IN ONE HUNDRED YEARS:
TO THE END OF THE MARCOS DICTATORSHIP
1886-1986
ii
iii
IN ONE HUNDRED YEARS:
TO THE END OF THE MARCOS DICTATORSHIP
1886-1986
DE LA ÉPOCA COLONIAL ESPAÑOLA
DE LA DICTADURA DE MARCOS
A thesis presented
of the College of Arts and Sciences
in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of
Aaron James Ricardo de VELOSO
2008-47231
March, 2012
LA IGLESIA CATÓLICA DE FILIPINAS DENTRO DE CIEN AÑOS- DE LA ÉPOCA COLONIAL
ESPAÑOLA DE LA DICTADURA DE MARCOS, 1521-1986
(The Catholic Church in the Philippines in One Hundred Years: from the Spanish Colonial Period to the end of
the Marcos Dictatorship, 1886-1986)
© 2012 by Aaron James R. Veloso. All rights reserved. No part of this undergraduate thesis may be reproduced
in any form or by electronic or mechanical means including information storage or retrieval systems without
permission in writing from the copyright owner.
Nihil Obstat:
Secretarius Archiepiscopus Manilensis
In Festo Cathedrae Sancti Petri
Imprimatur:
Archiepiscopum Metropolitam Manilensem
Printed in the Philippines by:
Don Bosco Press, Inc.
Makati City
PROTESTA DEL AUTOR
In compliance with the decrees of the Holy Father Clement VIII and all other canonical decrees, it is declared
that anything contained in this work which the stated decrees speak about does not deserve more credit than that
of a private person who writes in good faith. Also, any references to miraculous events not officially confirmed
as well as mentions of martyrdoms not proclaimed canonically are not meant to prejudge the infallible
judgement of the Roman Pontiff but rather are views expressed by a private and pious writer. Furthermore, in
faithful and loving fulfilment of and in obedience to the decrees of the Holy Father Urban VIII, it is declared
that it is not intended to prejudge or anticipate the decrees of the Holy Mother Church with regards to issues of
public worship and the proclamation of holiness. The final authority on issues such as these belongs to the Holy
See, to whose judgment we willingly submit, being the only one who has power and authority to decide as to
who belongs by right the title and character of a saint or blessed.
Cum Approbatione Ecclesiastica
The nihil obstat and imprimatur are official declarations that a book or pamphlet is free of doctrinal and moral
error. No implication is contained therein that those who have granted the nihil obstat and imprimatur agree
with the opinions expressed.
The Catholic Church in the Philippines in One Hundred Years:
from the Spanish Colonial Period to the end of the Marcos Dictatorship, 1886-1986
Aaron James Ricardo-Veloso
Department of Social Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences
University of the Philippines, Manila
ABSTRACT
The arrival of Christianity in the Philippines in the year 1521 marked the
beginning of the centrality of the role that the Catholic faith plays in Philippine Society.
In this study, the author looked at the evolution of the Church from 1886 to 1986 vis-à-
vis the evolving modes of governments and regimes that have ruled the Philippines.
Using Skopcols Historical Institutionalism theory, the author analyzed the whats and
whys of the actions of the Church, and tried to draw categorizations on the underlying
reasons that provoked the Church to act as it did. The author arrived at three major
categorizations- first that the Church acts in response to the “Signs of the Times”;
second, that the Church follows the principal rule of critical collaboration; and third,
that the Church acts based on its moral, institutional and political interests.
Keywords: Catholic Church, Philippines, Historical Institutionalism
iv
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T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
Copyright Page
1.2 Methodology
2.3 The Church and Politics
2.4 Related Studies and Literature
III. The Catholic Church and the Philippine Revolution of 1896
3.1 Precursors
3.4 Cavite Mutiny of 1872
3.5 The Ilustrados and Anti-Friar Propaganda
3.6 Rizal and Mass Movement
3.7 Fin de Siècle
IV. American Colonization and the Separation of Church and State
4.1 Separation of Church and State
4.2 Americanization of the Hierarchy and the entry of new religious orders
4.2.1 Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer (CSsR)
4.2.2 Missionary Benedictine Sisters (OSB)
4.2.3 Missionaries of the Sacred Heart (MSC)
4.2.4 Maryknoll Sisters (MM)
5.1 Japanese Invasion of the Philippines
5.2 Appeasement Efforts and the Religious Section
5.3 “Enemy” nationals and the Religious Clergy
5.3.1 Bishop William Finnemann, SVD, Prefect Apostolic of Calapan
5.3.2 Fr. Agustin Consunji, S.J.
5.3.3 The Society of Jesus
5.3.4 The La Salette Missionaries
5.3.5 The Redemptorists
5.3.7 The Maryknoll Sisters
5.4 Liberation of Manila
5.4.1 The Vincentian Fathers
5.4.3 The Massacre of Intramuros
5.5 Aftermath
6.1 Filipinization of the Church
6.2 The Second Vatican Council: Church Renewal
VII. The Catholic Church during the Marcos Dictatorship (1972-1986)
7.1 The Declaration of Martial Law in the Philippines and its precursors
7.2 The Catholic Bishops
7.3 The Religious Orders
7.4.1 Society of Jesus
7.5 The Vatican
7.7 The Catholic Media
VIII. Conclusion
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odio libero, consequat a tempus a, tempus eu ipsum. In ut velit quam, eu lobortis nulla.
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fringilla sed, mattis eget massa. In hac habitasse platea dictumst. In erat nibh, dapibus sit
amet eleifend nec, facilisis quis metus. Aenean hendrerit luctus odio, in ullamcorper
ligula tempus ut. Suspendisse vehicula pellentesque aliquet. Quisque id orci felis, eu
tristique erat. Nunc vitae felis id arcu vulputate pellentesque quis ut nunc.
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quam nulla vitae turpis. Quisque ultricies lectus ac turpis laoreet ullamcorper.
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lacinia vitae cursus neque porttitor. Vestibulum sed nulla at ligula consectetur vestibulum
sagittis non massa. Phasellus ut est nulla, in pellentesque ante. Mauris nec dui turpis.
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sollicitudin.
+ LUIS ANTONIO G. TAGLE, D.D.
Archbishop of Manila
viii
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A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
DOMINUS EST. It is the Lord (John 21:7). While going through the history of an
institution as glorified and as venerable as the Catholic Church in the Philippines, I am
amazed how it has sustained all the persecutions and hardships that it has encountered in its
nearly five hundred years in the Philippines. And no less than the much loved Archbishop of
Manila, Archbishop Chito Tagle, have pointed me to the answer with his Episcopal motto.
Dominus est. It is the Lord.
The Church in the Philippines ought to be compared to the apostles in John 21 who
have persevered all night. No matter if the revolutionaries will kill them, they persevered in
their mission. Never mind if the government will imprison them, they must continue in their
ministries. They must have been confident for they serve the Master of all masters and the
King of kings, and it is the Lord.
I would like to believe that this study is not solely the fruit of my poor mind. For I am
but a humble servant entrusted with this heavy and seemingly impossible task, I would like to
believe that this is the fruit of divine guidance and inspiration, that this is not only by me, it is
the Lords. There have been times when I would question the whole necessity of going into
all this trouble, knowing that a far easier route was just around the corner, waiting. I had to
remind myself that, first and foremost, this is the Lords work, and I am a mere servant.
As this is the Lords work, He has been very gracious in ensuring I get all the support
that I need. The support and help that I have received from the many religious I have known
and met, especially in the past four years, enabled me to finish the enormous task that was
presented before me. In the next paragraphs, I would like to enumerate these workers in the
Lords vineyard that has been so good to me in so many ways big and small, especially in
completing this study.
The hierarchy in the Philippines has showed great willingness on their part to
contribute as much as they can to help in the completion of this project. Thus, I would like to
thank the following members of the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines,
namely: José Tomas Cardinal Sanchez, Prefect Emeritus of the Congregation for the Clergy
and Archbishop Emeritus of Nueva Segovia; Ricardo J. Cardinal Vidal, Archbishop Emeritus
of Cebu; Gaudencio B. Cardinal Rosales, Archbishop Emeritus of Manila; Archbishop
Leonardo Z. Legazpi OP of Nueva Caceres; Archbishop Antonio J. Ledesma, SJ, of Cagayan
de Oro; Archbishop José Serofia Palma of Cebu; Archbishop Orlando B. Quevedo, OMI of
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Cotabato; Archbishop Fernando R. Capalla of Davao; Archbishop Angel N. Lagdameo of
Jaro; Archbishop Socrates B. Villegas of Lingayen-Dagupan; Archbishop Ramon Arguelles
of Lipa; Archbishop Luis Antonio G. Tagle of Manila; Archbishop Ernesto A. Salgado of
Nueva Segovia; Archbishop Jesus A. Dosado CM of Ozamis; Archbishop Paciano B.
Aniceto of San Fernando, Pampanga; Archbiship Sergio L. Utleg of Tugegarao; Archbishop
Emeritus Diosdado A. Talamayan of Tugegarao; and Archbishop-elect Romulo G. Valles of
Davao; Bishop Emeritus Jesus Y. Varela of Sorsogon; Bishop Juan de Dios M. Pueblos of
Butuan; Bishop Jose A. Cabantan of Malaybalay; Bishop Joseph Nacua, OFMCap of Ilagan,
Isabela; Bishop Sofronio A Bancud SSS of Cabanatuan; Bishop Nereo P. Odchimar of
Tandag; Bishop Emeritus Irineo A. Amantillo CSsR of Tandag; Bishop John F. Du of
Dumaguete; Bishop-Prelate Rolando J. Tria Tirona OCD of Infanta; Bishop-Prelate-Emeritus
Julio Xavier Labayen OCD of Infanta; Auxiliary Bishop Broderick S. Pabillo of Manila;
Bishop Gabriel Reyes of Antipolo; Bishop Honesto Ongtioco of Cubao;; Bishop Deogracias
Iñiguez, Jr. of Kalookan; Bishop Antonio Tobias of Novaliches; Bishop Reynaldo
Evangelista of Boac; Bishop Leopoldo C. Jaucian, SVD of Bangued; Auxiliary Bishop Pablo
Virgilio S. David of San Fernando, Pampanga; Bishop Ruperto C. Santos of Balanga; Bishop
Florentino F. Cinense of Tarlac; Bishop-Prelate Julius S. Tonel of Ipil; Bishop-Prelate
Emeritus Federico O Escaler SJ of Ipil; Bishop-Vicar Apostolic Angelito R. Lampon, OMI
of Sulu; Bishop-Vicar Apostolic Pedro D. Arigo of Puerto Princesa; Bishop-Vicar Apostolic
Antonio P. Palang SVD of San Jose in Mindoro; and Bishop-Vicar Apostolic Edgardo
Sarabia Juanich of Taytay. At the same time, I am very grateful to the CBCP Secretariat for
their kindness, especially to Msgr. Litoy Asis, Secretary-General, Fr. Marvin Mejia,
Assistant Secretary-General, and the staff of the Pope Pius XII Catholic Center, Manila.
In doing research about the Church in the Philippines, it is imperative that an
exhaustive research should be done on the Archdiocese of Manila, the primatial see in the
Philippines, and in the words of Archbishop José Palma of Cebu, the “grandmother of all
dioceses” in the Philippines. I would like to thank the following people from the Archdiocese
of Manila who have extended enormous amounts of help in doing this research: His
Eminence Gaudencio Cardinal Rosales, Archbishop Emeritus of Manila for allowing me to
view the Archdiocesan Archives; his secretaries Fr. Reginald Malicdem and Sr. Elsa Belen,
MCST; Fr. Jun Sescon, Chancellor; Fr. Caloy Reyes of the San Carlos Major Seminary; Fr.
Anton Pascual of Radio Veritas; and Fr. Albert Flores and Mr. Bernie Sobremonte of the
Archdiocesan Archives. I also wish to thank Fr. Jojo de Aquino, secretary of Cardinal Vidal;
xi
Sr. Sr. Leodilyn Maneja MCSH, secretary of Cardinal Rosales, and the staff of the St. Joseph
Seniorate, Marawoy, Lipa; Sr. Emelyn E. Rosento, DM, secretary of Archbishop Legazpi; Sr.
Rowena Marie L. Cruz, O.P., secretary of Archbishop Aniceto; Miss Ayleen Pagalilauan,
secretary of Archbishop Utleg; Fr. Melvin Castro, Chancellor of the Diocese of Tarlac; Msgr.
Ilde Leyson, secretary of Archbishop Palma and postulator for the cause of Blessed Pedro
Calungsod; Msgr. Boy Naron, Chancellor of the Archdiocese of Ozamiz, Fr. Ericson Josué of
the Archdiocese of Nueva Segovia, Br. Arvin de Leon of the UST Central Seminary; Adrian
Aba, nurse of Cardinal Vidal; Fr. Tony Bernaldo, Parish Priest of St. Catherine of Siena,
Samal, Bataan; as well as the staff of the chanceries of the many Archdioceses, Dioceses,
Prelatures and Apostolic Vicariates across the country.
I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to the two provinces of the Order of Saint
Augustine (Augustinians) in the Philippines, especially to Fr. Peter Casiño, OSA, the Prior of
the Vicariate of the Orient of the Augustinian Province of the Holy Name of Jesus of the
Philippines; and Fr. Eusebio B. Berdon, OSA Prior Provincial of the Province of the Santo
Niño de Cebu, for their efforts to direct me to the right people in studying the history of the
missions of the Augustinians in the Philippines. I would also like to make special mention of
Fr. Asis Bajao, OSA, director of the San Agustin Museum and Parish Priest of the
Immaculate Conception Parish in Intramuros; Fray Ricky Villar, Assistant Director of San
Agustin Museum; Fr. Rodolfo A. Bugna, OSA, the rector of the Basilica de Santo Niño de
Cebu; Fr. Arnel S. Dizon, OSA, director of the Santo Niño de Cebu Museum and library of
the Basilica de Santo Niño de Cebu, the staff of the Basilica, Augustinian Provincial House,
Library and Museum; Fr. Tito D. Soquiño, OSA of the Cebu Province; and Miss Louella
Revilla of the San Agustin Museum in Intramuros, Manila. Also, special mention of Mother
Ma. Imelda A. Mora, OSA and the sisters of the Congregation of the Augustinian Sisters of
Our Lady of Consolation ought to be made in this acknowledgement.
The Order of Friar Minors (Franciscans), being the second religious order to send
missions to the Philippines, was tackled amply in this work. Research on the Franciscans was
made possible through the help of Fr. Baltazar A. Obico, OFM, Minister Provincial of the
Philippine Province of San Pedro Bautista; and Fr. Jose Femilou D. Gutay, OFM, Vice-
Provincial and Archivist. I also received enormous help from Mo. Marie Lou de Nuestra
Senora del Perpetuo Socorro, OSC and the sisters of the Monasterio de Santa Clara in
Katipunan, Quezon City, for which I am very grateful.
xii
The fathers of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) has been very close to me spiritually, but
besides that (and probably because of that), they have been more than happy to help me in
doing my research. I would like to thank the fathers in the General Curia in Rome, especially
Fr. Adolfo Nicolas, SJ, the Father General; Fr. Danny Hwang, SJ, Assistant to the General
for Asia; and Fr. Marc Lindeijer, SJ, Assistant to the Postulator General. My profuse
thanksgiving also goes to the officials of the Philippine Province, Fr. Jose Cecilio J. Magadia,
SJ, Prior Provincial of the Philippine Province of the Society of Jesus, and Fr. William
Abbot, SJ, Socius. Also, great help (and inspiration!) was extended to me by Fr. Romeo
Intengan, SJ; Fr. Rene B. Javellana, SJ; Fr. William Kreutz, SJ; Fr. Catalino G. Arévalo, SJ;
Fr. John N. Schumacher, SJ; Fr. John J. Carroll, SJ; Fr. James B. Reuter, SJ; Fr. Enrico C.
Eusebio Jr., SJ, dean of the Loyola School of Theology, and Fr. Sim Sunpayco, SJ of the
Sacred Heart Novitiate. I would also like to express my gratitude to the Jesuit chaplains of
the Philippine General Hospital, namely Fr. Vidal J. Gornez Jr., SJ; Fr. Benedicto M. de
Guzman, SJ; Fr. Nono Levosada, SJ; and Fr. Maximo G. Barbero, SJ.
The spiritual children of Saint Dominic, fathers of the Order of Preachers
(Dominicans) also contributed greatly to the content of this book. This is to the credit of Fr.
Quirico T. Pedregosa, OP, Prior Provincial of the Philippine Province of the Order of
Preachers; Fr. Rolando dela Rosa, OP Rector Magnificus of the Pontifical and Royal
University of Santo Tomas; and Fr. Eladio Z. Nera, OP of the Vicariate of the Province of
Our Lady of the Most Holy Rosary. I would also like to thank Fr. Giuseppe Arsciwals, OP
the Prior of the Santo Domingo Convent; Fr. Hermel Pama, OP, Director of the Philippine
Dominican Center for Institutional Studies; and Fr. Rafael Carpintero, OP; Fr. Lucio
Gutierrez, OP; and Fr. Fidel Villaroel, OP of the Holy Rosary Province. Special thanks also
goes to Mother Jesusa Engingco, OP, the Superior General of the Dominican Sisters of Saint
Catherine of Siena (formerly the Beaterio de Santa Catalina de Sena), as well as her
secretary, Sr. Melanie Doña, OP, the archivist, Sr. Evangeline Yap, OP, and the Directress of
the Juniorate, Sr. Meriam Litor, OP. My gratitude also goes to Sr. Ma. Ercilla Barrozo, OP ,
Superior General and the sisters of the Dominican Daughters of the Immaculate Mother, who
is taking care of José Cardinal Sanchez. I would also like to express my thanks to Prof.
Regalado Trota José and the staff of the UST Archives for their kindness.
The Archives and Library of the Order of Augustinian Recollects- Province of St.
Ezekiel Moreno (and of the old Spanish Provincia de San Nicolás de Tolentino) is one of the
best kept and most comprehensive religious archives in the country. I am very grateful to Fr.
xiii
Emilio Edgardo A. Quilatan, OAR for allowing me to use the Recollect Archives, as well as
for his guidance during the early stage of the conduct of research for this study. Also I thank
the staff of Museo Recoletos and the Saint Augustine Library in the Mira-Nila compound for
their usual kind attention to my numerous questions.
From the Order of Saint Benedict (Benedictines), I am grateful for the help extended
to me by the Abbot of the Abbey of Our Lady of Montserrat, Abbot Tarcisio Ma. Narciso,
OSB; Former Abbot Eduardo Africa, OSB; Fr. Bede Hechanova, OSB of the San Beda
Foundation; and Fr. Benildus Maramba, OSB. I am also grateful to the Registrar of the San
Beda College, Mr. Ramon Guinto, and the porters of the Abbey for their usual kindness.
The sons of Saint Alphonsus Liguori who are from the Congregation of the Most
Holy Redeemer have also been very kind. I am very grateful to Fr. Ariel Lubi CSsR, the
Vice-Provincial of Manila; and Fr. Victorino Cueto, the Rector of the Shrine of Our Mother
of Perpetual Help in Baclaran. I am also very thankful to the members of the Redemptorists
of the Cebu Province, namely Fr. Cruzito Manding, CSsR, the Prior Provincial; Fr. Cris
Montejo CSsR, Parish Priest of the Redemptorist Parish in Cebu, Fr. Emerando Maningo
CSsR, Fr. Amado Picardal CSsR, Fr. Sonny Umbac, CSsR, and Br. Karl Gaspar, CSsR.
In my trips around the country, the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul has
been very nice to allow me to stay at their convents and made me feel that I have a home
away from home in my trips. I am very grateful to Sr. Teresa Mueda, DC, the Provincial
Visitatrix; Sr. Remedios Centeno, DC of the Perboyre Community; Sr. Sharon Nievales, DC
of the Asilo de San Vicente de Paul; Sr. Leticia Derilo, DC, Sr. Salve Consulta, DC, Sr. Myra
Mondia, DC, Sr. Elena Caballero, DC, Sr. Evelyn Calago, DC, Sr Genoveva Doña, DC, and
Sr. Maria Minglana, DC of the Asilo de la Milagrosa; and Sr. Gloria Ongsuco, DC of the
Asilo de Molo. I also deeply indebted to their male counterparts, the fathers of the
Congregation of the Mission (Vincentians), especially their Prior Provincial, Fr. Venerando
Agner, CM; and historian Fr. Rolando dela Goza, CM.
I would also like to thank the Religious of the Virgin Mary for sharing with me one of
the best kept libraries and archives in the Philippines, which according to the sisters was a
rare occasion for those who arent members of the congregation (I was one of a handful
allowed in for the last decade). It is therefore just to thank Mother Maria Evelyn Aguilar,
RVM, the Mother General; S. Delia Serviño, RVM, Secretary to Mother General; S. Maria
del Carmen Yap, RVM, Archivist; S. Ma. Rita Ferraris, RVM, former Archivist of the
xiv
Archdiocese of Manila and historian; S. Nicetas Dael, RVM, editor-in-chief of Ang Uliran;
S. Lalie Banawis, RVM, Vicar General; and S. Luz Mercado, RVM.
The sons and daughters of St. Teresa of Avila from the Order of Discalced Carmelites
also showed extreme kindness in my endeavours, that is why I am very thankful to Fr.
Narciso Reyes, OCD, Provincial Superior; Mother Mary Bernard Tescam of the Sacred
Heart, OCD, Superior of the Gilmore Carmel; Mother Mary Therese, OCD prioress of the
Sulu Carmel; Mother Marietta Paul of Christ the King, OCD, prioress of the Cebu Carmel;
Mother Teresa Sideco, prioress of the Lipa Carmel, and Mother Aimee of the Sacred Heart,
former prioress of the Cebu Carmel, not only for their support in gathering of materials for
this research, but also for their friendship and spiritual guidance.
I am also very thankful for the help extended to me by the following religious: Fr. Eli
Cruz, SDB, Provincial Superior of the Salesians of Don Bosco- Philippines North; Fr. Jun
Bicomong, SDB, Provincial Econome, Salesians of Don Bosco- Philippines North; Fr.
Nestor Impelido, SDB, Br. Ricky Laguda, FSC, Sector Leader of the Lasallian Brothers in
the Philippines; Miss Fe Verzoa, Archivist in the De La Salle University, Manila; Fr. Rex
Salvilla, CICM, Provincial Superior of the Philippine Province of the Congregation of the
Immaculate Heart of Mary; Fr. Tony Pizarro, CICM, Provincial Archivist; Fr. Nielo
Cantilado, SVD, Provincial Superior of the Society of the Divine Word; Fr. Gil Alejandria,
SVD, Provincial Archivist; Fr. Cesar F. Acuin, OFMCap., Provincial Minister of the Order
of Friar Minors Capuchins; Mo. Maxima Pelaez, AR, Mother General of the Augustinian
Recollect Sisters; Sr. Ma. Paz Bagawan, AR, Archivist of the Augustinian Recollect Sisters;
Sr. Mary Cecilia V. Torres, RGS, Provincial Superior of the Religious of the Good Shepherd;
Sr. Mary John Mananzan, OSB of the Priory of St. Scholastica, Manila; Sr. Theresina of
Jesus Santiago, OSC, Abbess of the Poor Clare Monastery in Omaha; Sr. Carla Teresa, RA
and Sr. Mary Gertrude Borres, RA of the Religious of the Assumption; Sr. Michele Walsh
SSS of the Sisters of Social Service; Fr. Jhess Malit SSS of the Society of the Blessed
Sacrament; Fr. Mariusz Jarzabek, MIC of the Marians of the Immaculate Conception; Fr.
Liam Durrant MHM, Superior of the Mill Hill Missionaries in Visayas; Fr. Denis Prescott
c.s.c. of the Congregation of the Holy Cross, Montreal, Canada; Fray Francisco Musni de
San Agustin, OSA of the Kapampangan Center; Sr. Thérèse Morin, fmm of the Franciscan
Missionaries of Mary in Montreal, Canada; Sr. Margherita Marchione of the Filippini Sisters;
and Fr. Donald Ware, cp of the Congregation of the Passion.
xv
I am also grateful to President Benigno S. Aquino III, Rochelle Ahorro (Social
Secretary), Sec. Sonny Coloma (Presidential Communications Group); Mrs. Ballsy Cruz,
Mrs. Pinky Abellada, Ms Kris Aquino, sisters of the President; Mikee Cojuangco-Jaworski
and POC Chair José Cojuangco, Ninoy and Cory Aquino Foundation Chair Rapa Lopa;
Marisse Reyes-McMurray; as well as the following former Ambassadors of the Philippines to
the Holy See: Amb. Bienvenido Tantoco (1983-1986), Amb. Howard Dee (1986-), Amb.
Henrietta de Villa (1996-2001), Amb. Frank Alba (2001-2004); Amb. Nida Vera (2004-
2008). Likewise, gratitude is extended to Former President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo.
Special thanks also goes to Miss Vicky Borres of Assisi Development Foundation; Cynch
Espiritu of Classified Media, Alice Sicad of the Office of Amb. Tita de Villa, Dean Yumi
Espina of the College of Architecture and Fine Arts (CAFA) of the University of San Carlos,
Cebu; Arch. Carlo Pio Zafra of the Conservation and Heritage Research Institute and
Workshop (CHERISH) of the same college of the University of San Carlos. I would also like
to mention friends from Cebu who had been very kind to me, namely Kuya Raymund and
Ate Rosie Patalinhug, as well as my co-sacristans from Asilo de la Milagrosa, Randolph,
Jonathan and Junjun.
I would also like to thank to Prof. Josette Pernia and the staff of the Lopez Library
Museum; the staffs of the Filipinas Heritage Library, Makati; Philippine National Library,
Manila; UST Library and Archives, Waldette Cueto and Dhea Santos of the American
Historical Collection and the staff of the Rizal Library in the Ateneo de Manila University;
University of the Philippines Main Library, University of the Philippines Manila- College of
Arts and Sciences Library; De La Salle University Manila Library; as well as the staff of the
National Historical Commission of the Philippines.
I am also grateful to the help extended by the Apostolic Nunciature in Manila, for
which I am grateful to Archbishop Giuseppe Pinto, Apostolic Nuncio to the Philippines;
Msgr. Gabor Pinter and Msgr. Giorgio Chezza, and Sr. Jean Manlangit, SPC, secretary to the
Papal Nuncio.
I also find it necessary to thank my superior and postulator, Rev. Fr. Cyrille Debris,
for his help in locating materials in the Vatican Secret Archives, for his extreme patience due
to the delays that this study caused in my work for the canonization of Empress Zita and for
his guidance.
I also wish to mention my mentors from the academe who made me appreciate and
love political science, Jalton Taguibao, Robert Go and Gabby Lopez. I also find it fitting to
xvi
thank my communications and research professors from the College, Mishima Miciano,
Anna Aclan, Lourdes Abadingo, Mariam Tuvera, Jinky Lu and Risa Jopson. Also, I am
profusely grateful to Prof. Bernard Karganilla, my history professor, and Prof. Ambeth
Ocampo, who fostered and enriched the historical buff in me and was very kind in giving
suggestions for the betterment of this work; and to the ever bubbly Ate Julie 1, who is always
kind and always ready to help in any way she could. My favourite theologians, Fr. Rev and
Archbishop Chito, deserve another round of mention here, for they have constantly inspired
me (albeit vicariously) in the whole process of conducting this study.
This study would not be complete had it not been for the support of my family and
friends, who were very patient and very critical of my work, and who were always there to
support me every step of the way.
And just as I started this acknowledgement novel, I shall end it again with
thanksgiving to the Lord, who has been so kind to have entrusted such a work to me. This
task I have accomplished with eternal gratefulness to Saint Catherine of Siena and Saint
Ignatius of Loyola, my patron saints, Saint Joseph my protector, and to the Blessed Virgin
Mary, my mother and my queen.
I am done. Mon Dieu, je vous amie.
AD MAJOREM DEI GLORIAM, die 17 mensis februarii MMX, in festa Ss.
Fundatorum Serviti.
BENEDICTUS PP XVI
HOC PARVVM DEVOTIONIS
ET OBSEQVII PIGNVM
TRIBVIT, FLEXIS GENIBVS,
AARON IACOBVS VELOSO
Sacerdotes Societate Jesu
AAS Acta Apostolicae Sedis
AHC American Historical Collection, Rizal Library, Ateneo de Manila University
AHN Archivo Histórico Nacional, Madrid
AMSC Archives of the Monastery of Santa Clara, Manila
APSR Archives of the Dominican Province of the Holy Rosary, Avila
ARSI Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu, Rome
ASV Archivio Segreto Vaticano
BR Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson, eds., The Philippine
Islands, 1493-1898.
RL Rizal Library, Ateneo de Manila University
I
I N T R O D U C T I O N
“It is my heart’s desire to celebrate with my brothers and sisters the common faith that unites
the Catholic population of this land. The thought that for 450 years the light of the Gospel
has shone with undimmed brightness in this land and on its people is cause for great
rejoicing…. The attachment to the Catholic faith has been tested under succeeding regimes
of colonial control and foreign occupation, but fidelity to the faith and to the Church
remained unshaken and grew even stronger and more mature.”
-Pope John Paul II, on his visit to the Philippines, 17 February 1981
1
_________________________________
Between the hours of eight and nine in the evening, on that fateful Saturday, the
twenty-second of February, 1986, a familiar voice for Filipino Catholics was heard over
Radio Veritas, the Church-owned radio station that broadcasts to the Philippines and all over
Asia. It was the voice of Jaime Cardinal Sin, the Archbishop of Manila. A few hours ago, the
good Cardinal was with Cebu Archbishop Ricardo Cardinal Vidal in the San Miguel Pro-
Cathedral in San Miguel, Manila, a few blocks from Malacañang Palace, the seat of the
Presidency 2 . News broke out of the rebellion of Defence Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile and
AFP Vice-Chief of Staff Fidel Ramos, along with young soldiers who was part of the Reform
the AFP Movement (RAM), who were at that time in Camps Aguinaldo and Crame along
EDSA in Quezon City.
At around seven in the evening, the Cardinal then received a frantic call from Enrile.
The Defence Secretary was asking for the Cardinals help, for they now fear for their lives.
1 AAS 73 (1981) p. 314-318. Also in L'Osservatore Romano, 18 February 1981, p.5.
2 Interview with Ricardo Cardinal Vidal, Talamban, Cebu City, 25 October 2011
2
The Cardinal meditated and prayed, and asked for the cloistered nuns in the Archdiocese to
do the same. After two hours of praying, the Cardinal has made up his mind, and made his
statement over Veritas 3 .
As the days went by, a steady amount of people was coming to that critical area along
Epifanio delos Santos Avenue, heeding the call of the Cardinal. Some brought food for the
people inside and outside the camp. Many brought images of Our Lady of Fatima or the
beloved Santo Niño. Others still, brought their children- entire families, in fact, to witness
that momentous event in history. What was constant, however, was the presence of religious
men and women 4 who kept vigil at the gates of Crame and Aguinaldo. Who can forget the
procession conducted by the Jesuit Fathers, or the visit of the image of Our Lady of the
Rosary of La Naval from her altar in the Dominicans Santo Domingo Church? Who cannot
help but remember the moving images of the nuns of the Daughters of St Paul kneeling in
front of tanks while praying the rosary?
The unique thing about this event is the religious nature of the mass movement. It is
undeniable that while it is Corazon Aquino who caused the spark and it were Ramos and
Enrile who have kindled the spark into a fire, it was the message of Cardinal Sin over Radio
Veritas that caused the almost fantastic surge of people, religious and laity alike, to EDSA.
Perhaps what is further reinforced in the events that happened in EDSA is the fact
that the majority of the overwhelmingly Catholic Filipinos give pre-eminence and deference
3 This was the text of the Cardinals broadcast: “My dear people, I wish you to pray because its only through
prayer that we may solve this problem. This is Cardinal Sin speaking to the people, especially in Metro Manila.
I am indeed concerned about the situation of Minister Enrile and General Ramos. I am calling our people to
support our two good friends at the camp. If any of you could be around at Camp Aguinaldo to show your
solidarity and your support in this very crucial period when our two good friends have shown their idealism, I
would be very happy if you could support them now. I would only wish that violence and bloodshed be
avoided. Let us pray to our Blessed Lady to help us in order that we can solve this problem peacefully”. The
nearly 1.5 minute audio recording is courtesy of Radio Veritas and Fr. Anton Pascual. 4 Religious, in this context, refers to men and women who have professed vows as religious, and not to the state
or religiosity of people.
3
to the Catholic Church, even in temporal matters. The statement given by the late Pope John
Paul II during his visit to Manila in 1981, five years to the month before the EDSA People
Power Revolution happened, came into fruition- “The attachment to the Catholic faith has
been tested under succeeding regimes of colonial control and foreign occupation, but fidelity
to the faith and to the Church remained unshaken and grew even stronger and more mature 5 .”
The Church in the Philippines had gone through a lot in the one hundred years that
preceded the EDSA People Power Revolution- changes in regime, wars, earthquakes and
other natural disasters, among others- but what seems to be constant is the significance that is
accorded to it by Philippine society. The voice of the Church is and always was given
importance no matter who is in charge or what regime was in power during any point of that
specific century. The people are always waiting on Her pronouncements and statements on
matters of temporal and spiritual nature, whether one is in unison or in disagreement with it.
There have been quite a number of studies made on the presence of the Catholic
Church in the Philippines, by local and foreign scholars. We have a handful of studies about
the Church during specific periods of the Spanish colonial regime, some on the American
Period, a couple on the Japanese Occupation and a handful on its role during the Marcos
dictatorship. However, there is a serious lack in academic work on the evolving roles of the
Church and Her responses to the changes that are happening in the society in line with the
changes in regimes in the Philippines.
This study seeks to discover the reasons why the Church acted in the way it did, as
well as to look for the patterns of changes and responses in the history of the Church in the
Philippines that may provide an excellent insight on the behaviour of the Church as an
institution in society. It is therefore, one of the goals of the study to uncover the reasons for
5 AAS 73 (1981) p. 314-318. Also in L'Osservatore Romano, 18 February 1981, p.5.
4
the actions of the church by looking at it from a historical institutional perspective. By
looking at the Catholic Church in the Philippines from 1886 to 1986, it is hoped that a
comprehensive analysis on this specific time period will be made.
1.1 Research Problem and Objectives
As mentioned earlier, the primary research question that needs to be answered is
“How did the Catholic Church in the Philippines react to the changes in the socio-political
sphere from 1886 to 1986?” The author would like to examine (from a historical institutional
perspective) the actions of the Catholic Church, especially its evolution in coordinating with
state apparatuses.
This study also seeks to (1) identify patterns or similarities in the Churchs response
to government action; (2) establish the reasons why the Church (particularly the hierarchy)
acted as it did; (3) to determine what exogenous factors might have interplayed in the actions
of the Church in the Philippines, and (4) to make generalizations on the patterns of response
that the Church has made, based on extant historical data.
The study seeks to inquire on matters slightly greater than the concept of Church-
State relationship, which is a major part of the Church-Society model. The Church-Society
model wants to look beyond the traditional legal rules and institutions without totally
disregarding them.
As this study will discuss an omnipresent societal force in the country, it would be
interesting to discover the evolving role of the Church in the country. The research will
benefit three major audiences- naturally the first are those from the field of political science,
who will be interested to learn about the evolution of the Church in relation to the
5
government and its agencies. Second, the study would naturally interest historians and
scholars from the field of history, as the study will rely heavily on the historical aspect of the
Catholic Church in the Philippines. Finally, this research will hopefully benefit the Roman
Catholic Church, particularly the Church in the Philippines, as a reminder of the times that
have passed.
1.2 Methodology
The Filipino Catholic Church is the primary focus of this study. Following Portadas
lead, She is being studied not just as a religious institution, but as a societal force- a political
entity, if you will 6 . Her influence in societal affairs is so vast that to properly contextualize
this study, it is imperative that the proper perspective of the Filipino Church is set. That being
said, it is not correct to completely disregard Her religious nature, as the actions of the
Church is ultimately and will always be guided and constrained by the boundaries imposed
by the Church upon herself. To further expound on this, it would be beneficial to enumerate
the main actors in this study, as follows:
1. Church refers to the Roman Catholic Church, as established by Jesus Christ and
handed down to St. Peter the Apostle and his successors. The Holy Father (i.e.,
the Pope), as successor of St. Peter, is the Supreme Pontiff of the Catholic
Church. He has “full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a
power which he can always exercise unhindered 7 .” In the Philippines, the Holy
Father is represented by the Apostolic Nuncio.
6 Portada, op. cit.
6
2. The Apostolic Nuncio is the representative of the Holy Father to a sovereign state,
with the rank of an ambassador. Furthermore, the Nuncio serves as the legate of
the Pope to the local Church, particularly to the Bishops Conference. Its duty is
to discipline the local Church and to ensure its attachment to the Church in Rome.
Until 1951, the Philippines had an Apostolic Delegate, who fulfils the same task
except that of representing a sovereign state 8 .
3. The Filipino Catholic Church refers to the Catholic Church established in and
currently operates in the Philippines. For the purpose of this study, this would
primarily refer to the Church leadership, i.e., the hierarchy. This is in recognition
of the top-down operation of leadership of the Church, where the arbitration is
vested upon the proper ecclesiastical authority. This, however, does not discount
the value of grassroots lay initiative, but merely giving deference to the fact that
supreme power is vested upon higher ecclesiastical authorities.
4. Government and State Apparatuses refer to the governmental institutions of the
various regimes that were in place in the Philippines from 1886 to 1986, namely:
a. The Spanish Colonial Period, a time when the entire Philippine Islands
(with the Islands of Marianas and Guam) were under the rule of the
Spanish King, who was based in Madrid. This period covers the years
from 1565 (when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi captured the fortress of Rajah
Sulayman and named it Manila) to December 10, 1898 when the Treaty of
Paris was signed, ceding the islands to the United States. During this
period, there was practically a union of Church and State-ecclesiastics
8 Interview with Amb. Henrietta de Villa, Paco, Manila, 22 November 2011
7
were holding civil positions in the government, under the system of
patronato real.
b. The Revolutionary Government established by Emilio Aguinaldo in
several parts of the Philippines in the twilight of Spanish rule up to the
beginning of American rule. This period would discuss the establishment
of the Philippine Independent Church (Iglesia Filipina Independiente) that
caused rifts inside and outside the Filipino Catholic Church.
c. The American Colonial Rule refers to the period from the signing of the
Treaty of Paris up to the total and full independence of the Philippines,
which happened in 4 July 1946. This period would include the
Commonwealth period but will exclude the years of Japanese occupation.
This period introduced the concept of the separation of Church and State
and the entry of new religious orders in the Philippines.
d. The Japanese Occupation refers to the period from the Japanese
Occupation of Manila up to the surrender of the Japanese in 1945 after the
Battle of Manila.
e. The Republic period will refer to the terms of Presidents Manuel A.
Roxas, Elpidio Quirino, Ramon F. Magsaysay, Carlos P. Garcia, Diosdado
P. Macapagal, and the first two terms of Ferdinand E. Marcos.
f. The Marcos Dictatorship period will refer to the period between the
declaration of Martial Law (21 September 1972) to Marcos departure to
Hawaii.
8
I had two main sources of information in doing this study- key informant interviews
and archival research. The two methods are complimentary in the sense that most, if not all,
of the key informants provide data for more recent periods, while archival research would
provide data for the earlier part of the century that I seek to study.
My interviews with members of Bishops Conference, except for a handful done on a
different period, were done during two main periods- during the convocation of the Bishops
for the Installation of Archbishop Luis Antonio G. Tagle in December 2011, and the
convocation of the Bishops for the plenary assembly of the CBCP in January 2012. A
complete list of the CBCP members who have graciously acceded to my request for an
interview can be seen in Annex “A”.
The interview usually lasts for one to one and a half hour long, using a semi-
structured set of questions that tackle their personal experiences and reminisces as members
of the clergy and the Church hierarchy, the theological bases of the Churchs action, their
opinion on lay formation, and dissident priests and other religious. I also asked them on new
developments on the Church which may have been the product of what happened from 1886
to 1986, such as the Second Plenary Council of The Philippines (PCPII). Besides the
historical aspect of the study, the main information that I wanted to extract from the Bishops
was the bases, limits and other factors inside and outside the Church that help define, shape,
influence, and in a way constrain the actions of the Church.
I also sought to interview the living former Ambassadors of the Philippines to the
Vatican, namely Ambassadors Bienvenido Tantoco, Howard Dee, Henrietta de Villa, Frank
Alba, and Leonida Vera. From them I wanted to find out how the Church in Rome looks at
the local Church, a huge factor in the decisions and actions of the Filipino Church.
9
Archival research, on the other hand, gave me the opportunity to gather first hand
historical data that I may not be able to gather from another form given the time that has
elapsed since the event that was recorded happened. It is providential that I was appointed to
help in the canonization cause of the Servant of God, Empress Zita of Austria as this allowed
me to have easier access to numerous religious archives in the Philippines and abroad, a
privilege that would have otherwise been denied to another researcher.
1.3 Theoretical Framework
The theoretical foundations of this study are firmly rooted in historical
institutionalism. Historical Institutionalism was used to guide this research because it takes
into consideration two major constructs that are vital in this study- first, the concept of the
Church as an “institution”, and second, the importance of seeing the evolution of the Church
in the Philippines, making the study “historical”.
Historical Institutionalism, while omnipresent in political science 9 , was only
institutionalized as a theory much later 10
. It was coined in 1989 in a small workshop in
Boulder, Colorado attended by, among others, Thecla Skocpol, Sven Steinmo, and Karl
Polanyi. In the conference paper Structuring Politics: Historical Institutionalism in
Comparative Politics, the term “Historical Institutionalism” was finally introduced to the
political science community. Steinmo (2008) says that Historical Institutionalism is
primarily concerned on “why a certain choice was made and why a certain outcome
occurred.” He expounds further on the importance of history in political science by giving
9 Thelen, Kathleen (1999). Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics. Annual Review of Political
Science, 2:369-404. 10
Steinmo, Svan (2008). What is Historical Institutionalism? in “Approaches in the Social Sciences”.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
10
out three main arguments: first, that political events happen in a historical context; second,
that behaviour is shaped by experience, and third, that expectations are “molded by the
past 11
.”
Historical Institutionalism has its roots in Thecla Skocpols (1979) study on the
revolutions in France, Russia, and China 12
. In her work, Skocpol challenged the Marxist
point of view in explaining the revolutions in the countries mentioned. While she doesnt
totally factor out the influence of the deprivation of people in those countries at the eve of
their respective revolutions, Skocpol claims the importance of political opportunity in the
success of the revolutions in France, China and Russia. She also noted the importance of the
pre-revolutionary state structures in the success of the revolutions- the historical background
of the times prior to the revolution, she says, will prove this argument.
Tilly (1983) wrote on the importance of looking at the historical context to be able to
properly contextualize generalizations, especially in “big structures and large processes. 13
”
He explained that looking at research problems through real time, places and people would
provide a better sounding board for testing of coherence and reliability of data. He even went
further to say that “attaching” the historical comparisons made will in fact help in the
understanding of the structures and processes as they are being seen and interpreted in the
proper context.
It is Ikenberry (1994) who was one of the first to expound on the concept of critical
junctures and development pathways 14
. He discussed critical junctures as the moments in
11
Skocpol, Thecla. (1979). States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and
China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 13
Tilly, Charles. (1983). Big Structures, Large Processes and Huge Comparisons. Michigan: University of
Michigan. 14
Ikenberry, G. John (1994). History's Heavy Hand. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania.
11
history where an institution is created (called “founding moments”), from which only
variations are made over the years. He then expounded on the concept of development
pathways, which he says are set into motion at the moment of foundation of an institution.
Thelen (1999) added to this by expounding on path dependence- while the path is and will
always be constrained by the past, the changing and evolving environment will cause some
changes in the paths trajectory 15
.
Ikenberry (1994) also expounded three assumptions in historical institutionalism:
first, that institutions shape and constrain the goals of the entities operating within it; second,
that the changes in institutions are “episodic and sticky”, meaning they are not easily
changed or replaced; and third is the concept of causal complexity, meaning there are
.
1.4 Chapter Outline
Chapter Two presents a background on the Church, using two techniques- first by
tackling ecclesiology, and by presenting a review of past studies that run similarly to this
study. It lays the foundation of the study of the Catholic Church as an institution, especially
with regards to the nature, duty and character of the Church. It also avails the viewer a brief
historical background and tours the reader through the gamut of literature which has been
instrumental in the completion of this study.
The story begins with the twilight of the Spanish regime in the Philippines, as
discussed in Chapter Three. It also discusses fresh insights on numerous external factors that
15
12
have greatly affected the outlook of the members of the Catholic Church hierarchy which in
turn contributed greatly to the events of national concern during the revolution.
Chapter Four discusses the role of the Catholic Church under the new regime of the
Americans. The issues of the friar lands, the separation of Church and State, religious
instruction and reparation are the constant echoes of this current period. It will also discuss
the Churchs efforts in rebuilding Herself in the Philippines.
The gloomy years of the Japanese Occupation will be tackled in Chapter Five. This
chapter especially highlights the critical collaboration stance of the Church with the Japanese
officials, and gives an overview of the relations that the Church had had with the new foreign
invaders who sought the Churchs favor.
Chapter Six gives the viewer a look into the Catholic Church in the Republic Era.
This era marked a renewal and reinvigoration in the local Church, much strengthened by the
experiences of war and the new face of the Church under the Second Vatican Council. It will
also talk about the revitalized social efforts of the Church towards the less-fortunate members
of Her flock.
Presented in Chapter Seven is a strong Church against an oppressive regime. It
presents the Catholic Church as an institution that was steadfast in protecting Her rights and
interests, especially those that concern Her flock. It shows how the Catholic Church survived
the shackles of the Marcos administration and how the Church had ended up as the banner
bearer of the struggle against the dictatorship.
Chapter Eight presents an examination of the Churchs actions throughout the one
hundred years covered by this study. It reinforces three postulations, and using the Historical
Institutionalism lens, explains why the Church took such a mode of action, given the
13
antecedent events and circumstances. It also provides some speculations on the roles it has
played since then and will play especially in the socio-political sphere. It will also offer a
summary of the contributions that this study was able to make. Furthermore, it will also
present a discussion on further studies that will augment what has been studied and will be
discussed in this research study.
15
II
B A C K G R O U N D
2.1 Ecclesiology
What is the Church? Different perspectives will yield different meanings. For some, it
is the structure where people come to pray and worship God. Some will say these are the
clergy and the religious- meaning bishops, priests, and nuns. Others yet will say the Church
is the people of God. It is thus imperative that the term “Church” be operationalized for the
purposes of this study.
Avery Cardinal Dulles, a Jesuit theologian who is perhaps one of the greatest
theologians of recent times, has presented six models of the Church in his book, Models of
the Church 1 . Cardinal Dulles presented the models to answer the question presented above.
He described the Church as an institution, with emphasis on structure, order, and hierarchy.
He also described the Church as Communion- that is a communion of people, a community
united in God. His third description is that the Church is a sacrament- as a visible sign of the
Lord. He also described the Church as a Herald, proclaiming Gods kingdom to mankind.
The Church, he says, is also a servant, committed to social justice, something mentioned a lot
in the Gospels. Lastly, he notes that the Church is a community of disciples, following and
imitating Jesus.
1 Dulles, Avery Cardinal. (1974). Models of the Church. New York: Doubleday.
16
It would be worthwhile to look at the Dogmatic Constitution Lumen Gentium 2 , one of
the foremost documents of the Second Vatican Council. In many instances, Lumen Gentium
refers to the two domains of the Church, the visible and the invisible, as well as the hierarchy
and the mystical body of Christ. The Church is not only the organization, but also
importantly, the Church is the people of God- the Mystical Body of Christ 3 . The Church is a
“complex reality”, a mixture of the human and the divine- “the society structured with
hierarchical organs and the Mystical Body of Christ…, the visible assembly and the spiritual
community…, [and] the earthly Church and the Church enriched with heavenly things 4 .”
To further qualify the “Church” we are talking about, let us turn to the words of
Caceres Archbishop Leonardo Legaspi. In his book, The Church We Love, Archbishop
Legaspi categorized the three stages (as opposed to kinds) of Church: the Church in Glory
(i.e., the Church in Heaven), the Church on Earth, and the Church in purgatory, all united by
the threes one and only head, Jesus Christ 5 . The Church on Earth is incomplete, inchoate and
limited- in other words, imperfect- it is the Church of kenosis 6 . It is an ecclesia militante
7 , the
visible Church here on earth 8 . The words of Cardinal Ratzinger can then be added to the
earlier descriptions: the Church is a “Church of sinners, ever in need of purification and
renewal 9 .” Evidently we are primarily looking at the Church Militant, the Church on Earth.
2 Lat. Light of the Nations. Paul VI. (1964). Dogmatic Constitution Lumen Gentium. Vatican City: Libreria
Editrice Vaticana. 3 Lecture delivered by Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, Prefect for the Congregation of the Doctrine of the Faith at
the Pastoral Congress of the Diocese of Aversa, Italy, 15 September 2001. Also, Pius XII. (1943). Papal
Encyclical Mystici Corpori. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana. 4 Lumen Gentium 8, op cit.
5 Legaspi, Leonardo O.P. (1997). The Church We Love. Manila: UST Publishing House.
6 Gk., to empty. In the Church, it is referred to as the emptying of oneself in humility, as in Philippians 2:6,
7 Latin, Church Militant. One of the three classifications of churches according to St. Robert Bellarmine- church
militant, church triumphant and church suffering. 8 Legaspi, op cit.
9 Ratzinger, op cit.
17
The works of Cardinal Dulles and Archbishop Legaspi; as well as the Dogmatic
Constitution Lumen Gentium has a major commonality, in that they are equivocal in
presenting the dual nature of the church- the visible and the invisible. It would be interesting
to note how the three work together. With the Sacraments of the Church (founded by Christ
himself) as a foundation (Church as a Sacrament), a community of believers are formed
(Church as a communion), who would naturally be affected to share the Good News (Church
as heralds). These believers need to be shepherded by leaders and institutionalized (Church
as an institution), unifying its actions in light of the Gospel (Church as a servant), with the
goal of imitating Christ in their daily lives (Church as a community of disciples). This
community of disciples is in fact a society, the “complex reality” which Lumen Gentium
speaks of. This is the inchoate and incomplete militant Church, which progresses towards the
Church in glory.
That the Church is present and tangible on Earth is the reason for its hierarchical
structure. As the Church is a visible church representing the Mystical Body of Christ, it is
also necessary that the invisible head of the Church, Jesus Christ, be represented, in this case
by men. When Jesus established His church, he placed it under the care of the Apostles, and
He put St. Peter, the first of the Roman Pontiffs, as its head 10
. In the same way, He willed
that the successors of the St. Peter and the rest of the apostles, the Pope and the bishops, be
.
In the hands of the members of the hierarchy rest three powers- magisterial,
sacerdotal, and governing powers, derived from Jesus prophetic, kingly, and priestly
10
Ibid.
18
mission 12
. They possess magisterial powers, meaning the power to teach; sacerdotal powers,
referring to the power to administer the sacraments; and finally the power to govern, giving
them jurisdiction over their flock.
This is the Church that we are looking at this study- the Church Militant, headed by
the representatives of Christ, the members of the hierarchy, particularly in the Philippines.
The value of the laity is never discounted, for they are, as reiterated in all three documents
we have examined earlier, the Church. However, the study is for a large part constrained to
look at the hierarchy as the heads of the Church Militant- for the simple reason that they
possess the power of jurisdiction, shepherding over the flock entrusted to them.
2.2 The Church in the Philippines
The evangelization of the Philippines began with the arrival of the Portuguese
Fernão de Magalhães 13
in what would have been collectively called the Philippines. It is
in the island of Limasawa 14
(Mazaua in the diary of Antonio de Pigafetta 15
) that the first
mass was held on Easter Sunday (March 31), 1521 16
. In the mass, Fr. Pedro de
Valderrama, also performed the first Christian baptism in the Philippines, upon which
12
Legaspi, op. cit. 13
This is the real name of Ferdinand Magellan, in his native Portuguese. The Hispanized version is Fernando
de Magallanes. Ferdinand Magellan is the Anglicized version and was extensively used during the American
Occupation. 14
There has been some contention as whether the first mass was held in Limasawa in Leyte or in Butuan in
Mindanao. The National Historical Institute, after three round-table discussions have maintained that the
records corroborate that the mass was held in Limasawa, not in Butuan which is not an Island. In this, the NHI
is supported by several historians, among them the Jesuit Fr. Jose A. Arcilla, S.J.; Fr. Fidel Villaroel, O.P., and
Prof. Ambeth Ocampo. 15
Pigafetta, Antonio, and Paula Paige (ed.) (1969). The voyage of Magellan; the journal of Antonio Pigafetta.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. Pigafetta was part of the original entourage of Magellan and though
wounded, was able to return to Spain aboard the ship Victoria. 16
RIUG, Urbano VIII, Papa. (1635). Bulla canonizationis Sancti Francisci Xaverii. Madriti: apud Franciscum
de Ocampo. Fondo Antiguo, Siglo XVII. The canonization bull of Saint Francis Xavier mentions that he
evangelized certain parts of Mindanao even before Magellan arrived in the country, which may remove from
Limasawa the distinction of holding the first mass there. However, no further data is found to date.
19
Rajah Humabon and his wife Humayhay, 17
along with their subjects, converted to the
Catholic Faith. This also marked the arrival of the venerated image of the Santo Nino de
Cebu and the lesser known Ecce Homo, a gift of Magalhães to the couple.
The death of Magalhães and the return to Spain of the rest of the mission marked
the abrupt end of evangelization in the Philippines. It was only reinstated on the return
of the adelantado Miguel Lopez de Legazpi with the Augustinian friar Andres de
Urdaneta, O.S.A. Aboard the ship Capitana, they landed in Cebu and it was in that
province that the first mission of the Order of Saint Augustine was established, the
town itself being named after the Santisimo Nombre de Jesús, the Holy Name of Jesus.
The Basilica Minore of the Santo Nino was established upon Fray de Urdanetas orders
and the Christianization (through mass baptisms) of the province began. Christi anity
was used by the Spanish conquistador to assimilate the people under their rule. Using
imagery and concepts that are not foreign to the people, they introduced Christianity
and the new religion was well accepted by the people.
The adelantado 18
and Fray de Urdaneta moved to Manila in 1571. There Miguel
Lopez de Legazpi established the city of Manila, Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad de
España 19
, from the remains of the palisade kingdom of Rajah Sulayman and the walls of
Intramuros were constructed. The city became the seat of the Augustinians in the
Philippines, where a new province was created, the Provincia Agustiniana del
Santisimo Nombre de Jesus de Filipinas 20
. In less than twenty-five years, the order was
17
San Agustin, Gaspar de OSA and Pedro Galende OSA (ed.). (1998). Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas.
Intramuros, Manila: San Agustin Museum. They took the Christian names Carlos and Juana. This is used by
some historical records. 18
a title given by the Spanish Monarch to certain people who are charged of conquering lands in the West
Indies 19
Sp. - The Distinguished and Ever Loyal City of Spain 20
Augustinian Province of the Most Holy Name of Jesus of the Philippines
20
already able to establish fifty-four mission houses in the Philippines, specifically in the
islands of Luzon, Mindoro, Masbate, Panay, Cebu and Leyte.
Upon its establishment, it was ruled that the city (and the whole Philippines)
would be placed under the Diocese of Mexico, where the Viceroy is seated. On
February 6, 1759, a whole new diocese of Manila was created by Pope Gregory XIII by
his bull Illius fulti praesudio. In 1595, Pope Clement VIII issued a brief raising the
diocese of Manila to an Archdiocese and creating the suffragan sees of Nueva Caceres
(covering the Bicol peninsula), Nueva Segovia (Northern Luzon), and Cebu (the islands
of Visayas and Mindanao).
In 1581, the first conflict between the church and the state happened when the
then Archbishop of Manila, Domingo de Salazar, O.P., wrote to The King of Spain in
.
He was reported to use his ecclesiastical office to protect many natives and his actions
led to the creation of the Real Audencia, the highest governing council in the
Philippines. Ever since, the Church has exercised their power and authority not only in
Church affairs but also in affairs of civil government.
More than just holding ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the people, the clergy in
the Philippines, from the Spanish colonial period up to the present time, has also
21
"The Laws of the Indies" gave special power and prominence to the priest. In these early days of Spain's
colonial empire many priests were men of piety, learning, and unselfish devotion. Their efforts softened
somewhat the violence and brutality that often marred the Spanish treatment of the native, and they became the
civilizing agents among the peoples whom the Spanish soldiers had conquered.' (David P. Barrows: History of
the Philippines, 99.)
21
possessed moral authority which translated to political clout giving them an immense
.
Besides moral authority, the corporacion of friars own substantial amounts of
land (particularly those earmarked for agriculture) in the Philippines and had numerous
business interests that make them more powerful than they already are 23
. For example,
it might be remembered that in Calamba, Laguna, the family of Dr. José Rizal were
tenants of the Dominican friars who owned the sugarcane plantations there. Another
good example would be the Obras Pias. The Obras Pias is a conglomeration of
charitable endowments operated under the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Manila
during the Spanish times and was the foundation of one of the earliest financial
institutions in the country, Monte de Piedad y Caja de Ahorros. Furthermore, the
Archdiocese of Manila owns a relatively large share in the Banco Filipino-Español, one
of the earliest banks established in the Philippines. Today, the Archdiocese still owns
the same stocks in the Bank of the Philippine Islands, the new name of Banco Filipino-
Español.
Surprisingly, the government during the Spanish time was not a theocracy,
although the Church and the state are closely related, with the Church deciding not only
on spiritual but also temporal matters, and vice-versa. The unique role of the church in
the Spanish civil government stems from the fact that Spain is a Catholic monarchy,
and thus the King claims his position as his divine right, coupled with the patronato
real privilege that was granted to the King of Spain. It is to be noted that the
22
Rodríguez, Isacio OSA. (1992). Filipinas: La Organizacion de la Iglesia [The Philippines: The Organization
of the Church]. In P. Borges (Ed.), Historia de La Iglesia En Hispano América y Filipinas (Siglos XV-XIX).
Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos- Estudio Teologico de San Ildefonso de Toledo. 23
It is only the Franciscan Order who does not own large tracts of lands. By their rule, they are not allowed to
own property besides churches and convents.
22
of the religious orders along with the five archbishops 25
form part of what
is called the consejo de administracion, whose primary duty is to advise the governor-
general. The power of the friars is generally attributed to the fact that they tend to
outlast the officials of the civil government. The governor-general or the
gobernadorcillos rule for a fixed amount of time or at the pleasure of the King, while
Archbishops and the cura párrocos serve almost indefinitely, with death usually
serving as the signal of the end of their tenure. Also, the hierarchy of the religious
orders makes it possible for them to lobby in Spain (with the help of their provinces in
.
At the signing of the Treaty of Paris, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United
States in exchange for twenty million US Dollars. With this, the separation of the
church and state began.
Though the term is notably absent in their constitution, the United States has
always enshrined the concept of the separation of church and state. 27
One of their first
tasks when they assumed office is to eradicate the role of Catholic clergy in state
affairs. Foremost among this was the purchase of lands owned by various corporacion
de las frailes as well as other Church assets. The United States also removed from the
Catholic Church the exclusive right to conduct marriages, as well as the exclusive
24
the local head of the religious order in a particular province. 25
Archbishops of Manila, Cebu, Nueva Segovia, Nueva Caceres and Jaro 26
For example, the conflict between the Archbishop of Manila, Archbishop Guerrero, and the Governor-
General Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera (1635); and the different religious orders and Governor-General
Fernando Manuel de Bustillo Bustamante (1719). Governor-General Bustamante was murdered by mobs in his
residence because of his order to imprison the Archbishop. The Archbishop occupied the Governor-Generalate
for two years after his death. 27
The First Amendment of the US Constitution states: “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment
of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof…”
23
the concept of municipal cemeteries.
Next was the question of what to do with the four corporacion de las frailes
which have gathered enmity from the natives, namely, the Dominicans, Franciscans, the
Augustinian, and the Recollects. The newly-appointed Apostolic Delegate, Archbishop
Placido Louis Chapelle, have tried to reinstate as many friars as possible to their former
parishes. However, because many of the friars were either killed during the Philippine
Revolution or have left the Philippines, only a few friars were reinstated. Also, the
Vatican, through Mariano Cardinal Rampolla, have told the Apostolic Delegation and
the Executive Commission to recede the return of the Spanish Friars. Instead, an
Americanization of the clergy was fostered. New religious orders arrived in the
Philippines, such as the Society of the Divine Word (S.V.D.), Congregation of the Most
Holy Redeemer (Redemptorists- C.Ss.R.), the Order of Mary Immaculate (O.M.I),
Missionaries of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (C.I.C.M.), Maryknoll Missionaries
(MM), the Society of Foreign Mission of Quebec (P.M.E.), the Brothers of Christian
Schools (La Salle Brothers- F.S.C.), Society of St. Columban (S.S.C.), among others.
Most, if not all of these missionaries either come from the United States, Canada,
Australia, and Ireland. At this time, promotion of diocesan (secular) seminaries was at
its high.
When World War II broke out, the Catholic Church in the Philippines underwent
another chapter in church-state relationship.
The relationship with the Japanese colonizers is peculiar, to say the least. The
Japanese tried in vain to get the Catholic Church on their side, and even tried to get a
24
concordat with the Vatican in matters relating to the Filipinization of the Church
Hierarchy, religious instruction and the regulation of church property, matters that can
still be heard from Filipinos since the end of the war. This is because they needed to
stomp out American influence in the country and to gather the support of the Filipinos.
Since Catholicism is deeply rooted in the Filipino psyche, the Japanese, though
antagonistic to the religion, had no choice but to court for the Churchs support. The
Japanese Army General Staff in the Philippines even established a religious section,
with members coming from Japanese Catholic Religious and Laity 28
, among them
Bishop Taguchi of Osaka. They would go to various parishes and say mass there to give
an impression of the Japanese being religious like the Catholic.
However, the Japanese Army still conducted arrests of many members of the
clergy, particularly the American, Australian, Irish, and Canadian clergy 29
. There was
also rampant assassination of members of the clergy, particularly those who are
vehemently against the Japanese government 30
. Furthermore, many churches and church
properties were being appropriated by the Japanese for secular use; for example, they
confiscated the Church in Tondo which was used as a military engineering corps
headquarters.
28
Several congregations of nuns in Japan were also ordered to send English-speaking volunteers to the
Philippines, to teach Japanese culture in the country. Among these congregations are the Congregation of the
Sisters of Saint Francis of the Martyr Saint George and the Daughters of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. 29
Some of the most affected religious orders are the Redemptorists and the La Salle Brothers. Many were
interned in Los Baños and Baguio. Even the Archbishop of Manila, Michael ODoherty was nearly imprisoned
as he was suspected of helping Filipino guerillas. His secretary Fr. Rufino Santos (later Cardinal and
Archbishop of Manila) faced the Japanese soldiers and said that it was he who funded the guerillas. He was
imprisoned in Fort Santiago and was sentenced to death, saved by the Liberation of Manila in the nick of time. 30
The victims include the Brothers of La Salle who were massacred in the Battle of Manila, Franciscan,
Augustinian, Recollect and Vincentian Spanish priests in Manila, and the Divine Word Apostolic Vicar of
Calapan in Mindoro, who was murdered and his body thrown into the sea, among others.
25
The end of the war marked the return of the Commonwealth government and not
soon after, the independence of the Philippines. The end of American rule also marked
the increase of secular vocations and, in proportion, the decrease of regular 31
vocations.
At this time, Intramuros, the home of the religious orders, lay in complete disarray,
.
After the war, one of the highlights in Church-State relationship was based on
the bill sponsored by Senator Claro M. Recto, mandating the reading of the Noli Me
Tangeré and the El Filibusterismo. The Church opposed the measure, citing its anti-
clericalism. This bill, however, was passed and signed into law by President Ramon
Magsaysay.
The Church, at this point, no longer had direct power in the affairs of the
government; rather, they only had symbolic power derived from their moral authority.
This power is applied on matters of morality, such as the efforts to introduce divorce in
the Philippines. Then, as now, the Church has opposed the measure.
The enactment of the Second Vatican Council brought a new wave to the
Philippine Catholic Church. With the ushering of the Second Vatican Council, there
was a dimension in the duties of clergymen and other religious, as noted by Sr. Mary
John Mananzan, O.S.B. The Church, more than ever, is concerned not only with the
spiritual, but also in social justice. Ever since Pope Leo XIII issued Rerum Novarum
31
Regular, in this case, refers to the religious orders. 32
The Recollects, whose Church of San Nicolas was completely destroyed, moved to San Sebastian Church in
Quiapo. The Jesuit Church and Convent of San Ignacio was gutted by fire and the lot sold to an American
company. The Jesuits moved to Padre Faura in Ermita and later to Loyola Heights in Quezon City. Only the
walls of the Franciscan Church of Nuestra Senora delos Angeles remained; the lot was sold to the government
and the order transferred to the Santuario de San Pedro Bautista in Quezon City. The Dominican Church of
Santo Domingo was consumed by fires and shelling which precipitated the transfer of the order to the
Dominican-run UST, and later to a new Santo Domingo in Quezon City. The Capuchin church was bombed and
the lot sold to the government; after which they moved to Retiro in Quezon City. Only the Augustinians
remained in Intramuros- the San Agustin Church was never gutted by fire nor heavily bombed.
26
(1891) in response to Karl Marxs Communist Manifesto, succeeding popes have time
and again reiterated the need for social justice, especially in conciliar documents like
the encyclical letter Gaudium et Spes (1971), and in Justica in Mundo, by the World
Synod of Bishops in 1971 33
.
The churchs zeal in promoting social justice was at its zenith during the Martial
Law era. At a time when no one can speak against the dictator publicly, the Church
used its powers and resources to banner the causes of the oppressed, the murdered, and
the silenced. The Church became the overt symbol of the fight against the dictatorship
not only by making public statements or homilies against the dictatorship, but also in
helping the victims come to terms with their grief and loss, through the founding of
organizations such as Task Force Detainees of Sr. Mariani Dimaraanan, SFIC; by
exposing the truth, like The Communicator of Fr. James Reuter, S.J. and The Times and
Ichthys of the Association of Major Religious Superiors; and by empowering the laity
through the establishment of Basic Christian Communities.
It is a testament to the Churchs powers and moral ascendancy that the People
Power Revolution came into fruition. It will be remembered that Jaime Cardinal Sin
went on air in the Church-owned Radio Veritas to appeal to the people to go to Crame
and Aguinaldo to protect General Ramos and Minister Enrile, who were threatened to
be killed by Marcos loyalists. People went there and after the entire military withdrew
their support, Marcos fled the country.
33
“The members of the Church, as members of society, have the same right and duty to promote the common
good as do other citizens. Christians ought to fulfill their temporal obligations with fidelity and competence.
They should act as a leaven in the world, in their family, professional, social, cultural and political life.” (1971,
#38)
27
It would be interesting to find out the evolution of the Church. On one epoch we
have the Church serving as part of the civil government. On the other epoch we have
the Church in the forefront of opposing the government. The Church, with its concern
for the moral and temporal aspects of human life and society, is a major political
institution and the shift in roles would be worth noting.
2.3 The Church and Politics
A biblical quotation found in three gospels- that of St. Matthew 34
, St. Mark 35
, and St.
Luke 36
- speak about what Jesus said to the Pharisees- of rendering to Caesar what belongs to
Caesar, and rendering to God what belongs to God. This scene from the Bible very much
clearly speaks, in practical terms, about the Church and the State.
The Codes of Canon Law of 1917 and 1983 is very clear on the participation of
clerics in elections. Canon 139 of the 1917 Codex states that "clerics should not accept public
offices that require the exercise of jurisdiction or of civil administration 37
." Also, "clerics
should not run for senators or deputies [sic], neither should they accept such positions
without permission from the Holy See 38
." Meanwhile, the new Code of Canon Law
promulgated in 1983 state that “clerics are forbidden to assume public office whenever it
34
Mt 22:19-21 (NASB) : ““Show Me the coin used for the poll-tax.” And they brought Him a denarius. And He
said to them, “Whose likeness and inscription is this?” They said to Him, “Caesars.” Then He said to them,
“Then render to Caesar the things that are Caesars; and to God the things that are Gods." 35
Mk 12:15-17 (NASB): ““Bring Me a denarius to look at.” They brought one. And He said to them, “Whose
likeness and inscription is this?” And they said to Him, “Caesars.” And Jesus said to them, “Render to Caesar
the things that are Caesars, and to God the things that are Gods.” And they were amazed at Him." 36
Lk 20:24-25 (NASB): “Show Me a denarius. Whose likeness and inscription does it have?” They said,
“Caesars.” And He said to them, “Then render to Caesar the things that are Caesars, and to God the things that
are Gods.” 37
1917 Codex Iuris Canonici, 139 §4
28
.” Conversely, Philippine laws present no ban
on the participation of members of the Church in partisan politics. In fact, Section 5 of the
Article III (Bill of Rights) of the 1987 Philippine Constitution specifically mention that “no
religious test shall be required for the exercise of civil and political rights”, which includes
.
When the Church hierarchy speaks on matter of government policies, it is often said
that the Church necessarily interferes in the work of the government and that the doctrine of
the separation of Church and State is being violated. However, in 1997, the CBCP issued a
pastoral exhortation that in part tackles the role of the Churchs mission in politics 41
. While
the pastoral exhortation made it clear that the Church should in no way participate in partisan
politics, the said document was adamant in saying that the Gospel call the Church into action
in the political realm. The Churchs goal of integral salvation definitely includes the
protection of the temporal needs of the people, and as such, the Church is called to act on this
basic and fundamental reality. Furthermore, the Church is called to “vanquish sin” in the
political order, and to provide a counter-balance for the poor who are marginalized by
politics and society 42
.
In my interview with the many Archbishops and Bishops of the Philippines, I always
ask them about their opinion on the separation of Church and State. The Bishops are
unanimous in saying that it must be remembered that their constituents and the constituents
of the government overlap for the greater part, thus their mutual concern and the need for
cooperation. The bottom-line is, the Church is above all concerned with the common good
39
1983 Codex Iuris Canonici, 285 §3 40
1987 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, Article III, Section 5 41
Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines. (1997). Pastoral Exhortation 1997: Philippine Politics.
Pasay City: Daughters of St. Paul. 42
Ibid.
29
and the welfare of all people, which is outlined in many papal encyclicals and letters since
Rerum Novarum was issued in the late 1800s.
2.4 Related Studies and Literature
The conduct of any research on the Catholic Church in the Philippines is a big cross
to carry. Researchers will soon realize that there are many stumbling blocks along the way
that will make it difficult for them to study this particular topic. First is the difficulty in
obtaining materials on the topic, particularly those from the Spanish and American period,
plus the difficulty in gaining access to whatever materials are left. Second, the language
barrier (many documents are in Spanish or Latin) would discourage Filipino researchers who
are not fluent in the said languages. It is thus understandable that in the last decades, there
have been very little study done on the said topic in local institutions.
The relationship between the Church and state has more often than not relegated as
a mere footnote in history and is usually taken for granted, evidenced by the very low
number of previous research studies on the area. The problem for the Political Scientist
embarking on this research is not the availability of materials (as the religious orders and
institutions had an excellent foresight proved by their prodigious record-keeping) but the
lack of previous studies that can serve as foundation for future studies.
The omnipresence of the Roman Catholic Church in Philippine culture and society
make it doubly interesting to study how the Roman Catholic Church have related to the
secular government and how they have adapted to the changes of regimes and governments
in the Philippines. The proposed breadth and extent of the comparison to be done in this
study is something that is yet to be made and the author would hopefully be able to
30
contribute to and bridge the gap on the body of knowledge on the Catholic Church in the
Philippine context. This section provides a review of related literature on this specific
topic.
The adaptation of the Catholic Church overtime is not a foreign concept to political
scientists; in fact in his paper, Riveras (2007) discussed the Catholic Church in the
Philippines as a public religion 43
. Using Burnss (1992) concept of ideology and power,
Rivera discussed how the Catholic Church in the Philippines had adapted itself in the midst
of secularization and liberalization in the Philippines. The paper also analyzed the efforts
of the Church to influence particular policies of the government since the 1946
independence, among them issues in Education, the recurring problems with the
HUKBALAHAP, and Martial Law. Rivera then concludes that the Church in effect is a
Public Religion in that it is the biggest religion (not only in size but also in terms of power,
linkages, and other resources) that frequently takes part in involvement in the public
sphere, particularly in affairs of government and in policy making, formation, and
development.
One of the fundamental concepts in the study of Church-State relations is the
concept of their separation, which is present in many countries with Western-style
democracies, such as the Philippines. This fundamental concept is in fact enshrined in our
constitution, which makes it normal that there are scores of available legal material about
the topic. However, there are very few that are written from the point of view of the
Church. The definitive book on this topic is Segarras (1956) Iglesia y Estado, which deals
43
Rivera, Roberto E. N. (2007). Philippine Catholicism as Public Religion: A Sociological Analysis of
Philippine Catholic Bishop's Statements, 1946-2000. Sociology Department, University of Notre Dame.
31
with the theological foundations of the concept of Separa