the changing social characteristics of skilled manual work: the longue durée in gb and the usa...
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The Changing Social Characteristics of Skilled Manual Work: The ‘Longue
Durée’ in GB and the USA
Professor Roger Penn
Lancaster University
September 2010
The Nature of the Presentation
• An examination of the changing social characteristics of skilled manual work in Britain and the USA
• The primary focus will be on gender and ethnicity
• Census data form the cornerstone of the analysis
• The scope will be the ‘longue durée’
Previous Research
• Skilled manual workers have been a major component of the stratification systems in the advanced societies of Europe and North America
• There has been a longstanding debate about the overall trajectory of skilled work in the post-1945 period
The Sociological Debate about Skilled Work
• The pessimistic view ~ Marxist theory of deskilling: skilled work is disappearing
• The optimistic view ~ Human Capital/
Post-Industrialism theories: skilled work is increasing
• The compensatory theory of skill ~ developed at Lancaster: some skilled work is disappearing and some is increasing
The New Theory of an ‘Hour Glass’ Economy
Earlier Formulations
The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society I
• This theory argues that a new structure of jobs is emerging
• This is captured by the metaphor of the ‘hour glass’ [egg-timer]
• Jobs are expanding at the top of the occupational hierarchy and at the bottom simultaneously
• Intermediate occupations are disappearing
The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society II
• This model is particularly popular amongst researchers in the field of international migration in the USA
• They see some groups of international migrants [eg Latinos] locked into the lower end of the occupational hierarchy
• The traditional route for social advancement in the USA is seen as unavailable as a result of the disappearance of opportunities within ‘intermediate’ occupational strata
The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society III
• What are intermediate occupational groups?• They refer to jobs which are neither
professional/managerial nor nonskilled• They include skilled manual work ~ these are
entered either via an apprenticeship or through a lengthy internal career ladder
• They also include technicians, semi-professions like nursing and supervisory occupations
• Have they declined in the contemporary era?
Figure 1: Occupational Structure of Jobs in the USA, 1980-2000
Source: US Censuses of Population 1980, 1990 and 2000
Figure 2: Occupational Structure of Jobs in the USA in 3 Groupings, 1980-2000
0 10 20 30 40 50
Managerial/Professional
Intermediate
Service/Operator/Transport& Moving Materials/Others
Year 2000
Year 1990
Year 1980
Source: US Censuses of Population 1980, 1990 and 2000
The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society IV
• It is clear that intermediate occupations remain a central component of the American occupational structure
• It is also apparent that skilled manual workers also remain an important element within this occupational structure [changing definitions of categories make precise delineation in this area difficult]
Skilled Manual Workers I
• What have been the social characteristics of skilled manual workers historically?
• They have been overwhelmingly male and White since the onset of industrialization in the nineteenth century
• This began to change in the USA after the introduction of affirmative action in the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s
• No parallel change took place in Britain between 1951 and 1991
Skilled Manual Workers II
• In this presentation we will explore how these parameters have changed during the 1990s by the use of Census data from the USA [2000] and GB [2001]
Skilled Manual Workers III
• The two key questions addressed are:
1.Has the trend in the USA towards greater female and non-White participation in skilled manual work continued during the 1990s?
2.Has the pattern of gender and ethnic exclusivity changed in Britain during the same period?
• The answers to these two questions are situated within longitudinal cross-sectional Census data
Proportion of Skilled Construction Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Carpenters Painters Plumbers/Pipefitters Electricians
Occupation
Pe
rce
nta
ge 1970 Female
1980 Female
1990 Female
2000 Female
Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000] I
• The increase in the proportion of female skilled construction workers in the USA has continued during the 1990s in three of the four skilled occupational groups
• The proportion of female skilled construction workers nonetheless remains low
Proportion of Skilled Metal Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Machinists Welders/Cutters Tool & Die Makers Sheetmetal Workers
Occupation
Pe
rce
nta
ge 1970 Female
1980 Female
1990 Female
2000 Female
Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000] II
• There has been an increase in the proportion of female skilled metalworkers during the 1990s in three of the four skilled trades
• The proportion of female skilled metalworkers workers remains low but is higher than for construction trades
Proportion of Other Skilled Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Auto Mechanics Aircraft Mechanics Telephone LineInstallers
Telephone Installers Mining MachineOperators
Typesetters/Compositors
Occupation
Per
cen
tag
e 1970 Female
1980 Female
1990 Female
2000 Female
Proportion of Other Skilled Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Auto Mechanics Aircraft Mechanics Telephone Line Installers Telephone Installers Mining MachineOperators
Occupation
Per
cen
tag
e 1970 Female
1980 Female
1990 Female
2000 Female
Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000] III• The pattern amongst these other six skilled trades is more
complex• Typesetters/compositors have been significantly
feminized over the period ~ although the trend reversed between 1990 and 2000
• Auto mechanics and mining machine operators remained overwhelmingly male
• Aircraft mechanics are proportionately more female than auto mechanics ~ this is probably due to the impact of the US military
• The proportion of female Telephone Installers and Telephone Line Installers both significantly increased between 1970 and 2000 but the trend reversed during the 1990s ~ the former trend was mainly the result of affirmative action suits during the 1970s
Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000]: Summary of Changes
• TABLE HERE
Proportion of Skilled Construction Trades by Ethnicity in USA: 1980-2000
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Carpenters Painters Plumbers/Pipefitters Electricians
Occupation
Pe
rce
nta
ge
1980 Black
1990 Black
2000 Black
1980 Hispanic
1990 Hispanic
2000 Hispanic
Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] I
• The proportion of skilled construction workers from Black and Latino backgrounds was much higher than the proportion of females in these occupations
• The proportion of Latino skilled construction workers had increased rapidly, particularly during the 1990s
• The proportion of Black skilled construction workers had not increased markedly: indeed in two instances it had fallen between 1970 and 2000
Proportion of Skilled Metal Trades by Ethnicity in USA: 1980-2000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Machinists Welders/Cutters Tool & Die Makers Sheetmetal Workers
Occupation
Pe
rce
nta
ge
1980 Black
1990 Black
2000 Black
1980 Hispanic
1990 Hispanic
2000 Hispanic
Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] II
• The same pattern was evident amongst skilled metalworkers
• The proportion of Latino skilled metalworking workers had increased rapidly
• This was particularly the case during the 1990s for welders/cutters and sheetmetal workers
• The proportion of Black skilled metalworkers had not increased in most instances: indeed in three of the skilled metalworking trades it had fallen between 1970 and 2000
Proportion of Other Skilled Trades by Ethnicity in USA: 1980-2000
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Auto Mechanics Aircraft Mechanics Telephone LineInstallers
Telephone Installers Mining MachineOperators
Typesetters/Compositors
Occupation
Perc
en
tag
e
1980 Black
1990 Black
2000 Black
1980 Hispanic
1990 Hispanic
2000 Hispanic
Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] III
• A similar pattern was evident amongst the other six skilled trades examined
• In all cases the proportion of Latinos increased over the period between 1970 and 2000 and in most cases [5] it accelerated during the 1990s
• The proportion of Blacks increased during the period between 1970 and 2000 in five of the skilled trades
• But in two cases [aircraft mechanics & mining machine operators] it fell during the 1990s
Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000]: Summary of Changes
Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] IV
• Overall it is clear that skilled manual workers remained predominantly White and overwhelmingly male during the period between 1970 and 2000
• Affirmative action in the USA has had a greater impact upon ethnic exclusivity than on gender exclusion
• There is strong evidence that skilled manual work offers considerable opportunities for Latinos in the USA ~ many of whom are international migrants or the children of international migrants
• It offered less opportunities for Latinas
Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] V
• Nonetheless, the proportion of Latino skilled workers in 2000 only exceeded their percentage in the overall population [12.5%]* in four cases ~ carpenters, painters,welders/cutters and auto mechanics
• The proportion of Black skilled workers never exceeded their overall percentage in the overall population in 2000 [12.3%]
Gender and Skilled Work in GB, 1951-2001
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001
% F
EM
AL
E
C arpenters & joiners
P ainters & decorators
S heetmetal workers
Toolmakers
Welders
E lectric ians
Motor mechanics
Gender & Skilled Work in GB, 1951-2001
• Most skilled manual workers have been male throughout the post-war period in Britain
• The proportion of carpenters/joiners, toolmakers and motor mechanics who were female has risen slightly between 1951 and 2001 but remains less than 2% in all three cases
• The proportion of female sheetmetal workers fell significantly during the period ~ the 1951 figure was a residue from World War II when women were allowed entry into this previously ‘male’ occupation
• The proportion of female painters/decorators, welders and motor mechanics fell during the 1990s
Skilled Workers x Ethnicity:1991 GB Census [Two Measures]
White Black SouthAsian
Chinese
Total 95.8 1.3 2.2 0.3Social Class:
Skilled Manual 96.4 1.3 1.8 0.2Socio-Econ Group:
Skilled Manual 96.7 1.3 1.7 0.03Source:1991 Census Ethnic Group and Country of Birth Table 16
Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [1991]: I
• In 1991 almost all skilled manual workers in GB were White
• Skilled work was disproportionately White ~ Blacks were not under-represented but South Asians were
Ethnicity x Skilled Groupings: 1991 GB Census [%]
Black Caribbean
South Asian
Total 1.0 2.0
Construction 0.7 0.5
Metalworking 0.8 1.1
Electrical/ Electronic 1.4 1.5
Welding/ Metal forming 1.1 1.0
Vehicle 1.3 1.7
Printing 0.9 1.3Source: 1991 Census of Great Britain Table DGM2 ‘Ethnic Group by Occupation Minor Groups and Sex [10% Sample]
Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [1991]: II
• Afro-Caribbeans are somewhat under-represented in construction and metalworking trades but over-represented in electrical/electronic, welding/metal forming and vehicle trades
• South Asians are under-represented in all trades but this varied across the spectrum of skilled work
Proportion of Skilled Occupations by Ethnicity in GB: 2001
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Occupation
Per
cen
tag
e
Black
South Asian
Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [2001]: I
• Blacks were under-represented* in most trades [apart from telephone engineers]
Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [2001]: II
• South Asians* were also under-represented in almost all areas of skilled manual work
• The exceptions was once more as telephone engineers
• This under-representation amongst South Asians was most marked in mining and painting & decorating
Overall Conclusions I
• Skilled manual workers remain an important element in the stratification systems of the USA and GB
• The ‘hour glass’ economy is a myth
• Skilled work remains overwhelmingly male and predominantly White in the USA and GB
Overall Conclusions II
• The trend towards greater female and non-White participation in skilled manual work in the USA has continued in some cases during the 1990s but not in others
• Around half the skilled trades had become less female during the 1990s
• The proportion of Latinos in skilled work had accelerated during the 1990s but the proportion of Black skilled workers had fallen in xxx cases
Overall Conclusions III
• There was a marked asymmetry between Latinos and Blacks
• These results indicate that skilled work continued to offer increasing opportunities for Latinos in the US labour market ~ many of whom are international migrants or their children
Overall Conclusions IV
• The picture in Britain was one of powerful structural inertia ~ skilled work remained overwhelmingly male and predominantly White
• South Asians were markedly more under-represented in skilled work than Blacks ~ a situation of marked ethnic asymmetry