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The Cape Khoisan Debate

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Page 1: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

The Cape Khoisan Debate

Page 2: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

The Question

• At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? – Khoekhoe herders and San hunter-gatherers?

Page 3: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

The Main Protagonists

• Carmel Schrire (Rutgers)– Khoi and San mixed from the start (one culture:

two economies)– Richard Elphick’s cycles

• Andrew Smith (UCT)– Khoi and San separate cultures into colonial

times (two cultures: two economies)

Page 4: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

ConventionalView

• SE Bantu speakers brought first livestock (Iron Age migrations)

• Khoekhoe in middle Zambezi learned ceramic technology and herding skills

• They spread south and west

Page 5: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

Sheep and LSA Pottery DistributionKlein 1986

Page 6: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

Early LivestockSealy & Yates 1994

Page 7: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

Migration routes

Sealy & Yates 1994

Page 8: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

Khoisan Languages

insouthern Africa

• Two main subdivisions– Khoe-Kwadi

– Non-Khoe

Page 9: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

Linguistic Model Gueldemann 2008

Kwadi

Proto-Khoe-Kwadi

Proto-Khoe-Kwadi

Pre-Khoe (500 BC – AD 500)mix of Khoe and Non-Khoe

Pre-Khoekhoe•Drying Kalahari, some herders went south to become

•even more “Khoisanized” pastoralists

Nama 17th c.

Page 10: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

Summary of Linguistic Evidence

• Migrations models are plausible• Khoe and non-Khoe different language

families, Proto-Khoe were shepherds• Proto-Khoe had words for sheep, livestock

enclosures, and making butter by shaking a container.

• But had neither cattle nor goats.

Page 11: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

Summary of Ethnographic Evidence

• Ethnographic evidence shows that Khoe language, society and ideology deeply different from Non-Khoe

• We can be sure proto-Khoe and non-Khoe different people, and Proto-Khoe were shepherds

Page 12: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

Conclusion 1

• Linguists and Ethnographers: Khoe and Non-Khoe distinct populations– But 1st millennium AD archaeology no clear

evidence for Khoe-speakers migration from East Africa yet

Page 13: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

Conclusion 2• Gueldemann 2008 model suggests hybridization

of Early Khoe with Non-Khoe all along route of infiltration

– LSA archaeology in SW Cape shows no evidence of two cultures/two economies; Khoekhoe/San.

– Only hunter-gatherer-fishers occasionally with livestock

Page 14: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

ConventionalView Wrong?

• Radiocarbon dates indicate first sheep at SW Cape three centuries before arrival of Bantu speaking farmers

• SE Bantu words for sheep and cattle are from Khoe language

Page 15: The Cape Khoisan Debate. The Question At the time of contact with Europeans, where there two separate cultures and economies at the Cape? –Khoekhoe herders

Questions for next generation

• Suggest a research question to move the Khoisan Debate forward.


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