the biggest fish in the sea? dynamic kenyan labour migration in the east african community

7/28/2019 The Biggest Fish in the Sea? Dynamic Kenyan Labour Migration in the East African Community

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ACPOBS/2013/PUB02

THE BIGGEST FISH

IN THE SEA?

Dynamic Kenyan

labour migrationin the East African

Community

OBSERVATORY ON MIGRATIONOBSERVATOIRE ACP SUR LES MIGRATIONSOBSERVATRIO ACP DAS MIGRAESO

Research

Report

An Initiative of the ACP Secretariat,

Funded by the European Union

Implemented by IOM and with the Financial Support of Switzerland,

IOM, the IOM Development Fund and UNFPA

International Organization for Migration (IOM)Organisation internationale pour les migrations (OIM)

Organizao Internacional para as Migraes (OIM) 2013

Prof. John O. Oucho, Lead Researcher

Dr. Linda A. Oucho, Associate Researcher

Antony O. Ongayo, Associate Researcher

IOM 1995 - MKE0018


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OBSERVATORY ON MIGRATIONOBSERVATOIRE ACP SUR LES MIGRATIONSOBSERVATRIO ACP DAS MIGRAESO

THE BIGGEST FISH IN THE SEA?

Dynamic Kenyan labour migration in

the East African Community

Prof. John O. Oucho, Lead Researcher

Dr. Linda A. Oucho, Associate Researcher

Antony O. Ongayo, Associate Researcher


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Acknowledgements

The research team at the African Migraon and Development Policy Centre(AMADPOC) that undertook the research, on which this report is based, would

like to thank instuons and individuals who made its work possible. It isgrateful to the ACP Observatory on Migraon team in Brussels, Belgium, forproviding the grant to carry out the research, in parcular the out gone Director,Laurent de Boeck and Susanne Melde for remaining steadfast throughoutthe study; to the ACP Observatory on Migraon Focal Point in Nairobi, AliceKimani, for constantly staying in touch with AMADPOC to ensure successfulcompleon of the work; and to the Naonal Consultave Commiee (NCC)in Kenya for providing guidance and vital feedback that improved the qualityof the work. In respecve countries Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda

the team wishes to thank naonal government agencies and private labourrecruing agencies: various ministries and agencies dealing with labour andlabour migraon maers as well as naonal umbrella organizaons privatelyrecruing labour for parcular countries of desnaon; and special thanks goto Chrisne Wandera for conducng interviews with stakeholders in Rwanda.The team is indebted to the AMADPOC sta for their involvement in variousaspects of the study which adds to the tally of studies the Centre managed toaccomplish this year.

However, the team absolves those acknowledged for any errors of commissionor omission that may be contained in this report.


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Abbreviations and acronyms

ACP Africa, Caribbean and Pacic

ADB African Development Bank

ATE Associaon of Tanzania EmployersAU African Union Ministry of Jusce and Constuonal Aairs

COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa

DRC Democrac Republic of Congo

EAC East African Community

EU European Union

FKE Federaon of Kenya Employers

GDP Gross Domesc ProductHTP Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Tracking in Person,

Especially Women and Children

ICT Informaon and Communicaons Technology

IDPs Internally Displaced Persons

IGAD InterGovernmental Authority on Development

ILO Internaonal Labour Organizaon

IMF Internaonal Monetary FundIOM Internaonal Organizaon for Migraon

KANU Kenya African Naonal Union

KEPEA Kenya Associaon of Private Employment Agencies

KEPSA Kenya Private Sector Alliance

KIIs Key Informant Interviews

KNBS Kenya Naonal Bureau of Stascs

MDGs Millennium Development GoalsMEACA Ministry of East African Community Aairs

MIRP Ministry of State for Immigraon and Registraon of Persons

MOFA Ministry of Foreign Aairs

MOJ Ministry of Jusce and Constuonal Aairs

MOL Ministry of Labour

MOYAS Ministry of Youth Aairs and Sports

MSP Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and AirNCPD Naonal Council for Populaon and Development

NEPAD New Partnership for Africas Development


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NMP Naonal Migraon Policy

NRB Naonal Registraon Bureau

OECD Organizaon for Economic Cooperaon and Development

OPM Oce of the Prime Minister

PEA Private Employment Agency

PEACCM Protocol on the East African Community Common Market

PRSPs Poverty Reducon Strategy Papers

RCK Refugee Consorum Kenya

RECs Regional Economic Commissions

SADC Southern African Development Community

SAGA SemiAutonomous Government Agency

TIC Tanzania Investment Corporaon

TIP Tracking In Persons

TRQAN Temporary Return of Qualied African Naonals

TUCT Trade Union Congress of Tanzania

UK United Kingdom

UN United Naons

UNCTAD United Naons Conference on Trade and Development

UNDESA United Naons Department of Economic and Social Aairs

UNDP United Naons Development Programme

UNHCR United Naons High Commissioner for Refugees

URT United Republic of Tanzania

WTO World Trade Organizaon

YEDF Youth Enterprise Development Fund

YESA Youth Employment Scheme Abroad


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List of tables and gures

Tables

Table 1: Ministries and their mandates in labour migraon management inKenya

Table 2: Types of labour recruited by KAPEA

Table 3: Parts and Arcles on the ve freedoms of movement and rights inthe protocol on the EAC Common Market

Table 4: Annexes specifying regulaons relang to the various freedoms ofmovement and rights in the protocol on the EAC Common Market

Table 5: Categories of workers and subgroups of workers by the EAC by

Partner StatesTable 6: Policy frameworks guiding labour migraon in the EAC by partner

state

Figures

Figure 1: Immigrants by world regions of origin, 2009

Figure 2: Roadmap to East African integraon

Box

Box 1: Mobility provisions for cizens of parcipang States


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Executive summary

The Naonal Consultave Commiee(NCC) of the African, Caribbean and

Pacic (ACP) Observatory on Migraon(hereaer ACP Observatory) in Kenyahas asked the ACP Observatory tocommission a study on the funconingand coherence of the Kenyan labourmigraon policies in the wider region.Given this mandate, the study hasdrawn on documentary analysis

and interviews. The research teamundertook key informant interviews(KIIs) using quesonnaires/check listsadministered to key informants ofthe Government of Kenya ministries/agencies with labour/labourmigraon porolios and privatelabour recruing organizaons in

both Kenya and three of four EACPartner States who were interviewedgiven their instuonal knowledgeof their set ups in relaon to, andinvolvement in, the topic of the study.

The studys objecve was twofold:to contribute to the idencaonof labour market needs that help

to prepare evidencebased policydecisions regarding SouthSouthlabour mobility in both Kenya andthe employment strategies of othercountries in the region; and toimprove and maximize the role oflabour migraon in the programmesand policy frameworks relang

to SouthSouth mobility throughrecommendaons tailored to theKenyan context.

The revived East African Community(EAC) Common Market framework

dates back to 2010, 10 years aerthe EAC II1 entered its current state.The Protocol on the Establishment ofthe East African Community CommonMarket (PEACCM) was signed in2009 and entered into force in thesubsequent year upon racaon ofthe EAC countries (Burundi, Kenya,

Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda). TheEAC Common Market is based onthe Treaty that established the EACII, which is built on four pillars orfreedoms: the free movement ofgoods, labour, services and capital.The freedom of movement of persons,workers, the right of establishment,

the right of residence and thecommitments on the progressiveliberalizaon of services are alreadyspecied in annexes to the PEACCM(EAC Secretariat, n.d.).

With this Common Marketframework, the EAC has reached thesecond level of regional integraon

aer the Customs Union fully enteredinto force in 2010. According tothe EAC Secretariat (n.d.), the nextstages will include the realizaonof the Monetary Union iniated in2012 and thereaer the EAC PolicalFederaon.

1 To avoid confusion, the two editions ofthe East African Community (EAC) arereferred to in this study as EAC I (19671977) and EAC II (since 2000). For details,see Oucho (1998, 2006 and 2009).


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protecon of its emigrant workersand to protect immigrant workersin their countries, including inKenya.

Generally, this study has shownthat the EAC would benetimmensely from an EACwidestudy on policy frameworks andlegislaon concerning regionallabour migraon. In addion, thestudy acknowledges that Kenyahas produced increasing numbersof highly educated and skilledemigrant workers in SouthernAfrica notably Botswana, SouthAfrica and Namibia whichfuture research on SouthSouthlabour migraon frameworksshould explore to provide broader

perspecves of EasternSouthernAfrican migraon, as well as interdependence.

To redress the tendency of Kenyansto emigrate without the supportof the Government of Kenya,the Ministry of Foreign Aairs,working through its diplomac

missions and home ministries ofthe desnaon countries, shouldinstute registraon of all emigrantKenyans, updang the registerperiodically, wherever the cizensreside. This could inform thedevelopment of a comprehensivedatabase from which crical

decisions about labour migraoncould be derived.

The maximizaon of thedevelopmental potenal of theKenyan diaspora would also bemuch more likely if the government

could develop a comprehensivediaspora engagement policy and thenecessary instuonal frameworks tofacilitate construcve engagement.Such measures ought to take intoaccount the skills background of theKenyan diaspora in order to verifythe areas for possible parcipaon

in the various sectors of the naonaleconomy. The adverse impact ofthe emigraon of Kenyan healthpersonnel on the management ofhealth services without a policy isan issue that calls for a carefullyconceived policy direcon.

Tapping into the diasporasdevelopmental potenal alsorequires an adequate environment(polical and economic stability,infrastructure and incenves), thatencourages return, investment,innovaon and the transfer of skills.Moreover, the Government of Kenya

also needs to address the issues ofinstuonal compability and policycoherence within and betweenthe various government ministries,department and agencies workingon the subject of migraon for thepurpose eecvely managing thevarious dimensions of migraon,

including labour migraon.


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Rsum analytique

Le Comit consultaf naonal (NCC)au Kenya de lObservatoire des tats

dAfrique, Carabes et Pacique(ACP) sur les migraons (ciaprs,lObservatoire ACP) a demand lObservatoire ACP de commanditerune tude sur le fonconnement etla cohrence des poliques knyanesen mare de migraon de la mainduvre dans lensemble de la

rgion. Dans le cadre de ce mandat,ltude sest appuye sur une analysedocumentaire et sur des entrevues.Lquipe de recherche a ralis desentrevues avec des informateurscls au moyen de quesonnaires/listes de contrle administrs auxinformateurs cls des ministres et

organismes du gouvernement knyanen charge du travail et de la migraonde main duvre, ainsi quauxorganisaons de recrutement prives,tant au Kenya que dans trois desquatre autres tats partenaires de laCAE ; en raison de leur connaissancedes cadres instuonnels lis lobjet

de ltude et de leur implicaon dansce domaine.

Lobjecf poursuivi par ltude taitdouble : 1) contribuer lidencaondes besoins du march du travail etainsi faciliter la prise de dcisionsstratgiques fondes sur des donnesprobantes en mare de mobilit du

travail et de stratgies pour lemploiSudSud, tant au Kenya que dansdautres pays de la rgion ; 2) par le

biais de recommandaons adaptesau contexte knyan, amliorer et

opmiser le rle de la migraonde main duvre au sein desprogrammes et cadres stratgiquesen matire de mobilit SudSud.

Le lancement du March communde la Communaut dAfrique de lEst(CAE) remonte 2010, dix ans aprs lertablissement de la CAE (la CAE II2).Le Protocole relaf la craon duMarch commun de la CommunautdAfrique de lEst (CAE) a t sign en2009 et est entr en vigueur lannesuivante, lors de sa racaonpar les tats membres de la CAE(Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzanieet Ouganda). Le March communde la CAE sappuie sur le trait ayantinstu la CAE II qui, luimme, reposesur quatre piliers ou liberts :la libre circulaon des biens, de lamain duvre, des services et descapitaux. La libre circulaon despersonnes, des travailleurs, les droitsdtablissement et de rsidence etles engagements pris concernantla libralisaon progressive desservices gurent dj aux annexes duProtocole sur le March commun dela CAE (Secrtariat CAE).

2 Pour viter toute confusion, on ferarfrence aux deux ditions de la Com-munaut dAfrique de lEst (CAE) de lamanire suivante : CAE I (19671977) etCAE II (depuis 2000). Pour de plus amplesdtails, veuillez consulter Oucho (1998,2006, et 2009).


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Avec le March commun, la CAE aralis la deuxime tape de sonintgraon rgionale, aprs lentreen vigueur de lunion douanire, en

2010. Le Secrtariat de la CAE indiqueque la prochaine tape dintgraonest la ralisaon de lunion montaireinie en 2012 et, ensuite, la craonde la fdration politique de la CAE.

Principales conclusions et

recommandaons

Voici les ds auxquels sont confrontsles organismes gouvernementauxknyans : manque de poliques et deprocdures bureaucraques fondessur des donnes probantes, ce qui apour consquence dentraver la miseen uvre harmonieuse des poliquesen mare de migraon de main

duvre ; manque de ressourceshumaines adquates pour certainesprofessions spciques ; absence dunepolique migratoire cohrente pouvantcontribuer rgler les quesons ensuspens et ; marginalisaon, par leNaonal Council for Populaon andDevelopment (Conseil naonal pour

la Populaon et le dveloppement,NCPD), des problmaques autour dela migraon et de la migraon de mainduvre par rapport aux autres voletsdu dveloppement.

Les rsultats de cee tude pourrontsavrer ules pour toutes lesautres Communauts conomiques

rgionales (CER) africaines, ainsi quepour les CER dans dautres rgions dumonde.

La principale conclusion re deltude est la posion dominante duKenya au sein de la Communautconomique rgionale (CER) de la

CAE, ainsi quau niveau de lorede main duvre. En eet, lepays connat un dveloppementconomique stable, bas surune philosophie capitaliste, etune producon croissante deressources humaines hautementqualies, dans un contexte de

paix et de tranquillit relavesdepuis son indpendance, il y a48 ans. Ltude en conclut que laposion dominante du Kenya enmare dore de main duvreest vitale pour ses homologuesdes pays de la CAE. Il convienttoutefois de dterminer la raison

pour laquelle on permet quecee posion dominante persistedans lintrt des besoins en mainduvre exprims par direntspays, dans le contexte du Protocolesur le March commun de la CAE.

Un autre rsultat frappant est

que tous les cadres naonauxlis la polique du travail sontantrieurs liniave rcentede libre circulaon garane par leProtocole sur le March communde la Communaut dAfriquede lEst (PEACCM) de 2010. Ilconvient donc dharmoniser

ces cadres stratgiques an queles tats membres de la CAEpuissent fonconner sur la mme


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longueur donde et ainsi appliquerpleinement le PEACCM. Les cinqliberts de circulaon et les deuxdroits dtablissement et de

rsidence du PEACCM aectentle ssu socioconomique de lasocit et devront ncessairementtre intgrs aux cadres dedveloppement naonaux, commenaonal Vision 2000s.

Le Rwanda dispose de la loirgissant lemploi des citoyens etdes trangers la plus complte et laplus polyvalente ; les autres tatsmembres de la CAE pourraient seninspirer, voire ladopter.

Seuls lOuganda et le Rwanda ontra la Convenon internaonaledes Naons Unies sur la protecon

des droits de tous les travailleursmigrants et des membres de leurfamille (ICMW) de 1990. Bienque tous les travailleurs migrantssoient protgs par les normesinternaonales en marede droits de lhomme, il estsouhaitable que les autres tats

membres de la CAE raent euxaussi la convenon ICMW pourassurer une meilleure proteconde leurs travailleurs migrs etdes travailleurs immigrs dans leurpays, y compris au Kenya.

De manire gnrale, ltude

a rvl que la CAE proterait

normment dune tude menedans tous ses tats membres surles cadres stratgiques et lgislafsen mare de migraon rgionale

de la main duvre. En outre,ltude souligne que le Kenya agnr un nombre croissant detravailleurs migrs trs instruitset hautement qualis en Afriqueaustrale, notamment au Botswana,en Afrique du Sud et en Namibie.Les futurs travaux de recherche

portant sur les cadres de migraonde la main duvre SudSudpourraient exploiter ces donnespour orir une perspecve pluslarge de la migraon de lEst versle Sud de lAfrique, ainsi que delinterdpendance.

Pour inchir la tendance migrer des Knyans linsu dugouvernement, le Ministre desAaires trangres, par le biaisde ses missions diplomaques etministres locaux dans les paysde desnaon, devrait rendreobligatoire lenregistrement de tous

les migrs knyans. Ces registresseraient mis jour rgulirement,en foncon du lieu de rsidencedes citoyens. On contribueraitainsi llaboration dune base dedonnes exhaustive permeantde prendre des dcisions criquesen mare de migraon de main

duvre.


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Lopmisaon des potenels dedveloppement de la diasporaknyane a plus de chances daboursi le gouvernement tait en

mesure dlaborer une poliqueglobale relave lengagement desdiasporas et les cadres instuonnelsncessaires pour faciliter unengagement construcf. De tellesmesures devront prendre en compteles comptences et lexpriencede la diaspora knyane, an dedterminer les ventuels domaines

de parcipaon aux direntssecteurs de lconomie naonale.Limpact ngaf de lmigraon dupersonnel de sant knyan sur lageson des services de sant, sanstoutefois disposer dune polique, estun problme pour lequel il convientde prendre des mesures mrementrchies.

Lulisaon des potenels dedveloppement des diasporasexige galement un environnementadquat (stabilit, infrastructure et

incitations politiques et conomiques)qui encourage le retour, lesinvestissements, linnovation et latransmission des comptences. Enoutre, le Gouvernement knyandoit galement rgler les problmesde compabilit instuonnelle etde cohrence polique au sein de

et entre les dirents ministres,dpartements et organismesgouvernementaux travaillant sur lamigraon, an darriver une gesonecace des direntes dimensionsde la migraon, y compris de lamigraon de la main duvre.


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Resumo executivo

O Conselho nacional consulvo(Naonal Consultave Commiee,

NCC) do Observatrio da frica,das Carabas e do Pacco (ACP) dasMigraes (doravante denominadoObservatrio ACP) no Quniasolicitou que o Observatrio ACPorganizasse um estudo relavo aofuncionamento e coerncia daspolcas de migrao laboral do

Qunia em termos de regio alargada.No mbito desta solicitao, o estudobaseouse em anlises documentais eentrevistas. A equipa de invesgaorealizou entrevistas com informanteschave (key informant interviews,KIIs) ulizando quesonrios/listasde vericao administrados a

informantes de ministrios/agnciasdo Governo do Qunia com porolioslaborais/de migrao laboral eorganizaes de recrutamentolaboral privadas no Qunia e emtrs dos quatro Estados Parceiros daComunidade da frica Oriental (CAO)que foram entrevistados tendo em

conta os respecvos conhecimentosinstucionais relavamente aocenrio em que se inserem e aoenvolvimento no tema de estudo.

O objecvo do estudo foi dividido emdois: contribuir para a idencaodas necessidades do mercado detrabalho que ajudam a preparar

decises polcas baseadas em provasrelavamente mobilidade laboralSulSul no Qunia e estratgias de

emprego de outros pases da regio;e melhorar e maximizar o papel da

migrao laboral nos programas eestruturas de polcas relavamente mobilidade SulSul atravs derecomendaes medida do contextoQueniano.

A estrutura do Mercado Comum daComunidade da frica Oriental (CAO)revista data de 2010, 10 anos depoisde a CAO II3 assumir o estado actual.O Protocolo de Estabelecimento doMercado Comum da Comunidade dafrica Oriental (PEACCM em ingls) foiassinado em 2009 e entrou em vigorno ano seguinte mediante racaopor parte dos pases que compema CAO (Burundi, Qunia, Ruanda,Tanznia e Uganda). O MercadoComum da CAO baseiase no Tratadoque estabeleceu a CAO II, assente emquatro pilares ou liberdades: o livremovimento de mercadorias, trabalho,servios e capital. O livre movimentode pessoas, trabalhadores, o direitode estabelecimento, o direito deresidncia e os compromissos paracom a liberalizao progressiva dosservios j so especicados nosanexos do PEACCM (Secretariado daCAO, n.d.).

3 Para evitar confuso, as duas edies daComunidade da frica Oriental (EAC) somencionadas neste estudo como CAO I(19671977) e CAO II (a partir de 2000).Para obter detalhes, consultar Oucho(1998, 2006 e 2009).


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Com esta estrutura de MercadoComum, a CAO alcanou o segundonvel de integrao regional apsa Unio Aduaneira ter entrado

totalmente em vigor em 2010. Deacordo com o Secretariado da CAO(n.d.), as fases seguintes incluiroa realizao da Unio Monetriainiciada em 2012 e posteriormente aFederao Polca da CAO.

Principais concluses e

recomendaes

Os desaos enfrentados pelasagncias do Governo do Quniaincluem a falta de formulaode polcas e procedimentosburocrcos apoiados por provas queameaa a implementao prca daspolcas relacionadas com a migraolaboral; a falta de recursos humanosadequados para algumas vocaesespeccas; ausncia de uma polcade migrao coesa capaz de ajudara resolver questes pendentes; emarginalizao da migrao e damigrao laboral entre outros temas

de polcas de desenvolvimento peloConselho Nacional para a Populao eo Desenvolvimento (NCPD em ingls)do pas.

Os resultados deste estudo realamo seu carcter instruvo para todasas outras Comunidades EconmicasRegionais Africanas (RECs em ingls) e

Comunidades Econmicas Regionaisnoutras regies do mundo.

A principal concluso obda doestudo a de que o domnio doQunia na Comunidade EconmicaRegional da CAO e no fornecimento

laboral, tendo em conta odesenvolvimento econmicoestvel do pas moldado com basenum carcter capitalista, destacoua produo de recursos humanosaltamente qualicados para almda relava paz e tranquilidadeao longo dos seus 48 anos de

independncia. O estudo concluiuque o domnio do fornecimentolaboral do Qunia vital para oscongneres da CAO, no entantoexistam questes sobre o movopelo qual deve permirse que odomnio persista no interesse dosrequisitos laborais expressos pelos

respecvos pases no contexto doPEACCM.

Uma concluso notvel quetodas as estruturas de polcaslaborais nacionais so anteriores recente iniciava de livremovimento destacada no

Protocolo de Estabelecimento doMercado Comum da Comunidadeda frica Oriental (PEACCM)de 2010. Consequentemente,as estruturas de polcasrequerem harmonizao paraos pases da CAO operarem nomesmo comprimento de onda

e implementarem o PEACCM natotalidade. As cinco liberdadesde movimento e os dois direitos


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de estabelecimento e residnciado PEACCM tocam no tecidosocioeconmico da sociedade edevem, caso seja necessrio, ser

incorporados nas estruturas dedesenvolvimento nacionais, taiscomo a Naonal Vision 2000s.

O Ruanda tem a lei mais abrangentee versl relavamente aotrabalho dos cidados nacionaise estrangeiros no pas, sendo queos outros Estados Parceiros daCAO devem tentar adoptla oureproduzila.

Apenas o Uganda e o Ruandaacederam ConvenoInternacional sobre a Proteco dosDireitos de Todos os TrabalhadoresMigrantes e dos Membros das

suas Famlias (InternaonalConvenon on the Protecon of

the Rights of All Migrant Workers

and Members of Their Families,ICMW em ingls) de 1990.Apesar de todos os trabalhadoresmigrantes estarem protegidospor normas de direitos humanos

internacionais, recomendase queos outros pases da CAO raquema ICMW para reforar a protecodos trabalhadores emigrantese proteger os trabalhadoresimigrantes nos respecvos pases,incluindo no Qunia.

De um modo geral, este estudodemonstrou que a CAO beneciariaem grande medida de um estudo

escala da CAO sobre as estruturasde polcas e a legislao relava migrao laboral regional. Paraalm disso, o estudo reconhece que

o Qunia produziu nmeros cadavez mais elevados de trabalhadoresemigrantes altamente qualicadose formados na regio Sul de frica,nomeadamente no Botsuana,frica do Sul e Nambia, sendoque a futura invesgao sobreas estruturas de migrao laboral

SulSul deve explorar este facto paraoferecer perspecvas mais amplasda migrao Africana OrienteSul,bem como interdependncia.

Para abordar a tendncia deemigrao dos Quenianos semo apoio do Governo do Qunia,

o Ministrio dos NegciosEstrangeiros, a trabalhar atravsde misses diplomcas e com osministrios nacionais dos pases dedesno, deve instuir o registo detodos os emigrantes Quenianos,actualizando periodicamente oregisto onde quer que os cidados

residam. Esta aco poderia servircomo base de informao para odesenvolvimento de uma base dedados abrangente a parr da qualpoderiam derivar decises crcassobre a migrao laboral.

A maximizao do potencial de

desenvolvimento da disporaQueniana tambm muito maisprovvel se o governo for capaz de


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desenvolver uma polca abrangentede envolvimento da dispora e asestruturas instucionais necessriaspara facilitar o envolvimento

construvo. Tais medidas devem terem conta o histrico de competnciasda dispora Queniana para vericar asreas para a possvel parcipao nosvrios sectores da economia nacional.O impacto adverso da emigrao detcnicos de sade Quenianos sobre aadministrao dos servios de sade

sem qualquer polca uma questoque exige uma orientao polcacuidadosamente concebida.

Abordar o potencial dedesenvolvimento das disporastambm exige um ambiente adequado(estabilidade polca e econmica,

infraestrutura e incenvos), quepromova o retorno, invesmento,

inovao e transferncia decompetncias. Para alm disso,o Governo do Qunia tambmnecessita de abordar as questes da

compabilidade instucional e dacoerncia de polcas nos e entre osvrios ministrios governamentais,departamentos e agncias quese dedicam ao tema da migraopara a gesto ecaz das diferentesdimenses da migrao, incluindo amigrao laboral.


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1. Background and context of the study

1.1 Introduction

This study was commissioned bythe African, Caribbean and Pacic(ACP) Migraon Observatory for anAssessment of the Kenyan PolicyFramework concerning SouthSouthLabour Migraon. Its primary purposeis to provide reliable evidence on thedynamics and frameworks governingSouthSouth4 labour migraon in

Kenya. The ndings are intended toaid Kenya and other ACP countriesin the region in integrang humanmobility into naonal and regionaldevelopment plans and povertyreducon strategies. In view of Kenyasregional signicance, the study, whichwas inially to concentrate only on

Kenya, subsequently took on the EastAfrican Community (EAC) PartnerStates with the excepon of Burundi.5

4 Denition of South in this study:UNDP proposed the very high humandevelopment index (HDI) in 2009 todistinguish between developing anddeveloped countries. In the 2010 report,the upper 42 countries are classied as

having reached a very high HDI and arethus considered developed countries.The remaining countries on the UNDP listare considered to belong to the South andthe movements of population betweenthese countries are known as SouthSouthmigration. (ACP Observatory ResearchGuide, 2011, adapted from Bakewell, O.,2009, SouthSouth Migration and HumanDevelopment, reections on AfricanExperiences. Human Development ReportResearch Paper, 2009/07, http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2009/papers/HDRP_2009_07.pdf).

5 Logistical shortcomings and timeconstraints inevitably rendered coverage

The term labour migraon is referredto in this study as: the movement

of persons from their home Stateto another State for the purpose

of employment. Labour migraon

is addressed by most States in

their migraon laws. In addion,

some States take an acve role in

regulang outward labour migraon

and seeking opportunies for their

naonals abroad. (IOM, 2011 asrecommended in ACP Observatory,2011).

Regional integraon has beenincreasing in recent years in EastAfrican Community (EAC) countries.Refounded from the rst version

established between 1967 and 1977by the Treaty on the Establishmentof the EAC II6, the EAC II Treaty wassigned in 1999 by only the originalthree Member States the Republicsof Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania. TheTreaty entered into force in the year2000 following the conclusion of its

racaon process and the depositof the Instruments of Racaon

of Burundi impractical, hence its omissionfrom the study. This does not affect theEAC perspective because Burundi hasonly recently shown interest in recruitingskilled Kenyan labour because of languagelimitations (Burundi is French speaking)constraining progress in this initiative.

6 To avoid confusion, the two editions ofthe East African Community (EAC) arereferred to in this study as EAC I (19671977) and EAC II (since 2001). For details,see Oucho (1998, 2006, and 2009).
http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2009/papers/HDRP_2009_07.pdfhttp://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2009/papers/HDRP_2009_07.pdfhttp://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2009/papers/HDRP_2009_07.pdfhttp://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2009/papers/HDRP_2009_07.pdfhttp://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2009/papers/HDRP_2009_07.pdfhttp://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2009/papers/HDRP_2009_07.pdf


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1.2 Objectives of the Study

The objecve of the study was twofold:to contribute to the idencaonof labour market needs to prepareevidencebased policy decisionsregarding SouthSouth labourmobility in both Kenyas employmentpolicy and those at the regional leveland by other EAC countries; and toimprove and maximize the role oflabour migraon in the programmacand policy framework on SouthSouth mobility in Kenya throughpolicy recommendaons tailored tothe Kenyan context.

Specically, the study aimed toundertake:

An interrogaon of the naonal

policy framework on SouthSouthlabour migraon.

A proper capacityneedsassessment of the exisng policyframework governing labourmobility between Kenya and otherACP countries, in parcular withinthe EAC region.

An assessment of the ow of ACPcountries workers from and intoKenya, taking into consideraontheir potenal in the naonal andregional development iniaves.

This study provides the basis for, and

enhances, the capacity building ofpolicymakers, civil society actors andresearch groups and individuals in

Kenya visvis other ACP countriesthrough (a) improving knowledgeof labour migraon to and fromother countries in the South,

including the migrants situaonsand (b) strengthening the migraondevelopment nexus in Kenyaspolicymaking.

It is against these objecves that thestudy took on the EAC to provideperspecves on the SouthSouthlabour migraon of countries that,by signing the PEACCM in November2009, which came into force in 2010,are commied to systemazinglabour migraon for the benet ofindividual Partner States and the EACregion as a whole.

Currently, labour emigraon and

immigraon constute the twosides of the internaonal migraonthat is of special interest to theGovernment of Kenya. At the sameme, internaonal migraon entailsconsiderable potenal for regionalcooperaon in the East AfricanCommunity, given its adopon of the

PEACCM, in which free movementof persons as well as the factors ofproducon are pernent.

Given the importance of regionallabour migraon and its opportuniesin Kenya, this needs assessment ofSouthSouth mobility examines how

the capacies of the dierent naonalactors need to be enhanced to ensurean eecve implementaon of exisng


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processes through a comprehensiveapproach, taking into consideraon aSouthSouth perspecve. Challengessuch as nancial constraints and

limited human resource capaciescan impede the development andimplementaon of comprehensivelabour migraon strategies and plans(Achacoso, 2004; 2010). Moreover,while intraregional labour mobility isan important phenomenon, a concretestrategy has not been developed sofar. For Kenya, this policy assessmentaims to yield informaon that couldhelp to improve the exisng structureand the implementaon of the newDual Cizenship provision allowedby the Kenya Constuon which waspromulgated in August 2010. TheDual Cizenship Act, which has nowbeen passed, as well as the Diaspora

Policy in progress, will provide newopportunies for Kenyan labourresidents in other parts of the world,including the South.

1.3 Methodology

This study employed several

approaches to collect data. Theapproaches employed are consistentwith the kind of study undertakenand stand the test of cricism amonglabour migraon stakeholders.

The methods of data colleconused were a literature review tocontextualize the study in the SouthSouth labour migraon system ofKenya, desk research on publishedmaterials, websites, literature and

other informaon that enriched thestudy, and key informant interviews(KIIs).

Using a quesonnaire/check

list, key informants from certainGovernment of Kenya ministries/agencies and private labour recruingorganizaons in the four EAC PartnerStates were interviewed based ontheir instuonal knowledge of theirset ups in relaon to, and involvementin, the study topic.

Government of Kenyainterviewees:

It was noted that several Kenyanministries/departments/agenciesare concerned with SouthSouthmigraon. In terms of genericfuncons, they include the

Ministries of Labour, Immigraonand Registraon of Persons, ForeignAairs (Diaspora Division); the Oceof the Prime Minister (OPM); theYouth Enterprise Development Fund(YEDF); the Ministry of Planning andNaonal Development and Vision2030; and the Ministry of the East

African Community.8 Key personsfrom these sectors were interviewed,some alone, others with colleagues.

8 These ministries reect the nature of the

coalition government formed in Kenyaafter the 2007 post-election violence(PEV). After the general election in March

2013, the ministries are likely to change inaccordance with the Kenyan Constitutionadopted in 2010, stipulating that thenumber of ministries will be decreased bynearly half.


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Interviews with GovernmentOcials of EAC Partner States:

Interviews were held withGovernment ocials from three EACPartner States:, Rwanda, Uganda andTanzania. The primary purpose ofthese interviews was to invesgatethe respecve countries naonallabour migraon frameworks thatguide immigraon from Kenya, andhow the similar frameworks in EACstates in turn guide their naonalsto emigrate to Kenya. This wasimperave given that all naonallabour and employment acts predatethe PEACCM, in parcular the annexon the Free Movement of Labour(FMOL).

Private Organizaons in the EACPartner States:

The private organizaons interviewedwere mainly aliates of the KenyaAssociaon of Private EmploymentAgencies (KAPEA). These includedInveTrack, Interlead, Elvale, Madina,Alsair, My jobs eye.com Local

Only, Placement Africa and PriceWaterhouse Coopers. The KAPEAsecretariat was uncomfortable withinterviews, but directed the researchteam to their aliates who wereextremely helpful.

Apart from consultaons with KAPEA

and its aliates, consultaons weremade with private organizaons ineach of the three EAC Partner States.

In the laer, it was much easier tointerview selected private labourrecruing organizaons withoutrecourse to the naonal body to

which they are aliated.

The method of analysis was based ona content analysis of interviews andavailable documents: notably relevantpolicy documents, publicaons,reports and naonal developmentstrategies, including Vision 2030,

Poverty Reducon Strategy Papers(PRSPs), Naonal Acon Plans (NAPs),Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) and naonal employment/labour acts or policies, as well asinternaonal instruments, bilateralagreements and protocols on labourmigraon that the country has signed

and/or raed.

1.4 Literature Review

Studies on labour migraon in Kenyaor involving Kenyan emigrant labourhave been rather general. They have

not relied on hard data, resulng inthe recording of anecdotal evidence.

1.4.1 Immigraon

Kenya is an important desnaoncountry for migrants coming fromCentral and Eastern Africa as well asother connents. The Development

Research Centre on Migraon,Globalisaon and Povertysdatabase (Migraon DRC, 2007,


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based on census data for the period20002002) reports immigraon fromseveral African countries. The overallmajority of the migrants (or 79% of

the total), come from subSaharanAfrica countries, with the top twelvecountries of origin being Nigeria(7.9%), the Republic of the Congo(7.61%), Eritrea (7.5%), Burundi(6.31%), the Democrac Republic ofthe Congo (DRC, 5.76%), Mozambique(4.25%), Somalia (4.3%), Chad (4.3%),

Sudan (3.81%), Rwanda (3.59%),Senegal (2.78%) and Mali (1.72%);only two of these Burundi andRwanda are EAC countries.

Figure 1 shows the composion ofthe immigrant populaon in Kenyaas of the 2009 Populaon and

Housing Census. Of the total numberof immigrants (357,468), the vastmajority were from Africa (84%),followed by Asia (10%), Europe (4%)and America (2%); with Australia andCaribbean with less than 1 per cent(Kenya, 2012: 24). This highlights theimportance of SouthSouth migraon

for Kenya as a desnaon country.

Eastern African immigrants accountedfor 60.5 per cent of all Africanimmigrants. This proporon includesmigrants from Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritreaand Somalia. Immigrants from thefour EAC Partner States comprised

31.9 per cent of the total immigrantsfrom Africa, which is aributable tothe EAC revival in 2009, which has

increased crossborder movements,trade and even marriage (Kenya,2012: 24).

Figure 1: Immigrants by world

regions of origin, 2009

Africa

84%

Asia

10%

Europe4%America

2%

Source: Migration Monograph, 2009 Kenya

Population and Housing Census, gure 4.1,

page 24.

On immigraon, a senior ocial ofthe EAC, who spearheads migraonmaers, contends that Chineseimmigraon, for instance, will notaect the region adversely (Makou,2010). Unfortunately, this stancemight be at variance with reality

given that it is not informed byresearch, not least even a cursoryinvesgaon of Chinese immigraonin respecve EAC Partner States.9 This

9 In Nairobi, Kenyan street vendors havemounted several demonstrations againstChinese street vendors, accusing them ofinterfering in work that should be carriedout by Kenyan citizens. The demonstratorsrefer to it as a Chinese invasion of theircommercial territory, highlighting increasedxenophobia and fear of immigrants fromother countries in the South.


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study has not invesgated this issuedespite the media focus on perceivedlargescale Chinese immigraoninto Kenya over the last few years,

presumably associated with theChinese involvement in infrastructuralprojects (Braugam, 2009:280).This maer falls squarely within themandate of the recently establishedKenya Cizens and Foreign NaonalsManagement Service, which couldexplore it in the near future.

The country has also been hosnglarge numbers of refugees fromneighbouring countries in a regionthat has witnessed a disproporonateshare of instability in subSaharanAfrica. According to the UNHCRreport, by the end of 2011, Kenya

was hosng around 566,500 refugeesand about 35,271 asylumseekers(UNHCR, 2011). The refugees aremainly from Ethiopia, Somaliaand Southern Sudan, whereas theasylumseekers are mainly fromeastern areas of the DemocracRepublic of the Congo (DRC). In 2010,

about 403,000 refugees were residingin Kenyan territory, represenng 49.3per cent of internaonal immigraonstock and 3.8 per cent of the total ofworld refugees (UNHCR, 2010) Thiswelldocumented situaon was notaected by the polical and economicinstability Kenya has witnessed in

recent years (IOM, 2010; UNHCR,2010).

UNHCRs Stascal Snapshot, on12 October 2012, indicated thatKenya was hosng 566,487 refugees,35,271 asylumseekers and 20,000

stateless persons. This impliesthat the refugee populaon in thecountry has increased by morethan 200,000 people, linked to theconnuing drought in the Horn ofAfrica. Therefore Kenya is not justhosng purely economic migrants,but also those displaced by violence

and lack of livelihood. The topic oflabour migraon for refugees is onlybeginning to surface as a topic atinternaonal level.10

1.4.2 Emigraon

The Development Research Centre onMigraon, Globalisaon and Povertysdatabase (Migraon DRC hereaer)(2007) esmated that in 2005 theUnited Kingdom, with about 14.5 percent of Kenyan emigrants, was themain desnaon country, followedclosely by intraregional mobilityto Tanzania (13.5%), transatlancmigraon to the United States ofAmerica (4.98%), neighbouringUganda (3.67%) and Canada (2.2%).In 2010, one of the top 10 migraoncorridors was between Uganda andKenya (World Bank, 2011: 45). Kenyanemigraon to Tanzania and Uganda

10 See, for instance, the Global Forum onMigration and Development 2012 in

Mauritius, Common Space.


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implies the importance of the twocountries in regional (EAC) migraon.As most mobility is movated bythe search for employment, this

intraregional dimension deservesmore aenon, contrasng with thepredominant SouthNorth focusin general migraon studies (ACPObservatory on Migraon, 2010).

The same source indicates that overthe period 20002002, 41.5 per centof Kenyan migrants were residing inAfrica, 37.9 per cent in Europe, 14.4per cent in North America, 4.2 percent in Asia, and 0.2 per cent in LanAmerica and the Caribbean. Fromthese data, it can be inferred thatmore than half of Kenyan emigrantslive in Europe and North America,

followed by SouthSouth migraonwithin Africa and to other developingcountries. The Populaon Division ofthe United Naons Department ofEconomic and Social Aairs (UNDESA)esmated the stock of internaonalmigrants residing in Kenya in 2010to be 817,747 persons, or 2 per cent

of the total populaon (UNDESA,2011). A striking fact is the dierencebetween the UNDESA esmates andthat of the Migraon DRC which,in 2005, gave the total number ofnonKenyan residents as 327,444; theACP Observatory on Migraon (2010)aributes the substanal dierence

to dierences with respect to thedenions of immigraon and themethodologies (relying on country of

birth or cizenship) used by the twoinstuons. This aspect highlightsthe need for beer data, in parcularon labour migrants, which is rare,

that requires joint invesgaon andacon by the immigraon and labourauthories in Kenya.

Women accounted for 415,688migrants or 50.8 per cent ofinternaonal migrant stock, a slightlyhigher than world average (49%) thatrequired closer aenon, for instancethrough a qualitave study to beerunderstand the phenomenon(UNDESA, 2011). Macharias(2003) study outlined the historicalmigraon paerns of women fromrural to urban areas stang thatduring the colonial era, women were

pushed out of their rural sengsby a number of noneconomicfactors (Macharia, 2003: 8) whichincluded marital unhappiness. Othersmigrated for the purposes of trading,without securing employment inurban areas. However, the migraonpolicies of the colonial government at

the me repatriated women to ruralareas in order to discourage themfrom migrang and seling in urbanareas (Macharia, 2003: 9). Machariasstudy revealed the dicules thatwomen faced in terms of migrangand seling in urban areas forboth economic and noneconomic

reasons during colonialism. Aer thepostcolonial era, migraon blockswere dismantled and there was more


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freedom of movement, therebychanging the migraon paerns ofboth women and men. However,some cultural barriers sll existed for

women prevenng some of them frommigrang including the expectaonto care for the household and itsmembers (e.g. parents, children).Nonetheless, women have migratedto urban areas for employmentand access to beer facilies, suchas water. Another relevant study is

by Francis (1995) who gives a casestudy from western Kenya to explainthe links between labour migraon,rural economic decline and changesin relaonship within households. Itgives a good insight into the role ofwomen when their husbands migrateto urban areas. It is noceable that

recent research on the migraonpaerns of female labour migrantsis dicult to trace. This study aimsto draw aenon to the migraon offemale labour migrants linking themto the established the Government ofKenyas emigraon and immigraonpolicies.

However, there is limited data onthe skill and occupaonal proles ofthe majority of Kenyan migrants, itis largely comprised of persons withprofessional, technical and businessskills including doctors, nurses,engineers, accountants, researchers,

teachers, managers and businesspeople (Ghai, 2004). About 198,100Kenyans live in OECD countries,

mainly academics (36.9%), 32.7per cent of those with secondaryeducaon and 26 per cent of thosewith primary educaon qualicaons

(OECD, 2009).

In 2010, Kenya was among thetop 10 remiance recipients with(USD 1.8 billion), represenng 5.4per cent of GDP (World Bank, 2011:34). The Central Bank of Kenya(2012) indicates that annual totalremiances to the country more thandoubled from USD 408 million in 2006to USD 895.8 million in 2011.11 Largevolumes of internal remiances, inparcular urban rural remiances,have been a common feature forKenya, much of it sent through themobile phone money transfer system.

The main drivers of emigraonfrom Kenya in recent years include,but are not limited to, high ruralunemployment, intercommunityinequality, environmental factorssuch as droughts and rainfallunpredictability, high populaongrowth and polical instability.

Although it is acknowledged thatmany Kenyans have emigrated

abroad, it is hard to nd accuratequantave data on the numbers andtrends of Kenyan diasporas (Okoth,2003 and Ghai, 2004, quoted in ACP,2010).

11 However, some of the increase can beaccounted for due to better measurements,not actual increases.


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The changing polical environmentand economic fortunes have triggeredemigraon from Kenya. In the decade19801990, polical repression and

economic instability led to massiveemigraon of highly educated andhighly skilled Kenyans (MigraonPolicy Instute, 2003). From a policaland economic perspecve some ofthese condions changed aer theintroducon of mulparty policsin Kenya, as well as the improved

economic growth since 2003 whenthe independence party (KANU) wasvoted out of power.

Several studies have covered topicsrelated to labour migraon in Kenyaand East Africa at the onset of thethird millennium, giving specialaenon to highlyskilled workers as

a major concern for policymakers,researchers and civil society in Kenya(Munyae, n.d.; Macharia, 2003;Shitundu, 2006; Makou, 2010;Achacoso, 2010). However, themajority of migrant workers tend tobe lower skilled and they also needadequate aenon.

1.4.3 The polical framework

Against these changes, the last decadehas witnessed Kenyas recovery, inwhich the Kenyan emigrants anddiaspora have made an increasinglysignicant nancial contribuon to

the naonal economy, inducing theGovernment of Kenya to reorient itsdevelopment policy to include the

posive dimensions of migraon,including formulang a diaspora policyand dual cizenship as enshrined inthe Immigraon and Cizenship Act

2011. Diaspora remiances have hadleverage on homeland investments,including boosng the growth of thereal estate sector, transportaon andICT, for instance.

Thus, the prevailing policalenvironment has been conducive tothe engagement of Kenyan emigrants

in acvies emanang from thenaonal development plans andpolicy frameworks, including theKenyan Constuon, which waspromulgated in August 2010. Inaddion, the improving policalenvironment has encouraged thereturn of emigrants and the retenon

of skilled immigrants (IOM, 2004).The Government of Kenya hasmade policy iniaves to enhancethe Kenyan diasporas contribuonto naonal development, mainlyin Europe and North America. Theiniave would similarly need to beapplied to Kenyan emigrants in the

EAC and southern Africa.

A recent analysis of internaonalmigraon relang to Kenya providesextremely useful insights into thecountrys labour migraon policies.Achoch (2007) draws aenon tothe Government of Kenyas policiesregarding the free movement ofpeople for employment, a dramacshi from the previous restricvepolicies. Kenyas current Naonal


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for the development of the region.The country is also a party to theIntergovernmental Authority onDevelopment, Regional Consultave

Process on Migraon (IGADRCP),which was established in 2008.

Based on several new iniavesunderway and newly established inKenyas labour migraon framework,as well as the new Dual Cizenshipentlement granted by the 2010Constuon, this study reviews theextent of the enhancement of labour

laws in Kenya pertaining to the rules,regulaons and administraon oflabour migraon with a SouthSouthperspecve; and the established

government procedures for thereview of foreign employmentcontracts, minimum overseas workstandards, due registraon of privaterecruitment agencies and recruitmentprocedures.


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Table 1: Ministries and their mandates in labour migraon management in

Kenya

Ministry Mandate

Immigraon andregistraon ofpersons

To control and regulate entry and exit of all persons atairports, seaports and land border posts;

To control and regulate residency through issuanceand renewal of entry/work permits and other passesas provided for by the Immigraon Act Issuance ofKenya passports and other travel documents includingUnited Naons Convenon Travel Document (UNCTD)in conjuncon with UNHCR;

To consider and grant Kenya cizenship to qualiedforeigners under the Kenya Constuon and theCizenship Act. Issuance of entry visas provided forunder the Kenya visa regulaons;

To register all noncizens resident in Kenya under theAliens Restricon Act and others;

Declaraon and removal of prohibited immigrants; To oer quasiconsular funcons on behalf of a

number of Commonwealth countries who are notrepresented in Kenya and who have requested theKenya government to do so;

To provide consular services to Kenya naonals andforeigners at the missions abroad;

To invesgate and prosecute persons who contravenethe Immigraon laws and regulaons;

To enforce the Cizenship and Immigraon Act 2011,

and the visa regulaons.

Labour To register, indemnify and inspect employmentagencies, ascertaining the integrity of their servicesas they encourage Kenyans to apply for jobs outsideKenya;

To carry out aestaon of employment agencies andfollow up on performance.


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East AfricanCommunity

To facilitate, coordinate and oversee the development,monitoring and evaluaon of the implementaonof the EAC policies, projects and programmes foreecve integraon;

To promote partnerships, liaison and maintainlinkages with all stakeholders on the EAC maers formaximized benets.

Foreign aairs(diasporadivision)

To encourage engagement with the diaspora forthe purpose of mainstreaming them into naonaldevelopment.

Naonal Council

for Populaonand Development(NCPD)*

To provide leadership in formulang, coordinang

and implemenng appropriate populaon policiesand programmes for sustainable development;

To provide enhanced capacity in populaon policymanagement for the improvement of the quality oflife of Kenyans.

* Note: The National Council for Population and Development (NCPD) is a Semi-Autonomous

Government Agency (SAGA) under the Ministry of Planning and National Development and

Vision 2030.

2.1.1 Ministry of Immigraon and

Registraon of Persons

In the Ministry of Immigraon andRegistraon of Persons (MIRP), thework of the Immigraon Departmentis guided by a number of frameworks,namely the Immigraon Act, Cap

172, Laws of Kenya; the CizenshipAct, Cap 170, Laws of Kenya; theAliens Restricon Act, Cap 173, Lawsof Kenya; the Constuon of Kenya,2010; and the Cizenship Act 2011,Laws of Kenya.

A crique of the funcons of thedepartment pointed out that thecurrent variants of immigraonlegislaon are insucient to achievethe purpose for which they were

enacted. In the crics view, theyrequire a review to reform them toaccommodate polical, social andeconomic change in Kenya and inaccordance with the rise of the BRICScountries (Brazil, Russia, India, Chinaand South Africa; Open, 2003). Theexisng labour policy frameworks arebound to change in view of the KenyaConstuon 2010 that is alreadyengendering reforms.

Some of the challenges facing theKenyan immigraon system are:

The system experiences pressureon scarce resources that constrainits work and the complex demandsof a wide range of maers relangto immigraon. For example, the


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Department of Immigraon isunderstaed, poorly resourcedand its personnel seldom hasonthejob training for capacity

enhancement.

Producon of counterfeit andforged passports and visas is sorampant that the Departmentof Immigraon cannot respondappropriately to contain the crime.Consultaon by the researchteam with Government ocialsrevealed that it is a great challengeto eliminate the pracce ofcounterfeing documents becauseofcorrupon, linking ocials withthose involved in the fraudulentacquision of these documents.

There are restricons for Kenyan

passports holders wishing tovisit Europe or the USA followingsome previous cases of peopleerroneously claiming to be Kenyancizens.

The proliferaon of small armsfollowing the collapse of theSomali state (since 1991) andprevious wars in the GreatLakes region has precipitatedthe criminal use of arms amongthe civilian populaon, causinginternally displaced persons (IDPs)and sustaining refugee inows intoKenya.

Kenyas proximity to the conict inSomalia, South Sudan and even inthe DRC has generated sustainedrefugee inows into Kenya, given

the porous, poorly controlledinternaonal borders.

2.1.2 Collaboraon of the Ministry

of Foreign Aairs and Ministry

of Labour

The Ministry of Foreign Aairs worksclosely with the Ministry of Labouron labour migraonrelated issues.The Ministry is currently working onthe process of signing and rafyingthe Internaonal Convenon on theProtecon of All Migrant Workers andMembers of Their Families (ICMCW)(United Naons, 1990).

The Diaspora Division of the Ministryof Foreign Aairs believes that it isnecessary to formulate a single policythat would simplify interaconswith emigrant Kenyans countries ofdesnaon whenever the need fordiscussion arises. On the size of the

Kenyan diaspora, no authenc gureexists, but nonresearchers give anesmate of three million. Kenyais working towards mapping thediaspora. At a regional forum it wasnoted that each country currentlytakes a fragmented approach, nottreang the diasporas as an EAC

concern.


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2.1.8 Challenges facing the agencies

of the Government of Kenya

Bureaucrac procedures remainan impediment to the formulaonand smooth implementaon of thelabour migraonrelated policies.

Existence of legislave gaps andcontradicons.

Lack of adequate human resourcesfor some specic vocaons.

Lack of a cohesive migraon policythat can help resolve outstandingissues.

Although the NCPD is mandatedto coordinate all populaon andpopulaonrelated acvies in thecountry, it has concentrated mainlyon reproducve health (ferlity

related issues) and mortality,neglecng migraon and, byextension, labour migraon.

2.2 Policy Framework in Private

Labour Recruitment: The

case of KAPEA

Internaonal labour migraon hasgained prominence, especially in thecontext of globalizaon, contribungposively to the economies of bothcountries of origin and countries ofdesnaon. This explains why theILO and the IOM assist both setsof countries to embrace orderly,

open and legal labour migraonand to encourage pracces thatrecognize and protect migrant labour.

Nevertheless, some challengesremain, including intolerance,discriminaon and the smugglingand tracking of internaonal labour

migrants.

2.2.1 KAPEAs contribuon

In Kenya, private employmentagencies have taken up the challengeof idenfying skill shortages, bothlocally and in internaonal job

markets, and enabled Kenyans toaccess employment. The PrivateEmployment Agencies (PEAs) inKenya, through their associaon,the Kenya Associaon of PrivateEmployment Agencies (KAPEA), havedeveloped a Code to meet some ofthese challenges, and in the spirit of

selfregulaon.

To assess the implementaon ofthis code and possible obstacles toits smooth applicaon, this studyinterviewed a number of KAPEAaliates. The study targeted agenciesthat deal with foreign labour

recruitment, namely Interlead,InveTrack, Elmvale Agency, NassamSoluons, Madinah, Alsair Travel andPlacement Africa.

KAPEA carries out the followingfuncons on behalf of employers andpartner agencies:

Recruing and interviewing;

Training jobseekers (by specicagencies);


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Acquiring visas and air ckets, forinstance for workers going to theMiddle East;

Selecon and supply of variouscategories of sta;

Employee background checks andvericaon;

Human capital needs assessmentand recommendaons; and

Employees performance research,feedback and recommendaons.

KAPEAs operaons are guided bylocal and internaonal Convenons,which include:

ILO Convenon No. 96 on FeeCharging Agencies;

ILO Convenon on Migraon for

Employment Convenon No. 97,1949;

ILO Convenon No. 181 on PrivateEmployment Agents; and

Cap 486 of the Laws of Kenya.

Aliates of KAPEA obtain cercaon

mainly from:

Ministry of Labour;

KAPEA;

Kenya Naonal Chambers ofCommerce;

Arab Joint Chambers of Commerce

in the Middle East countries.

2.2.2 Types of labour recruited

Table 1.2 presents the type of labourmigrants recruited through KAPEAarrangements. The study found thatmost KAPEA members specialize infacilitang the migraon of workersfrom Kenya to other countries but noton recruing foreigners into Kenya.

The main desnaons are the MiddleEast countries, in parcular SaudiArabia and Afghanistan (mainly army

rerees), Iraq and Dubai. The workersrecruited are middleaged men andwomen, with the vast majority ofwomen being lower skilled. Accordingto Kenyan newspaper reports, it isevident that the few skilled womenare mostly recruited as teachersand sales persons, while men are

recruited mainly as drivers.


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Table 2: Types of labour recruited by KAPEA

Skilled categories divisionUnskilled and semi-skilled

categories division

Hotel and catering sta Remote sites catering and facili-

es sta Healthcare professionals Engineering sta Accounng and administraon

personnel IT managers & technical support

sta Teaching / Educaonal Sta Telecom industry personnel Sta in all other professions

Security guards Facility workers Oce assistants Data entry clerks Hotels and restaurant service and

kitchen stewards Merchandizing sta Airport luggage assistants

Drivers Retail, supermarket and shop

aendants General maintenance sta All other general organizaon

support sta

Source: Based on interviews with KAPEA.

2.2.3 Challenges facing KAPEA

aliates

The numerous challenges facingvarious PEAs aliated to KAPEAinclude:

Dicules in obtaining decentwork for their clients;

Aligning qualied applicants withjob oers;

Negoang beer employmentcondions;

Following up recruited labourmigrants to ensure employers

compliance with contractualprovisions: for instance, when aworker misbehaves or fails to meet

employers expectaons withinthree months of recruitment, s/he is sent back and the recruingagency has to replace the employeeat its own expense;

Inltraon by unscrupulousagencies engaged in unethical

recruitment pracces;

Inadequate knowledge andapplicaon of naonal andinternaonal standards and bestpracces; and

The contracts are normally short,the longest being two years.


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2.3 Main lessons learnt from

Kenyan perspectives

When the progress report waspresented to the Naonal ConsultaveCommiee (NCC) consisng ofpolicymakers, researchers and civilsociety, on 12 April 2012, it becameclear that Kenyas dominance in theEast African Community (EAC) andthe dynamics of its labour migraonpaerns required an extensionof the study to other EAC PartnerStates: Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzaniaand Uganda. These are East Africancountries that frequently exchangelabour migrants with Kenya and,having adopted the PEACCM in

November 2009, would be expectedto observe the labour migraonframeworks pertaining to the protocoland its implicaons for individual EAC

Partner States. In a way, they provideperspecves of the SouthSouthlabour migraon system in whichKenyas regional labour migraondynamics are embedded. Against thisbackground of the Kenyan situaon,the analysis turns to three other EACPartner States with which it shares

much in common in terms of labourmigraon, namely Uganda, Tanzaniaand Rwanda. Unfortunately, logiscalshortcomings and me constraintsdid not permit coverage of Burundi.


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Table 4: Annexes specifying regulaons relang to the various freedoms of

movement and rights in the protocol on the EAC Common Market

Annex Regulaon and tles

I: Free movementof persons

(1) Citaon; (2) purpose of regulaons; (3)interpretaon; (4) scope of applicaon; (5) entry,stay and exit; (6) stay of students; (7) limitaons; (8)border management and (9) registraon.

II: Free movementof workers

(1) Citaon; (2) purpose of regulaons; (3)interpretaon; (4) scope of applicaon; (5) entry, stayand exit; (6) procedure for acquiring work permits;(7) denial of work permit; (8) cancellaon of work

permit; (9) employment of spouse and child; (10)expulsion of worker; (11) deportaon; (12) access toemployment opportunies; (13) equal treatment inemployment; (14) monitoring of the labour market;and (15) implementaon of regulaons.

III: Right ofestablishment

Same as in II regulaons 18; (9) registraonof licensing; (10) removal of restricons; (11)cooperaon between competent authories; (12)professional and trade organizaons; and (13)cercaon.

IV: Right ofresidence

Same as in I and II regulaons 14; (5) basis forresidence; (6) procedure for applicaon of residencepermit; (7) duraon of residence; (8) procedure foracquiring dependant pass; (9) denial of residencepermit; (10) cancellaon of dependant pass; (11)

expulsion of a resident; and (12) deportaon.V: Schedule ofcommitments onthe progressiveliberalizaon ofservices provided

Ranging from professional services to computerand related services; research and developmentservices; and other business services; courierservices; telecommunicaons services; audiovisualservices; wholesale trade services; retailing services;commission agents services; franchizing; varioustypes of educaonal services; banking and other

nancial services; all insurance and insurancerelatedservices; and tourism and travelrelated services.


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VI: Schedule onthe removal ofrestricons on thefree movement ofcapital

Diers according to individual Partner Statesstructure of the economy, including assets andliabilies.

Source: J.O. Oucho (2009), table 3.

BOX 1: MOBILITY PROVISIONS FOR CITIZENS OF PARTICIPATING STATES

Entry: An EAC cizen will be required to present a valid travel document issued bythe competent authority in his/her country. Acceptable travel documents for EACnaonals to access each others territory are: naonal passports; EAC passports;

temporary permits and/or temporary movement permits; convenonal traveldocuments; and emergency travel documents. The EAC Passport allows the naonalof a given Partner State mulple entries over a sixmonth period. Students fromother EAC Partner States may be issued a student or pupil pass free of charge basedon sasfactory evidence of cizenship, such as an idencaon card and/or anacceptable travel document.

Residency: The Partner States agree to adopt measures to ensure the enjoymentof the right of establishment and residence of their cizens within the community.

Employment: The Partner States agree to: harmonize their labour policies,programmes and legislaon, including those on health and safety; establish aregional centre for producvity and employment promoon; exchange informaonon the availability of employment; and make their training facilies available topersons from other Partner States. At present, the right of EAC naonals to workwithin the region is conngent upon the possession of a valid work permit.

Source: IOM (2007: 20).

Table 5 shows that Kenya andUganda permit free movement ofthe same type of workers, withKenya seeking technicians andassociated professionals of lowercadres (for example, technicians,accounts assistants, etc.) whichUganda requires. This is aributableto Kenyan and Ugandan havingextremely similar educaonal andtraining systems at the me whenTanzania languished in Ujamaa and

both Burundi and Rwanda wereembroiled in serious civil wars.13Burundi permits by far the lowestcadres in the sciences, engineering,mathemacs and stascs. Tanzaniaand Rwanda highlight the freemovement of professionals aswell as technicians and associated

13 Ujamaa is a Swahili word which Tanzaniaadopted for socialism from the late 1960suntil the late 1980s whence the countryhas embraced capitalism.


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3.2 Kenyas dominance in the

Eastern African labour

market

To understand and appreciateKenyas posion in the East Africanlabour migraon system, a retreatto the history of colonialism andthe emergence of the migrantlabour system is necessary. The twodecades 1903 to 1923 saw the inuxof Brish selers from World War I(being rehabilitated in the colonialdependency), and the developmentof infrastructure generated agreat increase in labour demands(Schter, 1982). This demand lateraracted four dominant types ofinternal migraon ruralruralmigraon of wage labour to farms inparcular: ruralurban migraon toemerging towns with modernsectoremployment; urbanurban migraonas town sizes increased; andurbanrural migraon includingreturn migraon aer rerementor upon loss of the bread winner(Ominde, 1968; Oucho, 1996).

Aer World War II, returning soldiersfrom Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika(now mainland Tanzania) had theopon to decide where to returnto as there were no restricons orstrong adherence to the naonalistlabel. In any case, Kenya, Uganda,Tanganyika and the island of Zanzibar

were all Brish dependencies wherefree movement of people, includinglabour, took place. Uninhibited

crossborder migraon among thesedependent countries laid a strongfoundaon for the rst ever Africanregional integraon when, in 1917,

Kenya and Uganda formed a customsunion, later joined by Tanganyikain 1927; the second instance wasthe East Africa High Commission(EAHC) which Governors of the threecountries (Zanzibar had a Sultan, nota Governor) iniated up to 1961; thethird was the East African Common

Services Organizaon (EACSO) 1962to 1966; the fourth was the rstEast African Community (EAC) from1967 to 1977; and the laer wasreconstuted in 2000, admingBurundi and Rwanda in 2007 (Oucho,1995, 1998, 2009, 2012).14 Thus thecurrent exchange of migrant labour

among the EAC Partner States, basedon Ministry of Labour reports fromthe respecve countries, representsone of the best models of SouthSouth migraon but with diverse andlileknown policy frameworks. Thisis because the three EAC countrieshave had close relaonships in the

past and those neighbouring Burundiand Rwanda have strong culturalanity, both condions sustainingthe current format of the EAC.

Kenya emerged as the strongest

agricultural economy that was

14 To avoid confusion, the two editions ofthe East African Community (EAC) arereferred to in this study as EAC I (19671977) and EAC II (since 2000). For details,see Oucho (1998, 2006, and 2009).


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heavily dependent on wage labourand had evolved the most ambiouseducaonal programme whichproduced increasing numbers of

highly educated and skilled personsthat far exceeded the countrysabsorpve capacity in employment.As unemployment increased(from 1984 onwards) and Kenyasneighbours realized the countryshuman resource capacity, labouremigraon became the norm in

Kenya even as the country receiveda counterow of immigrant workers.Under the rst four EAC regionalintegraon iniaves alreadyhighlighted, free movement of labourtook place, and while Uganda wasunder military rule (19711979),both Kenya and Tanzania hosted huge

numbers of Ugandan refugees, someof them employed by the two hostcountries.

3.3 The Kenyan policy

framework in comparison

with EAC partner States

Frameworks

As the work on Kenya progressed andbased on recommendaons from theNaonal Consultave Commiee ofKenya, the study was extended toother EAC Partner States. This wasspecically designed to conductinterviews with key stakeholders inorder to provide regional dimensiondata that could be juxtaposed withthe labour market policies in Kenya.A notable development is that allthe EAC Partner States studied havenaonal Employment Acts thatpredate the Protocol on the EACCommon Market, and which werenecessary for review in the light ofthe laer, ulmately to harmonize therespecve naonal migrant labourpolicy frameworks. In principle,the respecve EAC Partner Statespolicy frameworks, based on ILO/UNconvenons/protocols, are idencal(Table 6).


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Table 6: Policy frameworks guiding labour migraon in the EAC by partner

state

EAC partner

state

Policy framework Remarks

Kenya

The Employment ActChapter 226 (2010)

- Guides employment ofKenyans and Foreigners

Kenya Cizenship andImmigraon Act 2010,No. 12 of 2011

- For bona de andnaturalized (immigrant)Kenyan cizens, includingdual cizens1

Dra Diaspora Policy of

Kenya 2011

- Takes care of Kenyans in

diaspora

Rwanda

Naonal Employment Policy2007

- Guides cizen andimmigrant employment

Law Regulang Labour inRwanda (2009)

- Provides detailed insightsinto regulang cizen andforeign labour

Naonal Migraon Policyand Strategies

- Facilitates tourism,

aracts skills andsupports/promotesinvestment; passed in2009 and implementedfrom 2010

TanzaniaEmployment and LabourRelaons Act 2004

- Guides cizen andimmigrant employmentand labour maers

Uganda Employment Act 2006- Guides cizen and

immigrant employmentand labour maers

Source: National policy and legislative documents of the EAC Partner States.


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3.3.1 A comparison of Kenya and

Tanzania

The rst two decades ofindependence in Kenya and Tanzania,based on capitalism and socialism(Ujamaa) respecvely, saw the twocountries evolve separate labourmarket frameworks despite beingmember states of the mistrustriddenEAC I (19671977). Even with the EACII (since 2000), the two countries aresll uneasy neighbours, especially

as Tanzania receives increasinginvestments from South Africa (thedominant economy in SADC) thattarget Tanzanian labour. However,given the abundance of welleducatedand skilled human resources in Kenya,Tanzania has had to rely on immigrantKenyan labour in various sectors of

its economy. Consultaons madein Tanzania targeted state agenciesas well as private labourrecruingagencies.

Agencies of the Government of

the United Republic of Tanzania

The United Republic of Tanzania(URT) consists of mainland Tanzania(formerly the Brish dependency ofTanganyika) and island Tanzania (theisland of Zanzibar). All consultaonswere limited to the former becauseall the head oces of the URT arelocated there. However, this sllallowed access to informaon on the

laer and, therefore the enre URTwas referenced (simply referred to inthis study as Tanzania).

Ministry of Home Aairs

This Ministry houses the Departmentof Immigraon. Consultaons withthe Commissioner of Immigraonprovided useful insights intoimmigraon to Tanzania. It indicatedthat Kenyans are by far the leadingimmigraon country among theEAC Partner States, followed bySouth Africa and Australia (the lasttwo concentrang on the miningindustry). Kenya is the secondinvestor to the United Kingdom inthe Tanzanian economy. Naturally,Kenyan immigrant workers would beexpected to work in Kenyanownedrms in the country. The consultaonsrevealed further that lowereducaonal levels in Tanzania, whichstarted from zero at independence in

1961, have provided an opportunitywhich Kenya has exploited fully.This made Tanzania grant graspermits inially to Kenyan andRwandan cizens and later to theEAC Partner States following theracaon of the PEACCM, thoughlevying the necessary fees sll

connues. The Ministry decries a lackof domescaon of the PEACCM.On the diaspora, the mainstreamcizen percepon is that theTanzanian diaspora are traitorswith whom the homeland cizensare uncomfortable since they have acompeve advantage that is beyond

the reach of the laer. This senmentwas documented in another study(AMADPOC, 2012).


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Ministry of Labour and Employment

In Tanzania, the EmploymentDepartment of the Ministry of Labourand Employment responded to the

same Convenon. The departmentconsists of three secons thathandle employment service, labourmarket informaon and employmentpromoon. Concerning the issue oflabour migraon, it also has threeunits that deal with many more issues,namely general aspects of labour

migraon, work permit processingand the recruitment of workerswithin and outside the country. Ithas evolved a triparte workingrelaonship with the Associaon ofTanzania Employers (ATE) and theTrade Union Congress of Tanzania(TUCTA). Despite its involvementwith the ILO, Tanzania has not yetsigned the Convenon in queson.This jeopardizes the way the countryhas aracted a burgeoning amountof foreign workers, parcularly inthe private sector since transformingfrom socialism to capitalism.

The Ministry admits highly educated

and skilled immigrant workers toTanzania, notably in the mining,health and tourism sectors throughthe Tanzania Investment Centre(TIC). The major countries oforigin are the United Kingdom andKenya, highlighng an importantintraregional labour mobility angle.However, the Ministry is apprehensive

of the countrys inability to implementthe two 2000 UN convenons ontracking in persons and smuggling

respecvely, hence from me to methe country encounters tracked/smuggled transit migrants from theHorn of Africa who are desned for

Southern Africa. Semiskilled migrantworkers from Tanzania move to theMiddle East, and highly educated, aswell as skilled workers, reside mostlyin the three Southern African buoyanteconomies (Botswana, South Africaand Namibia), the United Kingdom,the United States and Canada.

The Ministry has mandated privatelabour recruitment agencies, throughthe Tanzania Employment ServicesAgency (TaESA), to recruit emigrantworkers based on the Employmentand Labour Relaons Act 2004. Inaddion, the Ministry reaches out todiplomac missions in the countryon immigrant labour desnaon. Itworks closely with the PresidentsOce (Public Service Management),the Ministries of Foreign Aairs andInternaonal Cooperaon, HomeAairs, East African Cooperaonand sectoral ministries (educaon,health, etc.) on labour immigraonand emigraon.

Ministry of East African Cooperaon

This is an important Ministry which,unlike its counterparts in other EACPartner States, works more closelywith the EAC Secretariat in Arusha.It handles naonal consultaons,regional negoaons and thedisseminaon of REC reports forimplementaon by naonalstakeholders.


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Ministry of Internal Aairs

Ugandas Ministry of Internal Aairs,in parcular the Department ofImmigraon and Cizenship, hasbeen at the forefront of immigraonaairs, including labour immigraon.Its role has been crucial in developingUgandas Naonal Migraon Policy(NMP) that is currently underway. Itrecognizes the longstanding exchangeof labour between Uganda and Kenya:receiving from Kenya professionals,

business people, employees in thehospitality sectors as well as servicesand transportaon. In view of thePEACCM, the Ministry has inuencedthe appropriate amendment of Cap66 of the Employment Act, yet haslile to show on the progress of theProtocol itself.

The EAC Secretariat holds sectoralmeengs on specic sectors of theEAC Partner States, parcularly thoserelang to the spirit and leer ofthe PEACCM. In Uganda, clusteredsectors, such as Jusce, Law andOrder, Educaon and Social, arerepresented in those meengs, givingimpetus to the full realizaon of theProtocol. With the increase of humantracking and allied forms of crime,an Interministerial Task Force hasbeen formed to tackle the problem onboth regional and global scales. It isexpected that the Ugandan NMP willstreamline labour, immigraon andemigraon in the PEACCM and thatnaonal chapters will be developedfrom.

Ministry of Gender, Labour and Social

Development (MGLSD)

The Ministry recruits Kenyans, mainlyin the business sector, includingbanking and the hotel industry, as topexecuves. The execuves managesupermarkets (specically Nakumaand Uchumi), which are incorporated/licensed in Kenya but which are fastexpanding to Uganda. If anything,employers have the discreon torecruit Kenyan workers that the

proposed onestopshop iniavewill regulate; and the Ministry is akey member of the EmploymentBoard that was created for this. Onemigraon, the Ministry is guidedby the Employment of UgandanMigrant Workers Abroad. Ugandaranks among the few countries

(the only EAC Partner State) thathave signed the 1990 InternaonalConvenon on the Protecon ofAll Migrant Workers and Membersof Their Families (ICM

the biggest fish in the sea? dynamic kenyan labour migration in the east african community

Documents