the contribution of temperament, popularity, and … · the contribution of temperament,...

RESEARCH PAPER

The contribution of temperament, popularity,and physical appearance to children’s happiness

Mark D. Holder Æ Ben Coleman

Published online: 7 April 2007� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007

Abstract The relation between the happiness of 9–12 year old children and their tem-

perament, popularity, and physical appearance was examined. Participants included 432

children and their parents and teachers. Happiness in children was assessed using a self-

rating scale, parents’ ratings, teachers’ ratings, and the Happiness and Satisfaction Sub-

scale of the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale 2 (Piers-Harris 2) [Piers, E. V., &

Herzberg, D. S. (2002). Manual for the Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale, 2nd

ed. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services]. Estimates of children’s temperament,

popularity, and physical appearance included parents’ ratings, individual items on the

Piers-Harris 2, and three domain scales from the Piers-Harris 2: the Freedom From Anxiety

Subscale, Popularity Subscale, and Physical Appearance and Attributes Subscale.

Children’s happiness was correlated with and predicted by ratings of their temperament,

popularity, and appearance. Demographic variables did not account for appreciable vari-

ance in children’s happiness. The results parallel the common finding that internal factors

(e.g., personality), but not external factors (e.g., demographics), predict adults’ happiness.

Keywords Happiness � Children � Temperament � Popularity � Attractiveness �Appearance � Anxiety � Satisfaction

M. D. Holder (&)University of British Columbia, Okanagan, 3333 University Way, Kelowna, BC,Canada V1V 1V7e-mail: [email protected]

B. ColemanOkanagan College, Kalamalka Campus, 7000 College Way (C 311),Vernon, BC, Canada V1B 2N5e-mail: [email protected]

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J Happiness Stud (2008) 9:279–302DOI 10.1007/s10902-007-9052-7

1 Introduction

Though a recent study reported that adults in all 48 countries tested desired high levels of

happiness for their children (Diener and Lucas 2004), studies of factors that contribute to

children’s happiness are not common (Mahon and Yarcheski 2002). The present study

examined factors that may contribute to the happiness of children aged 9–12 years. The

happiness of these children is particularly suitable to study because they are old enough to

identify and use emotions in complex social environments (Schultz et al. 2004). Further-

more, they can comprehend that emotions, including happiness, can be experienced

simultaneously and they can attribute causal relations to these emotions in a way similar to

adults (Denham 1998; Whitesell and Harter 1989). Children in this age range typically

possess the ability to consider multiple sources of information when understanding emo-

tions and can comprehend a wide range of emotions (see Berk 1994, for a review).

The factors associated with happiness in children may differ from those in adolescents

and adults because children differ in their cognitive maturity (e.g., perspective-taking and

empathic development) and lack experiences that may influence happiness at older ages.

For example, factors that are related to adults’ well-being, such as job satisfaction (Tait

et al. 1989), marriage (Headey et al. 1991) and spousal happiness (Stull 1988) are not

applicable to children. Research suggests that the predictors of life satisfaction and hap-

piness do change with age. For example, adult men were found to define happiness in terms

of their family life when they have school-aged children, but look outside of the family for

happiness before and after this phase of the family life cycle (Harry 1976). For children,

academic test scores predict life satisfaction in Grade 2 but not in Grade 8 (Chang et al.

2003). By identifying the factors that contribute to happiness in children, we may better

understand individual differences in children’s happiness and identify children who may

benefit from interventions.

The literature on happiness indicates that demographic variables contribute relatively

little to happiness (see Myers 2000). However, personality variables are consistently and

strongly linked with happiness in adults (Furnham and Brewin 1990), and the roles of

physical appearance (Diener et al. 1995b) and popularity (Ostberg 2003) in happiness have

also been studied. The present paper examines the relations between happiness and vari-

ables related to personality, physical appearance, and popularity. Personality, physical

appearance, and popularity, all affect our social relationships and one of the most robust

predictors of happiness is the development of social relationships (Argyle 2001; Myers and

Diener 1995).

2 Correlates and predictors of happiness

2.1 Personality

Two personality variables consistently and strongly associated with happiness are extra-

version (a trait characterized by being social, assertive, lively, and sensation seeking

(Eysenck 1986)) and neuroticism (a trait characterized by anxiety, depression, emotionality

and having low self-esteem (Eysenck 1986)) (e.g., Cheng and Furnham 2001, 2003;

Francis et al. 1998; Furnham and Brewin 1990; Hayes and Joseph 2003; Hills and Argyle

2001a, b; Neto 2001; Pavot et al. 1990). For example, one study reported that extraversion

and neuroticism accounted for 42% of the variance in the happiness of adults (Brebner

280 M. D. Holder, B. Coleman

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et al. 1995) and extraversion and neuroticism predicted well-being over a decade later

(Costa et al. 1980). Similarly, both extraversion and neuroticism correlated with adults’

happiness, and neuroticism predicted it (Argyle and Lu 1990). Assertiveness also predicted

happiness and its mediating effects largely explained the contributions of extraversion and

neuroticism (Argyle and Lu 1990).

In addition to assertiveness, extraversion, and neuroticism, additional variables related

to personality and associated with happiness in adults include attributional style (Cheng

and Furnham 2001), emotional stability (Hills and Argyle 2001a), loneliness (Neto 2001)

and self-esteem (Cheng and Furnham 2003; Furnham and Cheng 2000; Hills and Argyle

2001).

Various dimensions of personality predict happiness in young adolescents as well. For

example, self-esteem and optimism (Mahon and Yarcheski 2002), and neuroticism and

introversion (Young and Bradley 1998), were found to predict happiness in adolescents.

Though the sample size was small, one study found that life satisfaction in children was

positively correlated with extraversion and negatively correlated with introversion (Hu-

ebner 1991).

2.2 Popularity

Popularity and happiness may be associated in both children and adults. For example, a

child’s status relative to his or her peers is positively correlated with well-being (Ostberg

2003). However, university students who highly valued popularity and personal image,

spent more time being unhappy, had lower levels of general happiness, and spent less time

being happy (Kasser and Ahuvia 2002).

Popularity and happiness correlate with similar variables. For example, increases in

adolescents’ suicidal ideation were associated with decreases in happiness and popularity

(Field et al. 2001). Children who were bullied tended to be less popular and less happy

(Slee 1993). Adolescents’ personality traits, particularly neuroticism and introversion,

were negatively correlated with both happiness and popularity (Young and Bradley 1998).

2.3 Physical appearance

A meta-analysis of the literature concluded that physically attractive people are viewed by

others as being ‘‘more sociable, sexually warm, mentally healthy, intelligent, and socially

skilled than unattractive people’’ (Feingold 1992). The bias in perceiving attractive people

more favorably extends to children as well. For example, teachers rated attractive children

as more popular and intelligent even in a controlled experiment where the teachers’ per-

ception of the children’s performance was held constant (Clifford and Walster 1973).

Physical appearance is an important resource and contributes to variables related to

one’s happiness and well-being. Therefore, research has investigated the relation between

appearance and happiness. For example, young adults’ self-ratings of attractiveness were

strongly correlated with happiness (Neto 2001). Similarly, body image, including sexual

attractiveness, weight concern, and physical condition, of adult women over a wide age

span was correlated with happiness (Stokes and Frederick-Recascino 2003).

However, the relation between appearance and happiness and well-being may not be

strong. For example, though Umberson and Hughes (1987) reported positive correlations

between several measures of well-being (including happiness) and attractiveness, the

Children’s happiness 281

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quality of their measures of attractiveness was questioned in a more rigorous study that

showed attractiveness and subjective well-being were only weakly correlated (Diener et al.

1995).

2.4 Present study

Research has investigated the relations between happiness and personality, physical

appearance, and popularity, but the majority of studies examined adults. Although hap-

piness and life satisfaction remain relatively constant throughout life (Inglehart 1990;

Latten 1989; Stock et al. 1983), the predictors of happiness vary with age (Herzog et al.

1982). Therefore, though personality, popularity, and physical appearance are associated

with happiness in adults, they may or may not be associated with happiness in children.

Given the consistency and strength of the relationship between personality and happi-

ness in adults and adolescents, the present study investigated whether a similar relationship

occurred in children. While personality may not be fully developed in children (Costa and

McCrae 1994), temperament may reflect the beginnings of personality. If these beginnings

are related to happiness as the analogous personality constructs are linked in adults, then

we should expect two findings. First, more outgoing, less shy children (akin to extraver-

sion) should be viewed as happier. Second, less anxious children (akin to being less

neurotic) should be reported as happier. By determining the relation between temperament

and happiness in children, we may better understand how temperament can help explain

individual differences in children’s happiness and predict which children are more likely to

experience lower levels of happiness.

Given that happiness is associated with popularity and physical appearance in adults,

the present study examined the relation between happiness and perceived popularity and

physical appearance in children.

3 Method

3.1 Participants

Students in Grades 4–6 in the public school system (N = 817) were given information

letters, letters of informed consent, and questionnaires to bring home to their parents/

guardians/caregivers (99.5% of these adults were the parents and, therefore, are referred to

collectively as ‘‘parents’’ throughout this paper). Five hundred and twenty-six (64.4%)

responses were received. Four hundred and thirty-two parents consented (86.1% women,

13.2 % men). Female parents ranged in age from 24 to 71 years (M = 40.6, SD = 5.1) and

the males ranged in age from 25 to 74 years (M = 43.9, SD = 8.7). The children (55.3%

girls, 44.4% boys) were from six schools and 30 classrooms. To help ensure a broader

sample, both rural and urban areas, and large and small schools, were included. Further-

more, a wide range of socioeconomic levels was included (see Table 3).

One parent did not report the sex of his or her child. The children ranged in age from 9

to 12 years (M = 10.25, SD = 0.9). Children who had a prior history of depression (e.g.,

were currently receiving treatment for depression) were excluded from the study.

Seventy-six percent of the parents were married, 8% were single, 6% were living

common law, 6% were divorced, and 1% were widowed or single-divorced. Three percent

did not report their marital status.


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3.2 Materials

3.2.1 Questionnaires

Children completed three questionnaires: the Piers-Harris 2 Children’s Self-Concept Scale

2 (Piers and Herzberg 2002), the Faces Scale, and the Children’s Questionnaire. When an

item required a range of possible responses, Likert-type scales were used instead of visual

analogue scales because children aged 5–14 often do not understand these scales even with

help designed to increase their understanding (Shields et al. 2003). Furthermore, because

children prefer filling in circles and having more response options (Rebok et al. 2001), the

Likert-type scales used circles and multiple response options. Parents completed the

Parents’ Questionnaire, which also included Likert-type scales to maintain the similarity

between the formats used by adults and children.

3.2.2 Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale 2 (Piers-Harris 2)

The Piers-Harris 2 is a standardized self-report questionnaire that assesses overall self-concept

(Piers and Herzberg 2002). The Piers-Harris 2 is a modification of the original 1984 Piers-

Harris Children’s Concept Scale which provides a multidimensional assessment that is widely

adopted, has high test-retest reliability and internal consistency, is the most frequently used

and strongly recommended instrument for children in our age group, and can be administered

to an entire class at once (Marsh and Holmes 1990; Piers and Harris 1984; Piers and Herzberg

2002). The Piers-Harris 2 has sixty True-False items that express how children may feel about

themselves (e.g., ‘‘my classmates make fun of me’’). These items are combined to form six

subscales that assess specific components of self-concept: Behavioral Adjustment, Intellectual

and School Status, Physical Appearance and Attributes, Freedom From Anxiety, Popularity,

and Happiness and Satisfaction. The Happiness and Satisfaction Subscale (HapPH2) was used

as one estimate of children’s happiness. The item ‘‘I am unhappy’’ is most highly correlated

with it. The Freedom From Anxiety Subscale assesses anxiety and dysphoric mood. The items

‘‘I worry a lot’’ and ‘‘I feel left out of things’’ are most highly correlated with this scale. The

Popularity Subscale assesses a child’s evaluation of their social functioning. The item ‘‘I have

many friends’’ is most highly correlated with this subscale. The Physical Appearance and

Attributes Subscale reflects a child’s evaluation of their physical appearance as well as their

leadership and ability to express ideas. The item ‘‘I am good-looking’’ is most highly cor-

related with this subscale.

3.2.3 Faces Scale

The Faces Scale is similar to that reported by Andrews and Withey (1976) and was used to

assess children’s happiness (see Table 1 for an example of the Faces Scale). Children rated

their overall happiness by rating how happy they were ‘‘most of the time’’. Parents rated

their child’s happiness using the scale (i.e., ‘‘How would you rate your child’s overall

happiness?’’). Ratings of others’ personalities by knowledgeable people are one of the

most valid measures of personality (Funder 1991). Therefore, because many researchers

perceive personality variables as stable traits rather than as states (see Hartmann et al. 1979

for a review) and happiness is also considered a stable trait (e.g., Stones and Kozma 1986),

parents’ ratings of their children’s happiness may be a valid measure. Teachers rated each

child’s happiness in the class using two Faces Scales. One scale asked the teacher to rate


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the children’s happiness ‘‘When in class doing fun activities’’. The second scale was used

to rate the children’s happiness ‘‘When in class doing work’’.

3.2.4 Children’s Questionnaire

The Children’s Questionnaire contained nine items which, based on the adult literature

(Diener et al., 1999) were related to happiness (e.g., ‘‘How many hours of TV do you watch

per day?’’; ‘‘How many times a week do you visit with your friends outside of school?’’;

‘‘In terms of money, how rich do you feel your family is?). Using a Likert-type scale,

children filled in a circle representing one of five or seven response options for each item.

3.2.5 Parents’ Questionnaire

The Parents’ Questionnaire assessed factors related to the children and associated with

happiness. Many of the items on this questionnaire were similar to those on the Children’s

Questionnaire and provided demographic information (e.g., family income, marital status,

age, and sex).

3.3 Procedure

Informed consent was obtained from teachers and then parents. If their teachers and parents

consented, assent was then obtained from the children. Children were assessed approximately

10 days after the consent letters and Parents’ Questionnaires were distributed to the parents.

Only children whose parents completed the Parent’s Questionnaire were asked to par-

ticipate. Children were surveyed in classrooms and participation took an average of

30 min. Children were given the three questionnaires. Standardized instructions for each

questionnaire were provided and the researcher used a chalkboard to demonstrate how to

respond to the items.

For the Children’s Questionnaire, children were instructed to read the questions care-

fully, think about their answers, examine the response options, and then choose the option

that was most appropriate for them. The researcher explained that for Question 1, ‘‘How

many hours of TV do you watch per day?’’ the children needed to think about how many

hours they watch per day for the whole week and then take the average. For all the

questions, the researcher explained that the answers were arranged from least to most (e.g.,

for the question, ‘‘How many hours of TV do you watch per day?’’ the responses were

arranged from 0, the least, to 5+, the most) and children had to choose the answer that best

represented them.

Table 1 Percentage of respondents within each category of the Faces Scale

ChildOwnFace 1 0 1 8 11 43 36

ParentChildFace 0 0 1 3 21 58 17

TeacherChildFace 0 0 1 9 27 47 16

Note. Percentage of children’s self-ratings (ChildOwnFace), parents’ ratings of their children (Parent-ChildFace), and teacher’s ratings of the children (TeacherChildFace), in each of the seven response optionson the Faces Scale


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For the Faces Scale, a researcher drew the Faces Scale on a chalkboard and

explained that children should put an X through the face that best represented their

own feelings.

All surveys were coded with participant numbers to help ensure confidentiality. To

answer children’s questions and distribute material, the researcher and at least one assistant

were present in each classroom. Teachers did not assist children with the questionnaires.

3.4 Data analysis

Four measures of happiness were used as the criterion measures in the regression analyses.

One measure was the Happiness and Satisfaction Subscale of the Piers-Harris 2 scale

(HapPH2), which provided a standardized score for each child. Three measures used the

Faces Scale: the children’s ratings of their own overall happiness (ChildOwnFace), the

parent’s ratings of their child’s happiness (ParentChildFace), and the teachers’ ratings of

their children’s happiness (TeacherChildFace). The teachers rated each child’s happiness

in two different settings (when in class doing fun activities, and when in class doing work).

A preliminary analysis showed that these two measures were correlated (r = .57, p < .01)

and shared similar predictors. Therefore, the two ratings were averaged together to form a

single teacher’s rating of each child’s happiness.

The happiness rating distributions based on the Faces Scale violated the normality

assumption. Improved distributions were found by reflecting the scores and computing

natural logarithms. Although 432 parents consented, six cases were excluded from the

following analyses because participants did not complete all happiness measures. An

additional nine cases were removed from the demographic analysis (N = 417), and another

two from the personality analysis (N = 415) because their responses to several questions

were very improbable.

Due to the exploratory nature of this study, we used multivariate regression with the

appropriate predictors (i.e., Demographic, Temperament, Popularity, & Physical

Appearance) to predict variance on the four measures of happiness. Individual items

were selected from the Piers-Harris 2 (Piers and Herzberg 2002) that reflected the

categories of interest (e.g., Temperament, Physical Attraction, and Popularity). These

items were used in the analyses to determine the relationship between these categories

and happiness. The significant multivariate predictors were then used in the multiple

regression analyses (stepwise) for each of the four measures of happiness. Where

appropriate, Bonferroni adjustments were used on the univariate tests. Finally, to avoid

artificially high correlations with the HapPH2, none of the predictors from the Piers

Harris 2 questionnaire were items that comprised the Happiness and Satisfaction

subscale.

4 Results

4.1 Measures of happiness

In general, using the Faces Scales, children were rated as happy by themselves (i.e.,

ChildOwnFace), their parents (i.e., ParentChildFace), and their teachers (i.e., Teach-

erChildFace). For all three groups, at least 90% of the responses were within the three


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happiest categories (see Table 1). Children’s responses to each item of the Happiness

and Satisfaction Subscale (HapPH2) were within 10% of the reported standardized

norms for the Piers-Harris 2 (Piers and Herzberg 2002).

Each of the four measures of happiness (i.e., HapPH2, ChildOwnFace, ParentChild-

Face, & TeacherChildFace) was significantly correlated with the other three ratings of

happiness (see Table 2). Although these measures were correlated, the results did not

indicate singularity (e.g., r > .90; Tabachnick and Fidell 2001). Furthermore, though

similar variables accounted for variance in all four measures of happiness (see below),

the variables were not identical. Therefore, to compare ratings from the Faces Scales to

HapPH2, a multiple regression analysis was conducted. This analysis showed that ratings

from the Faces Scales were significantly related to items comprising the HapPH2. ‘‘I am

lucky’’ and ‘‘I am cheerful’’ were the only items from the HapPH2 that predicted

variance on the Faces Scales, Fs(3,384) > 3.28, ps < .05. On ChildOwnFace, ‘‘I am

cheerful’’ (r2 = .108, b = .29, p < .001), and ‘‘I am lucky’’ (r2 = .031, b = 18, p < .001),

accounted for a total of 14% of the variance, F(2,413) = 33.55, p < .001. However, ‘‘I

am cheerful’’ (rs2 � .04, bs = .20, ps < .001), was the only significant predictor,

Fs(1,409) = 17.26, ps < .001, of variance on ParentChildFace and TeacherChildFace.

The remaining eight items that comprised HapPH2 (‘‘I am a happy person’’, ‘‘my looks

bother me’’, ‘‘I like being the way I am’’, ‘‘I wish I were different’’, ‘‘I am unhappy’’,

‘‘I have a pleasant face’’, ‘‘I am easy to get along with’’, and ‘‘I am a good person’’),

were not significant predictors of the three Faces Scales (ps > .05). These results suggest

that HapPH2 and the Faces Scales are related, but mostly assess different aspects of

children’s happiness.

4.2 Demographic variables and happiness

In general, the demographic items were not highly correlated with children’s happiness.

Table 3 shows the twelve items selected to help assess the role of demographic

variables in children’s happiness. Pearson product–moment correlations and descriptive

statistics were used to describe the relationship between the happiness measures and

items taken from the Children’s and the Parent’s Questionnaires (see Table 4). The

most consistent finding was that the two measures of family income (Family Wealth

and Gross Income) were each significantly and positively correlated with three of the

four measures of happiness. Children’s estimates of Family Wealth correlated with

parents’ estimates of Gross Income (r = .32, p < .05) suggesting that children have an

understanding of their family’s affluence.

Table 2 Pearson product–moment correlations between the four measures of happiness

HapPH2 COF PCF

COF .37* – –

PCF .17* .34* –

TCF .27* .17* .15*

*p < .05 (two-tailed)

HapPH2 = Happiness/satisfaction ratings on Piers-Harris 2 sub-scale; COF = ChildOwnFace ratings;PCF = ParentChildFace ratings; TCF = TeacherChildFace ratings


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The amount of time that children watched television, whether estimated by the children

or the parents, was negatively correlated with happiness, and was similar to the results

reported in the adult literature (e.g., Lu and Argyle 1993). However, these correlations

were only significant between the parents’ estimates and ParentChildFace and Teacher-

ChildFace, and between the children’s estimates and HapPH2 and TeacherChildFace (see

Table 4). The correlation between parents’ and children’s estimates of the amount of TV

watched by the children was significant (r = .50, p < 0.05), suggesting that these measures

were valid.

Table 4 also shows that the age of the mother was correlated with ParentChildFace

and TeacherChildFace. The age of the child was correlated with TeacherChildFace, and

the sex of the child was correlated with ChildOwnFace and TeacherChildFace. Who the child

mostly lived with was correlated with HapPH2 and TeacherChildFace and the marital status

of the parents was correlated with TeacherChildFace ratings. No other correlations between

the measures of happiness and the demographic items were significantly correlated.

Table 3 Averages and standard deviations (SD) of demographic items

Questionnaire Item name Question/statement Scale Average SD

Child Child TV How many hours of TV do youwatch per day?

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,5+

2.1a 1.2

FamilyWealth

In terms of money, how rich do youthink your family is?

1, 2, 3, 4, 5 3b 0.6

Parent GrossIncome

What is the gross household incomeof your child’s primary residence?

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7

3b 1.6

Mother’sAge

How old is your child’s mother? 40.6a 4.6

Father’sAge

How old is your child’s father? 43.0a 5.5

Child’sAge

How old is your child? 10.2a 0.9

Parent–childTV

On average, how many hours ofTV does your child watch per day?

1.7a 0.9

Child Sex Child’s gender 1, 2 1b 0.5

Parent Sex Your gender: person completing the form 1, 2 1b 0.3

CaregiverSex

What is the gender of the child’s primarycaregiver?

1, 2 1b 0.7

Child Live Who does your child mostly live with? 1, 2, 3, 4 3b 0.8

ParentMaritalStatus

What is the marital status of your child’sprimary caregiver?

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8

3b 0.7

a Meanb ModeFamily wealth: 1 = Very poor; 2 = Poor; 3 = Average; 4 = Rich; 5 = Very RichChild, Parent, Caregiver Sex: 1 = Female; 2 = MaleChild Live: 1 = Mom; 2 = Dad; 3 = Both; 4 = NeitherGross Income: 1 = $0–$20,000; 2 = $21,000–$40,000; 3 = $41,000–$60,000; 4 = $61,000–$80,000; 5 =$81,000–$100,000; 6 = $101,000–$150,000; 7 = $ > $150,000Parent Marital Status: 1 = Single; 2 = Common Law; 3 = Married; 4 = Divorced; 5 = Widowed; 6 = Single& Divorced; 7 = Common Law with someone else & divorced; 8 = Divorced & married to someone else


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4.2.1 Regression analyses of the demographic items

The multivariate regression analysis using Wilks’Lambda with the four measures of

happiness showed two significant demographic predictors: Family Wealth,

F(4,317) = 5.09, p < .01, and Child Sex, F(4,317) = 5.26, p < .001. Therefore, these were

the only two predictors entered into the multiple regression analysis. This analysis showed

that Family Wealth accounted for 4% (b = .19) of the variance on HapPH2,

F(1,402) = 15.17, p < .001, and 2% (b = .15) of the variance on ChildOwnFace,

F(2,401) = 9.90, p < .001. Family wealth did not account for any significant variance on

ParentChildFace or TeacherChildFace, Fs(2,401) < 1. Child Sex accounted for 3%

(b = �.17) of the variance on TeacherChildFace, and 2% (b = �.15) of the variance on

ChildOwnFace, Fs(2,402) > 9.5, ps > .01. Child Sex did not account for any significant

variance on ParentChildFace or HapPH2, Fs(2,401) < 1.

The present results parallel the adult literature (e.g., Cheng and Furnham 2001;

Csikszenmihalyi and Hunter 2003; Diener and Fujita 1995; Huebner and Dew 1996; Lu

and Lin 1998; Myers 2000; Pinquart and Sorensen 2001) and the adolescent literature (e.g.,

Gilman et al. 2000; Grob et al. 1999) that reports that age, gender, and socioeconomic

factors account for little of the variation in self-reported happiness.

Because Gross Income (reported by parents), Family Wealth (estimated by children), and

Child Sex were the demographic variables most closely related to the children’s happiness,

and previous studies report that a modest amount of variance in well-being and happiness is

accounted for by income (see Diener et al. 1999; Myers 2000), where appropriate, Gross

Income, Family Wealth, and Child Sex were controlled in the following analyses.

4.3 Temperament, Popularity, and Physical Appearance as predictors of happiness

Standardized scores were calculated for Piers-Harris 2 for three subscales (i.e., Free-

dom from Anxiety, Popularity, and Physical Appearance and Attributes) according to

Table 4 Pearson product–moment correlations between happiness measures and demographics

Questionnaire Items HapPH2 COF PCF TCF

Child Child TV (hr) �.12* �.09 �.04 �.14*

Family Wealth .19* .14* .11* .07

Parent Gross Income .16* .05 .13* .18*

Mother’s Age (years) .02 .09 .10* .16*

Father’s Age (years) .00 .06 .02 .09

Parent–child TV (hr) �.01 �.06 �.11* �.11*

Child Age (years) �.04 .01 .03 .11*

Child Sex �.05 �.15* �.05 �.17*

Parent Sex �.02 �.04 �.05 �.02

Caregiver Sex .08 .06 .05 �.05

Child Live .13* .02 .02 .11*

Parent Marital Status .05 .04 .00 .16*

*ps < .05 (two-tailed)



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the test’s manual (Piers and Herzberg 2002). These subscales were related to the four

measures of happiness (see Table 5) suggesting that estimates related to temperament,

popularity, and physical appearance, are related to children’s happiness. Regression

analyses were used to investigate the relations between these four measures and the

individual items from these subscales. The multivariate regression analyses reported

below indicated that the four measures of happiness were differentially related with the

three subscales of the Pier Harris 2. The multiple regression analysis further showed

that Freedom From Anxiety predicted variance on HapPH2, ChildOwnFace, and Par-

entChildFace. Popularity predicted variance on ChildOwnFace, ParentChildFace, and

TeacherChildFace. Physical Appearance predicted variance only on HapPH2.

4.4 Temperament predictors of happiness

The Freedom from Anxiety Subscale of the Piers-Harris 2 reflects measures of anxiety

and dysphoric mood. Children with domain scores above 55 are considered relatively

free from dysphoric moods, children with scores between 40 and 55 have some

acknowledged mood difficulties, and children with scores less than 40 have dysphoric

moods (Piers and Herzberg 2002). Using this criterion, children with domain scores

above 55 were categorized as free from dysphoria (Free), between 40 and 55 as rational

about their dysphoria (Rational), and less than 40 as anxious about their dysphoria

(Anxious). These three categories formed a variable, we labeled as Neurotic, which was

composed of 191 children categorized as Free, 194 as Rational, and 32 as Anxious. The

neurotic variable was included as a temperament predictor of happiness in children and

was significantly correlated with all four measures of happiness (see Table 7). Fur-

thermore, fourteen items related to temperament contributed to the Piers-Harris 2

Freedom from Anxiety Subscale. However, four of these items were omitted because

they also contributed to the Happiness and Satisfaction Subscale. Table 6 shows the

means and standard deviations of the items used to assess the role of temperament in

children’s happiness and Table 7 shows the correlations between these items and the four

measures of happiness.

Table 5 Regression analysis on the relation between the Piers-Harris Subscales and the four measures ofhappiness using semipartials (sr2), R, R2, and standardized regression coefficients (b)

Piers-Harris 2 Subscales MVR HapPH2 COF PCF TCF

sr2 b sr2 b sr2 b sr2 b

Freedom from anxiety p < .001 .35* .42 .02* .18 .08* .19 ns ns

Physical appearance p < .001 .09* .35 ns ns ns ns ns ns

Popularity p < .001 ns ns .16* .28 .02* .16 .07* .27

R = .66* R = .42* R = .32* R = .27*

R2 = .44* R2 = .18* R2 = .10* R2 = .07*

MVR = multivariate regression

*Multiple regression result significant at p < .05

ns = Multiple regression result not significant; HapPH2 = Happiness/satisfaction ratings on Piers-Harris 2sub-scale; COF = ChildOwnFace ratings; PCF = ParentChildFace ratings; TCF = TeacherChildFace ratings


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In addition to the items from the Piers-Harris 2, an item was selected as a temperament

predictor from the Parent’s Questionnaire: ‘‘I would describe my child as ... (very shy, a

little shy, a little outgoing, very outgoing)’’. On this item, labeled Describe Child, 3%,

23%, 41%, and 32% of the parents rated their child as very shy, a little shy, a little

outgoing, and very outgoing, respectively (1% of the parents did not respond). With only

Table 6 Means and standard deviations (SD) of temperament items

Questionnaire Item name Question/statement Scale Mean SD

Piers-Harris 2 Sad I am often sad 0 = Yes; 1 = No .92 .27

Shy I am shy 0 = Yes; 1 = No .68 .47

Nervousteacher

I get nervous when theteacher calls on me

0 = Yes; 1 = No .75 .43

Worried tests I get worried when wehave tests in school

0 = Yes; 1 = No .59 .49

Give up I give up easily 0 = Yes; 1 = No .94 .24

Nervous self I am nervous 0 = Yes; 1 = No .80 .40

Worry lots I worry a lot 0 = Yes; 1 = No .77 .42

Left out I feel left out of things 0 = Yes; 1 = No .78 .41

Often afraid I am often afraid 0 = Yes; 1 = No .87 .34

Cry easily I cry easily 0 = Yes; 1 = No .83 .37

Neurotic 1 = Free (0–39),2 = Rational (40–55)

1, 2, 3 – –

3 = Neurotic (56–65) (T-score) (54) (8.33)

Parent Describe child I would describemy child as

1, 2, 3, 4 – –

Neurotic: Individual temperament t-scores were calculated and participants classified according to the Piers-Harris 2 manual (Piers and Herzberg 2002)

Describe Child: 1 = Very shy, 2 = A little shy, 3 = A little outgoing, 4 = Very outgoing

Table 7 Pearson–product moment correlations between happiness and temperament items


Piers-Harris 2 Sad .44* .31* .16* .09

Shy .09 .15* .16* .10*

Nervous teacher .14* .11* .11* .07

Worried tests .13* .09 .12* .10*

Give up .21* .14* .05 .05

Nervous self .21* .19* .13* .10*

Worry lots .31* .24* .21* .13*

Left out .49* .29* .23* .15*

Often afraid .26* .21* .15* .14*

Cry easily .26* .23* .17* .11*

Neurotic �.54* �.33* �.24* �.20*

Parent Describe child .09 .16* .29* .19*

* p < .05 (two-tailed)



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3% describing their child as ‘‘very shy’’, we combined these responses with the ‘‘a little

shy’’ group. Describe Child was significantly correlated with ChildOwnFace, Parent-

ChildFace, and TeacherChildFace (see Table 7).

All the individual items from the Piers-Harris 2 were positively correlated with the four

measures of happiness and most of these correlations were significant (see Table 7).

4.4.1 Regression analyses of temperament items

Wilks’ lambdas for the multivariate regression with all four measures of happiness indi-

cated several significant temperament predictors of happiness: Sad, Worried Tests, Afraid,

Describe Child, and Neurotic. These significant multivariate predictors were then used in

the multiple regression analyses for each measure of happiness.

Research has consistently shown that extraversion is strongly related to adult and ado-

lescent happiness and well-being (e.g., Argyle and Lu 1990; Brebner et al. 1995; Costa et al.

1980). Our findings parallel these results. ParentChildFace and TeacherChildFace ratings of

happiness increased for children rated by their parents as more outgoing and less shy (akin

to extraversion). An ANOVA revealed that children who were reported as ‘‘very outgoing’’

by their parents were also rated by their parents as happier (M = 6.14, SE = .07) than children

viewed by their parents as ‘‘a little outgoing’’ (M = 5.80, SE = .06). Furthermore, children

who were ‘‘a little outgoing’’ were also rated as happier by their parents than children

reported as ‘‘shy’’ (M = 5.55, SE = .08), F(2,399) = 16.08, p < .001. Similarly, on the

TeacherChildFace scale, children who were reported by their parents as ‘‘very outgoing’’

were rated by their teachers as happier (M = 6.08, SE = .07) than children reported by their

parents as being ‘‘shy’’ (M = 5.66, SE = .08). However, teacher’s happiness ratings of ‘‘very

outgoing’’ children were not significantly different from teacher’s ratings of ‘‘a little out-

going’’ children (M = 5.88, SE = .06), F(3,395) = 7.54, p < .01.

Researchers also report that neuroticism is consistently and negatively related to hap-

piness and well-being in adults and adolescents (e.g., Brebner et al. 1995; Costa et al. 1980;

Argyle and Lu 1990). Similarly, our variable Neurotic was negatively correlated to all four

measures of happiness; higher happiness scores were associated with lower estimates of

neuroticism (see Tables 7 and 8).

Wilks’ lambdas for the multivariate regression analysis indicated that the remaining

temperament predictors; Shy, Nervous Teacher, Give Up, Nervous Self, Worry Lots, and

Cry Easily, were not significantly related to any of the measures of happiness,

Fs(4,320) = 1.60, p > .05. Furthermore, of the demographic variables, Gross Income and

Child Sex were significant predictors of variance on the different measures of happiness,

Fs(4,320) > 3.04, ps < .05, but Family Wealth was not, F(4,320) = 1.35, p > .05.

4.5 Popularity predictors of happiness

All 12 items that contribute to the Popularity Subscale of the Piers-Harris 2 questionnaire

(Piers and Herzberg 2002) were selected to assess the role of popularity in children’s

happiness. In general, as ratings on these items indicated greater popularity, ratings of

happiness increased. The means and standard deviations for these items are presented in

Table 9. All of the popularity items correlated significantly with all four measures of

happiness, except Shy with HapPH2, Observer with ParentChildFace, Pick on Me with

TeacherChildFace, and Different from Others with ChildOwnFace, ParentChildFace and

TeacherChildFace (see Table 10).


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4.5.1 Regression analyses

The multivariate results are summarized in Table 11. In these analyses, the demographic

variable Child Sex was significant, F(4,321) = 3.24, p < .05, but Gross Income and

Family Wealth were not, Fs(4,321) < 2.18, ps > .05. The Wilks’ lambdas for the

multivariate regression with the four measures of happiness revealed five significant

predictors of happiness related to popularity: Make Friends, Left Out, Last Chosen, Good

Ideas, and Pick on Me, Fs(4,321) > 3.0, ps > .05. The remaining multivariate predictors

did not show multivariate significance on any of the four measures, Fs(4,321) < 2.15,

ps > .05.

The significant multivariate predictors were used in the multiple regression analyses,

which indicated that HapPH2 ratings were higher for children who indicated that they had

good ideas, were not chosen last for games or sports, were not picked on by others, and did

not feel left out of things. Likewise, ChildOwnFace ratings were higher for children who

indicated that they were not chosen last for sports and games, and not left out of things.

ParentChildFace ratings were higher for children who reported that they were not left out

of things, and were not picked on by others. Finally, TeacherChildFace ratings were lower

for children who agreed with the statements ‘‘It is hard for me to make friends’’ and ‘‘I am

among the last chosen for games and sports’’. Together, these results suggest that children

with greater popularity are viewed by adults (i.e., parents and teachers) and themselves as

happier.

Table 8 Regression analysis on the relation between the temperament items and the four measures ofhappiness using semipartials (sr2), R, R2, and standardized regression coefficients (b)

Questionnaire Items MVR HapPH2 COF PCF TCF


Piers Harris 2 Sad p < .001 .05* .25 .02* .16 ns ns ns ns

Shy p = .18 – – – – – – – –

Nervous teacher p = .19 – – – – – – – –

Worried tests p < .01 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns

Give up p = .29 – – – – – – – –

Nervous self p = .32 – – – – – – – –

Worry lots p = .62 – – – – – – – –

Left out p = .14 – – – – – – – –

Often afraid p < .05 ns ns ns ns ns ns ns ns

Cry easily p = .41 – – – – – – – –

Neurotic p < .001 .28* �.42 .11* �.25 .03* �.17 .02* �.15

Parent Describe child p < .001 ns ns ns ns .08* .24 .03* .15

R = .57* R = .36* R = .33* R = .22*

R2 = .33* R2 = .13* R2 = .11* R2 = .05*





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Table 9 Means and standard deviations (SD) of popularity items


Piers-Harris2

Fun of me My classmates makefun of me

0 = Yes;1 = No

.90 .30

Make friends It is hard for me tomake friends

0 = Yes;1 = No

.88 .32

Shy I am shy 0 = Yes;1 = No

.68 .47

Unpopular I am unpopular 0 = Yes;1 = No

.67 .47

Left out I feel left out of things 0 = Yes;1 = No

.78 .41

Last chosen I am among the last to bechosen for games and sports

0 = Yes;1 = No

.81 .39

Good ideas My classmates in school thinkI have good ideas

1 = Yes;0 = No

.72 .45

Many friends I have many friends 1 = Yes;0 = No

.85 .36

Pick on me People pick on me 0 = Yes;1 = No

.88 .33

Observer In games and sports,I watch instead of play

0 = Yes;1 = No

.86 .35

Popular with girls I am popular with girls 1 = Yes;0 = No

.57 .49

Different from others I am different fromother people

0 = Yes;1 = No

.32 .47

Table 10 Pearson–product moment correlations between happiness and popularity items


Piers-Harris 2 Fun of me .27* .14* .13* .11*

Make friends .27* .17* .12* .26*

Shy .09 .15* .16* .10*

Unpopular .36* .25* .19* .19*

Left out .43* .29* .23* .15*

Last chosen .44* .34* .15* .21*

Good ideas .48* .27* .14* .15*

Many friends .38* .16* .12* .10*

Pick on me .37* .27* .21* .06

Observer .20* .11* .08 .21*

Popular with girls .25* .23* .11* .18*

Different from others .17* .05 .04 .01




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4.6 Physical appearance predictors of happiness

Nine items that contribute to the Physical Appearance and Attributes Subscale of the

Piers-Harris 2 questionnaire (Piers and Herzberg 2002) were selected to assess the role of

physical appearance in children’s happiness. Though eleven items contribute to this

subscale, two items were omitted because they also contribute to the Happiness and

Satisfaction Subscale. The means and standard deviations for the included items are

presented in Table 12. In general, ratings of children’s happiness were higher if the

children agreed that they possessed positive attributes. All of the items were positively

and significantly correlated with all four measures of happiness, except Popular with

Boys with ChildOwnFace, Smart, Strong, Nice Hair, Good Looking, and Popular with

Boys with ParentChildFace, and Leader and Popular with Boys with TeacherChildFace

(see Table 13).

4.6.1 Regression analyses

The multivariate results are summarized in Table 14. In the multivariate regression anal-

ysis, the Wilks’ lambdas indicated that the demographic variable Child Sex contributed to

the variance, F(4,321) = 2.65, p < .05, but Gross Income and Family Wealth did not,

Fs(4,321) < 2.19, ps > .05. The multiple regression analyses showed that Child Sex did not

contribute any significant variance on HapPH2 or ParentChildFace ratings. Child Sex did

account for 2% and 3% of the variance on ChildOwnFace and TeacherOwnFace ratings,

respectively, Fs(3,404) < 3.30, ps < .05.

Table 11 Regression analysis on the relation between the popularity items and the four measures ofhappiness using semipartials (sr2), R, R2, and standardized regression coefficients (b)



Piers Harris 2 Fun of me p = .66 – – – – – – – –

Make friends p < .01 ns ns ns ns ns ns .07* .22

Shy p = .20 – – – – – – – –

Unpopular p = .29 – – – – – – – –

Left out p < .01 .02* .17 .02* .17 .05* .18 ns ns

Last chosen p < .05 .10* .21 .09* .22 ns ns .02* .15

Good ideas p < .01 .23* .32 ns ns ns ns ns ns

Many friends p = .13 – – – – – – – –

Pick on me p < .01 .04* .18 ns ns .02* .14 ns ns

Observer p = .07 – – – – – – – –

Popular with girls p = .81 – – – – – – – –

Different from others p = .24 – – – – – – – –

R = .62* R = .33* R = .27* R = .30*

R2 = .39* R2 = .11* R2 = .07* R2 = .09*





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The multivariate regression with the four measures of happiness also revealed three

significant predictors of happiness related to physical appearance and attributes: Smart,

Classmates Like Ideas, and Good Looking, (Wilks’lambdas: Fs(4,321) > 3.70, ps < .01).

The significant multivariate predictors used in the multiple regression analyses indicated

that on the HapPH2 and ChildOwnFace scales, the best predictors were Classmates Like

Ideas and Good Looking. Classmates Like Ideas was the only significant predictor of

ParentChildFace ratings. Smart and Good Looking were the only significant predictors of

TeacherChildFace. For all these predictors, happiness ratings were higher for children who

indicated that these items applied to them. The remaining multivariate predictors were not

significant on any of the four measures, (Wilks’lambdas: Fs(4,321) < 1.76, ps > .05).

Together, these results suggest that children who ascribe positive attributes to themselves,

including being good looking, were viewed by adults (i.e., parents and teachers) and

themselves as being happier.

Table 12 Means and standard deviations (SD) of physical attraction items


Piers-Harris 2 Smart I am smart 1 = Yes; 0 = No .92 .27

Leader I am a leader in games and sports 1 = Yes; 0 = No .40 .49

Strong I am strong 1 = Yes; 0 = No .80 .40

Friend like ideas My friends like my ideas 1 = Yes; 0 = No .88 .33

Nice hair I have nice hair 1 = Yes; 0 = No .83 .38

Classmates like ideas My classmates in school thinkI have good ideas

1 = Yes; 0 = No .72 .45

Good looking I am good looking 1 = Yes; 0 = No .70 .46

Popular with boys I am popular with boys 1 = Yes; 0 = No .50 .50

Popular with girls I am popular with girls 1 = Yes; 0 = No .57 .50

Table 13 Pearson–product moment correlations between happiness and physical attraction items


Piers-Harris 2 Smart .20* .12* .03 .22*

Leader .13* .16* .15* .09

Strong .19* .21* .08 .12*

Friend like ideas .36* .21* .15* .12*

Nice hair .28* .11* .03 .14*

Classmates like ideas .48* .27* .14* .15*

Good looking .41* .25* .09 .19*

Popular with boys .17* .08 .09 .07

Popular with girls .25* .23* .11* .18*




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5 Discussion

The present study assessed happiness in children using four different measures. The

relationship between these measures and temperament, popularity, physical appearance,

and demographic variables, were then examined. In general, variables related to temper-

ament, popularity, and physical appearance were related to children’s happiness

but demographic variables did not account for any appreciable variation in children’s

happiness.

5.1 Temperament

Both theoretical (Averill and More 1993; see Diener et al. 1999) and empirical (Argyle and

Lu 1990; Furnham and Brewer 1990) work has suggested that personality characteristics

are associated with happiness. Research has found that extraversion and neuroticism

account for significant variance in the happiness of adults and adolescents (Brebner et al.

1995; Francis et al. 1998; Furnham and Brewin 1990; Hayes and Joseph 2003). Our results

suggest a parallel relation in children. For all four measures of children’s happiness, the

variable Neurotic (derived from the Freedom From Anxiety Subscale of the Pier Harris 2)

accounted for a significant proportion of the variance. For two measures of children’s

happiness (i.e., ParentChildFace and TeacherChildFace), parents’ ratings of their chil-

dren’s temperament on a scale from ‘‘very outgoing’’ to ‘‘very shy’’ were also significant

predictors of children’s happiness.

Though personality may continue to develop until past the mid-twenties (Costa and

McCrae 1994), our results suggest that the early underpinnings of factors that may be

related to aspects of neuroticism and extraversion are associated with happiness. Future

research should assess several dimensions of children’s temperament, including factors

Table 14 Regression analysis on the relation between the Physical Attraction items and the four measuresof happiness using semipartials (sr2), R, R2, and standardized regression coefficients (b)



Piers Harris 2 Smart p < .01 ns ns ns ns ns ns .05* .21

Leader p = .33 – – – – – – – –

Strong p = .23 – – – – – – – –

Friend like ideas p = .16 – – – – – – – –

Nice hair p = .14 – – – – – – – –

Classmates like ideas p < .01 .23** .40 .05* .19 .02* .14 ns ns

Good looking p < .01 .08* .30 .02* .14 ns ns .02* .15

Popular with boys p = .48 – – – – – – – –

Popular with girls p = .41 – – – – – – – –

R = .56* R = .26* R = .14* R = .26*

R2 = .31* R2 = .07* R2 = .02* R2 = .07*





123

related to neuroticism and extraversion, and determine their relations to happiness. It is

possible that the relation between happiness and extraversion may be stronger in younger

people (Hills and Argyle 2001a, b).

Though previous work (Mahon and Yarcheski 2002) suggested that enabling variables

(e.g., vigor, social support, and openness to change) were better predictors of young ado-

lescents’ happiness than personality characteristics, neuroticism and extraversion were not

assessed. In another study (Cheng and Furnham 2001), though personality factors were

found to predict happiness, attributional style, which was correlated with extraversion and

neuroticism, was important in explaining happiness. Future research might assess the role of

attributional style in conjunction with personality-related variables, in children’s happiness.

5.2 Popularity

Extensive research suggests that the acceptance or rejection by peers is a critical factor in

whether or not children exhibit conduct problems and go on to develop lasting antisocial

problems as adults (Coie and Lenox 1994; Moffitt 1993). We found that popularity was

related to happiness in children. An association between happiness and popularity was

previously demonstrated using emotional expressions (Hubbard 2001). Children’s

expressions of happiness varied with how much they were liked by their peers.

The relation between happiness and popularity in children may be explained by a theory

that claims that children who are rejected by others (i.e., not popular) place a stronger

emphasis on achieving instrumental goals than social goals (Renshaw and Asher 1983).

Achieving strong social relationships is one of the strongest predictors of happiness (Ar-

gyle 2001; Myers and Diener 1995).

5.3 Physical appearance

Physical attractiveness and subjective well-being were found to be positively correlated in

adults, though only weakly (Diener et al. 1995b). Similarly, physical appearance accounted

for a modest amount of the variance in children’s happiness in the present study. For example,

children who agreed with the statement ‘‘I am good-looking’’, were rated by themselves, their

teachers, and the Piers-Harris 2 (but not by their parents) as happier. A meta-analysis con-

cluded that physically attractive people are perceived as having more desirable traits (Fein-

gold 1992) and this perceptual bias extends to children (Clifford and Walster 1973).

Physically attractive people, including children, may be happier because of this bias.

However, based on our results we cannot conclude that children’s physical attractive-

ness is associated with children’s happiness. First, physical attractiveness was not assessed

independently in our sample; ratings of physical attractiveness were based on the chil-

dren’s self-ratings. It would be more accurate to conclude that self-perceived attractiveness

is associated with happiness in children. This is similar to the finding that young adults’

happiness is related to their self-ratings of attractiveness (Neto 2001). Furthermore, the

Piers-Harris 2 Physical Appearance and Attributes Subscale not only assesses a child’s

appraisal of their physical appearance but it also assesses additional attributes such as

leadership and the ability to express ideas (Piers and Herzberg 2002). The Physical

Appearance and Attributes Scale includes the item ‘‘My classmates in school think I have

good ideas’’. Children who agreed with this statement tended to be happier, and responses

to this item accounted for more variance in children’s happiness than items seemingly


123

more directly related to appearance (e.g., ‘‘I am good-looking’’ and ‘‘My looks bother

me’’). It is possible that physical appearance may contribute little to happiness in children.

Instead, aspects of self-esteem may be more important to children’s happiness and items

from the Piers-Harris 2’s Physical Appearance and Attributes Scale assess this. Research

with adults has shown that self-esteem is related to subjective well-being (Lucas et al.

1996) and self-concept predicts life satisfaction in children and young adults (Chang et al.

2003).

5.4 Demographic variables

Research has consistently shown that demographic variables representing a wide range of

dimensions (e.g., income, sex, and age) do not account for an impressive proportion of the

variance in the happiness and well-being of adults and adolescents (e.g., Andrews and

Withey 1976; Cheng and Furnham 2001; Csikszentmhihalyi and Hunter 2003; Diener and

Fujita 1995; Gilman et al. 2000; Grob et al. 1999; Huebner and Dew 1996; Lu and Lin

1998; Pinquart and Sorenson 2001). For example, a meta-analysis of 300 studies found that

gender accounts for less than 1% of the variance in the well-being of adults (Pinquart and

Sorenson 2001). Similarly, in the present study, for two measures of happiness (HapPH2 &

ParentChildFace) gender did not account for a significant amount of the variance in

children’s happiness, and for the other two measures (ChildOwnFace and Teacher Child

Face) it accounted for less than 3%.

Research on demographic variables and adult happiness has influenced theories to

suggest that happiness may be more associated with internal factors (e.g., personality) than

external factors (e.g., experience and demographics) (Diener 1984; Diener et al. 1999). Our

research suggests that a similar theoretical approach may be fruitful in understanding

happiness in children. A wide range of demographic variables failed to explain more than a

small amount of children’s happiness, whereas variables related to temperament, popu-

larity, and physical appearance accounted for much more.

5.5 Limitations

The present study begins to address the scarcity of research on happiness in children, but it

has several limitations. These limitations include that our sample only represented a single

culture. Happiness levels and the predictors of happiness vary across cultures (Diener et al.

1995a; Inglehart 1990). Additionally, we deliberately studied 9–12 year old children, and

our results may not generalize to children of other ages. For example, the predictors of life

satisfaction for 2nd and 8th grade children differed (Chang et al. 2003). Though having

multiple measures of happiness and not relying solely on self-reports is an advantage (see

below), the process of obtaining these measures creates a limitation. In order to obtain our

ratings, one must first secure informed consent from school boards, school principals,

teachers, and parents, prior to obtaining assent from the children. With each additional

level of consent required, one potentially reduces the percentage of people who agree to

participate. Furthermore, relying on children to deliver the Parent’s Questionnaire and

information to their parents and then return the completed forms further reduces our

response rate. We have no guarantee that all parents received their packets and that all

completed forms were returned. Given these constraints we consider our response rate of

over 50% to be positive.


123

An additional limitation is that there may have been a bias in the parents who agreed to

respond. For example, perhaps happier parents were more likely to respond. Given that

genes may account for 40% of the variance in positive emotionality (Tellegen et al. 1988)

if more parents who were happy responded, our sample may include more children who are

happy. The effect of any sample bias in the present study is difficult to assess. One possible

outcome is it may have truncated the range of children’s happiness in our sample and

reduced the strength of our effects.

Our study may have also been limited by our measures of happiness. The present

research employed estimates of happiness by parents and teachers. Correlations between

parent and teacher ratings of children are typically not perfect (Achenbach et al. 1987;

Gagnon et al. 1992). For example, the correlation between parents’ and teachers’ ratings

was +0.14 for cheerfulness/optimism and was also +0.14 for humor (Martin et al. 2002).

These values are similar to the correlations of parents’ and teachers’ ratings of children’s

happiness (+0.15) in the present study.

In the present study, four measures of children’s happiness were correlated and shared

some common predictors. For example, for all four measures the variable labeled Neurotic

accounted for a significant proportion of the variance. However, the correlations were low

and the predictors were not identical for all measures. This indicated that the measures of

happiness were assessing, at least in part, different components and/or sensitivity to dif-

ferent additional variables.

Without an ideal single measure of children’s happiness, we suggest that multiple

measures continue to be used. This suggestion parallels the conclusion based on the adult

literature that multiple measures, not only self-reports, should be employed (see Diener

et al. 1999). When findings are consistent across multiple measures that differ in their

underlying assumptions, the findings are less likely attributable to the assumptions of any

individual measure, and one can be more confident in their validity. In the present study,

results based on multiple measures of happiness suggested that temperament, popularity,

and physical appearance all contribute to children’s happiness, whereas demographic

variables account for relatively little of the variance in children’s happiness. Identifying

variables that are correlated with happiness in children is helpful in determining the

variables that should be included in a longitudinal study of children’s happiness.

Acknowledgements Preparation of this article was supported, in part, by a grant from the Michael SmithFoundation for Health Research awarded to Mark Holder. We are grateful for Andrea Welder and AndreaKlassen for reading and commenting on an earlier version of this article.

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