payiatis 1992:50).


Owing to these, the compositional systems of songs and taximi improvisations in equal temperament are often identifiable as makams or dromoi on recordings.

The importance of tonal centres and melodic formulae is a factor that explains why theoretical harmonizations achieved through deduction differ from "traditional" performance practice. The theoretical harmonizations disregard the tonal centres. In addition, they are based on the Western scale concept, according to which a scale is repeated similarly in all octaves; in practice, makam and dromos scale structures often are not repeated, i.e. their octaves differ from each other.

The problem of the interrelationship between melody and scale is an important issue of early 20th century folk music research. In his famous article "Melodie und Skala", Erich M. von Hornbostel (1913), who had stressed the importance of scales in musical analysis, criticized music theorists for taking scale instead of melodic structure for the primary element in music. Dromos Sabah, the rebetika equivalent of the Ottoman makam Saba, is a striking case of this dilemma. In the following we shall observe the transformation process of makam Saba into dromos Sabah, and compare the performance practice to the theoretical harmonization.

Fig. 2a is the basic theoretical scale of the modern Ottoman makam Saba, consisting according to one view of U??ak trichord on A (diigah) with a low extension, Hicaz pentachord on c (9argah) and Hicaz pentachord on g (gerdaniye). A tone where two genera meet is a tonal centre or giiulii (often called "melodic dominant" by Western researchers). According to the seyir, a Saba melody must start either on the first (final) or the third (giiqlii) degree. There is also some other variance in the seyir. Some Turkish musicians consider both sixth and seventh degree as important secondary tonal centres (Signell 1977:61-5). The pitch of the second degree of the U??ak trichord notated as B4 (segah) varies in practice. In ascending phrases, the pitch is one Holderian comma13 flat but it changes to 2.5 commas flat in descending ones (Torun 1993:166; cf. Feldman 1996:206-13 passim).14 The second degree of the first Hicaz pentachord is usually some 2.5 commas flat instead of the conventional 4 commas (Signell 1977:37-8, 158; Torun 1993:233; Aksoy 1997:15-6). However, in specifically Hicaz formulae, the intonation changes to that of the conventional Hicaz. The second Hicaz pentachord is conventional. In Saba scale, the octave of the final is usually diminished, and the low extension under the final differs from the corresponding region in the basic octave.15

Fig. 2b is the scale of the equal-tempered dromos Sabah of the bouzouki tradition that is based on the analysis of the recorded reportoire and interviews with musicians. Each non-equal-tempered pitch of makam Saba has been adjusted

13 For the Holderian comma, see Dussant 1957. 14 The varying intonation of the UBBak note group may explain the Phrygian cadence in some Finnish

Gypsy, Hungarian and Balkan songs in natural minor (cf. Ziegler 1979:228, 231, 252; Jalkanen 1981:204; Sarosi 1986:15). 15 This short description of the Saba scale structure is by no means complete. In classical compositions, the upper octave may contain many kinds of components.

75


to the nearest equal-tempered one.16 In Ottoman, modern Turkish and Greek popular music, Saba melodies tend to be simpler than those of Ottoman classical music, and they do not ascend as high as in the classical style. As will be shown below, the traditional harmonization of dromos Sabah songs utilises chords i, III, viI and VII. The roots of the three first chords are important tonal centres of the dromos: instead of the seventh degree as in makam Saba, the sixth degree is a secondary tonal centre. As will be explained below, this is owing to the harmonization of the dromos Hitzas component in dromos Sabah, leading to the use of chord vi;. The fifth of VIII, is not a scale degree in the basic octave, which, however, does not prevent musicians from using the chord in cadences.

Fig. 2c is the form of Sabah given in bouzouki and dromos booklets. Because of the Western scale concept, the octave has been written as perfect. No tonal centres have been indicated, and the scale is supposed to recur identically in all octaves. Under the scale is the theoretical harmonization. Chord forms ii-3-5 and IV[,+5 are not considered acceptable by the musicians interviewed, whereas chord VIb is a product of the octave-repeated scale, making it unsuitable for dromos Sabah melodies. Chords i, III, v, VI; and VII; would be basic triads, but as we have seen in Fig. 2b, v and VIb are not used at all. However, not all bouzouki and dromos booklets are similarly distant from performance practice (see Loukareas 1985:42; Koukoulinis 1995:43; Grigoriadis 1997:41).

Manuel (1989:83) contends that the Western common practice harmony used for rebetika and laika melodies in major and minor coexisted with modal harmony used for melodies based on e.g. Phrygian, the raised-fourth and Hitzas-type scales in the mainstream rebetika of the 1930s. (For a more detailed analysis, see Jouste 1994:71-85.) Quite unlike Jouste (ibid.:83) and Pennanen (1994:98-100), Papa- ioannou (1973:289) and Manuel (1989:71) consider modal harmony without noticing that characteristic chord progressions for some makam-based dromoi do not differ from those of common practice harmony. Apparently these researchers have not been able to identify these dromoi and have taken them for Western major.

The dromoi in question here are Rast, Houzam 0-3 (Ottoman makam Seg5h) and a modification of the latter, Houzam M-1. The basic scale of dromos Rast looks similar to the Western major (Fig. 3a), but as we shall see below, even modem Rast melodies of the bouzouki tradition have distinctive melodic formulae not found in major.

In my classification, "Houzam 0-3" means that in its original form, the final of the dromos is on the third of I, while "Houzam M-1" means that in its modified form, the final is a major third lower than the original, i.e. on the root of I (see Pennanen 1997:135-41). The reason for the change of the final has probably been the harmonization; the final has been drawn down by the root of I (Fig. 3b, c). I have divided the Houzam 0-3 forms into two classes, varying and restricted.

16 In Sabah melodies of the bouzouki tradition, the second degree is occasionally flattened in the sectional

close. It is difficult to say whether this is owing to the 2.5 comma flat second degree of descending makam

Saba, or an imitation of a Saba Zemzeme formula.


Fig. 3: The basic scales of dromos Rast, dromos Houzam 0-3 and dromos Houzam M-1 and their harmonizations.

bA Houzam,0-3

a Rast

I V

CA Houzam M-1

I V I V

Varying Houzam 0-3 melodies are characterized by a wide range, chromatic alterations and some modulations. Because restricted dromos Houzam 0-3 melodies do not extend below the final, contain very few chromatic alterations and have their final a major third higher than Rast and major, they are often taken for the Western major finishing on the third. Two-voiced restricted Houzam 0-3 melodies are a special case. Usually they are classified as normal final-on-tonic major because the harmony voice a third below or sixth above the first one is taken for the actual melody (see ibid.: 160-5).

Since the conventional I-V-I progression is used for melodies in these three dromoi, the progression is not necessarily a sign of major-minor tonality in a syncretic music culture.

Characteristics of dromoi and Western tonality may also coexist in one and the same piece of music. The syncretic nature of post-war rebetika is illustrated in Fig. 4. The melody begins with a broken major triad, which is a typical Western feature. In the first bar, however, there is a common dromos Houzam 0-3 (makam Segah) formula in F that is built around the guiilii, in this case the tone c. The giillu is surrounded by its leading tone and upper neighbour. In the second bar, the melody descends to the final (A) of Houzam 0-3 via the second degree. After this, Houzam gives way to the Western D minor tonality.

The piece cannot be readily analysed through either Ottoman or Western theories of music alone. In Ottoman music, this kind of modulation to transposed makam Segah in makam Nihavend-the closest equivalent of the Western minor-is not a standard modulation practice. The modulation is influenced by the Western concept of relative keys. In addition, most of the composition is tonal

Fig. 4: Excerpt from "Otan pineis stin taverna" by Vasilis Tsitsanis. Recorded in 1947 by Sotiria Bellou and the composer (HMVAO 2774).

+ffi-I; ;8 rtmIJ I I d: Il[ iv V7 of iv iv

I J - 1 i -

III V7 i iv i V7 V7 i

77


in character. On the other hand, Western theory is not capable of explaining the Houzam formula, deriving from makam music. Rebetika in the 1940s was still more or less somewhere between Ottoman and Western music, and it frequently contained distinctive rebetika features derived from neither system or developed from the combination of them. It had its own musical practices and aesthetics. This is why musical analysis of rebetika calls for elements from the theories of Ottoman and Western music, and ultimately a special rebetika theory that remains to be constructed.

One of the main problems in fieldwork on rebetika has been the memory-based and uncanonized nature of rebetika.17 Bouzouki musicians have acquired performance practice in dromoi without learning an analytical theory that describes them, hampering the verbal articulation of musical concepts (see e.g. Einarsson 1989:53 n. 2). Uncanonized as it is, the dromos tradition is non-uniform: intervallic structure and rules of melodic movement associated with each dromos name can vary considerably according to the musician's age and background. In addition, although the emic rebetika terminology concerning compositional systems mostly derives from Ottoman music, the nominal equivalents of the two traditions often have different contents, which complicates the comparison between them. As we shall see, although most dromoi are related to Ottoman makams, the names are frequently interchangeable. There are also dromoi with no Ottoman structural equivalents. This is not at all a unique situation in the inter- relationships of Middle Eastern music cultures (cf. Chabrier 1991:103). Owing to these facts, the results from attempts of utilising modem Turkish music theories in the analysis of the bouzouki-based rebetika have not always been encouraging (see Dietrich 1987:85-8, 147).

From the Ottoman point of view one dromos category may denote many makam categories. The bouzouki musicians I interviewed for this study classify several makams under one dromos category in their verbalizations apparently because they stress intervallic structure as the main criterion for tonal classification, whereas the Ottoman tradition utilises several other criteria (see Signell 1977:125-51; Aksoy 1997 passim). Table 2 shows the most common rebetika classification of some Ottoman makams. Because of their relatively similar intervallic structure, makam Segah is often called dromos Houzam and makam Huiizzam dromos Segah. Most bouzouki musicians call the rebetika equivalent of makam Karcigar "dromos Kiourdi", the term deriving from "makam Kiirdi". The change in terminology is owing to the closing formula of Kiirdf that contains a flat fifth degree-an important structural characteristic of Karcigar (cf. Ozkan 1984:111, 176). The emic category "dromos Oussak" may contain melodies in makams Ktirdi, U??ak, Beyatl and Hiiseyni which differ from each other in terms of intervallic structure, seyir and melodic formulae. However, in the equal- tempered system of the bouzouki tradition the intervallic differences between these makams are largely blurred. "Dromos Oussak" has come to denote a classi-

17 "Memory-based" is my translation of the Finnish term "muistinvarainen" that is more accurate in musical contexts that the conventional "oral".


Table 2: Some Ottoman makams and their classification in the bouzouki dromos tradition.

makams: Segah Huzzam Karcigar Kiirdi U?ak Beyati Hiiseyni

I dromoi: Houzam Segah Kiourdi Oussak

ficational category of melodies and scales with predominantly a flat second degree.

Owing to the confusion in printed sources and among musicians interviewed on dromos names and their tonal structures, I have chosen to call only some of the dromoi by their emic names. In this article the dromos names Rast, Houzam, Segah, Hitzas, Hitzaskiar, Sabah and Pireotikos refer to the structures agreed by most professional bouzouki musicians, whereas the makam names Nihavend, Nikrlz, U?ak, Hiiseyni, Kiirdl and Karcigar are used to denote their structural equivalents in the bouzouki-based rebetika and laika tradition.

Since the mid-1980s, rebetika melodies have been classified according to the Ottoman system in some Greek printed sources. The authors of these publications have studied Turkish makam theories or performance practice, and they tend to accept the Ottoman makam classification for Segah, Htizzam, Karcigar and Kiirdi (see Loukareas 1985; Tabouris 1993; Koukoulinis 1995; Grigoriadis 1997). These sources have, however, had little effect on professional musicians' verbalizations.

As I have shown elsewhere (Pennanen 1997), Westernization and modernization processes in Greece did not lead to a simple decrease in the number of dromoi after the war. On the contrary, new ways of using the existing dromoi and new dromos modifications were developed. Although there was a tendency towards a scale-like concept of dromoi in compositions, many of the basic melodic features and modulation conventions inherited from Ottoman music were preserved. To summarise, chordal harmony did not prevent the use of a wide variety of dromoi.

Dromoi and chordal harmony in tourist music The analysis of the standard repertoire on Greek bouzouki cassettes and CDs for tourist consumption reveals that Manuel's claim as to the degree of Westerniza- tion is evidently exaggerated. According to Einarsson (1990:202), touristika is Greek music, whose repertoire and style has been modified according to the preferences of Western tourist listeners. The repertoire consists of new interpreta- tions of rebetika and laika pieces and new compositions primarily made for a tourist audience.

79


Fig. 5 contains excerpts from "Siko horepse syrtaki", one of the most popular pieces in touristika style of the 1960s. The composer is Yiorgos Zambetas (1925- 92), an outstanding bouzouki virtuoso, who recorded vocal and bouzouki instrumental music extensively in the 1960s.18 He has been regarded as the main innovator in the Western-influenced touristika style (see Mylonas 1993b:208). Syrtaki (or sirtaki) is a tourist version of the traditional hasapiko dance in 4/4 time, but unlike hasapiko proper, it consists of two sections, the slow hasapiko that accelerates gradually and thus becomes the up-tempo hasaposerviko. Syrtaki as a music genre and a dance was modelled after Mikis Theodorakis' famous instrumental piece and the choreography to it in Michael Cacoyannis' film Zorba the Greek (1964) (see Torp 1992).19 The dance tune mainly consists of Rast and Houzam 0-3 formulae, but the last section closes in Houzam M-1. Owing to their melodic possibilities, Western major sound and functional harmonization, these dromoi are favoured by syrtaki composers.

"Siko horepse syrtaki" first appeared in the film I kori mou i sosialistria in 1966. The original recording consists of two vocal sections (text by Alekos Sakellarios) followed by up-tempo bouzouki sections. Later the composition has usually been played instrumentally on bouzoukis. The analysis below is based on the first instrumental recording of 1966 by Zambetas and Ste[ios Zafeiriou.

The two sections of the slow part (Fig. 5; starting tempo =116) are in dromos Houzam 0-3 (makam Segah). As often in makam music of popular character, the seyir does not observe the classical rules. In Ottoman classical music, makam Segah melodies tend to begin from the final tone. During a repeat of section B the tempo begins to accelerate. At first, the fast section C (tempo J =190) seems to be in Houzam 0-3. However, in the third line the melody moves a third lower, thus bringing the final tone down to the root of chord I, which indicates dromos Rast. Correspondingly, the distance of the second voice from the first one changes from a third to a sixth. The first three sections are largely based on melodic sequences-a feature typical of laika style.

Section D contains a chromatic formula F-E-D#-E-F typical of dromos Rast melodies on the recorded bouzouki-based repertoire. The formula is harmonized with the V-I cadence. The Rast formula is very common in improvisations and composed pieces of Piraeus and later styles that were not as close to Ottoman music as was the cafe style. For example, it appears in the simple taximi before the song "Manges karavotsakismeni" (HMV AO 2161) recorded in 1934 by Stratos Payioumtzis. The origin of the formula offers an interesting problem. This kind of chromaticism is not used in classical Ottoman makam Rast. Nor does the formula occur in Greek church music, because it would be considered an elxis of

18 According to Dragoumanos (1994:137), Zambetas recorded as many as 22 LPs between 1963 and 1973.

Eleven of these are instrumental records, some bearing non-Greek titles in the Latin alphabet such as

"Bouzouki Bouzouki" and "Greece my Love". 19 The slow section of "Zorba's Dance" is from Theodorakis' song "Strose to stroma sou yia dyo" from

the 1963 theatrical play "I yeitonia ton angelon" (see HMV GCLP7), while the fast section is his

arrangement of "Syrtos Armenohorianos" by the Cretan musician Yiorgos Koutsourelis (1950, Columbia

DG 6851).


Fig. 5: Excerpts from "Siko horepse syrtaki" by Yiorgos Zambetas. Recorded in 1966 by Stelios Zafeiriou and the composer (Lyra LS 1146).

9- r'F Rb '

r I*. 6 Pr p I ' r"mVlr1

A r r,

_ - CA 3-h 3h) F 1-- idt BLW M M.lm

-Bb c 3

Rb

F ILLLr F M IF- V

A F2 F. F

I- r r r I'!r! r i ~- r 1

A

tr4I F '-

v

AFI

an elxis, which is not acceptable. According to modem church music theory, an elxis takes place when a primary tone pulls a secondary one towards itself, thus either flattening the upper neighbour or sharpening the lower one (Seppala 1981:55-6).

The formula may originate from the attempts of musicians using instruments incapable of producing microintervals to establish a clear distinction between

P3 f IF _ F RbC C7 t J

.. _ - % - .

- r wr

W -f Ir 1 F IB f P " 11

81

d -3r a L L. Li Ah A h. .h h) h


dromos Rast and Western major in simple melodies. The invention of the new Rast melodic formula could have served as a passable solution for the problem of dromos identity.20 Another explanation is that bouzouki musicians tried to imitate the gliding, portamento passages of makam music with chromaticism.

Section E starts with an Evi9 formula, i.e. a Segah opening formula transposed a fifth above. The modulation is not executed according to the Ottoman makam rules (cf. Pennanen 1997:132-3, 148-9). Section F is a conclusive section in Rast that ends with the complete cadence I-IV-V-I.

It is obvious from the analysis above that touristika is not as Western as has been suggested. There are many more non-Western rebetika characteristics left in the style than are audible on the first listening. Many of the features are hidden or smoothed out in the soft parallel third or sixth harmonies and soft tone colours.

In the following I shall discuss the development of chordal accompaniment in rebetika and laika from the mid-1930s to the 1960s. I shall try to explain some peculiarities of rebetika harmony through selected aspects of bouzouki playing techniques.

Droning The simplest and probably earliest way to accompany bouzouki songs in Piraeus style is rhythmic droning, which is often associated with hashish songs. The bouzouki or baglamas player plays the melody on the highest and middle string courses while the unstopped course or courses give the drone accompaniment. The left-hand movements on the fingerboard tend to be horizontal, i.e. along one string course. This is also typical of the old playing style of the long-necked lutes used in Anatolia and the Balkans (see Stokes 1992:74-5). In the early Piraeus- style recordings, other instruments of a group can participate in the drone. The drone may be an open I chord without the third, or a full I chord. Guitar drones consist of bass notes and occasional melodic passages in the bass register or a full triad on the top strings (cf. Fig. 27a; Jouste 1994:74-7).

An early Piraeus-style recording with drone bouzouki accompaniment is "Tout' oi batsoi pou 'rthan tora" (Columbia 56137-F), recorded in New York in 1929 by

20 Usually the Rast formula is transcribed without any attempts at an analytical approach (see e.g. Jouste

1996:116-7, 125, 138), but the formula has been mentioned in two non-scholarly texts. In his book, the

material of which has been compiled from various sources, Loukareas (1985:16) calls this chromatic

formula "dromos Rast Mahour or Rast Atzem". However, the names "Rast Mahur" and "Rast Acem" have

no specific meaning in Ottoman music. There is no such makam as Rast Mfhur, but the name could derive

from labels of some improvised vocal gazel (amane) recordings from the 1930s (see e.g. "Rast Mahour"

sung by Kostas Karipis [1928, Odeon GA 1268]). In this case, Rast is the main makam of the

improvisation, while MahOr is the modulation. "Rast Atzem" could be related to "Acemli Rast", i.e. the

form of makam Rast scale with lowered seventh degree (see Ozkan 1984:115). Later the formula and the

terms were borrowed from Loukareas' book by Haralambos Payiatis. In his quasi-scientific book, Payiatis (1992:36-7) repeats the information given by Loukareas and illustrates it with two music examples. He

does not mention Loukareas in his bibliography, which consists of books and articles that are in any case

mostly irrelevant to his home-spun dromos theory.

Pennanen: Chordal harmony in Greek rebetika and laika 83

Yiannis Yiannidis and Manolis Karapiperis. Due to the censorship of hashish songs and changed taste of the record buying public, drone accompaniment was rare in recorded rebetika after 1936. However, there are two examples from as late as 1951: "San me idis kai sou sfyrixo" and "Kapoio vradi me fengari" (Parlophone B 74186) by Markos Vamvakaris are replicas in the mid-1930s Piraeus style which had gone out of fashion long ago. During the rebetika revival in the 1970s and '80s, some bouzouki musicians of the older as well as younger generation recorded old and new drone-style songs.

Fig. 6 is a simple dromos Segah (makam Hiizzam) melody with a drone accompaniment from the early 1930s. The melody begins with a broken major triad that ascends to the octave of the root of I. After this the melody descends to the giiqlii (A) via the leading tone G#. The second bar is similar, except that the descent reaches down to the final. The high-pitched baglamas plays the I triad in steady 16th notes. Another high-pitched instrument imitating the baglamas sound in the recording is a drinking glass tapped against a string of worry beads (Gr. komboloi). The guitar plays triad I and the bass notes that provide the basic rhythm.

Fig. 6: Excerpt from "Ta matia sou t'arapika " by Markos Vamvakaris. Recorded in 1933 by the composer (HMVAO 2086).

A a J=lW0

To jpc - -noc aov T'o - p - m - K(a.

Toc ,i - a K(OCI TpEX- X&- Oq - KX.

_ _? _f _ _ _ _ _f_

drinking glass

baglnamas

guitar

I p r v

Oscillation between relative chords

A common harmonic progression in Piraeus style is an oscillation between relative major and minor chords, i.e. III-i in minor and vi-I in major. In common practice harmony, the progression from the mediant or submediant chord to the tonic chord is considered weak because only one tone changes (see Piston


1978:22); therefore it is not favoured. However, it is common in some Western popular music styles. In Greek popular music, minor i and its relative major III are commonly used in succession in some dromoi, Sabah being a special case I will analyse below.

There are many compositions with one section in the major-key dromos and another in the relative minor-key dromos. In addition, the instrumental introduction often starts in major but closes with the relative minor. This kind of use of relative chords was already common in pre-war rebetika. Some of the melodies are related to Ottoman makams, while with some others, especially of the bouzouki tradition, the relationship is hard to verify. Because of its static nature, the vacillation between relative chords is not very different from the earlier accompaniment techniques. It can be seen as an elaboration of the drone.

As seen in Fig. 7, a section could start in a major-key dromos and finish in a relative minor dromos, or vice versa. Fig. 7a begins in D Houzam 0-3, the melody moving around the gtiqli (A) and the final (F#), but ends on the relative minor via the dominant chord. Fig. 7b starts on the E minor chord, but the tonic is G major.

The origin of this chordal formula in some dromoi may be connected with the playing technique of the instruments of the bouzouki family. These tunes are easy to compose by using the first position of baglamas or bouzouki in DAD tuning. Open courses provide an open D chord and the highest course stopped on the third fret a full D major, while a B minor chord is easily executed with only two fingers on the lowest and middle courses (Table 3). In all the chords, at least one course is open. Open strings were considered an advantage in the old bouzouki technique since they contributed to the continuity of sound. When unfretted for a longer time, they could serve as drones. Fig. 8 is a prison song that is harmonized with the open major chord and its relative minor when accompanied on the bouzouki or baglamas. The tablature under the transcription and the fingering chart in Table 4

Fig. 7: (a) Introduction from "Alaniara ap' ton Peiraia" by Markos Vamvakaris. Recorded in 1935 by the composer (Parlophon B 21844). (b) Introduction from "Oifonografitzides" by Yiorgos Batis. Recorded in 1936 by the composer (HMV AO 2334). The section after the first verse that is similar to the rest of the sections

is transcribed since the first occurrence is executed somewhat differently.

2 =126 j

b n,,12n ! I _!i.m Ir--, 3 A

glj'inJ3^'3^^^^^~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Op ) bop, 4w


show how easily the melody can be played in the first position with DAD tuning. Most songs by Yiorgos Batis (1890-1967), who recorded simple hashish songs in the early 1930s, are based on similar low-position and open-string playing. It seems that he composed his songs on his favourite instrument, the baglamas.

Table 3: Chord shape boxes

for bouzouki or baglamas in DAD tuning. The vertical lines symbolize the courses, the horizontal lines the frets. The white circles mark open strings, the black circles are

stopped string positions.

- a l o 8-R 81 u

open D open D -

D Bm

Fig. 8: Excerpt from the bouzouki part of "Andilaloun oi fylakes" recorded in 1936 by Markos Vamvakaris (Odeon GA 1918).21 The horizontal lines of the tablature symbolize the courses of the bouzouki or baglamas and the numbers on them the frets stopped in the DAD tuning.

Q X , O O 0 000 0 0 1

ot,j B"1 Dm DBm

0 4 0 2 2 0 fO 2

Table 4: Fingering chart of the vocal section of "Andilaloun

oifylakes" for bouzouki or baglamas in DAD tuning. 00

21 An earlier version was recorded by Marika Papagika in New York in 1919 as "Ta oula sou" (Columbia E 5193).

85

s

I)


Fig. 9 is a song from the early 1950s in the rebetika form of makam Kuirdi. There are two relative chord progressions, i-III and VI-iv. The progression i-III related to the tonic function is very common in Kiirdi songs of the rebetika repertoire. The fourth scale degree is the giillu, and it is no surprise that the subdominant function is likewise present in two forms, i.e. VI and iv. The second scale degree is raised in ascending passages but flat in descents. The flat second degree belongs to the basic scale of Kiirdi in rebetika and is thus more funda- mental. Originating from folk music, makam Kiirdi is rarely used in its pure form in Ottoman music (Feldman 1996:225; Ozkan 112). According to the ney player Yiorgos Symeonidis (pers. comm. 1998), this is owing to the 5-comma-flat second degree that is considered melodically somewhat awkward in ascents but good in cadences. Therefore, the 1-comma-flat second degree occurs often in Ktirdi compositions of Ottoman classical and popular music.

Fig. 9: Excerpt from "To vouno" by Lukas Daralas and Vangelis Prekas. Recorded in 1954 by Kaiti Grey and Dimitris Roumeliotis (HMVAO 5164).

A^ I J=5L8 F p |

0' o- vtp3o KCI - - - o TpoypoUv64osA -

JT J Jj 0 -gJ3 o3 r^ jj I arTo m6 wn- X6- TE- PO 1oi- v6

i1 ^i g Rb wz J n

J r v' a- KOUYE- TaXl -m - oTIv E- pq- p - oc

o 7r6vo pou pE Trl 7re- vi&.

Echoes of the ambivalent Piraeus-style relative key progression can be heard in many post-war compositions. In Fig. 10, the chord progression begins with a minor triad after which there is a modulation to the relative major via the dominant. On the melodic level, the beginning is in minor, but the final on the third degree of chord I suggests dromos Houzam 0-3. The rest of the song is clearly in minor. There is another progression from minor to relative major in the second bar. This time the progression goes from chord iv to VI.

The fourth bar contains the secondary dominant V7 of iv. The chord harmonizes a chromatic formula that is usually associated with Houzam. The ascending chromatic formula is anticipated in the descending bouzouki interlude of the previous bar. In this case, Houzam would require a G major chord since the formula should start from the third of a major triad. The use of the formula out of its original context could be construed as a symptom of the decline of the dromos


Fig. 10: Excerpt from "0 trelos tsiganos" by Ioanna Yorgakopoulou and Haralambos Vasileiadis. Recorded in 1947 by the composer and Stellakis Perpiniadis (HMVAO 2737).22

=82 ..... r--. b a TE - Xe TIy -y - ve, yIoZ nOV Tp5 -rp ;

M-o orl vVX - VOT , , u - voC ToU rS;

Xw - pia - p6< oou si - vai Karl - g6

VI& cjOV KXp- t& gO0 trav to - n - v6?.

Mec; TTIV KaCp- la( pOU) 7TOV TO - n- v60,

E7^^#P^ 1 ; o Xo - pia - po4 CTOv ei- vaO KOaq- 46t

system caused by Western influence. On the other hand, it could also indicate the individuality of the composer, who uses the traditional formula in a new way.

The final bar of the section with the cadence V7-i ensures that the song is in E minor. From the conventional Western point of view, there are opposite tendencies on the harmonic level of the composition. The progressions between relative minor and major chords create a static mood, but the V7-I cadence contains the feeling of dynamic movement. The wide variety of chords in use creates variety, and in combination with harmonic ambivalence this also feels dynamic in its own way.

There is another feature in the song that echoes the old Piraeus style: couplets in the refrain are repeated in reverse order to form a quatrain. However, unlike in hashish songs of the bouzouki tradition, the melody and harmony in the example song are skilfully varied.

22 Contrary to the record label credits, the song is often attributed to Vasilis Tsitsanis (see e.g. Hatzidoulis

1980:114). The first phrase of "O trelos tsiganos" was later used for the song "Agapi pou 'yines dikopo mahairi" in the film Stella (1955). The film credits and some other sources (e.g. Hatzidoulis 1980:114)

87


Especially in laika style a movement from a major triad to its upper tertian relative can take place. Fig. 11 is an excerpt from a Houzam composition by Manolis Hiotis containing the chord progression I-iii. The progression together with chromaticism creates a soft, dreamy mood that supports the lyricism of the song.

Fig. 11: Excerpt from "Pare me sto tilefono" by Manolis Hiotis. Recorded in 1959 by Mairi Linda and the composer (Parlophone B 74511).

AA J=56 G o go o o . B an bruz.,_:l^J

1I6cpe? e To Tt- - Xe - vo i iAmK 'm

V^ E^I i I

Xi - y6&Kt VOC TOC To -3 pe

Relative keys in rebetika and laika can also be used in a purely Western way. It is hard to say if the relative-key harmonization formula of the Piraeus style had any effect on the frequent use of relative keys in post-war rebetika, or if the practice was solely of Western origin.

We can illustrate the development of relative key switches by comparing two compositions. The progression from a song recorded in 1938 is simple with only tonic, subdominant and dominant chords (Fig. 12). However, there is a hint of a sudden key change from chord i of minor to I of the relative major that may derive from the Piraeus style.

Fig. 12: Excerpt from "Arhondissa" by Vasilis Tsitsanis. Recorded in 1938 by Stratos Payioumtzis and Stellakis Perpiniadis (Columbia DG 6440).

A J=!04 D G 7 Ep

Xq! Zocv -1 0

S G G

O(x-X (To - oa- st - O , - aTO - -vo,; pcrTo K - p,

By contrast, a typical composition by Manolis Hiotis in his late 1950s to early 1960s style consists of short relative key sections. The modulation scheme is much more sophisticated than in the 1930s. As seen in Fig. 13, the temporary

attribute the latter song to Manolis Hatzidakis, but the piano sheet music of 1956 (reproduced in Shorelis

1987a:90-l) attributes both music and lyrics to Tsitsanis, who performed in the film.


modulation from major to the relative minor is signalled by a modulation formula based on a scale passage descending to the third of V(7) of i of the relative minor. This melodic formula seems to be an innovation of Hiotis. The return to major is usually not abrupt. Hiotis tends to use a chain of secondary dominants, a characteristic most apparent in Exx. 13a and 13d.

Fig. 13: Hiotis' modulation formula and chord progressions in (a) "Iliovasile- mata" (1958); (b) "Pare to dakri mou" (1959); (c) "Pare me sto tilefono" (1959); (d) "Den tha boreso" (1959); (e) "I skouna" (1962).

A ^ C# F#m C#7 F#m F# IBm p n F A y ?iff* _ 1^ a ' ; '^-^ "''

bA tt A^ 1; tC#7 F#m

c 1 A C# F#nn D E C#m Bm E A

dA t A C#7 F#m D A ? aL I

-W-dpuTj A CO |^^^ F#m F# BM__D A E A

Chord progressions The previous section ended by tracing echoes of relative chord oscillation up to recent times. But let us go back now to the 1940s, to consider an earlier step towards complexity of chord progressions beyond the oscillation stage. Record- ings made in 1946 and later contain new progressions for Rast, Houzam 0-3 and major. In addition to the common I-V-I, there are compositions with progressions shown in Table 5. These authentic and plagal cadential formulae are also frequently used in common practice harmony (see Piston 1978:184-5, 189-90).

Table 5: Some typical post-war chord progressions for Rast, Houzam 0-3 and major.

I IV V7 I I ii V7 I IV I

89


It is also noteworthy that after the war, the tonic was no longer the standard initial chord in major, Rast or Houzam. It became more common than before to begin a section on some other scale degree than the conventional I. Degrees V and less frequently IV became alternative initial chords. Fig. 14 is a composition by Vasilis Tsitsanis containing the progression IV-I-ii-I.

Fig. 14: Excerpt from "To parapono tou xenitemenou" by Vasilis Tsitsanis. Recorded in 1950 by Sotiria Bellou (HMVAO 2995).

Zov ( -- Tr6c- Xq po; yv - - pi

One of the most characteristic features of the major key chordal harmony in dromos Rast, dromos Houzam 0-3 and Western major in post-war rebetika and laika music is the frequent use of the chord ii as either a complementary degree of IV or a substitute for it. The supertonic was adapted from the popular multi-part Athenian kantada (pl. kantades) serenades that were influenced by Italian- Neapolitan music, or directly from Western popular music. Analysis of extant recordings suggests that "To tragoudi tis agapis" by Bayianderas (Dimitris Gogos) recorded in 1940 was the first rebetika song with ii.

Chord ii invokes additional dark colourings to major, Rast and Houzam melodies. According to the conventions of Western music, chord ii is supposed to be succeeded by IV or V7-I. However, in the idiomatic harmonic practice of rebetika, the progression ii-I is not unusual. Dramatic use of the I-ii-I progression is found in the rebetika classic "Synnefiasmeni kyriaki" composed by Vasilis Tsitsanis. The degree adds a subdued mood to this major-key composition, thus supporting the contents of the melancholy lyrics (Fig. 15).

Fig. 15: Excerpt from "Synnefiasmeni kyriaki" by Vasilis Tsitsanis and Alekos Gouveris. Recorded in 1948 by Prodromos Tsaousakis and Sotiria Bellou (HMV AO 2834).

XTOUV - Xi T6,cvToc pCuv-ve- - -c av - , V-- (&c.

vt' Xcr -cc Hocf,i jl 1 - IA

Xptart KOCI Ioc, XPlaU K0tl IMC - V0C- y - 0A uoU!


The secondary dominants V7 of iv and V7 of ii are common in post-war rebetika songs. The history of the former chord in rebetika goes back to the Westernized style of the Metaxas era (1936-40). Fig. 16 is an excerpt from 1936. The refrain of this G-minor piece is based on a cycle-of-fourths sequence, containing the secondary dominants V7 of iv and V of III. Similar progressions were common in Greek popular music in the Western vein, from which rebetika composers apparently adopted them. (Cf. Fig. 18c and "Hatzi-baxes" [Columbia DG 6598] by Vasilis Tsitsanis recorded in 1946.)

Fig. 16: Excerpt from "S' agapisa vre mortissa" by Spyros Peristeris. Recorded in 1936 by Kostas Roukounas (Parlophon B 21830).

a J=148 l Cm F Bb

AX Tr) - p(X TO t- XA) VIt(- Get rTUrC KOCVEI4 5? b Oa pe PCd - o?E

From the late 1940s there was a tendency towards a faster harmonic rhythm than before. Besides new compositions, this trend influenced remakes of old rebetika songs in the 1960s: they were very often harmonized in a more complex way than the original versions (see Jouste 1994:80-4).23 An original composition from 1958, Fig. 17 contains a rapidly moving chord progression in descending melodic minor. The progression is based on functional harmony, and the harmony leads the melody largely based on leaps of thirds.

Fig. 17: Bouzouki introduction from "Pali me haramata" by Panos Gavalas. Recorded in 1958 by the composer (Odeon GA 7997).

A Bb~ Ab Gm Fmn Cm G F2p CX a

, chords. Thi A Gm F harmonization is totally alien to the traditional style, and it is rarely used in contem-

~V - ~II ~ L- IF -I .....W . 1

23 See also.Haralambos Payiatis' arrangement of the 1930s song "Rixe tsiggana ta hartia" by Markos Vamvakaris (Payiatis 1992:55). The original guitar part consists of a minor-triad drone with some octave

doubling of the bouzouki melody, while Payiatis changes the triad on every beat, using six different chords. This kind of harmonization is totally alien to the traditional style, and it is rarely used in contem-

porary performances.

91


The changing role and character of chordal harmony in rebetika and laika is also reflected in commercial sheet music. Although rebetika was a memory-based form of music and the primary ways of distribution were live performances and gramophone recordings, hit songs were also published as sheet music. They were probably made for taverna and night-club musicians with other background than rebetika. It seems that until 1953, these publications were single-staff notations without chord symbols. Piano arrangements of rebetika hits started to be published around 1953, and they quickly surpassed the single-line notations. Chord symbols were added to the piano scores as late as around 1960. (See Shorelis 1987b: 104-5, 216-7.)

Chromaticism and chord forms In the early 1950s, the influence of Western popular music on rebetika became more pronounced. This was apparent firstly in chromaticism and the use of nonharmonic tones, secondly in the introduction of new chord forms.

In Western popular music, chromatic and nonharmonic tones are often used for creating expressiveness and lyrical or exotic atmosphere in basically diatonic melodies. The frequently used descending diatonic appoggiatura-the most important expressive nonharmonic tone of romanticism-produces an ambience of sentimentality and nostalgia that has been described as "marshmallow" and "sickly sweet" (Jalkanen 1989:221-2).

According to Jalkanen (ibid.:219-80 passim), the chromaticism and nonharmonic tones of late romanticism were adapted to various popular styles such as salon music, Austrian Schrammel, German Schlager, ragtime, blues and early jazz. In addition, these often appeared in tangos and Hawaiian-style songs that were popular in the USA and Europe from the mid-1910s. American and European popular songs, tangos and Hawaiian-style songs were also recorded in Greece. Among the most famous composers and singers in these genera were Attik (Kleon Triandafyllou, 1885-1944), Mihalis Souyioul (1906-58), Sofia Vembo (1910-78) and Danai Stratigopoulou (b. 1918). There were also musicians who mastered many styles and experimented in mixing them. Some Hawaiian- style studio musicians-Kostas Bezos among them-played on rebetika recordings as well (Howard 1996). Panayiotis Toundas and Spyros Peristeris were

composers, arrangers, recording directors, and studio and stage musicians, who worked in various contexts, as did the singer and bouzouki player Yiorgos Vidalis. The exceptional conditions during the war also contributed to the mixing of styles. According to Gauntlett (1985:117-8, 118 n. 249), during the Axis Occupation (1941-45), the commercial viability of bouzouki-based rebetika caused Greek musicians specialised in Western popular music and instruments to

join the orchestras of bouzouki-taverns. They had played in cabarets, review- theatres, operettas and, up to 1930, in cinemas.

In the pre-1950s rebetika, chromaticism was mostly associated with certain melodic formulae in Rast, Houzam, Segah and the dromos counterparts of Ottoman makam U?ak, Htiseyni and Karcigar. The chromatic formulae partly


originate from bouzouki players' attempts to imitate non-tempered melodic movements of these makams, and partly from Western music (Pennanen 1997:150-3). The chromaticism of Western popular music connected with chordal harmony started to infiltrate rebetika after the war and especially in the 1950s. Chromatic passing tones in the vocal melodies and instrumental fills in the style of Manolis Hiotis are typical of the trend; several examples have been shown above.

The instrumental section in Fig. 18a by Tsitsanis contains chromatic lower and upper neighbour notes and a chromatically descending appoggiatura. Fig. 18b by Yiorgos Mitsakis contains the same chromatically descending appoggiatura transposed a third higher. Similar features are characteristic, for example, in the texture of the international tango idiom. Fig. 18c is a Greek tango from 1948 containing diatonic and chromatic appoggiature, chromatic passing tones and chromatic neighbour notes. Exx. 18d and 18e are excerpts from Finnish tangos of the 1930s

Fig. 18: (a) Excerpt from the introduction of "Ti simera, ti avrio, ti tora" by Vasilis Tsitsanis. Recorded in 1953 by Marika Ninou (Odeon GA 7765). (b) Excerpt from "To paidi tou dromou" by Yiorgos Mitsakis. Recorded in 1953 by Maria Grilli, Yiannis Tatasopoulos and the composer (HMVAO 5104). (c) Excerpt from "As erhosoun yia ligo" by Mihalis Souyioul and Mimis Traiforos. Recorded in 1948 by Danai (HMVAO 2806). (d) Excerpt from "Valkea sisar" by M. Maja. Recorded in 1934 by Georg Malmsten and Dallape-orkesteri (Odeon A

228283). (e) Excerpt from "Lumihiutaleita" by M. Maja. Recorded in 1936 by

Georg Malmsten and Dallape-orkesteri (Odeon A 228352).

a Am A A N A Dm

b Aim F A7m

T Kpio O T - XTVm 01TOU KhX Ta (? -voXt VOU

CAAm N _N , I 4 D E7 Am

\I Jj .M Ji.. I J J J J] In iJ J Jjll fIo' V&Xo1 C a-X-i6-OE TO Pp&6Vu axVT6 rouV ?4(a T6- ao, a Tr6-ao 46vo~ KIxl Iro u -

(i 4OU 7TTai - Couv KpU(vTO 4 TO - TE r OXi-lprj KOXl iTOT' 0 TO6 - V0o.

d_ Am _____ m

Luo sai - rai - den kay sisar hento val - koi - nen

ei Am D n

hil - jal - leen sataa maahan lu- mi val - ke - aan.

93


containing similar nonharmonic tones and the same chromatic appoggiature. Owing to the hybrid repertoire of kosmikes tavernes of the late 1940s and early 1950s, similarities between songs by rebetika composers and tango melodies are not coincidental. Rebetika composers adopted some Western-style melodic and chordal formulae from contemporary foreign and foreign-influenced Greek popular music.

It is not always as easy as above to point out Western influence in Greek popular music. Some traditional makam formulae have structural compatibility with some formulae of Western popular music, which creates new ways to use them in new contexts. The formula stock of dromos Houzam 0-3 offers particularly good possibilities for use in a Western way. Fig. 19a is a Houzam 0-3 (makam Segah) melody that modulates to Evi9 by establishing a new tonal centre a fifth above that of Houzam 0-3 (cf. Fig. 5, section E).

Fig. 19: (a) Evil formula in a Houzam 0-3 melody. (b) Excerpt from "Esy den eisai anthropos" by Manolos Hiotis and Hristos Kolokotronis. Recorded in 1957 by Panos Gavalas and Mairy Linda (Odeon GA 7984).

bt I 2=60 Em A 3

Ei - vOCt apt -r - plo - i aro X: - paov pou p&bt-rrpwi

6ev 0t -Xc0 Xi - yo Xi - yo.

The Evi9 formula resembles a formula with the Afro-American blue note, i.e. a note that is attracted to the scale-degree a third below (see van der Merwe 1996). The beginning of the Houzam 0-3 (in D) song in Fig. 19b from 1957 contains blue notes against chord IV (G). The melody ascends in a sequence, thus creating a phrase on V (A) resembling the Evi9 formula. The melody, however, does not stay on the potential new tonal centre but starts to ascend. The rest of the excerpt is in Houzam 0-3 proper. Since the composer, Manolis Hiotis, knew the tonal

languages of both rebetika and Afro-American music, he has probably deliberate- ly utilised the likeness between the Evi, formula and the blue not phrase.24 This kind of freely used chromaticism is a sign of hybridism and a change from

24 The bouzouki player Stelios Vamvakaris uses some Houzam formulae in a blues context in his

recordings with the blues singer and guitarist Louisiana Red (SD 007).


melody types ruled by dromos-specific formulae of rebetika in the direction of melodies ruled by harmony of more Westernized styles.

Now let us look at chord forms in rebetika and laika. Major and minor triads are well established in the recorded rebetika of the 1930s, and in the 1940s dominant sevenths and to a lesser extent diminished sevenths had become common. Owing to the number of strings, three-course bouzouki players often use the diminished triad vii-5 for the dominant function. However, when the guitar provides the root, the chord sounds as V7. Table 6 shows the diminished triad, the basic V triad, the tonic triad and their respective chord shapes. The advantage of the diminished triad chord shape is its closeness to the tonic chord, which saves the left hand from an awkward position shift up the fingerboard to a full V triad. There are several examples of the diminished triad on post mid-1930s recordings. For example, in the 1939 recording of the Panayiotis Toundas song "To minore tis tavernes" (Columbia DG 6510) Vasilis Tsitsanis plays an introductory bouzouki taximi containing this chord.

Table 6: Bouzouki chord shape boxes for dominant and tonic function chords in D

major.

7-.-* 4^

f C#f] . A D

In the mid-1950s, at least one new chord form was introduced into Greek popular music. In the first 1956 recording of "Thessaloniki mou" (Columbia DG 7229) by Manolis Hiotis and Hristos Kolokotronis, Hiotis demonstrates the harmonic

capabilities of the newly invented four-course bouzouki by playing a minor triad with ninth. In some of his melodies Hiotis uses the descending appoggiatura of

major sixth or major ninth as nonharmonic tones on the accompanying triad.

Tonic minor with added ninth (i add. 9) or sixth and ninth (i 6/9) are also used in codas for minor melodies after a chromatic ascent or descent (Fig. 20). These

laika-style codas were borrowed from jazz.

Fig. 20: Ninth chords in laika-style codas.

Dm add 9 Dir6i9

~I I ce 0 k 1 ̂ ~~tr7ra<1~~I 1 II

95


Melodic and chordal cadences

According to Manuel (1989:83), rebetika pieces, in accordance with their emergence as a commercial popular genre, soon began to acquire the character of structured songs, with verses, refrains, and definitive cadences. The recorded repertoire of the 1930s-as well as that of the 1920s-does contain structured songs, but the emergence of "definitive cadences" needs to be analysed in more detail. We will see that chordal cadences for closing sections were established only gradually over a long period of time. Chordal cadences proper marking the end of a section became widespread only much later than the 1930s.

The importance of harmonic formulae called cadences is evident in Western music. In common practice harmony, they convey a feeling of completion at the end of a phrase or a composition. Closes mark the breathing places, establish the tonality and lend coherence to the formal structure (Piston 1978:184). Viennese classicism especially made extensive use of the authentic V-I cadence.

One factor affecting the adaptation of Western melodic and harmonic features in Greek popular music was the variety of dance rhythms. According to Einarsson (1987:35), the symmetric structure of hasapiko (2/4 or 4/4 time) made its metre easy to fill up with functional harmony. Einarsson identifies influences of West European, mainly Italian, popular style in the 1940s and '50s especially on hasapiko.25 Analysis of recorded material would support his observations: functional harmony infiltrated into kalamatiano and laziko in 7/8, karsilama in 9/8 as well as zeibekiko, kamilieriko and aptaliko in 9/4 much more slowly than into hasapiko. Because of its Oriental associations, the belly dance tsiftetelli in 4/4 time tended to resist Western influences. Basically, hasapiko had more rhythmic and structural compatibility with Western popular music, and thus characteristics from the West were relatively easily adapted to it.

Before the 1950s, chordal cadences were relatively rarely used for closing sections in recorded rebetika. There are exceptions usually in minor, e.g. the authentic cadence after each couplet in the vocal section of "Prepei na htiso ena tzami" (Odeon GA 1887) by Markos Vamvakaris recorded in 1935. However, a chordal cadence at the end of a whole piece was fairly common in post-war recordings. The simplest ending was an abrupt stop of music at the end of a vocal or an instrumental section. This ending was used both in droned pieces and in those with proper chords. Remakes of these songs recorded in the late 1950s and the 1960s usually ended with a chordal coda, which lends support to the view that in Greek popular music, formal structures defined by chordal cadences gained increasing importance in the 1950s.26

25 Italian influence on the output of Greek popular music composers started considerably earlier. The emergence of the late 19th-century kantada style is described below. I would also claim that the melodic and harmonic similarity between the Neapolitan song "Mistere 'e Marechiare" by Donaldio and the Izmir song of the 1910s, "Den se thelo pia" (attributed to Panayiotis Toundas in Kounadis and Papaioannou 1981:21), is not a coincidence. 26 Cf. e.g. "To proi me ti drosoula" by Vasilis Tsitsanis recorded in 1946 (Columbia DG 6598) and the remake by Grigoris Bithikotsis recorded in 1961 (Columbia SCDG 2839).


The melodic closing formula of fifth and root of the tonic chord could be played after each section or at the end of the piece. This formula can be regarded as the predecessor of the authentic cadence in some dromoi. In a restricted Houzam 0-3 or Segah composition, the closing of fifth and root of chord I might be preceded by the chromatic closing formula (Fig. 21a). (See Pennanen 1997:149-50.) In the 1960s, remakes and new compositions in restricted Houzam 0-3 usually close with the conventional V-I cadence (Fig. 21b).

Fig. 21: Closings for restricted Houzam 0-3 songs. (a) The closing of fifth and root of the tonic chord preceded by the chromatic closing formula. (b) The newer chordal close.

There are very few pre-war examples of the authentic cadence closing a restricted Houzam 0-3 rebetika recording. There may be only one Segah 0-3 recording of this kind. The verse of the song "Hira moderna" (or "Moderna hira") by Pana- yiotis Toundas is in restricted Houzam 0-3 while the refrain is in dromos Segah. In the 1931 recording by Ismini Diatsende (Odeon GA 1622), the last refrain is followed by the V-I cadence that ends the piece. By contrast, the 1932 recording by Roza Eskenazy (Columbia DG 298) has the conventional abrupt ending.

The section end cadence V-I was used mainly in rebetika recordings of serenade-like two-part harmony songs in hasapiko rhythm. The cadence was first used in the late 1930s for songs in major, minor and dromos Rast. The cadence in the context of restricted Houzam 0-3 seems to have been used for the first time in a rebetika record in 1940. In the serenade-like duet in restricted Houzam "To tragoudi tis agapis", the cadence is played after each vocal section while instrumental sections end with a broken I chord (Fig. 22). The song was composed in imitation of the Italian-style kantades and late 19th century Athenian Western- influenced popular songs that were sung by multi-part vocal groups and accompanied by mandolins and guitars (Mylonas 1993a:40). One reason for the relatively high number of serenade-like compositions by rebetika musicians after 1935 was the cultural nationalization and Westernization campaign during the dictatorship of General Ioannis Metaxas (1936-40). (For the cultural policy of the regime, see Hering 1996.)

Probably owing to the relative newness of chordal harmony in rebetika, chordal end cadences were adopted quite slowly into the serenade-like rebetika songs by bouzouki musicians. By contrast, other kinds of Greek popular music utilised them much earlier. For example, the popular restricted Houzam 0-3 song "O barba Yiannis" (HMV AO 2050) in the Athenian kantada style that was recorded in 1932 by Petros Epitropakis contains V-I cadences after each section.

97


Fig. 22: Closing cadences of (a) vocal sections and (b) instrumental sections from "To tragoudi tis agapis" by Dimitris Gogos and Despoina Arbatzouglou. Recorded in 1940 by Manolis Hiotis and the composer (HMVAO 2658).

aA, A 4 I I b^, I

The development of the closing formulae in zeibekiko rhythm differs from that of hasapiko. Shown in Fig. 23, the melodic root-and-fifth closing was executed as a distinctive rhythmic formula, possibly followed by a chordal cadence in the coda. Chordal cadences in recordings were uncommon until the 1950s.

Fig. 23: Rhythmic closingformulaefor zeibekiko.

Three recorded versions of "Synnefiasmeni kyriaki" shed light on the process of change in zeibekiko closing formulae. In the 1948 original recording (Fig. 24a), there is a rhythmic cadence after each section; no separate coda is used at the end of the recording. The 1954 recording27 has a rhythmic cadence after each vocal section; the two-voiced descending chromatic Houzam formula is played at the end of the instrumental section and before the repeat of the refrain (Fig. 24b). (For the formula, see Pennanen 1997:149-50.) In spite of this, the whole piece is in dromos Rast, or Western major, depending on the analyst's viewpoint (cf. Kostas Roukounas in Petropoulos 1983:264). The use of the chromatic Houzam formula as a melodic closing in Rast or major is rare on recordings. At the end, the tempo slows and the recording closes with a coda of the chordal cadence V-I.

The 1958 recording (Fig. 24c) contains new features that are typical of the laika style: there are several bouzoukis in tight parallel harmony, and they utilise the tremolo technique. The zeibekiko rhythm is played in the syncopated kofto ("short", "abrupt") formula instead of the older syriano ("of Syros") formula of the two earlier recordings. The recording has no rhythmic or chordal end cadences, but it contains a scalar passage at the end of each section. The absence of chordal cadence in a late 1950s recording is unusual. A standard section closing of the era would be a scale passage and a chordal cadence.

27 The dating of the recording is problematic, since it was never issued in the 78 rpm format. The first

release seems to be the EP Philips 7751 of 1961. According to Dragoumanos (1997), Marika Ninou (1918-

57) made the recording in 1954 at the Parnassos theatre.


Fig. 24: Excerpts from three versions of "Synnefiasmeni kyriaki": (a) recorded in 1948 by Prodromos Tsaousakis and Sotiria Bellou (HMVAO 2834), (b) recorded in 1954 by Marika Ninou, Athanasios Efyenikos and Vasilis Tsitsanis (Philips 7751), and (c) recorded in 1958 by Stelios Kazantzidis, Iota Lydia and Marinella (HMVAO 5546).

a syrim I E-' J J J

w*h~~~~~~~~~~~a

Al""*""* ~~ ~~~A7 _D

frdn 5555 e~~ ~~~~~~~~- ''

A .6

v w

c lzo=62, J~ D:; j 2 ;

~S1 :

D

Recordings of zeibekiko pieces made during the latter 1950s often contain an instrumental ascending or descending scale passage signalling a close. Western- type scale runs at the end of sections were used in kantada recordings in the 1920s

_, I

99

intm I a--d n. J Ij


and probably even earlier.28 More rarely they appear on recordings of hasapiko and zeibekiko songs in the 1930s.29

Instrumental scale passages may be associated with the change of the dromos concept from melodic formulae towards the Western idea of scales. Another explanation is horror vacui, the tendency to fill up instrumentally all the rests in the vocal melody, which are frequent in the slow zeibekiko rhythm. The advent of end passages coincided with the rise of extreme virtuosity brought about by the new four-course bouzouki type and new aesthetic ideals of the 1950s. The slow tempo of the last example may be connected with the virtuosity of laika instrumentalists: it allowed utmost melodic pyrotechnics of fast melodic figures (cf. Fig. 28c below).

A theory for dromos harmonization As just noted, it became common, especially in the 1950s, to signal the end of sections and of a whole piece with a chordal formula. This is an adaptation of the Western chordal cadence into the dromos system. For example, dromos Hitzas pieces often close with the cadence I1--I.30 Manuel (1989:78, 82) writes that lI functions as a dominant and iv serves as an important subdominant, parallelling the importance of that pitch in makam Hicaz itself. Nevertheless, it could be questioned whether the Western concept of chordal functions can be applied in all cases to fusion musics such as rebetika. Instead, one might construct an alternative theory that makes a distinction between the chord degree that supports the guiili-the tone where two genera meet-and the chord degree that is used in a chordal cadence.

The guiilii tone is situated on either the third, fourth or fifth of a dromos scale. Depending on the dromos, the giiulii chord usually also rests on one of these degrees. The chord is played when the melody rests on the gtiilii or moves around it. There are also several types of cadence chords in rebetika (Fig. 25). One of them, chord V, is the dominant of tonal music. According to Western theory, it contains the two degrees closest to the tonic and therefore resolves more conclusively to tonic chord than any other triad. This view is relevant for rebetika melodies in major, minor, Rast, Houzam M-1 and the dromos equivalents of Nihavend and Nikriz, i.e. Western scales and dromoi with raised seventh and final on the root of I. The final of dromos Houzam 0-3 and Segah is on the third of I, but the root of I draws the third and fifth of V towards itself similarly as in major and Rast.

28 See the kantada "Bournovalia" by Panayiotis Toundas recorded in 1926 (HMV AO 195). 29 See "Tis to vgalane" by Vangelis Papazoglou recorded in 1935 by Roza Eskenazy (HMV AO 2247), and "Zevgolatiotissa" by Panayiotis Toundas recorded in 1934 by Yiorgos Papasideris (Columbia DG

2104). 30 Nettl (1985:39) relates that Iranian pianists who play Persian classical music frequently use the

Neapolitan sixth, moving from the second degree, a three-quarter tone above the final, to the tonic of some

Persian modes. Sometimes the V-I cadence appears as well.


Fig. 25: Chordal cadences for various dromoi.

i#gm II #Z" I1 i?ja II

t"uJ 1J ?J II ? 8 1? V I V i viib I lib I viib i VIlib i

Chord viii is the cadence chord for many dromoi with flat or unstable second and natural seventh. The resolving power of this chord is mostly owing to the third that is situated a minor second above the final. In the major dromoi Hitzas and Hitzaskiar, the chord is often followed or substituted by its tertian relative IIb. In minor dromoi such as the equivalents of makam U?ak and Hiuseyni, chord II as a substitute of viib has been used since the 1960s (cf. Jouste 1994:82-4). From the Western point of view, III could be seen as akin to the Neapolitan sixth (cf. ibid.:82). Finally, the minor dromos Sabah has VIII as the cadence chord. The resolving power is comparatively weak since root and third are situated a major second from the tonic. The dromos equivalents of makam Karcigar have exceptionally many alternative cadence chords which will be discussed below.

Because the characteristics of melody provide the ground of harmonic selection, giqgl chords and cadence chords vary considerably in accordance with the qualities of each dromos. Table 7 shows the tonic, gtiuli and cadence chords in a selection of dromoi which are grouped according to the most important chord degrees. In the case of normal Hitzas, the fourth scale degree is the giiqlii, and therefore chord iv should be regarded as the gtiqlu chord while chords vii? (older style) and III (newer style) are cadence chords which lead to tonic.31 In some dromoi these two degree types are one and the same: the giiulii of Rast, the two forms of Houzam, and Segah is on the fifth of I, and the scale structure allows the use of V both as giiqlti chord and cadence chord. Because of the dual role of V, this group of dromoi has experienced fewer changes from the 1930s to the 1960s than some other dromoi. The authentic cadence has made it easy to use Rast, Houzam and Segah with chordal harmony. The Western major-like scale structure and harmonization also explain why especially Rast and the two forms of Houzam were favoured in the touristika style of the 1960s.

31 There are several types of dromoi related to makam Hicaz in rebetika. The scale-level differences of these dromoi are the sixth degree, the position of the giuclii and the position of the final. There are dromos Hitzas melodies with giilii either on the fourth or fifth degree. In terms of the final, there are Hitzas 0-1 and Hitzas M-3.

101


Table 7: Important chord degrees in some dromoi.

dromos tonic gufilii chord cadence chord

Rast (major) I V V

Houzam 0-3 I V V

Houzam M-1 I V V

Segah I V

Nihavend (minor) i V V

Nikriz i V V

Hitzas I iv viib/IIb Hitzaskiar I I/V viib/llb Pireotikos I I lib

Usak i iv viib

Kiirdi i iv viib

Sabah i III vIIb

Karclgar (old) i IV viib/VIlb

Karcigar (new) i iii viib/Vllb/V7

Dromoi with gi9lii on the fourth or third scale degree are harmonized very differently. Fig. 26 is a Greek cover version of the Central Anatolian tiirkii "Gel Alim" in a modified form of makam U??ak. The gtilii of the makam is the fourth degree, so the harmonization favours chord iv instead of V. The pitch of the second degree of the U??ak scale varies: it is one Holderian comma flat in ascending phrases but some 2.5 commas flat in descents. In equal temperament this inflection is imitated by performing the second degree natural in ascending passages and flat in the descending ones. (A chromatic descent is also possible.) The unstable second degree affects the harmonization of the rebetika form of makam U??ak: the cadence chord for melodies is viib, but VII may appear in ascending passages with sudden descents to final (Fig. 26, bar 3).

A peculiarity of dromos harmony is the role of I. In some cases, it can function as both tonic and guiqlii chord. Hitzaskiar is such a case: degrees used in the 1930s recordings are I, iv, V and vii. I commonly supports formulae around the giiglii. The accompaniment in Fig. 27a is of the old chordal drone style. It is typical of aptaliko (5+4) that the accompaniment starts on the fourth beat of the first bar. The guitar plays solely chord I, and the melodic cadence is in parallel octaves instead of a cadence chord.

In the harmonically more developed piece of Fig. 27b, the stop on the gtiilii is also harmonized with I. Owing to the flat second degree of the scale, V is not suitable as the cadence chord for Hitzaskiar. As with Hitzas, Hitzaskiar recordings of the 1930s mostly have vii[-I as the closing chordal formula. Theoretical harmonizations ignore viib because the seventh scale degree is supposed to be sharp.

Pennanen: Chordal hannony in Greek rebetika and laika

Fig. 26: Excerpt from "Exo dertia kai kaimoi". Recorded in 1962 by Stelios Kazantzidis (HMV 7PG 3034).

Q ̂ J38p Gm Din Gm

'E- w vTpToc c KOCI KoClIoi. OXw aL- 7r6- Ape voc pe- 0U- CACO.

_ _ I I1- I J I J JL A- - - X! 'E- XE', ?- Xx!

A, i K , k I Dm cm GmM m Qm

E- Mc cM yX- Ki6c 'yKOCXI6c pou,

- v o - J M J I J I. 11

taoc- vo- yv- pi- (E KOV- T6c ou, vay vay vay! yup- voa TrrO- Xi -ocX (t- Xlc uou,

Chord vii; fits Hitzaskiar melodies that do not descend below the final in cadence. The newer cadence chord for Hitzaskiar is IIt, the tertial relative of vii6 (Fig. 27c).

Due to the flat second degree, i.e. fifth of V, theoretical harmonizations completely exclude V in Hitzaskiar. In performance practice, this is not the case. The Ottoman makam Hicazkar starts from the octave, and this is very often also true in rebetika. In the upper region, the use of V is possible because the flat second degree above the final remains absent. Besides, the Hitzaskiar scale does not repeat identically in octaves. The second degree of the upper octave may be either flat as its basic octave equivalent, or natural (Fig. 27b, c). Chord V is not present in all Hitzaskiar melodies because there are stylistic features in rebetika that occasionally prevent the use of it. As with some of the most popular Ottoman makams, there are alternative seyirs for dromoi in rebetika. Sometimes a rebetika Hitzaskiar melody starts from the root of I and remains in the lower register; this kind of melody is harmonized without V.

In summary, we can say that the selection of chords depends on the scale structure of the dromos and the region in which the melody moves. Period and style also have an effect on harmony. Now we shall have a closer look at two dromoi, which illustrate the historical development and plurality of dromos harmony.

The development of Sabah harmonization The development of Sabah harmonization differs considerably from what we have considered above. Sabah is a minor-key dromos, the giuluii of which is a third above the final (Fig. 2a, b). This structure lends itself to the use of the relative major chord in harmonization. With exceptions to the rule, a Sabah melody is supposed to start either on the first or the third degree. The initial chord may

103


Fig. 27: Hitzaskiar melodies and their harmonization. (a) Introduction from "Maroko" by I. Diamantopoulos and Y. Petropouleas). Recorded in 1940 by Markos Vamvakaris (Odeon GA 7286). (b) Introduction from "I gata" by Stellakis Perpiniadis and Nikos Mathesis. Recorded in 1936 by Stellakis Perpiniadis (HMVAO 2401). (c) Introduction from "Leiono mystika" by Markos Vamvakaris. Recorded in 1938 by the composer (Odeon GA 7174).

r n^ ^ ; ^ u ar r jl58n ro Art' . . L

b0 t:jri" 1..1rA -D

v I m~~~~~~..

ba~- f f 5~! I J

m-~---- !

A 1 t I m II n

" JJThJ- I j.- I-I IJ *

correspondingly be either i or III. Many Sabah melodies can be harmonized solely with i and III, and direct progressions from giluti chord to tonic were common in the 1930s. Probably owing to influence of common practice harmony with clear cadences, the cadential progression used after the war was III-VIIk-i.

Fig. 28 shows two Sabah melodies from the 1930s and one from the early 1960s. Fig. 28a is a straightforward i-III-i harmonization of the old stratum. Chord III supports the stop on the gtiilui at the end of the bar. Fig. 28b is a III-vik- III-i progression for a melody starting from the third degree. The traditional guitar part for the descending formula is in parallel octaves. In laika style, the descending bass run is replaced by chord progressions with the flat fourth chord degree: IV6 -III-i and IV[ -III-VII-i. Fig. 26c is a virtuoso laika-style introduction harmonized with the modem progression III-vikIII-IV-III-IVV-III-i-VIlI-i.

"IP '1' .? -I I ? I It If Ir--.,..,., -,

D

A !h 13as.- oi l, -

. I r'

6 1 r ~ ~ ~~~~~~~I ~ fo &!I M-iI4.. I 1


Fig. 28: (a) Introduction from "0 synahis" by Markos Vamvakaris. Recorded in 1934 by the composer (HMVAO 2185). The second bouzouki section has been transcribed because the guitar player most probably forgot to play the relative major chord in the first one. (b) Excerpt from "Mortissa hasiklou" by Markos Vamvakaris. Recorded in 1933 by the composer (Columbia DG 473). (c) Introduction from "As pethano na glytoso" by Panos Gavalas and N. Dalezios. Recorded in 1961 by Panos Gavalas (Parlophone GDSP 2603).

bA J=122 F

MopTiTaoc, rrov yEvfl- 01- Ke< p?aoc pA? qTOUG TEKe- 6e A. Bl?11 .F DM

At p YK?e0 TrTOV U- Haou - pi- (pi- (XpToUoVap- y1-

~~~~~o:CA J o ,.=58 bou ?,-

-- .?

BV _F=_

The development of Sabah harmonization can be sketched as follows. After the drone era, chords i and III began to be used. This was enough for melodies with a narrow range and little emphasis on the flat sixth degree. For the harmonization of melodies with emphasis on that degree, chord vi; was added. After the war, the cadence chord VII; appeared. In the laika style of the late 1950s, chord IV[, was finally added. Table 8 shows an interpretation of the new harmonization. The starting point is that because the second genre of the dromos Sabah scale is the Hicaz pentachord, the harmonization is influenced by that of dromos Hitzas. Therefore, III of Sabah functions as I of Hitzas and vi6 of Sabah is the gtiilii chord

105


in Hitzas. After the establishment of IIt as the cadence chord for Hitzas, musicians also started using it for the Hitzas inside Sabah. The return to i of Sabah was executed either directly (III-i) or through the cadence chord of Sabah (III-VIII,-i).

Table 8: Hitzas harmonization inside Sabah.

Hitzas: I IIb iv

Sabah: i III IVb vib vIIb

Karcigar harmonization Because of its scale structure and the position of the guilii, makam Karcigar has offered exceptionally many possibilities for harmonization. In the caf6 style, Karcigar melodies tended to observe the rules of the Ottoman tradition, though there was variation in melodic progression. In the bouzouki tradition, Karcigar has experienced structural changes. Both forms tend to resist functional harmonization.

According to the theory of genera, the basic Karcigar scale consists of the U?ak tetrachord on A (diig5h) and Hicaz pentachord on d (neva). As with makams Saba and U~?ak, the pitch of the second degree of the U??ak note group is notated as B4 (segah) but it varies in practice, being 1 comma flat in ascending phrases but 2.5 commas flat in descents. The 4-commas-flat fifth degree is frequently raised in melodic progression and especially in cadences (Fig. 29a). Besides U??ak and Hicaz note groups, there are some other components in this makam, but there is no need for a detailed analysis here. In point of fact, due to the melodic peculiarities of Karcigar, the theory of genera does not explain the characteristics of the makam particularly well. Karcigar melodies in the classical seyir start from the giiulii which in this case is the fourth degree. Fig. 30a is an

Fig. 29: (a) The basic Ottoman makam Karcigar scale, and (b) the basic Karcigar scale of the bouzouki tradition with the traditional harmonization.

i bo^ r I*-^ +

D ^^ ^^ ^ 3 .

iii IV V viib t) VIb i

Pennanen: Chordal harmony in Greek rebetika and laika 10

-Fig-:. 30: (a) Excerpt from "Zourlopainemenis yenna " by Vangelis Papazoglou. Recorded in 1934 by Rita Abatzi (HMVAO 219]). (b) Excerpt from "Kondrabatzides " by Kostas Roukounas. Recorded in 1936 by the composer (Odeon GA 1919).

r VrIE

i~~ p

Ki 6-ri ov 'XW (XJ1(O-DIE- VO KOC- V - T( XO-XC- Xi a

K Ti6r aov 'xu, KcC4W- pet- V(X Kox- ye- TO(X X(x-6c- Xi jIou.

Kov,rpo~ucp- rrO(T - 6E4 E,TrM-E7r- TO( - xo - -Xx,

lot I ~~ ~ ~> J ~

C) 'Q.#-,O - lw-

p6- CF( a, 6- VOC KOX- -

-IL -.L -~~~~~~~.L.

Ki.

excerpt from a 1935 song in equal-tempered makam Karcigar. The melody begins from giiglii, with the fifth degree raised. In the first three bars, there are stops on the octave of the final; from then on, however, the fourth degree dominates the rest of the piece until the final cadence, and the fifth degree becomes flat. The high octave transposition of the last bar is a feature of the late Ottoman caf6 and night-club style (cf. Greve 1995:170-3; Beken 1996).

107


With minor exceptions, the equal-tempered basic scale of the newer modified Karcigar of the bouzouki tradition is similar to the classical makam (Fig. 29b). In terms of theoretical harmonization, the flat fifth degree is a potential problem since it seems to prevent the use of the minor i chord. In performance practice, this issue seems to present few difficulties, since the possibility of raising the fifth degree resolves most harmonization problems. In the bouzouki tradition, the Karcigar tonal hierarchy also tends be different from the classical Ottoman one. The most remarkable structural change is the position of the giiqlii tone. Because of chordal harmony, the third degree surpasses the fourth in tonal hierarchy. Thus, the genera of the dromos are U,?ak trichord and Nikriz pentachord on c (9argah), but again the note groups do not explain the melodic movements sufficiently. The gtilii chord is iii, which allows the use of the flat fifth degree. Since the second degree of the upper octave is usually flat, chord vii, is used when the melody moves around the seventh scale degree. When the melody approaches the final, chord VII; is normally used. Chord IV appears when the melody occasionally stops on the fourth degree. This happens especially when the composition is influenced by the Ottoman Karcigar of the cafe style.

In Fig. 30b, the melody begins from the final, moves around the third degree and finally settles on it. The guiilii chord is suggested by the root and fifth alternation from the guitar. The melodic movement of the vocal line is somewhat similar to that of makam Saba.

Karcigar melodies of the bouzouki tradition are based on the alternation of U?ak and Nikriz on i and iii respectively. Oscillation between i and iii creates a restless feeling that is suitable for heavy zeibekiko songs with depressing lyrics. This static progression can end a section on recordings in the Piraeus style of the 1930s.

In rebetika performance practice, as we have seen, there are three cadence chords for Karcigar, i.e. viib, VII;, and V(7). The first two chords are alternatives, the use of which is enabled by the chromatically descending second degree of the basic octave and the flat second degree of the upper octave. Sometimes the alternative cadences are used within the same song in different sections. Karcigar melodic closing formulae tend to emphasise the fourth degree, which fits all the three chords. From a purely theoretical point of view, V(7) is not an expected cadence chord since its third is not a scale degree of Karcigar. However, the chord is used in cadences with no leading tone that would clash with it. As Karcigar melodic closing formulae tend to avoid the area below the final, V(7) can be used fairly often. On the basis of recorded repertoire, it seems that the authentic cadence closes a Karcigar section of a piece where the other sections are in a dromos utilising the same close. Thus, the use of V(7) as the cadence chord helps to adjust a Karcigar section to the compositional whole that utilises the Western standard cadence.

Fig. 3 la illustrates the use of chord viil in Karcigar harmonization. It first appears at the point where the flat second degree of the upper octave is introduced. After the progression iii-i, the instrumental coda contains the flat second in the basic octave, which calls for the cadence chord vii;. Fig. 31b is an excerpt

Pennanen: Chordal harmnony in Greek rebetika and laika10

Fig. 31: (a) The end of "Drapetis tou Yendi Koule " by Yiorgos Mitsakis. Recorded in 196] by Nikos Youlakis (Columbia SCDG 685]). (b) Excerpt from "Periplanomeni zoi " by Vasilis Tsitsanis and Kostas Virvos. Recorded in 1954 by Sotiria Bellou (Odeon GA 7789). (c) Excerpt from "Peismatara " by Markos Vamvakaris. Recorded in 1937 by the composer (Parlophon B 21955). (d) Excerpt from "Mes' tin polli skotoura mou " by Vasilis Tsitsanis. Recorded in 1938 by Stratos Payioumtzis (HMVAO 2540). (e) Excerpt from "Htes to vrady stin taverna " by Andonis Repanis and Panayiotis Kablieris. Recorded in 1968 by Stratos Dionysiou (Columbia 3798).

aA .J=58 IDrn

Oaeoc 'O To KOx - X6 JTroc- 81' psc 0T 0eroofXo-~Ovi -

3~O FM

y d0c C o-r- C- 5 - yx To JTiOII r rOrV.

KXociw iC(XVl' As - T u w jw- n (yxctvc D Din

IC do i V( -I 0 yoc-irij- ow;M :

fIe lirxvw, -u qe voic~ xiop e a-vc pyp

from a typical heavy zeibekiko in Karcigar. The harmony stays in iii for the whole first bar, and there is a clear Nikrfiz feeling in the melodic line. The second bar begins with i, followed directly by iii. The piece's restless and unstable mood is underlined by this chord progression and the corresponding change of the fifth degree from flat to natural and back again. During the cadence chord ViIIV a

KIcr.

. . - - - ...

- - -

IL-JLLIL r1wrimma- LIM Elm DM CM DM -zf I 1) . ", IN - _; i -I= M---A I ,No I PM -T ;...r r r i - -d I I I I ; M. i I M -JTJ AL-J p Pm J'

109

T'IM

MO


chromatic decsent to the final occurs. The bar ends with a Karcigar instrumental closing formula. Fig. 31c starts on iii, and the narrow-range melody moves around the root of the chord. In the seventh bar the fifth degree is not raised, and it functions as a descending appoggiatura for the fourth degree (hence not clashing with the cadential V chord). The cadence chords are V and I, as in the succeeding instrumental section in the dromos form of Nikriz (not transcribed).

Fig. 3 Id from the 1930s starts in the major key of the preceding section (not transcribed), but the descending melody modulates to the Nikriz part of the bouzouki Karcigar, i.e. to the parallel minor. After iii, the harmonic progression passes through the i-V-i cadence. This time the fifth scale degree is raised in the cadence, which makes it a neighbour of the fourth degree. Fig. 31e, a Karcigar section from a 1968 song, shares some characteristics with the previous two examples. The melody starts in the major but modulates to Karcigar in the fourth bar. The chordal cadence consists of the progression +II7-V7-i. The fifth scale degree remains flat in the vocal Karcigar line, but is raised in the instrumental closing formula. The section closes with the V7-i.

The alternative cadence chords offer an interesting problem of interpretation. According to the conventional Western view, the cadences VIIb-i and viib-i are signs of modal harmony while the dominant effect cadence V-i is often thought of as automatically signalling functional harmony. Still, Karcigar melodies and harmonizations can hardly be labelled as either "tonal" or "functional".

Conclusion

The Westernization of Greek popular music after the Second World War was not a steadily advancing process. Modernization helped to preserve the old non- Western musical characteristics, while Orientalization was an opposing process that tended to support the Eastern features of urban Greek music and even create new ones. Remakes of old rebetika songs revitalised the use of traditional melodic formulae in various makams and dromoi. The formulae were utilised in new compositions and taximi improvizations as well. Influences from Turkish, Arabic and Indian songs had similar effects, though they also introduced new characteristics into Greek popular music.

Because of these processes, the victory of functional harmony over traditional dromos harmonization was not evident nor did major and minor scales surpass the makam-related dromos systems during the period studied here. The traditional pre-war makam-derived compositional systems lived on in somewhat fragmented, simplified and modified forms. Chordal harmony had influence on the tonal structures of some dromoi. The place of the final and sometimes of the gtiulu changed owing to harmonization. Dromos Houzam is a typical example.

The idiomatic harmonizations in rebetika and laika performance practice are often very different from the deductive theoretical harmonizations of printed sources that are based on the Western scale concept. Some features of the harmonization-such as the alternation of relative major and minor triads-were developed from bouzouki playing techniques in the Piraeus style of the 1930s.


Certain harmonization formulae are applications of Western practices. The Western cadence principle was applied to dromos melodies in an idiomatic way in the 1930s, and in the 1940s cadences became structural frames that marked the end of a section. It is also noteworthy that faster harmonic rhythm began to be used in the 1950s, a tendency present in new compositions and in remakes of old rebetika songs. Contrary to what is sometimes thought, chord progressions did not make dromos melodies automatically tonal or Western.

In rebetika and laika, there are three basic ways to use chordal harmony. Firstly, there are dromos melodies that are harmonized in an idiomatic way, such that the harmonic selection is based on the melodic qualities of each dromos. Giitilu and cadence chords are most often not the chord V of the common practice. Secondly, melodies may be in Western major or minor and thus their chords are in accordance with the rules of common practice harmony. The third possibility contains characteristics from both these foregoing practices. Some melodies are in dromoi that differ greatly from the Western major or minor scales, but their harmonization is based on functional harmony with dominant-tonic cadences. The rebetika form of makam Karcigar with its alternative cadence chords (i.e. VII, viib or V(7)) is an example par excellence of the complicated acculturation processes in Greek popular music.

We can try to analyse the three different tendencies in rebetika and laika recordings in the 1950s and especially the 1960s in their cultural context. Expressive singing style and rather dismal and suicidal lyrics combined with minor-key dromoi and non-functional harmony tended to create a heavily depressing atmosphere in the songs. No wonder that in the mid-1960s the chairman of the first Panhellenic Psychiatry Conference declared that melancholic bouzouki songs were responsible for an increase in mental disorders in Greece (Gauntlett 1991:11). Psychiatrists as Western-oriented upper-class people most likely felt that zeibekiko melodies in e.g. Sabah or Karcigar were tonally un- balanced and chaotic. The statement of the chairman could also be politically motivated. Sabah and Karcigar melodies sounded clearly Oriental, and thus they were certain to be considered subversive in the official nationalist discourse.

On the other hand, a part of the rebetika and laika repertoire tended to emphasise the Western features of Greek popular music. In some cases only instrumentation, singing style and language would indicate the Greekness of a piece of recorded music. This kind of Westernized music was at least theoretically acceptable with regard to its Westernness for the West-oriented upper-class Greeks of the 1960s.

The most common reaction to Western influences in Greek popular music lies between the two extremes. Functional harmonization and V-I cadences are factors that have helped to mask the non-Western musical features of Greek popular music under an appearance of being Western. Owing to this, many musicians, researchers and listeners have interpreted especially Greek tourist music as more Westernized than it actually is. This situation can be seen as the musical symbol of the modern Greek cultural ambiguity between East and West: Oriental deep structures are hidden under the Western surface.

111


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Prof. Stathis Gauntlett (Australia); Dr. Pekka Gronow, Eero Heimolinna, Kimmo Hyyppa, Docent Pekka Jalkanen, Docent Vesa Kurkela, Prof. Heikki Laitinen, Dipl. Composer Sakari Vainikka (Finland); Leonidas Drizis (FRG); Moisis Aser, Marios Drizis, Pavlos Erevnidis, Panayiotis Kounadis, Sotiris Lykopoulos, Yiorgos Symeonidis, Prof. Demetre Yannou (Greece); Mats Einarsson (Sweden); Dr. John Baily, Dr. David W. Hughes, Diane Mueller (UK); Helen Abatzi, Joe Carson, Prof. Jozef Pacholczyk (USA).

The research was supported by grants from The Emil Aaltonen Foundation and The Alfred Kordelin Foundation.

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LPS AND CDS CITED

AAA 019 Mohamed Abdelwahab Integrale Vol. VIII (1935). Film Doumou' El Hob (Larmes d'amour). HMV GCLP7 Mikis Theodorakis, I yeitonia ton angelon. Nimbus NI 5365 Hariprasad Chaurasia, Raga Darbari Kanada. Dhun in Raga Mishra Pilu. SD 007 Louisiana Red & Stelios Vamvakaris, To blues synanda to Rebetiko. Venus V-1053 Marika Ninou, Mia vradi stou Tzimi tou Hondrou.

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APPENDIX

Standard accidentals used in modem Turkish notation:

raises lowers 1 comma

4 commas

5 commas +

Risto Pekka Pennanen works as a researcher in the Department of Folk Tradition at the University of Tampere, Finland. He has published widely on music cultures in the Balkans and the history of ideas in ethnomusicology. He is currently finishing his PhD thesis on Westernization and modernization in Greek popular music. Address: Dept. of Folk Tradition, University of Tampere, PL 607, FIN-33101 Tampere, Finland; e-mail <[email protected]>; Web site of the Department: http://www.uta.fi/laitokset/kpl/V.

the development of chordal harmony in greek rebetika and laika music 1930s to 1960s

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