The Book of Genesis

Science

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2 The Book of Genesis – Science

Contents

I The Genesis of Universe page

1 Introduction 3

2 Myths of creation 3

3 Astronomical models 3

4 Theoretical models 4

a) General theory of relativity 4

b) Special relativity and space - time 5

c) Solving Einstein’s field equations 6

d) Bing Bang model 8

e) Multiverse theory 9

f) Shape of the Universe 9

g) Higgs boson 10

II The Genesis of Earth 11

1 Pedogenisis 11

a) climate 11

b) organisms 11

c) parental material 11

2 The history of Earth 12

a) Geologic time scale 12

b) Solar System formation 13

c) Hadean and Archean eons 14

d) Formation of the Moon 14

e) First continents 15

f) Oceans and atmosphere 15

III The Origins of Life 16

1 The condition of life on Earth 16

2 The origin of cellular life 16

3 RNA beginning 18

3.1 Simple beginnings 19

3.2 Chemical evolution 20

3.3 Miller Urey experiment 21

3.4 Evolution 22

4 Human evolution 24

4.1 Paleoanthropology 24

4.2 Evolution and range 25

4.3 Anatomical adaptations 27

4.4 Rise of Homo sapiens 28

4.5 Transition to civilization 28

Bibliography 29

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I. The Genesis of Universe 1. Introduction

The Universe is commonly defined as the totality of existence, including planets, stars,

galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, the smallest subatomic particles, and all matter and

energy. Similar terms include the cosmos, the world, reality, and nature.

The observable universe is about 46 billion light years in radius. Scientific observation of the

Universe has led to inferences of its earlier stages. These observations suggest that the Universe has

been governed by the same physical laws and constants throughout most of its extent and history.

The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model that describes the early development of

the Universe, which is calculated to have begun 13.798 ± 0.037 billion years ago. Observations of a

supernovae have shown that the Universe is expanding at an accelerating rate.

There are many competing theories about the ultimate fate of the universe. Physicists remain

unsure about what, if anything, preceded the Big Bang. Many refuse to speculate, doubting that any

information from any such prior state could ever be accessible. There are various multiverse

hypotheses, in which some physicists have suggested that the Universe might be one among many

universes that likewise exist.

2. Myths of Creation

Many cultures have stories describing the origin of the world, which may be roughly grouped

into common types. In one type of story, the world is born from a world egg; such stories include the

Finnish epic poem Kalevala, the Chinese story of Pangu or the Indian Brahmanda Purana. In related

stories, the Universe is created by a single entity emanating or producing something by him- or

herself, as in the Tibetan Buddhism concept of Adi-Buddha, the ancient Greek story of Gaia (Mother

Earth), the Aztec goddess Coatlicue myth, the ancient Egyptian god Atum story, or the Genesis

creation narrative.

In another type of story, the Universe is created from the union of male and female deities,

as in the Maori story of Rangi and Papa. In other stories, the Universe is created by crafting it from

pre-existing materials, such as the corpse of a dead god, as from Tiamat in the Babylonian epic

Enuma Elish or from the giant Ymir in Norse mythology, or from chaotic materials, as in Izanagi

and Izanami in Japanese mythology. In other stories, the Universe emanates from fundamental

principles, such as Brahman and Prakrti, the creation myth of the Serers, or the yin and yang of the

Tao.

3. Astronomical models

Astronomical models of the Universe were proposed soon after astronomy began with the

Babylonian astronomers, who viewed the Universe as a flat disk floating in the ocean, and this forms

the premise for early Greek maps like those of Anaximander and Hecataeus of Miletus.

Later Greek philosophers, observing the motions of the heavenly bodies, were concerned

with developing models of the Universe based more profoundly on empirical evidence. The first

coherent model was proposed by Eudoxus of Cnidos. According to Aristotle's physical interpretation

of the model, celestial spheres eternally rotate with uniform motion around a stationary Earth.

Normal matter, is entirely contained within the terrestrial sphere. This model was also refined by

Callippus and after concentric spheres were abandoned, it was brought into nearly perfect agreement

with astronomical observations by Ptolemy. The success of such a model is largely due to the

mathematical fact that any function (such as the position of a planet) can be decomposed into a set

of circular functions (the Fourier modes). Other Greek scientists, such as the Pythagorean

philosopher Philolaus postulated that at the center of the Universe was a "central fire" around which

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the Earth, Sun, Moon and Planets revolved in uniform circular motion. The Greek astronomer

Aristarchus of Samos was the first known individual to propose a heliocentric model of the Universe.

Though the original text has been lost, a reference in Archimedes' book The Sand Reckoner describes

Aristarchus' heliocentric theory. Archimedes wrote:

“You King Gelon are aware the 'Universe' is the name given by most astronomers to the

sphere the center of which is the center of the Earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line

between the center of the Sun and the center of the Earth. This is the common account as you have

heard from astronomers. But Aristarchus has brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses,

wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the Universe is many times

greater than the 'Universe' just mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain

unmoved, that the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the

middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of fixed stars, situated about the same center as the Sun, is

so great that the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the

distance of the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface.”

Aristarchus thus believed the stars to be very far away, and saw this as the reason why there

was no parallax apparent, that is, no observed movement of the stars relative to each other as the

Earth moved around the Sun. The stars are in fact much farther away than the distance that was

generally assumed in ancient times, which is why stellar parallax is only detectable with precision

instruments. The geocentric model, consistent with planetary parallax, was assumed to be an

explanation for the unobservability of the parallel phenomenon, stellar parallax. The rejection of the

heliocentric view was apparently quite strong, as the following passage from Plutarch suggests (On

the Apparent Face in the Orb of the Moon):

“Cleanthes (a contemporary of Aristarchus and head of the Stoics) thought it was the duty

of the Greeks to indict Aristarchus of Samos on the charge of impiety for putting in motion the Hearth

of the Universe (e.g. the earth), supposing the heaven to remain at rest and the earth to revolve in

an oblique circle, while it rotates, at the same time, about its

own axis.”

Aristarchus's 3rd century BCE calculations on the

relative sizes of from left the Sun, Earth and Moon, from a

10th-century AD Greek copy – Fig. 1.

4. Theoretical models

a) General theory of relativity

Given gravitation's predominance in shaping cosmological structures, accurate predictions of

the Universe's past and future require an accurate theory of gravitation. The best theory available is

Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which has passed all experimental tests to date.

However, because rigorous experiments have not been carried out on cosmological length scales,

general relativity could conceivably be inaccurate. Nevertheless, its cosmological predictions appear

to be consistent with observations, so there is no compelling reason to adopt another theory.

General relativity provides a set of ten nonlinear partial differential equations for the space-

time metric (Einstein's field equations) that must be solved from the distribution of mass-energy and

momentum throughout the Universe. Because these are unknown in exact detail, cosmological

models have been based on the cosmological principle, which states that the Universe is

homogeneous and isotropic. In effect, this principle asserts that the gravitational effects of the various

galaxies making up the Universe are equivalent to those of a fine dust distributed uniformly

throughout the Universe with the same average density. The assumption of a uniform dust makes it

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easy to solve Einstein's field equations and predict the past and future of the Universe on

cosmological time scales.

Einstein's field equations include a cosmological constant (Λ) that corresponds to an energy

density of empty space. Depending on its sign, the cosmological constant can either slow (negative

Λ) or accelerate (positive Λ) the expansion of the Universe. Although many scientists, including

Einstein, had speculated that Λ was zero, recent astronomical observations of type IA supernovae

have detected a large amount of "dark energy" that is accelerating the Universe's expansion.

Preliminary studies suggest that this dark energy corresponds to a

positive Λ, although alternative theories cannot be ruled out as yet.

Russian physicist Zel'dovich suggested that Λ is a measure of the

zero-point energy associated with virtual particles of quantum

field theory, a pervasive vacuum energy that exists everywhere,

even in empty space. Evidence for such zero-point energy is

observed in the Casimir effect.

High-precision test of general relativity by the Cassini

space probe: radio signals sent between the Earth and the probe

(green wave) are delayed by the warping of space and time (blue

lines) due to the Sun's mass- Fig. 2.

b) Special relativity and space-time

The Universe has at least three spatial and one temporal

(time) dimension. It was long thought that the spatial and

temporal dimensions were different in nature and independent of

one another. However, according to the special theory of

relativity, spatial and temporal separations are interconvertible (within limits) by

changing one's motion.

To understand this interconversion, it is helpful to consider the analogous interconversion of

spatial separations along the three spatial dimensions. Consider the two endpoints of a rod of length

L. The length can be determined from the differences in the three coordinates Δx, Δy and Δz of the

two endpoints in a given reference frame

using the Pythagorean theorem. In a rotated reference frame, the coordinate differences differ, but

they give the same length

Thus, the coordinates differences (Δx, Δy, Δz) and (Δξ, Δη, Δζ) are not intrinsic to the rod,

but merely reflect the reference frame used to describe it; by contrast, the length L is an intrinsic

property of the rod. The coordinate differences can be changed without affecting the rod, by rotating

one's reference frame.

The analogy in spacetime is called the interval between two events; an event is defined as a

point in spacetime, a specific position in space and a specific moment in time. The spacetime interval

between two events is given by

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where c is the speed of light. According to special relativity, one can change a spatial and time

separation (L1, Δt1) into another (L2, Δt2) by changing one's reference frame, as long as the change

maintains the spacetime interval s. Such a change in reference frame corresponds to changing one's

motion; in a moving frame, lengths and times are different from their counterparts in a stationary

reference frame. The precise manner in which the

coordinate and time differences change with motion is

described by the Lorentz transformation.

Only its length L is intrinsic to the rod (shown

in black); coordinate differences between its

endpoints (such as Δx, Δy or Δξ, Δη) depend on their

frame of reference (depicted in blue and red,

respectively) – Fig. 3.

c) Solving Einstein's field equations

The distances between the spinning galaxies

increase with time, but the distances between the stars

within each galaxy stay roughly the same, due to their

gravitational interactions. This animation illustrates a

closed Friedmann.Universe with zero cosmological

constant Λ; such a Universe oscillates between a Big

Bang and a Big Crunch. In non-Cartesian (non-square) or curved coordinate systems, the

Pythagorean theorem holds only on infinitesimal length scales and must be augmented with a more

general metric tensor gμν, which can vary from place to place and which describes the local geometry

in the particular coordinate system. However, assuming the cosmological principle that the Universe

is homogeneous and isotropic everywhere, every point in space is like every other point; hence, the

metric tensor must be the same everywhere. That leads to a single form for the metric tensor, called

the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker metric:

where (r, θ, φ) correspond to a spherical coordinate system. This metric has only two undetermined

parameters: an overall length scale R that can vary with time, and a curvature index k that can be

only 0, 1 or 1, corresponding to flat Euclidean geometry, or spaces of positive or negative curvature.

In cosmology, solving for the history of the Universe is done by calculating R as a function of time,

given k and the value of the cosmological constant Λ, which is a (small) parameter in Einstein's field

equations. The equation describing how R varies with time is known as the Friedmann equation,

after its inventor, Alexander Friedmann.

The solutions for R(t) depend on k and Λ, but some qualitative features of such solutions are

general. First and most importantly, the length scale R of the Universe can remain constant only if

the Universe is perfectly isotropic with positive curvature (k=1) and has one precise value of density

everywhere, as first noted by Albert Einstein. However, this equilibrium is unstable and because the

Universe is known to be inhomogeneous on smaller scales, R must change, according to general

relativity. When R changes, all the spatial distances in the Universe change in tandem; there is an

overall expansion or contraction of space itself. This accounts for the observation that galaxies

appear to be flying apart; the space between them is stretching. The stretching of space also accounts

for the apparent paradox that two galaxies can be 40 billion light years apart, although they started

from the same point 13.8 billion years age and never moved faster than the speed of light.

Second, all solutions suggest that there was a gravitational singularity in the past, when R

goes to zero and matter and energy became infinitely dense. It may seem that this conclusion is

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uncertain because it is based on the questionable assumptions of perfect homogeneity and isotropy

(the cosmological principle) and that only the gravitational interaction is significant. However, the

Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems show that a singularity should exist for very general

conditions. Hence, according to Einstein's field equations, R grew rapidly from an unimaginably hot,

dense state that existed immediately following this singularity (when R had a small, finite value);

this is the essence of the Big Bang model of the Universe. A common misconception is that the Big

Bang model predicts that matter and energy exploded from a single point in space and time; that is

false. Rather, space itself was created in the Big Bang and imbued with a fixed amount of energy

and matter distributed uniformly throughout; as space expands (i.e., as R (t) increases), the density

of that matter and energy decreases.

Third, the curvature index k determines the sign of the mean spatial curvature of spacetime

averaged over length scales greater than a billion light years. If k=1, the curvature is positive and the

Universe has a finite volume. Such universes are often visualized as a three-dimensional sphere S3

embedded in a four-dimensional space. Conversely, if k is zero or negative, the Universe may have

infinite volume, depending on its overall topology. It may seem counter-intuitive that an infinite and

yet infinitely dense Universe could be created in a single instant at the Big Bang when R=0, but

exactly that is predicted mathematically when k does not equal 1. For comparison, an infinite plane

has zero curvature but infinite area, whereas an infinite cylinder is finite in one direction and a torus

is finite in both. A toroidal Universe could behave like a normal Universe with periodic boundary

conditions, as seen in "wrap-around" video games such as Asteroids; a traveler crossing an outer

"boundary" of space going outwards would reappear instantly at another point on the boundary

moving

inwards.

Illustration of the Big Bang theory, the prevailing model of the origin and expansion of space-

time and all that it contains. In this diagram time increases from left to right, and one dimension of

space is suppressed, so at any given time the Universe is represented by a disk-shaped "slice" of the

diagram – Fig. 4.

The ultimate fate of the Universe is still unknown, because it depends critically on the

curvature index k and the cosmological constant Λ. If the Universe is sufficiently dense, k equals

+1, meaning that its average curvature throughout is positive and the Universe will eventually

recollapse in a Big Crunch, possibly starting a new Universe in a Big Bounce. Conversely, if the

Universe is insufficiently dense, k equals 0 or −1 and the Universe will expand forever, cooling off

and eventually becoming inhospitable for all life, as the stars die and all matter coalesces into black

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holes (the Big Freeze and the heat death of the Universe). As noted above, recent data suggests that

the expansion speed of the Universe is not decreasing as originally expected, but increasing; if this

continues indefinitely, the Universe will eventually rip itself to shreds (the Big Rip). Experimentally,

the Universe has an overall density that is very close to the critical value between recollapse and

eternal expansion; more careful astronomical observations are needed to resolve the question.

d) Big Bang model

The prevailing Big Bang model accounts for many of the experimental observations

described above, such as the correlation of distance and redshift of galaxies, the universal ratio of

hydrogen: helium atoms, and the ubiquitous, isotropic microwave radiation background. As noted

above, the redshift arises from the metric expansion of space; as the space itself expands, the

wavelength of a photon traveling through space likewise increases, decreasing its energy. The longer

a photon has been traveling, the more expansion it has undergone; hence, older photons from more

distant galaxies are the most red-shifted. Determining the correlation between distance and redshift

is an important problem in experimental physical cosmology.

Other experimental observations can be explained by combining the overall expansion of

space with nuclear and atomic physics. As the Universe expands, the energy density of the

electromagnetic radiation decreases more quickly than does that of matter, because the energy of a

photon decreases with its wavelength. Thus, although the energy density of the Universe is now

dominated by matter, it was once dominated by radiation; poetically speaking, all was light. As the

Universe expanded, its energy density decreased and it became cooler; as it did so, the elementary

particles of matter could associate stably into ever larger combinations. Thus, in the early part of the

matter-dominated era, stable protons and neutrons formed, which then associated into atomic nuclei.

At this stage, the matter in the Universe was mainly a hot, dense plasma of negative electrons, neutral

neutrinos and positive nuclei. Nuclear reactions among the nuclei led to the present abundances of

the lighter nuclei, particularly hydrogen, deuterium, and helium. Eventually, the electrons and nuclei

combined to form stable atoms, which are transparent to most wavelengths of radiation; at this point,

the radiation decoupled from the matter, forming the ubiquitous, isotropic background of microwave

radiation observed today.

Chief nuclear reactions

responsible for the relative

abundances of light atomic nuclei

observed throughout the Universe.

– Fig. 5.

Other observations are not answered definitively by known physics. According to the

prevailing theory, a slight imbalance of matter over antimatter was present in the Universe's creation,

or developed very shortly thereafter, possibly due to the CP violation that has been observed by

particle physicists. Although the matter and antimatter mostly annihilated one another, producing

photons, a small residue of matter survived, giving the present matter-dominated Universe. Several

lines of evidence also suggest that a rapid cosmic inflation of the Universe occurred very early in its

history (roughly 10−35 seconds after its creation). Recent observations also suggest that the

cosmological constant (Λ) is not zero and that the net mass-energy content of the Universe is

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dominated by a dark energy and dark matter that have not been characterized scientifically. They

differ in their gravitational effects. Dark matter gravitates as ordinary matter does, and thus slows

the expansion of the Universe; by contrast, dark energy serves to accelerate the Universe's expansion.

e) Multiverse theory

Some speculative theories have proposed that this Universe is but one of a set of disconnected

universes, collectively denoted as the multiverse, challenging or enhancing more limited definitions

of the Universe. Scientific multiverse theories are distinct from concepts such as alternate planes of

consciousness and simulated reality, although the idea of a larger Universe is not new; for example,

Bishop Étienne Tempier of Paris ruled in 1277 that God could create as many universes as he saw

fit, a question that was being hotly debated by the French theologians.

Max Tegmark developed a four-part classification scheme for the different types of

multiverses that scientists have suggested in various problem domains. An example of such a theory

is the chaotic inflation model of the early Universe. Another is the many-worlds interpretation of

quantum mechanics. Parallel worlds are generated in a manner similar to quantum superposition and

decoherence, with all states of the wave function being realized in separate worlds. Effectively, the

multiverse evolves as a universal wavefunction. If the big bang that created our multiverse created

an ensemble of multiverses, the wave function of the ensemble would be entangled in this sense.

The least controversial category of multiverse in Tegmark's scheme is Level I, which

describes distant space-time events "in our own Universe". If space is infinite, or sufficiently large

and uniform, identical instances of the history of Earth's entire Hubble volume occur every so often,

simply by chance. Tegmark calculated our nearest so-called doppelgänger, is 1010115 meters away

from us (a double exponential function larger than a googolplex). In principle, it would be impossible

to scientifically verify an identical Hubble volume. However, it does follow as a fairly

straightforward consequence from otherwise unrelated scientific observations and theories. Tegmark

suggests that statistical analysis exploiting the anthropic principle provides an opportunity to test

multiverse theories in some cases. Generally, science would consider a multiverse theory that posits

neither a common point of causation, nor the possibility of interaction between universes, to be an

idle speculation.

Depiction of a multiverse of seven "bubble"

universes, which are separate spacetime continua, each

having different physical laws, physical constants, and

perhaps even different numbers of dimensions or

topologies. – Fig. 6.

f) Shape of the Universe

The shape or geometry of the Universe includes both local geometry in the observable

Universe and global geometry, which we may or may not be able to measure. Shape can refer to

curvature and topology. More formally, the subject in practice investigates which 3-manifold

corresponds to the spatial section in comoving coordinates of the four-dimensional space-time of the

Universe. Cosmologists normally work with a given space-like slice of spacetime called the

comoving coordinates. In terms of observation, the section of spacetime that can be observed is the

backward light cone (points within the cosmic light horizon, given time to reach a given observer).

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If the observable Universe is smaller than the entire Universe (in some models it is many orders of

magnitude smaller), one cannot determine the global structure by observation: one is limited to a

small patch.

Among the Friedmann–Lemaître–Robertson–Walker (FLRW) models, the presently most

popular shape of the Universe found to fit observational data according to cosmologists is the infinite

flat model, while other FLRW models include the Poincaré dodecahedral space and the Picard horn.

The data fit by these FLRW models of space especially include the Wilkinson Microwave

Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) and Planck maps of cosmic background radiation. NASA released the

first WMAP cosmic background radiation data in February 2003, while a higher resolution map

regarding Planck data was released by ESA in March 2013. Both probes have found almost perfect

agreement with inflationary models and the standard model of cosmology, describing a flat,

homogeneous universe dominated by dark matter and dark energy.

g) Higgs boson The Higgs boson or Higgs particle is an elementary particle initially theorised in 1964, whose

discovery was announced at CERN on 4 July 2012, and confirmed likely to be a Higgs boson in

March 2013. The discovery has been called "monumental" because it appears to confirm the particle

physics. It would explain why some fundamental particles have mass when the symmetries

controlling their interactions should require them to be massless, and why the weak force has a much

shorter range than the electromagnetic force. The discovery of a Higgs boson should allow physicists

to finally validate the last untested area of the Standard Model's approach to fundamental particles

and forces, guide other theories and discoveries in particle physics, and potentially lead to

developments in "new" physics. This unanswered question in fundamental physics is of such importance that it led to a search

of more than 40 years for the Higgs boson and finally the construction of one of the world's most

expensive and complex experimental facilities to date, the Large Hadron Collider, able to create

Higgs bosons and other particles for observation and study. On 4 July 2012, it was announced that a

previously unknown particle with a mass between 125 and 127 GeV/c2 (134.2 and 136.3 amu) had

been detected; physicists suspected at the time that it was the Higgs boson. By March 2013, the

particle had been proven to behave, interact and decay in many of the ways predicted by the Standard

Model, and was also tentatively confirmed to have positive parity and zero spin, two fundamental

attributes of a Higgs boson. This appears to be the first elementary scalar particle discovered in

nature. More data is needed to know if the discovered particle exactly matches the predictions of the

Standard Model, or whether, as predicted by some theories, multiple Higgs bosons exist. The Higgs boson is named after Peter Higgs, one of six physicists who, in 1964, proposed

the mechanism that suggested the existence of such a particle. Although Higgs's name has come to

be associated with this theory, several researchers between about 1960 and 1972 each independently

developed different parts of it. In mainstream media the Higgs boson has often been called the "God

particle", from a 1993 book on the topic; the nickname is strongly disliked by many physicists,

including Higgs, who regard it as inappropriate sensationalism. In 2013 two of the original

researchers, Peter Higgs and François Englert, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their

work and prediction (Englert's co-researcher Robert Brout had died in 2011).

In the Standard Model, the Higgs particle is a boson with no spin, electric charge, or color

charge. It is also very unstable, decaying into other particles almost immediately. It is a quantum

excitation of one of the four components of the Higgs field. The latter constitutes a scalar field, with

two neutral and two electrically charged components, and forms a complex doublet of the weak

isospin SU(2) symmetry. The field has a "Mexican hat" shaped potential with nonzero strength

everywhere (including otherwise empty space) which in its vacuum state breaks the weak isospin

symmetry of the electroweak interaction. When this happens, three components of the Higgs field

are "absorbed" by the SU(2) and U(1) gauge bosons (the "Higgs mechanism") to become the

longitudinal components of the now-massive W and Z bosons of the weak force. The remaining

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electrically neutral component separately couples to other particles known as fermions (via Yukawa

couplings), causing these to acquire mass as well. Some versions of the theory predict more than one

kind of Higgs fields and bosons. Alternative "Higgsless" models would have been considered if the

Higgs boson were not discovered.

Large Hadron Collider tunnel at CERN – Fig. 7.

II. The Genesis of the Earth 1. Pedogenesis

Pedogenesis (from the Greek pedo-, or pedon, meaning 'soil, earth,' and genesis, meaning

'origin, birth') is the science and study of the processes that lead to the formation of soil (soil

evolution) and first explored by the Russian geologist Vasily Dokuchaev (1846 – 1903), the so-called

grandfather of soil science, who determined that soil formed over time as a consequence of climatic,

mineral and biological processes, which he demonstrated using the soil forming equation:

Soil = f(C, PM, O) × time (where C = climate, PM = parent material, O = biological

processes)

In 1941, the Swiss scientist Hans Jenny expanded Vasily Dokuchaev equation by adding

relief/topology as a factor and separating the biological processes into the fauna and flora coming up

with the equation:

Soil = f(C, PM, R, O, V) × time (where C = climate, PM = parent material, R = relief/topology,

O = fauna, V = flora)

Pedogenesis is though more a parent than a branch of pedology, whose other aspects include the

soil morphology, classification (taxonomy) of soils, and their distribution in nature, present and past

(soil geography and paleopedology).

a) climate Climate regulates soil formation. Soils are more developed in areas with higher rainfall and more

warmth. The rate of chemical weathering increases by 2-3 times when the temperature increases by

10 degrees Celsius. Climate also affects which organisms are present, affecting the soil chemically

and physically (movement of roots).

b) organisms The organisms living in and on the soil form distinct soil types. Coniferous forests have acidic

leaf litter and form what are known as inceptisols. Mixed or deciduous forests leave a larger layer of

humus, changing the elements leeched and accumulated in the soil, forming alfisols. Prairies have

very high humus accumulation, creating a dark, thick A horizon characteristic of mollisols.

For example three species of land snails in the genus Euchondrus in the Negev desert are noted

for eating lichens growing under the surface limestone rocks and slabs (endolithic lichens). They

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disrupt and eat the limeston. Their grazing resulting in the weathering of the stones, and the

subsequent formation of soil. They have a significant effect on the region: the total population of

snails is estimated to process between 0.7 and 1.1 metric ton per hectare per year of limestone in the

Negev desert.

c) parent material The rock from which soil is formed is called parent material. The main types are: aeolian, glacial

till, glacial outwash, alluvium, lacustrine parent material and residual parent material, or bedrock.

Pedologists use the following generic functional relationship for understanding soil formation:

S = f (CL, O, R, P, T, …)

(where S = soil properties, CL = regional climate, O = potential biota, R = topography, P = parent

material, T = time, … = additional variables)

2. The History of Earth

The history of the Earth concerns the development of the planet Earth from its formation to

the present day. Nearly all branches of natural science have contributed to the understanding of the

main events of the Earth's past. The age of Earth is approximately one-third of the age of the universe.

An immense amount of biological and geological change has occurred in that time span.

Earth formed around 4.54 billion (4.54×109) years ago by accretion from the solar nebula.

Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere, but it contained almost no oxygen

and would have been toxic to humans and most modern life. Much of the Earth was molten because

of extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. One very large collision is thought

to have been responsible for tilting the Earth at an angle and forming the Moon. Over time, the planet

cooled and formed a solid crust, allowing liquid water to exist on the surface. The first life forms

appeared between 3.8 and 3.5 billion years ago. The earliest evidences for life on Earth are graphite

found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old met sedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland

and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia.

Photosynthetic life appeared around 2 billion years ago, enriching the atmosphere with oxygen. Life

remained mostly small and microscopic until about 580 million years ago, when complex

multicellular life arose. During the Cambrian period it experienced a rapid diversification into most

major phyla.

Geological change has been constantly occurring on our planet since the time of its formation

and biological change since the first appearance of life. Species continuously evolve, taking on new

forms, splitting into daughter species, or going extinct in response to an ever-changing planet. The

process of plate tectonics has played a major role in the shaping of Earth's oceans and continents, as

well as the life they harbor. The biosphere, in turn, has had a significant effect on the atmosphere

and other abiotic conditions on the planet, such as the formation of the ozone layer, the proliferation

of oxygen, and the creation of soil.

a) Geologic time scale: The history of the Earth is organized chronologically in a table known as the geologic time

scale, which is split into intervals based on stratigraphic analysis. A full-time scale can be found at

the main article.

The following four timelines show the geologic time scale. The first shows the entire time

from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this compresses the most recent eon. Therefore

the second scale shows the most recent eon with an expanded scale. The second scale compresses

the most recent era, so the most recent era is expanded in the third scale. Since the Quaternary is a

very short period with short epochs, it is further expanded in the fourth scale. The second, third, and

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fourth timelines are therefore each subsections of their preceding timeline as indicated by asterisks.

The Holocene (the latest epoch) is too small to be shown clearly on the third timeline on the right,

another reason for expanding the fourth scale. The Pleistocene (P) epoch. Q stands for the Quaternary

period.

b) Solar System formation The standard model for the formation of the Solar System (including the Earth) is the solar

nebula hypothesis. In this model, the Solar system formed from a large, rotating cloud of interstellar

dust and gas called the solar nebula. It was composed of hydrogen and helium created shortly after

the Big Bang 13.8 Ga (billion years ago) and heavier elements ejected by supernovae. About 4.5 Ga,

the nebula began a contraction that may have been triggered by the shock wave of a nearby

supernova. A shock wave would have also made the nebula rotate. As the cloud began to accelerate,

its angular momentum, gravity and inertia flattened it into a protoplanetary disk perpendicular to its

axis of rotation. Small perturbations due to collisions and the angular momentum of other large debris

created the means by which kilometer-sized protoplanets began to form, orbiting the nebular center.

The center of the nebula, not having much angular momentum, collapsed rapidly, the

compression heating it until nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium began. After more contraction,

a T Tauri star ignited and evolved into the Sun. Meanwhile, in the outer part of the nebula gravity

caused matter to condense around density perturbations and dust particles, and the rest of the

protoplanetary disk began separating into rings. In a process known as runaway accretion,

successively larger fragments of dust and debris clumped together to form planets. Earth formed in

this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an uncertainty of 1%) and was largely completed

within 10–20 million years. The solar wind of the newly formed T Tauri star cleared out most of the

material in the disk that had not already condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected

to produce accretion disks around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which

yield planets.

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The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy,

siderophile metals. Having higher densities than the silicates, these metals sank. This so-called iron

catastrophe resulted in the separation of a primitive mantle and a (metallic) core only 10 million

years after the Earth began to form, producing the layered structure of Earth and setting up the

formation of Earth's magnetic field. J. A. Jacobs was the first to

suggest that the inner core—a solid center distinct from the

liquid outer core—is freezing and growing out of the liquid

outer core due to the gradual cooling of Earth's interior (about

100 degrees Celsius per billion years). Extrapolations on these

observations estimate that the inner core formed approximately

2-4 billion years ago, from what was previously an entirely

molten core. If true, this would mean that the Earth's inner core

is not a primordial feature inherited during the planet's

formation, since it would be younger than the age of Earth (about 4.5 billion years).

– Fig. 8

c) Hadean and Archean eons The first eon in Earth's history, the Hadean, begins with the Earth's formation and is followed

by the Archean eon at 3.8 Ga. The oldest rocks found on Earth date to about 4.0 Ga, and the oldest

detrital zircon crystals in rocks to about 4.4 Ga, soon after the formation of the Earth's crust and the

Earth itself. The giant impact hypothesis for the Moon's formation states that shortly after formation

of an initial crust, the proto-Earth was impacted by a smaller protoplanet, which ejected part of the

mantle and crust into space and created the Moon.

From crater counts on other celestial bodies it is inferred that a period of intense meteorite

impacts, called the Late Heavy Bombardment, began about 4.1 Ga, and concluded around 3.8 Ga, at

the end of the Hadean. In addition, volcanism was severe due to the large heat flow and geothermal

gradient. Nevertheless, detrital zircon crystals dated to 4.4 Ga show evidence of having undergone

contact with liquid water, suggesting that the planet already had oceans or seas at that time.

By the beginning of the Archean, the Earth had cooled significantly. Most present life forms

could not have survived in the Archean atmosphere, which lacked oxygen and an ozone layer.

Nevertheless it is believed that primordial life began to evolve by the early Archean, with candidate

fossils dated to around 3.5. Some scientists even speculate that life could have begun during the early

Hadean, as far back as 4.4 Ga, surviving the possible Late Heavy Bombardment period in

hydrothermal vents below the Earth's surface.

c.1) formation of the Moon Earth's only natural satellite, the Moon, is larger relative to its planet than any other satellite

in the solar system. During the Apollo program, rocks from the Moon's surface were brought to

Earth. Radiometric dating of these rocks has shown the Moon to be 4.53 ± .01 billion years old at

least 30 million years after the solar system was formed. New evidence suggests the Moon formed

even later, 4.48 ± 0.02 Ga, or 70–110 million years after the start of the Solar System.

Theories for the formation of the Moon must explain its late formation as well as the

following facts. First, the Moon has a low density (3.3 times that of water, compared to 5.5 for the

earth) and a small metallic core. Second, there is virtually no water or other volatiles on the moon.

Third, the Earth and Moon have the same oxygen isotopic signature (relative abundance of the

oxygen isotopes). Of the theories that have been proposed to account for these phenomena, only one

is widely accepted: The giant impact hypothesis proposes that the Moon originated after a body the

size of Mars struck the proto-Earth a glancing blow.

FIG. 8

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The collision between the impactor, sometimes named

Theia, and the Earth released about 100 million times more

energy than the impact that caused the extinction of the

dinosaurs. This was enough to vaporize some of the Earth's

outer layers and melt both bodies. A portion of the mantle

material was ejected into orbit around the Earth. The giant

impact hypothesis predicts that the Moon was depleted of

metallic material,explaining its abnormal composition. The

ejecta in orbit around the Earth could have condensed into a

single body within a couple of weeks. Under the influence of

its own gravity, the ejected material became a more spherical

body: the Moon. – Fig. 9

c.2) first continents Mantle convection, the process that drives plate tectonics today, is a result of heat flow from

the Earth's interior to the Earth's surface. It involves the creation of rigid tectonic plates at mid-

oceanic ridges. These plates are destroyed by subduction into the mantle at subduction zones. During

the early Archean (about 3.0 Ga) the mantle was much hotter than today, probably around 1600 C,

so convection in the mantle was faster. While a process similar to present day plate tectonics did

occur, this would have gone faster too. It is likely that during the Hadean and Archean, subduction

zones were more common, and therefore tectonic plates were smaller.

The initial crust, formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a

combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy

Bombardment. However, it is thought that it was basaltic in composition, like today's oceanic crust,

because little crustal differentiation had yet taken place. The first larger pieces of continental crust,

which is a product of differentiation of lighter elements during partial melting in the lower crust,

appeared at the end of the Hadean, about 4.0 Ga. What is left of these first small continents are called

cratons. These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's

continents grew.

The oldest rocks on Earth are found in the North American craton of Canada. They are

tonalites from about 4.0 Ga. They show traces of metamorphism by high temperature, but also

sedimentary grains that have been rounded by erosion during transport by water, showing rivers and

seas existed then. Cratons consist primarily of two alternating types of terranes. The first are so-

called greenstone belts, consisting of low grade metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. These

"greenstones" are similar to the sediments today found in oceanic trenches, above subduction zones.

For this reason, greenstones are sometimes seen as evidence for subduction during the Archean. The

second type is a complex of felsic magmatic rocks. These rocks are mostly tonalite, trondhjemite or

granodiorite, types of rock similar in composition to granite (hence such terranes are called TTG-

terranes). TTG-complexes are seen as the relicts of the first continental crust, formed by partial

melting in basalt.

c.3) oceans and atmosphere Earth is often described as having had three atmospheres. The first atmosphere, captured

from the solar nebula, was composed of light (atmophile) elements from the solar nebula, mostly

hydrogen and helium. A combination of the solar wind and Earth's heat would have driven off this

atmosphere, as a result of which the atmosphere is now depleted in these elements compared to

cosmic abundances. After the impact, the molten Earth released volatile gases; and later more gases

were released by volcanoes, completing a second atmosphere rich in greenhouse gases but poor in

oxygen. Finally, the third atmosphere, rich in oxygen, emerged when bacteria began to produce

oxygen about 2.8 Ga.

FIG. 9

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In early models for the formation of the atmosphere and ocean, the second atmosphere was

formed by outgassing of volatiles from the Earth's interior. Now it is considered likely that many of

the volatiles were delivered during accretion by a process known as impact degassing in which

incoming bodies vaporize on impact. The ocean and atmosphere would therefore have started to

form even as the Earth formed. The new atmosphere probably contained water vapor, carbon dioxide,

nitrogen, and smaller amounts of other gases.

Planetesimals at a distance of 1 astronomical unit (AU), the distance of the Earth from the

Sun, probably did not contribute any water to the Earth because the solar nebula was too hot for ice

to form and the hydration of rocks by water vapor would have taken too long. The water must have

been supplied by meteorites from the outer asteroid belt and some large planetary embryos from

beyond 2.5 AU. Comets may also have contributed. Though most comets are today in orbits farther

away from the Sun than Neptune, computer simulations show they were originally far more common

in the inner parts of the solar system.

As the planet cooled, clouds formed. Rain created the oceans. Recent evidence suggests the

oceans may have begun forming as early as 4.4 Ga. By the start of the Archean eon they already

covered the Earth. This early formation has been difficult to explain because of a problem known as

the faint young Sun paradox. Stars are known to get brighter as they age, and at the time of its

formation the Sun would have been emitting only 70% of its current power. Many models predict

that the Earth would have been covered in ice. A likely solution is that there was enough carbon

dioxide and methane to produce a greenhouse effect. The carbon dioxide would have been produced

by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes. Another greenhouse gas, ammonia, would have

been ejected by volcanos but quickly destroyed by ultraviolet radiation.

III. The Origin of Life

1. The conditions for life, on Earth

With technologies available soon that may enable scientists to identify the conditions

conducive to life on other planets, the question of which planets to study becomes critical. Despite

their best speculations, scientists have only one model to work from: Earth.

But Earth’s surface is constantly turning over and weathering down, so any signs of

sedimentary deposits from the planet to the appearance of life have been subsumed through plate

tectonics or eroded. Earth’s biological and physical history are intimately linked. The planetary

conditions on Earth shaped the life that evolved, and life in turn dramatically altered the planet. The

early Earth provided elements like carbon and nitrogen needed to create organic molecules, but as

life evolved, photosynthetic bacteria filled the atmosphere with oxygen. Long before the fossil record

of plants and animals begins, scientists see evidence of microbial activity throughout the planet:

single-celled creatures that left behind physical structures like giant reefs as well as chemical

byproducts of their metabolic activities. In recent years, scientists have enhanced their ability to

“read” this history, finding chemical signatures of life buried deep within ancient rocks. They can

use this information to understand better how the chemical environment of the planet drove

evolution, and vice versa.

2. The origin of cellular life When life arose on Earth about 4 billion years ago, the first types of cells to evolve were

procaryotic cells. For approximately 2 billion years, procaryotic-type cells were the only form of life

on Earth. The oldest known sedimentary rocks found in Greenland are about 3.8 billion years old.

The oldest known fossils are procaryotic cells, 3.5 billion years in age, found in Western Australia

and South Africa. The nature of these fossils, and the chemical composition of the rocks in which

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they are found, indicates that these first cells made use of simple chemical reactions to produce

energy for their metabolism and growth.

To function, the machinery of life must be separated from its surroundings — some form of

extracellular fluid (ECF). This function is provided by the plasma membrane.

Today's plasma membranes are made of a double layer of phospholipids. They are only

permeable to small, uncharged molecules like H2O, CO2, and O2. Specialized transmembrane

transporters are needed for ions, hydrophilic, and charged organic molecules (e.g., amino acids and

nucleotides) to pass into and out of the cell.

However, the same Szostak lab that produced the finding described above reported in the 3

July 2008 issue of Nature that fatty acids, fatty alcohols, and monoglycerides — all molecules that

can be synthesized under prebiotic conditions — can also form lipid bilayers and these can

spontaneously assemble into enclosed vesicles.

Unlike phospholipid vesicles, these

admit from the external medium charged molecules like nucleotides

admit from the external medium hydrophilic molecules like ribose

grow by self-assembly

are impermeable to, and thus retain, polymers like oligonucleotides.

These workers loaded their synthetic vesicles with a short single strand of deoxycytidine (dC)

structured to provide a template for its replication. When the vesicles were placed in a medium

containing (chemically modified) dG, these nucleotides entered the vesicles and assembled into a

strand of Gs complementary to the template strand of Cs.

Here, then, is a simple system that is a plausible model for the creation of the first cells from

the primeval "soup" of organic molecules.

Fig. 10 - From unicellular to multicellular organisms

This transition is probably the easiest to understand. Several colonial flagellated green algae

provide a clue. These species are called colonial because they are made up simply of clusters of

independent cells. If a single cell of Gonium, Pandorina, or Eudorina is isolated from the rest of the

colony, it will swim away looking quite like a Chlamydomonas cell. Then, as it undergoes mitosis,

it will form a new colony with the characteristic number of cells in that colony. (The figures are not

drawn to scale. Their sizes range from Chlamydomonas which is about 10 µm in diameter — little

larger than a human red blood cell — to Volvox whose sphere is some 350 µm in diameter — visible

to the naked eye.)

FIG. 10

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The situation in Pleodorina and Volvox is different. In these organisms, some of the cells of

the colony (most in Volvox) are not able to live independently. If a nonreproductive cell is isolated

from a Volvox colony, it will fail to reproduce itself by mitosis and eventually will die. What has

happened? In some way, as yet unclear, Volvox has crossed the line separating simple colonial

organisms from truly multicellular ones. Unlike Gonium, Volvox cannot be considered simply a

colony of individual cells. It is a single organism whose cells have lost their ability to live

independently. If a sufficient number of them become damaged, the entire sphere of cells will die.

What has Volvox gained? In giving up their independence, the cells of Volvox have become

specialists. No longer does every cell carry out all of life's functions (as in colonial forms); instead

certain cells specialize to carry out certain functions while leaving other functions to other specialists.

In Volvox this process goes no further than having certain cells specialize for reproduction while

others, unable to reproduce themselves, fulfill the needs for photosynthesis and locomotion.

In more complex multicellular organisms, the degree of specialization is carried much

further. Each cell has one or two precise functions to carry out. It depends on other cells to carry out

all the other functions needed to maintain the life of the organism and thus its own.

The specialization and division of labor among cells is the outcome of their history of

differentiation. One of the great problems in biology is how differentiation arises among cells, all of

which having arisen by mitosis, share the same genes. Link to a discussion of the solution.

The genomes of both Chlamydomonas and Volvox have been sequenced. Although one is

unicellular, the other multicellular, they have not only about the same number of protein-encoding

genes (14,516 in Chlamydomonas, 14,520 in Volvox) but most of these are homologous. Volvox has

only 58 genes that have no relatives in Chlamydomonas and even fewer unique mRNAs.

At one time, many of us would have expected that a multicellular organism like Volvox with

its differentiated cells and complex life cycle would have had many more genes than a single-celled

organism like Chlamydomonas. But that turns out not to be the case.

How to explain this apparent paradox? My guess is that just as we have seen in the evolution

of animals, we are seeing here that the evolution of organismic complexity is not so much a matter

of the evolution of new genes but rather the evolution of changes in the control elements that dictate

how and where the basic tool kit of eukaryotic genes will be expressed .

The evidence is compelling that all these organisms are close relatives; that is, belong to the

same clade. They illustrate how colonial forms could arise from unicellular ones and multicellular

forms from colonial ones.

3. RNA beginning All metabolism depends on enzymes and, until recently, every enzyme has turned out to be

a protein. But proteins are synthesized from information encoded in DNA and translated into RNA.

So here is a chicken-and-egg dilemma. The synthesis of DNA and RNA requires proteins. So

proteins cannot be made without nucleic acids and nucleic acids cannot be made without proteins.

The discovery that certain RNA molecules have enzymatic activity provides a possible solution.

These RNA molecules — called ribozymes — incorporate both the features required of life: storage

of information, the ability to act as catalysts.

While no ribozyme in nature has yet been found that can replicate itself, ribozymes have been

synthesized in the laboratory that can catalyze the assembly of short oligonucleotides into exact

complements of themselves. The ribozyme serves as both the template on which short lengths of

RNA ("oligonucleotides" are assembled following the rules of base pairing and the catalyst for

covalently linking these oligonucleotides. In principal, the minimal functions of life might have

begun with RNA and only later did proteins take over the catalytic machinery of metabolism and

DNA take over as the repository of the genetic code.In the cell, all deoxyribonucleotides are

synthesized from ribonucleotide precursors.

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Many bacteria control

the transcription and/or

translation of certain genes with

RNA molecules, not protein

molecules. –Fig.11

Pyrimidine ribonucleotide assembly options. Previously assumed synthesis of b-ribocytidine-

2’,3’-cyclic phosphate 1 (blue; note the failure of the step in which cytosine 3 and ribose 4 are

proposed to condense together) and the successful new synthesis described here (green). p, pyranose;

f, furanose. From (Powner et al. 2009). Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd. –

Fig. 12

3.1 simple beginnings Instead of developing from complex molecules such as RNA, life might have begun with smaller

molecules interacting with each other in cycles of reactions. These might have been contained in

simple capsules akin to cell membranes, and over time more complex molecules that performed these

FIG. 11

FIG. 12

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20 The Book of Genesis – Science

reactions better than the smaller ones could have evolved, scenarios dubbed "metabolism-first"

models, as opposed to the "gene-first" model of the "RNA world" hypothesis.

3.2 chemical evolution Liquid water provides a universal solvent and warm environment for chemical evolution. It is a

vehicle for dissolved substances (it circulates). And it provides the raw material for protein

construction.

When the primordial soup is exposed to energy, organic compounds are produced as shown

by the Miller-Urey Experiment. Amino acids are small, highly reactive molecules composed of 20 to 30 HCNO atoms. When

amino acids link together in strings they form proteins. Proteins govern chemical reaction rates and

form the structural material for cell parts. Most importantly, they can form into microspheres when heated, which serves to separate

chemical reactions and processes. The problem is that with the vastness of the Earth's oceans it is

statistically very improbable that these early proteins would ever link up. The solution is that the

huge tides from the Moon produced inland tidal pools, which would fill and evaporate on a regular

basis to produce high concentrations of amino acids, who then linked themselves into

macromolecules.

With the construction of large macromolecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids, the Earth

is poised for the next stage of biochemical evolution. Living organisms are the supreme example of

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active matter. They represent the most developed form of organized matter and energy that we know.

They exemplify growth, adaptation, complexity, unfolding form variety and unpredictability. Almost

appearing to be a class apart from matter and energy, defying the laws that enslave normal matter

and energy.

Every organism is unique, both in form and development. Unlike physics where one studies

classes of identical objects (e.g. electrons, photons), organisms are all individuals. Moreover,

collections of organisms are unique, species are unique, the evolutionary history of the Earth is

unique, the entire biosphere is unique. On the other hand, a cat is a cat, a cell is a cell, there are

definite regularities and distinguishing features that permit organisms to be classified.

Each level of biology has new and unexpected qualities, qualities which cannot be reduced

to the properties of the component parts, this is known as holism. A living organism consists of a

large range of components differing greatly in structure and function (heart, liver, hair). Yet, the

components are arranged and behave in a coherent and cooperative fashion as though to a common

agreed plan. This endows the organism with a discrete identity, makes a worm a worm, a dog a dog.

FIG. 13

Fig. 13 - The best way to study chaotic behavior, also called nonlinear behavior, is with the use of a

pendulum.

No living thing exits in isolation. All organisms are strongly coupled to their inanimate

environment and require a continual throughput of matter and energy as well as the ability to export

entropy. From a physical and chemical point of view, every organism is strongly out of equilibrium

with its environment. In addition, life on Earth is an intricate network of mutually interdependent

organisms held in a state of dynamic balance. Then concept of life is fully meaningful only in the

context of the entire biosphere.

A large number of complex chemical reactions is the underlying process that we call life.

The ingredients for life are:

1. energy source

2. supply of nutrients (building blocks)

3. self-regulating mechanisms

The first two criteria were

supplied by the conditions of the

early Earth environment. The third

criteria was presented by the

endpoint of chemical evolution

where the long chains of nucleic

acids were formed which

developed into RNA and DNA. –

Fig. 14

RNA and DNA are

molecular codes for the production of proteins. They have the unique property of being self-

FIG. 14

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replicating (when an RNA molecule splits, amino acids connect to the endpoints producing an exact

copy of the original chain). The beginning of biochemical evolution was when RNA and DNA

evolved to coat themselves in protein shells. These coated RNA and DNA packages are called a

virus. A virus is halfway between life and non-life, being non-living when in isolation, but adapting

living characteristics in interaction with other cells.

The next stage in biochemical evolution was for various virus' to take on specialized tasks

(energy production, protein production, etc). These individual elements would combine to form the

first cell. Our earliest evidence of cellular life comes from fossil bacteria. – Fig. 15

FIG. 15

With the development of cells, life took on an explosive evolution into more diverse

forms, invading new environments (sea, lakes, land).

3.3 Miller–Urey experiment Scientists have argued for decades that Earth life originated in organic substances existing in the

so-called "primordial soup" precursor chemical compounds present. Nobody could, however,

explain how simple amino acids have been assembled s o as to lead to the genesis of life.

Once you have reviewed the results , so far unpublished , of an experiment conducted by U.S.

scientist Stanley Miller in 1953 , chemists have found that laboratory work has generated a

considerable amount of amino acids - protein of human life , the newspaper "Wired " . Miller became

famous for his research on the birth of these proteins , but estimates of the Earth's atmospheric

composition in the moment of life were considered imprecise. However , recent results extracted

from samples found in a dusty box in Miller's office by one of his former students , Jeffrey Bada ,

are linked to a device that simulate conditions existing volcanic three billion years. Miller was only

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22 years old and taught doctorate when he conducted his first experiments in a jar filled with water,

methane, hydrogen and ammonia - the vision of the " primordial soup ," says the BBC. Wanted to

test ideas so far on the origin of life by applying electrical sparks that mixtures that simulate the

vision of that , young Earth's atmosphere . When his research revealed traces of amino acids ,

including glycine and alanine, Miller became overnight celebrity . Immediately afterwards he has

completed work by injecting hot steam into the gas mixture so as to simulate the conditions of a

volcanic eruption problem was, however, that Miller published only vague details of these latter tests

deemed irrelevant and device simulation disappeared.

One-step reactions among the mixture components can produce hydrogen cyanide (HCN),

formaldehyde (CH2O) and other active intermediate compounds (acetylene, cyanoacetylene, etc.):

CO2 → CO + [O] (atomic oxygen)

CH4 + 2[O] → CH2O + H2O

CO + NH3 → HCN + H2O

CH4 + NH3 → HCN + 3H2 (BMA process)

The formaldehyde, ammonia, and HCN then react by Strecker synthesis to form amino

acids and other biomolecules:

CH2O + HCN + NH3 → NH2-CH2-CN + H2O

NH2-CH2-CN + 2H2O → NH3 + NH2-CH2-COOH (glycine)

3.4 Evolution Biology as a science made its move from an Arisotitlean stage to a Newtonian one with the

development of the theory of evolution. Evolution is a change in the gene pool of a population over

time. A gene is a hereditary unit (the microscopic `atom') that can be passed on unaltered for many

generations. The gene pool is the set of all genes in a species or population (the macroscopic ̀ object').

Populations evolve, not individuals. In order to understand evolution, it is necessary to view

populations as a collection of individuals, each harboring a different set of traits. A single organism

is never typical of an entire population unless there is no variation within that population. Individual

organisms do not evolve, they retain the same genes throughout their life. When a population is

evolving, the ratio of different genetic types is changing -- each individual organism within a

population does not change.

The process of evolution can be summarized in three sentences: Genes mutate. Individuals

are selected. Populations evolve.

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was an English clergyman, whose writings on population

growth had a strong influence on the theory of evolution by natural selection developed by Charles

Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. In An

Essay on the Principle of Population (1797),

Malthus observed that most organisms

produce far more offspring than can possibly

survive.- Fig. 16

Even when resources are plentiful,

the size of a population tends to increase

geometrically until the population outstrips

its food supply. This led Malthus to believe

that poverty, disease, and famine was a

natural and inevitable phenomenon, leading

to a "struggle for existence".

Evolution came of age as a science

when Charles Darwin published "On the

Origin of Species." Darwin's contributions

include hypothesizing the pattern of FIG. 16

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common descent and proposing a mechanism for evolution -- natural selection.

Darwin read Lyell's Principles of Geology and came to accept Lyell's view that long-term

geological processes were responsible for shaping the earth's surface in a gradual manner. Indeed,

Darwin successfully applied uniformatarianism to explain the development of coral reefs.

In Darwin's theory of natural selection, new variants arise continually within populations. A

small percentage of these variants cause their bearers to produce more offspring than others. These

variants thrive and supplant their less productive competitors. The effect of numerous instances of

selection would lead to a species being modified over time.

4. Human evolution Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike

ancestors. Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people

originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six million years.

One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to walk on two legs --

evolved over 4 million years ago. Other important human characteristics -- such as a large and

complex brain, the ability to make and use tools, and the capacity for language -- developed more

recently. Many advanced traits -- including complex symbolic expression, art, and elaborate cultural

diversity -- emerged mainly during the past 100,000 years.

Humans are primates. Physical and genetic similarities show that the modern human species,

Homo sapiens, has a very close relationship to another group of primate species, the apes. Humans

and the great apes (large apes) of Africa -- chimpanzees (including bonobos, or so-called “pygmy

chimpanzees”) and gorillas -- share a common ancestor that lived between 8 and 6 million years ago.

Humans first evolved in Africa, and much of human evolution occurred on that continent. The fossils

of early humans who lived between 6 and 2 million years ago come entirely from Africa.

Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20 different species of early humans.

Scientists do not all agree, however, about how these species are related or which ones simply died

out. Many early human species -- certainly the majority of them – left no living descendants.

Scientists also debate over how to identify and classify particular species of early humans, and about

what factors influenced the evolution and extinction of each species.

Early humans first migrated out of Africa into Asia probably between 2 million and 1.8

million years ago. They entered Europe somewhat later, between 1.5 million and 1 million years.

Species of modern humans populated many parts of the world much later. For instance, people first

came to Australia probably within the past 60,000 years and to the Americas within the past 30,000

years or so. The beginnings of agriculture and the rise of the first civilizations occurred within the

past 12,000 years.

4.1 Paleoanthropology Paleoanthropology is the scientific study of human evolution. Paleoanthropology is a subfield

of anthropology, the study of human culture, society, and biology. The field involves an

understanding of the similarities and differences between humans and other species in their genes,

body form, physiology, and behavior. Paleoanthropologists search for the roots of human physical

traits and behavior. They seek to discover how evolution has shaped the potentials, tendencies, and

limitations of all people. For many people, paleoanthropology is an exciting scientific field because

it investigates the origin, over millions of years, of the universal and defining traits of our species.

However, some people find the concept of human evolution troubling because it can seem not to fit

with religious and other traditional beliefs about how people, other living things, and the world came

to be. Nevertheless, many people have come to reconcile their beliefs with the scientific evidence.

Early human fossils and archeological remains offer the most important clues about this

ancient past. These remains include bones, tools and any other evidence (such as footprints, evidence

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25 The Book of Genesis – Science

of hearths, or butchery marks on animal bones) left by earlier people. Usually, the remains were

buried and preserved naturally. They are then found either on the surface (exposed by rain, rivers,

and wind erosion) or by digging in the ground. By studying fossilized bones, scientists learn about

the physical appearance of earlier humans and how it changed. Bone size, shape, and markings left

by muscles tell us how those predecessors moved around, held tools, and how the size of their brains

changed over a long time. Archeological evidence refers to the things earlier people made and the

places where scientists find them. By studying this type of evidence, archeologists can understand

how early humans made and used tools and lived in their environments.

4.2 Evolution and range

The genus Homo diverged from other hominins in Africa, after the human clade split from

the chimpanzee lineage of the hominids (great ape) branch of the primates. Modern humans, defined

as the species Homo sapiens or specifically to the single extant subspecies Homo sapiens, proceeded

to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000–60,000 years

ago, Australia around 40,000 years ago, the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands

such as Hawaii, Easter Island,Madagascar, and New Zealand between the years 300 and 1280.

Evidence from molecular biology – Fig. 17

FIG.17

Family tree showing the extant hominoids: humans (genus Homo), chimpanzees and

bonobos (genus Pan), gorillas (genus Gorilla), orangutans (genus Pongo), and gibbons (four genera

of the family Hylobatidae: Hylobates,Hoolock, Nomascus, and Symphalangus). All except gibbons

are hominids.

The closest living relatives of humans are chimpanzees (genus Pan) and gorillas

(genus Gorilla). With the sequencing of both the human and chimpanzee genome, current estimates

of similarity between human and chimpanzee DNA sequencesrange between 95% and 99%. By

using the technique called a molecular clock which estimates the time required for the number of

divergent mutations to accumulate between two lineages, the approximate date for the split between

lineages can be calculated. The gibbons (Hylobatidae) and orangutans (genus Pongo) were the first

groups to split from theline leading to the humans, then gorillas (genus Gorilla) followed by

the chimpanzees and bonobos (genus Pan). The splitting date between human and chimpanzee

lineages is placed around 4–8 million years ago during the late Mioceneepoch.

Evidence from the fossil record – Fig. 18

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26 The Book of Genesis – Science

Skulls of

1. Gorilla

2. Australopithecus

3. Homo erectus

4. Neanderthal (La Chapelle aux

Saints)

5. Steinheim Skull (Archaic Homo

sapiens)

6. Caucasoid (H. Sapiens)

There is little fossil evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee and hominin

lineages. The earliest fossils that have been proposed as members of the hominin lineage

are Sahelanthropus tchadensis dating from7 million years ago, and Orrorin tugenensis dating

from 5.7 million years ago and Ardipithecus kadabba dating to5.6 million years ago. Each of these

has been argued to be a bipedal ancestor of later hominins, but in each case the claims have been

contested. It is also possible that either of these species is an ancestor of another branch of African

apes, or that they represent a shared ancestor between hominins and other Hominoidea. The question

of the relation between these early fossil species and the hominin lineage is still to be resolved. From

these early species theaustralopithecines arose around 4 million years ago diverged into robust (also

called Paranthropus) and gracile branches, one of which (possibly A. garhi) went on to become

ancestors of the genus Homo.

The earliest members of the genus Homo are Homo habilis which evolved around 2.3 million

years ago. Homo habilis is the first species for which we have positive evidence of use of stone tools.

The brains of these early hominins were about the same size as that of a chimpanzee, and their main

adaptation was bipedalism as an adaptation to terrestrial living. During the next million years a

process of encephalization began, and with the arrival of Homo erectus in the fossil record, cranial

capacity had doubled. Homo erectus were the first of the hominina to leave Africa, and these species

spread through Africa, Asia, and Europe between 1.3 to 1.8 million years ago. One population of H.

erectus, also sometimes classified as a separate species Homo ergaster, stayed in Africa and evolved

into Homo sapiens. It is believed that these species were the first to use fire and complex tools. The

earliest transitional fossils between H. ergaster/erectus and archaic humans are from Africa such

as Homo rhodesiensis, but seemingly transitional forms are also found at Dmanisi, Georgia. These

descendants of African H. erectus spread through Eurasia from ca. 500,000 years ago evolving

into H. antecessor, H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis. The earliest fossils of anatomically

modern humans are from the Middle Paleolithic, about 200,000 years ago such as the Omo

remains of Ethiopia and the fossils of Herto sometimes classified asHomo sapiens idaltu. Later

fossils of archaic Homo sapiens from Skhul in Israel and Southern Europe begin around 90,000 years

ago.

FIG. 18

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27 The Book of Genesis – Science

4.3 Anatomical adaptations Reconstruction of Homo habilis, the first

human ancestor to use stone tools – Fig. 19.

Human evolution is characterized by a

number

of morphological, developmental, physiological,

and behavioral changes that have taken place since

the split between the last common ancestor of

humans and chimpanzees. The most significant of

these adaptations are 1. bipedalism, 2. increased brain

size, 3. lengthened ontogeny (gestation and infancy),

4. decreased sexual dimorphism. The relationship

between all these changes is the subject of ongoing

debate Other significant morphological changes

included the evolution of a power and precision grip,

a change first occurring in Homo erectus.

Bipedalism is the basic adaption of the hominin line,

and it is considered the main cause behind a suite

of skeletal changes shared by all bipedal hominins.

The earliest bipedal hominin is considered to be either Sahelanthropus or Orrorin,

with Ardipithecus, a full bipedal, coming somewhat later. The knuckle walkers,

the gorilla and chimpanzee, diverged around the same time, and either

Sahelanthropus or Orrorin may be humans' last shared ancestor with those animals. The early

bipedals eventually evolved into theaustralopithecines and later the genus Homo. There are several

theories of the adaptational value of bipedalism. It is possible that bipedalism was favored because

it freed up the hands for reaching and carrying food, because it saved energy during locomotion,

because it enabled long distance running and hunting, or as a strategy for avoiding hyperthermia by

reducing the surface exposed to direct sun.

The human species developed a much larger brain than that of other primates – typically

1,330 cc in modern humans, over twice the size of that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. The pattern

of encephalization started with Homo habilis which at approximately 600 cc had a brain slightly

larger than chimpanzees, and continued with Homo erectus (800–1100 cc), and reached a maximum

in Neanderthals with an average size of 1200-1900cc, larger even than Homo sapiens. The pattern

of human postnatal brain growthdiffers from that of other apes (heterochrony), and allows for

extended periods of social learning and language acquisition in juvenile humans. However, the

differences between the structure of human brains and those of other apes may be even more

significant than differences in size. The increase in volume over time has affected different areas

within the brain unequally – the temporal lobes, which contain centers for language processing have

increased disproportionately, as has the prefrontal cortex which has been related to complex decision

making and moderating social behavior. Encephalization has been tied to an increasing emphasis on

meat in the diet, or with the development of cooking, and it has been proposed that intelligence

increased as a response to an increased necessity for solving social problems as human society

became more complex.

The reduced degree of sexual dimorphism is primarily visible in the reduction of the

male canine tooth relative to other ape species (except gibbons). Another important physiological

change related to sexuality in humans was the evolution of hidden estrus. Humans are the only ape

in which the female is fertile year round, and in which no special signals of fertility are produced by

the body (such as genital swelling during estrus). Nonetheless humans retain a degree of sexual

dimorphism in the distribution of body hair and subcutaneous fat, and in the overall size, males being

around 25% larger than females. These changes taken together have been interpreted as a result of

FIG. 19

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28 The Book of Genesis – Science

an increased emphasis on pair bonding as a possible solution to the requirement for increased

parental investment due to the prolonged infancy of offspring.

4.4 Rise of Homo sapiens The path followed by humans

in the course of history – Fig. 20.

By the beginning of the Upper

Paleolithic period (50,000 BP),

full behavioral modernity,

including language, music and

other cultural universals had

developed. As modern humans

spread out from Africa they

encountered other hominids such

as Homo neanderthalensis and the

so-called Denisovans. The nature

of interaction between early

humans and these sister species

has been a long standing source of

controversy, the question being

whether humans replaced these

earlier species or whether they

were in fact similar enough to interbreed, in which case these earlier populations may have

contributed genetic material to modern humans. Recent studies of the human and Neanderthal

genomes suggest gene flow between archaic Homo sapiens and Neanderthals and Denisovans.

This dispersal out of Africa is estimated to have begun about 70,000 years BP from northeast

Africa. Current evidence suggests that there was only one such dispersal and that it only involved a

few hundred individuals. The vast majority of humans stayed in Africa and adapted to diverse array

of environments. Modern humans subsequently spread globally, replacing earlier hominins (either

through competition orhybridization). They inhabited Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 years BP, and

the Americas at least 14,500 years BP.

4.5 Transition to civilization The rise of agriculture, and domestication of animals, led to stable human settlements.

Until c. 10,000 years ago, humans lived as hunter-gatherers. They generally lived in small nomadic

groups known as band societies. The advent of agriculture prompted the Neolithic Revolution, when

access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of

animals and the use of metal tools for the first time in history. Agriculture encouraged trade and

cooperation, and led to complex society. Because of the significance of this date for human society,

it is the epoch of the Holocene calendar or Human Era.

About 6,000 years ago, the first proto-states developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt's Nile Valley and

the Indus Valley. Military forces were formed for protection, and government bureaucracies for

administration. States cooperated and competed for resources, in some cases waging wars. Around

2,000–3,000 years ago, some states, such as Persia, India, China, Rome, and Greece, developed

through conquest into the first expansive empires. Ancient Greece was the seminal civilization that

laid the foundations of Western culture, being the birthplace of Western philosophy, democracy,

major scientific and mathematical advances, the Olympic Games, Western

literatureand historiography, as well as Western drama, including

both tragedy and comedy. Influential religions, such as Judaism, originating in West Asia,

and Hinduism, originating in South Asia, also rose to prominence at this time.

FIG. 20

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29 The Book of Genesis – Science

The late Middle Ages saw the rise of revolutionary ideas and technologies. In China, an

advanced and urbanized society promoted innovations and sciences, such as printing and seed

drilling. In India, major advancements were made in mathematics, philosophy, religion

and metallurgy. The Islamic Golden Agesaw major advancements in mathematics, astronomy,

optics, biology, medicine, art and architecture in Muslim empires. In Europe, the rediscovery

of classical learning and inventions such as the printing press led to the Renaissance in the 14th and

15th centuries. Over the next 500 years, exploration and colonialism brought great parts of the world

under European control, leading to later struggles for independence. The Scientific Revolution in the

17th century and the Industrial Revolution in the 18th–19th centuries promoted major innovations

in transport, such as the railway and automobile; energy development, such as coal and electricity;

and government, such as representative democracy and Communism.

With the advent of the Information Age at the end of the 20th century, modern humans live

in a world that has become increasingly globalized and interconnected. As of 2010, almost 2 billion

humans are able to communicate with each other via the Internet, and 3.3 billion by mobile

phone subscriptions.

Although interconnection between humans has encouraged the growth

of science, art, discussion, and technology, it has also led to culture clashes and the development and

use ofweapons of mass destruction. Human civilization has led to environmental

destruction and pollution significantly contributing to the ongoing mass extinction of other forms of

life called the holocene extinction event, which may be further accelerated by global warming in the

future.

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