THE DEMOCRATIC CLASSROOM: ENVIRONMENTSession 3

Overview This session explores the ways teachers can practice or live democracy in

the classroom. How they can encourage the kinds of classroom interactions that nurture democratic values and allow students to develop democratic habits.

The concept of the ‘democratic classroom’ is introduced and the key role of the teacher in ‘student-centred learning'.

These concepts are shown to enhance student development and learning as addresses such democratic concepts as: freedom of expression, individual rights, justice and fairness, respect for human dignity, conflict resolution and decision-making.

Overview

Social Learning Theory posits that students learn in large measure by observing and imitating others.

It is therefore important that teachers act as appropriate role models because the most effective way that a teacher can influence students to adopt democratic behaviours, practices and thinking, is through their own behaviours, practices and thinking.

Objectives

• Explore opportunities for student empowerment• Encourage teachers to model democratic behaviour and practices in

the classroom • Encourage critical reflection on applying the principles of

democracy to the classroom

• Introduce democratic concepts and practices relevant to the school and classroom• Examine the concept of ‘lived democracy’• Promote the concepts of student-centred learning and teaching for success

Promoting Democratic Practices in the School Environment

Let us take a closer look at the school and how organizational

policies and practices affect the culture of the school and students’ experience of democracy.

Democratic practices and structures, more than just civics instruction, facilitate the development of democratic values in students: the concept of ‘democracy as lived experience’.

Principles from social psychology applied to learning theory support the case for citizenship education that is grounded in the day to day experiences of students in the school and classroom.

Democracy in the Classroom

The traditional role of schools and their organizational structure and practices are not closely aligned to the values and principles of democracy and the demands of democratic citizenship as outlined earlier.

• principles of participation• majority rule• government by consent of the governed • individual rights • freedom

These are usually not reflected in the daily arrangements of schools.

Critics point to the perceived autocratic style of teachers; the fact that students do not ‘govern’ the classroom. Most schools confine their exploration of democracy and citizenship education to the teaching of related lessons in Civics or Citizenship classes

“Effective citizenship education should prepare young people in three areas":

• Civic literacy - Fundamental knowledge of history and government, political and community organizations, and public affairs; skills for making informed judgments, engaging in democratic deliberation and decision making, influencing the political process, and organizing within a community.

• Civic virtues - Values, beliefs and attitudes needed for constructive engagement in the political system and community affairs, such as tolerance, social trust and a sense of responsibility for others.

• Civically-engaged behaviors - Habits of participating and contributing to civic and public life through voting, staying politically informed and engaging in community service.

While providing stand-alone instruction in Civic literacy, Civic virtues and Civically-engaged behaviours is one approach to citizenship education, Social Learning Theory suggests that it is not the most

effective model, because democratic citizenship instruction does not have the

power of the lived experience.

What is Social Learning Theory?

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed and, on later occasions, this coded information serves as a guide for action.”

Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

Three core concepts at the heart of Social Learning Theory

• The idea that people can learn through observation

• The idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this process

• That just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior

Steps in the Observational Learning and Modeling Process:

• Attention: In order to learn, you need to be paying attention.

• Retention: The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.

• Reproduction: It is critical to actually perform the behavior you observed.

Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

• Motivation: Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation.

Democratic Citizenship: The Lived Experience

• Social Learning Theory provides the link between developing civic skills and attitudes in students, and striving for a richer, more productive and inclusive form of democratic engagement explicitly connected to the classroom experience, which can reinforce, validate and enhance the lived experiences acquired and manifested in the community (Galston, 2003

• For students, understanding the cultural aspects of democracy is at least as important as being knowledgeable about formal institutions and processes. Experience of principles such as social justice in relation to democracy in education, both at the conceptual and applied levels, will have an effect on how students shape their own views during and after their educational experiences, and, significantly, how they engage in democracy.

Activity

“Nowhere is disrespect for democracy more consistently taught by practice and policy than in school. In a great majority of classrooms, students learn that the teacher is boss and whatever she or he says goes, that there is no available mechanism to change a perceived unfair grade, that there is no process by which a student can adequately defend him or herself against a charge of misconduct, and that it is not possible to rectify perceived unfair treatment” (Pearl, 98).

Does this description apply to your school?

How can teachers promote democracy, ‘do’ democracy as distinct from ‘teach’

democracy in the classroom?

Your approach to teaching

• The way in which you organize your class and class procedures

• The way in which you relate to your students

• The extent to which you involve them in making decisions, suggestions or rules, and in the running of the classroom

• Whether you allow or encourage discussions on such topics as: rights and responsibilities, democracy, fairness, justice, tolerance, etc

• Whether you allow or encourage students to work collaboratively, to choose topics for projects, to practice voting for class representatives, to interact, as part of their lesson activities, with people and groups in the local community.

1.The Case for Student-Centred Learning

In line with current thinking on how students learn best, the role of the teacher must be reconceptualised as a facilitator of learning rather than as a dispenser of information; shifting to students the responsibility for regulating their own learning.

This approach to teaching and learning reflects the democratic notions of enhancing student self-concept and acknowledging student individuality.

Teacher-centred vs. Student-centred

Teacher centered or content focused approaches and student centered or learning focused approaches.

Teacher centered approaches focus on the teacher as the expert who transmits the knowledge to be learned to the student. In student centered approaches, the focus shifts to the students and what they do to learn.

Main Features of Student-Centered Learning

• The learner has full responsibility for learning

• Involvement and participation are necessary for learning

• The relationship between learners is more equal, promoting growth and development

• The teacher is a facilitator and resource person

• The learner experiences confluence in his education (affective and cognitive domains flow together)

• The learner sees himself more positively as a result of the learning experience.

The Student-Centered Classroom

• Students are engaged in active rather than passive learning.

• As they assume greater responsibility for their learning, their sense of autonomy is increased.

• The student-teacher relationship is one of mutual respect and interdependence,

• Democratic practices such as giving students greater choice and say in decisions related to teaching and learning are facilitated

Brandes and Ginnis (1996)

Principles of Student- Centered Learning

• Student-centered learning does not have a “One-Size-Fits-All” Solution

• Students have Different Learning Styles

• Students have Different Needs and Interests

• Choice is Central to Effective Learning

• Students have Different Experiences and Background Knowledge

• Students should have Control Over their Learning

• Student-centered learning is about Enabling not Telling

Activity

What are the challenges to student centered learning in your particular classroom/school context? How can these be overcome?

Facilitating Students’ Learning

CONSTRUCTIVISM

Within the last twenty years, there has been a renewed focus on student learning that is framed by the theory of constructivism.

This theory asserts that learning is a search, by the learner, for meaning, and that students learn best when knowledge is gained/developed through a process of active, hands-on learning and exploration - rather than merely and passively receiving information from teachers or copying it from a textbook.

(www.funderstanding.com/constructivism.cfm)

The constructivists acknowledge the individuality of each student in the learning process, and thus, by implication, his/her democratic right to freedom of expression.

Facilitating Students’ Learning

The Role of the Teacher

From the Constructivist perspective, the teacher is a guide who:

• promotes classroom dialogue;

• provides learning experiences and activities;

• encourages and supports student effort;

• challenges students to think for themselves;

• plans experiences that engage students in working through ideas in their own minds;

• In this respect, the teacher is promoting, recognising and valuing the democratic concept of individual differences.

Teaching Styles: An Overview

At Indiana State University, Anthony Grasha identified five teaching styles that represent typical orientations and strategies teaching faculty use. He claims that these styles converge into four different clusters that, like colours on an artist's palette, make up the characteristic ways teachers design instructional settings. A brief description of each cluster is detailed below. You can find specific details by clicking on the links.

• Cluster 1The expert/formal authority cluster tends towards teacher-centred classrooms in which information is presented and students receive knowledge.

Teaching Styles: An Overview

• Cluster 2The personal model/expert/formal authority cluster is a teacher-centred approach that emphasizes modeling and demonstration. This approach encourages students to observe processes as well as content.

• Cluster 3The facilitator/personal model/expert cluster is a student-centred model for the classroom. Teachers design activities, social interactions or problem-solving situations that allow students to practice the processes for applying course content.

• Cluster 4The delegator/facilitator/expert cluster places much of the learning burden on the students. Teachers provide complex tasks that require student initiative, and often group work, to complete.

Teacher Behaviours that Facilitate Student Learning in a Democratic classroom

• Modeling enthusiasm, curiosity, creative thinking.

• Pacing the session and providing meaningful work so that students are appropriately engaged and challenged.

• Providing problem-solving experiences where learners are actively involved on their own.

• Eliciting co-operative group effort rather than individual competitive effort.

• Building a classroom climate that reflects individual developmental needs, time on task, positive expectations, and mutual respect.

Teacher Behaviours that Facilitate Student Learning in a Democratic

classroom

• Demonstrating effective classroom management techniques in a consistent, fair manner.

• Modeling and promoting democratic values.• Allowing for student participation in the development and

implementation of behaviour standards.• Providing/creating a classroom environment that is

inclusive of all students, and that frowns on all forms of discrimination. [This includes any form of discrimination against any student based on: their gender, any disability they may have, their style of dress, their physical appearance, or their religious or socio-economic background].

• Communicating effectively - whether orally, non-verbally, or in writing.

Activity

Think for a moment and identify some aspects of your teaching style. Which aspects support student-centred learning and which do not?

Teaching styles:

1.Facilitator, 2.Personal Model, 3. Formal Authority, 4.Expert, 5. Delegator. Clusters 3 and 4 are Student-centred models, while Clusters 1 and 2 represent a teacher-centred approach.

A prototype interactive instrument based on the work of Grasha is available at Indiana State University’s website. Take the Teaching Style Inventory to reflect on your teaching style. It may be taken and scored online.

http://www.indstate.edu/cirt/id/pedagogies/styles/teaching_styles_inventory.htm

Teaching for Success

In the process of promoting student-centered learning, one aspect of the teachers’ role as a facilitator of learning involves building the student’s confidence in their ability to learn, to do well, to succeed, to accomplish and to behave in certain ways.

Teaching for success requires that:

• Objectives are clearly stated and are developmentally appropriate.• Learning tasks are manageable, yet challenging.• The teacher prepares students for the task by providing adequate guidance,

instructions and feedback.• In essence, teaching for success demonstrates the democratic principles of:

respect for learners, and acceptance of the uniqueness of each individual

The notion of teaching for success is one aspect of building the student’s self-concept, “… the sum of a person’s belief about, and evaluation of, him/herself as a person.” Self-concept directly influences the students’ confidence in their ability to learn, and thus their ultimate classroom performance.

Four Success Strategies

1. Praise Effective praise lies more in its quality (rather than its frequency) and in its relation to change and development in the student’s efforts and progress

2. Rewards and incentives Rewards and incentives should be given for effort and to increase motivation to learn, and are more effective when they carry some element of public recognition

3. Tasks that yield a finished product These will provide students with immediate, tangible evidence of their , worth and success

4. Building student Self-concept This involves helping and encouraging students to believe in themselves and their abilities; valuing the feelings and opinions of all students; do not show signs of frustration or annoyance, or ‘putdown’ students.

2. Organizing a Democratic Classroom

Defining the Democratic Classroom

• Acker (2000) describes the democratic classroom as one that uses a pedagogy that enables students to develop the enjoyment of, and interest in, education, in an environment conducive to learning. The purpose of education in a democratic classroom, she notes, is the students; and the classroom centres on the best interest of the student.

• The objective of the democratic classroom, then, is to enable the student to feel a sense of belonging and to take part and participate in their own learning, - thus leading to engagement and enjoyment.

3. Steps in Creating a Democratic Classroom

• Giving, and being willing to give, students a chance to take charge, exercise choice. The act of allowing students to choose a book for an activity or assignment, to lead a discussion in class, or to make suggestions for class activities. These can give students a sense of freedom and empowerment.

• Providing a supportive classroom environment. A warm, supportive classroom environment is one where students’ ideas and beliefs are respected and valued. When this exists, students will learn to view their role in the classroom without fear, anxiety or intimidation.

• Building rapport with the students. Each student is still an individual with his or her own unique characteristics and values. It is important that each student, and be allowed - even encouraged - to be himself or herself, to set his or her own goals, to have his or her own dreams.

Student Empowerment

‘Empowerment’ is clearly a democratic ideal, since it gives students (the individual) the opportunity to both participate and to exercise their rights and responsibilities.

Negotiation

• Teacher and students have to arrive to an agreement on sharing power in the classroom through negotiation. Negotiating with students will demand concessions from the teacher and an outlook that is both self-assured and comfortable in this new role.

• Negotiation itself is a democratic principle

and, as students are engaged in acting out this principle, they build their skills of decision-making, their respect for the views of others, and they learn to trust and to resolve issues through dialogue.

Activity

Think of one area/aspect of your classroom activities or routine which you currently control, and state how you could share power with your students.

Suggest 3 ways in which students can be empowered in your classroom.

Involving Students in Making the Rules

Students could, for example, make rules about

• Acceptable classroom behaviour• Safety in the classroom• Handling classroom materials• Addressing other students• Dispute and Conflict resolution• Debates• Classroom organization• Keeping the classroom tidy.

Human Rights (and Responsibilities) in the Democratic Classroom

• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights has, as its key concept, that “… all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.”

• But children also need special protection and care, and these are guaranteed under the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Empower your students to draw up a list of their ‘Rights and Responsibilities in the classroom’

www.oxfam.org.uk/education/resources/rights

Discrimination is a violation of human rights that excludes, restricts,

marginalizes or humiliates a person or group because of their race, colour, religious beliefs, gender, age, sexual

orientation, disability, or other characteristics.

Tolerance, Justice: Key Democratic Principles

The opposite to discrimination is respect for a person’s human rights. And these are addressed through the democratic concepts of:

• Tolerance• Justice or fairness

Tolerance, according to the UNESCO” Declaration of the Principles of Tolerance”, is “… respect, acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity of our world’s cultures, our forms of expression and ways of being human.Tolerance is harmony in difference.”

Conflict and Conflict Resolution

• Conflicts are abundant in schools, where there are large numbers of individuals with different personalities, different wants, different ideas, different objectives.

• Conflict is an everyday occurrence; can have considerable value when it is managed constructively.

The issue therefore is not whether conflicts occur, but rather how they are managed.

Conflict and Conflict ResolutionTeaching students to manage conflict constructively and to reject violence

as a solution, helps to produce desirable outcomes that include (Johnson & Johnson, 1995):

- Creative problem-solving;- Healthier cognitive, social and psychological development by being better able

to deal with stress;- Increased motivation and energy to take action;- Greater sense of caring;- Increased incentive to change;- Self-control and; - Respect for rules.

The purpose of conflict resolution is to provide an environment in which each learner can feel physically and psychologically free from violence, threats and danger, and can find opportunities to work and learn with others for the mutual achievement of all. (www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr171.shtml).

Research has found (Asherman, 2002) that the more conflict resolution techniques and practices are used in schools, the greater the decrease in violence, the improvement in classroom management, and the enhancement in students’ social and emotional development.

Developmental Benefits of a Democratic Classroom

A classroom that is based on democratic practices enables students to become:

• more reflective;• more aware of their roles as students, citizens;• more creative;• better thinkers;• better able to express their own views, better able and

willing to discuss issues, negotiate, compromise, be tolerant

These developmental benefits will, in turn, lead to better student performance.

Summary

The session examined the features and characteristics of a ‘democratic classroom’. The important elements of student-centred teaching and learning were presented and steps suggested for creating a democratic classroom. Among these, empowering students, encouraging tolerance and fairness, and managing conflict.

The benefits to be expected of the democratic classroom identified include improved student achievement and behaviour, resulting from enhanced motivation, participation and self-esteem.

Participants were encouraged to consider the personal and institutional challenges in creating a democratic classroom and how they can be overcome.

Thank you!