The Battle of Van

Resisting Genocide in the Ottoman Empire

Chris Buford

Throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, the non-Muslim inhabitants of the Ottoman

Empire suffered through a multitude of massacres, culminating in the Armenian Genocide of 1915

– 1916. While the Armenian population wasn’t the exclusive target of these campaigns of violence,

they were certainly the most frequent, and hardest hit. During the reign of the Empire’s final Sultan,

Abdul Hamiid II, they suffered the greatest horror to date: the so-called Hamiidian Massacres.

These events gained international attention, and spurred the recently formed American Red Cross to

embark on its first international relief mission. Along with other relief organizations from the

United States and Europe, they endeavored to ease the suffering of the victims of these atrocities,

but it would not be a quick and easy solution. Twenty years later, when the genocide began, there

was still a major international relief presence within the Empire. These groups of foreigners had

essentially changed the social and political landscape of the Empire to the degree that the

perpetrators of ethnic cleansing would no longer act with the impunity that they had previously

enjoyed. One incident demonstrated the effect that these outsiders had in changing how the conflict

transpired, and almost as important, documented the tragedy so that those who had organized and

carried it out could be held accountable. That incident was the Battle of Van, where the Armenian

inhabitants of the city of Van resisted genocide, fought of Turkish soldiers, and held their ground

long enough for Russian reinforcements to arrive.

A Brief History of Armenia and the Ottoman Empire

The history of the Armenian people is a long and storied one. According to tradition, the

Kingdom of Armenia was founded in 2350 BCE by Haik1, one of Noah’s descendants, around Lake

Van. Mount Ararat, the mythic location of the landing of Noah’s Ark, is within this region, and has

been associated with the Armenian people for millennia. Historically speaking, most scholars

believe that sometime in the 8th century BCE, the Armenians crossed the Euphrates river into Asia

Minor and invaded Urartu, where they intermarried and formed a homogenous nation within 2

centuries. From this point forward, the location of this nation would constantly put it at odds with

the empires of both the eastern and western worlds.

Over the subsequent centuries, various empires such as the Romans, the Huns, and the

Byzantines would occupy Armenian territory. In 1080, Prince Roupen established The Barony of

Cilician Armenia2, which lasted until 1375 when invading Mamluks captured the region. 11 years

later, the Mongol conqueror Timur would take Cilicia from the Mamluks, only for it to fall into

Ottoman hands after his death in 1405.

The Ottoman Empire traces its origins to 1299, when Osman I, leader of a small Turkish

State that resulted from the fall of the Seljuk Turk Sultanate, began absorbing other Turkish states

1 Dickran H. Boyajian, Armenia: The Case For a Forgotten Genocide (Westwood, NJ: Educational Book Crafters, 1972), 57. 2 Dickran Boyajian, Armenia: The Case For a Forgotten Genocide, 71.

into his kingdom. The kingdom grew into an empire as subsequent sultans acquired new territories

in Asia Minor, North Africa, and the Balkan peninsula. The reign of Sulayman I3 saw the peak of

the empire in terms of both efficiency and culture, with literature, art, and architecture flourishing.

After his death in the 16th century, corruption began to take hold at all levels of power, with officials

regularly purchasing their positions from the imperial government and then using those positions to

extort greater sums from their subjects.

Perhaps the greatest threat to the empire was the Sultans themselves. From an early point,

there was a great deal of infighting between the heirs of recently deceased Sultans. At first, this led

to a great deal of fratricide from the new Sultans as they eliminated potential challenges to the

throne. Eventually, this practice was thrown out in favor of the eldest sons being the Heir

Designate, but this ended up being even worse for the empire. In order to prevent their heirs from

seizing power from them, the Sultans would usually keep them prisoner in luxurious

accommodations, which left them with almost no experience with the real world, and often either

insane, alcoholic, or both by the time they assumed power. This led to a series of increasingly

unstable, paranoid Sultans who feared more for their personal safety than the state of their empire.

This would reach a fevered pitch in the 19th century when a string of Sultans would implement

multiple massacres against Christian minorities within the empire. The last of these Sultans would

be Abdul Hamiid II, who presided over the Armenian Massacres of 1895-1896.

Abdul Hamiid II’s lack of concern for his empire, increasing paranoia, and loss of territory

eventually lead to several groups rising up to demand reforms. One of these groups came to be

called the Young Turks, and they would end up overthrowing Hamiid and installing his brother as a

puppet Sultan, while they ran the empire from their headquarters in Constantinople.

3 1520 - 1566

Americans in Turkey

In the early 1890’s, word was beginning to reach the United States that a humanitarian crisis

was underway in the Ottoman Empire. Progressive minded individuals in the northeast, Boston

specifically, began to organize to discuss the situation and potential responses to it. One such

meeting took place at Faneuil Hall in Boston on November 26, 18944. It was attended by such

lauded activists as Julia Ward Howe, William Lloyd Garrison Jr., Henry Blackwell and his daughter

Alice Stone Blackwell, and Reverend Samuel Barrows. Before the evening was over, its attendees

had resolved to do all they could to alleviate the suffering of the Armenians. Over the next twenty

years, this would take many forms, ranging from providing aid materials such as food, medicine, and

clothing on site, to building and running schools, churches, hospitals, and orphanages, to

transporting survivors to the United States.

The American Red Cross had been established just over a decade earlier, by Clara Barton, in

1881. The organization was soon tested by the Thumb Fire later in 1881, and again by the

Johnstown Flood in 1889. The crisis in Turkey, however, strengthened their resolve to attempt their

first effort outside the United States.

Missionaries had been in the Ottoman Empire as early as the late 18th century, but

Americans didn’t arrive in force until 1819, when two classmates from Middlebury College, Levi

Parsons and Pliny Fisk, traveled to Smyrna to try converting the Orthodox Christian Armenians into

protestants5. Years later, in 1831, William Goodell and his wife would become the first established

American missionaries in Turkey6. Their organization, The American Board of Commissioner for

4 Peter Balakian, The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America’s Response (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2003), 3 5 Peter Balakian, The Burning Tigris, 25 6 IBID

Foreign Missions (ABCFM), would quickly spread throughout the empire, encompassing “twelve

stations and 270 outstations in Asiatic Turkey; about 150 missionaries and 114 organized

churches…[and] more than thirteen thousand converts to Protestantism. The missionaries taught

more than sixty thousand students in their 132 high schools and eleven hundred elementary schools,

and ran six colleges and various other theological academies.7” Yet for all their successes, the

missionaries found no friends amongst the established leadership of the Armenian Apostolic

Church, who were threatened by the missionaries and Protestantism in general. A slur was even

created to refer to the Armenian protestants, or Protes. This term was a pun that referenced

protestant, but also meant leper in Armenian8. Despite this strained relationship, the missionaries

thrived, and even introduced progressive American ideals, such as women’s rights, through their

schools.

Dr. Clarence Ussher arrived in the Ottoman Empire in 1898, and spent a year in Harput

before being called to the city of Van. He describes the region eloquently. “The main body [of

Lake Van] is seventy miles long and forty-five wide, with a long arm extending northward. One

hundred and ten villages lie on or very near its shores; the great extinct volcano, Nimrud Dagh, is at

the Bitlis end; snow-capped Sipan Dagh, another extinct volcano, is near its northern shore, and the

crater of yet another forms one of its bays.9” He goes on to describe the great plain, which sits on a

plateau fifty-five hundred feet above sea-level, surrounded by mountains twelve to fourteen

thousand feet high. The city of Van had on its outskirts the “Garden City” of Aikesdan, which he

describes as a suburb full of orchards and vineyards. He does not yet describe Van itself, but notes

7 IBID 8 IBID, 26 9 Clarence Douglas Ussher and Grace Higley Knapp, An American Physician in Turkey: A Narrative of Adventures in Peace and in War (1917), (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917), 34

that he would live there for the next sixteen years, which would end up including the Armenian

Genocide, in which he would play an important role.

While the years between his arrival in Van and the siege of the city were hardly uneventful,

the real trouble began in February 1915, when the local Vali, who had been a friend and ally to

Ussher and other foreigners in the region, was replaced by Jevdet Bey, the brother-in-law of the

Minister of War, Enver Pasha. Jevdet would prove to be far different from his predecessor. Almost

immediately following his arrival, he set out on his real mission: to exterminate the Armenians.

One of Jevdet Bey’s first acts to further his mission was to invite a “peace commission” of

four prominent Armenian leaders to discuss the region’s troubles. He quickly had them murdered

on April 16, 1915, on their way to those talks. The Armenian population of Van was in chaos as

word of the killings spread, and Dr. Ussher visited the Vali to see if he could help calm the situation.

During this meeting, the colonel of the Kasab Tabouri (Butcher Regiment) entered. In front of

Ussher, Jevdet Bey instructed the colonel to “go to Shadakh and wipe out its people.10” If Ussher

hadn’t yet acquainted himself with Jevdet, he now knew all he needed to. Thus, several days later,

when the Vali insisted on placing fifty armed Turkish soldiers and a canon within the American

compound for “protection from the despicable Armenians”, Ussher refused, fearing that the Turks

would use the elevated position of the compound for strategic advantage against the Armenians.

Ussher’s instincts were correct, as, unbeknownst to him at the time, Turkish soldiers had been

quartered in the surrounding villages and given a general order that read “The Armenians must be

exterminated. If any Moslem protect a Christian, first, his house shall be burned, then the Christian

killed before his eyes, and then his [the Moslem’s] family and himself.11” Fearing that trouble would

10 Clarence Ussher, An American Physician in Turkey, 237 11 IBID, 244

soon unfold in the city, Ussher attempted to contact the American embassy in Constantinople for

assistance, but was later informed that the Vali had blocked his telegraphs.

The Siege of Van

On Tuesday, April 20th 1915, the first shots were fired as two Armenian men were

attempting to rescue an Armenian woman from being raped by two Turkish soldiers. The Armenian

men were slain, and the shots that killed them signaled the start of an artillery bombardment on the

Armenian quarters of both Aikesdan and Van. Due to previous massacres, the Armenians had

stockpiled some weapons and ammunition in the surrounding villages, but due to the recent

campaign of violence around Van, only “about three hundred men with rifles, and a thousand armed

with pistols and antique weapons, [were left] to defend thirty thousand Armenians.12” There were

two groups, one in Aikesdan and another in Van, but there were cut off from one another, unable to

communicate or coordinate their efforts. That night, Ussher describes a scene of Armenian homes

outside the defensive perimeters being burned to the ground.

As the battle escalated, he describes how the city’s environment contributed to the defensive

efforts. “At first the opposing forces were on opposite sides of the main streets, each watching

eagle-eyed through tiny loopholes for a glimpse of the other. The Armenians joined house to house,

built walls at night, and dug trenches across the roads. They built walls within walls to withstand the

Turkish artillery and soon found just how thick these must be in order to stop the Turkish shells.

The Turks would fire a volley with rifles and the Armenians would reply with pistols, but with

surprising accuracy. Small boys would watch their chance, dash to the door of a Turkish position

with a bundle of rags saturated with kerosene, ignite it, fan it with fez or cap till the door was blazing

and the smoke driving the Turks out, and then run back. One boy on his return was hit, the bullet

12 IBID, 248

paralyzing his leg; a brave girl went out under fire and brought him in on her back. She was given a

medal by the Military Council.13”

An American missionary, Ernest Yarrow had taken up leadership of the various societies

that had formed as a result of the siege. He “organized a government with a mayor, judges, police,

and board of health.14” Two Red Cross nurses, Misses Rogers and Silliman organized some of the

children to procure and sterilize milk to feed the babies who needed food. Due to the limited

availability of munitions, the craftsmen of the district began producing ammunition to the best of

their ability, creating two thousand rounds per day15. The lesser skilled among those in the besieged

city dug trenches and built walls. The women spent their time cooking for the rest, and making

uniforms for the soldiers. Some of the women were also assigned to small grid coordinates

throughout the city to diffuse mortars, grenades, and bombs dropped from the elevated position of

Castle Rock, using the powder within them to make new ammunition16. Ussher’s 13 year old son,

Neville, had formed a local Boy Scout Troup several months earlier, and they now occupied their

time putting out fires, acting as messengers, and even dug Turkish bullets out of the ground to be

recast by the craftsmen17. In one particularly interesting incident, the Turkish forces attempted to

tunnel under the walls to emerge behind the defensive lines and massacre the unarmed populace.

The Armenians were attempting a similar tactic, but their tunnel happened to be slightly deeper than

the Turkish one. Eventually, a Turkish soldier fell through his tunnel into the Armenian tunnel, and

was quickly killed. The Armenians swarmed through his tunnel, which lead to the police barracks,

and quickly set the barracks ablaze, tunneled further and destroyed the military barracks nearby. In

13 IBID, 249-250 14 IBID, 251 15 IBID, 253 16 IBID, 256 17 IBID, 254

another incident, the Armenians hung a lantern around a dog’s neck and sent it towards the Turkish

soldiers, who assumed it was a messenger. They attempted to shoot the messenger, but constantly

missed, not knowing that it was a dog. The Turks on the other lines heard this, assumed an attack

was coming and began firing as well, wasting thousands of rounds before realizing that it was

nothing but a dog18.

Ussher claims that during this time, in the surrounding villages and towns, no less than fifty-

five thousand Armenians were killed19, while countless others had fled into the nearby mountains.

Others still managed to reach and enter Van, seeking shelter from the massacre. The Armenians in

the city, moved by the plight of the refugees, collected $2600 to help feed and care for them20.

Ussher estimates that the refugees numbered fifteen thousand before the siege ended21. This created

an environment in which disease spread easily, and “Pneumonia, dysentery, typhoid, and smallpox

were very prevalent; and for all these sick and for the wounded there was but one physician –

myself. Working from before sunrise till midnight day after day, I could not attend all who needed

me.22”

Fearing that conditions within the city would worsen to the point that defense would no

longer be possible, Ussher and Yarrow sent a dozen messengers out to try and get word to the

American government or its allies. They had estimated that their provisions would last, at most,

three more weeks. After four, the Turks began shelling the city, including the American compound,

but only wounding a single individual. As things seemed to be at their worst, the Armenian

tunnelers overtook the barracks, effectively ceasing the bombardment while simultaneously restoring

18 IBID, 255 19 IBID, 265 20 IBID, 269 21 IBID, 270 22 IBID, 270

food and ammunition supplies housed within the barracks. Several days later, on Tuesday, May 18, a

regiment of Russo-Armenian soldiers arrived in advance of the main army. They found the city

controlled by the Armenians, who quickly handed over the keys to the city to General Nicolaieff.

Thus ended the Battle of Van.

American Aid and Environmental Factors

Throughout the siege, Americans and other foreigners had played vital roles. An argument

can certainly be made that without their various interventions, the siege would have played out very

differently. First, Mr. Yarrow’s efforts to organize the Armenians and establish a temporary

government allowed them to present a united, organized front. Second, by virtue of treaty, the

premises of the American compound provided a relatively safe place for the wounded, women, and

children. Third, the efforts of the Red Cross and Dr. Ussher saved countless lives, Armenian and

Turk alike. Finally, the arrival of the Russian army created an opportunity for the survivors of the

siege, and the surrounding area, to flea with the retreating Russian forces, saving approximately two

hundred and seventy thousand people from the vilayets of Van and Bitlis23.

The environment too, had played an important role. Perhaps most devastatingly, the

diseases that ran rampant through the crowded city, killing thousands, including Dr. Ussher’s wife,

Elizabeth Barrows Ussher. The layout of the city itself, as well as its position relative to the natural

features of the plateau, played an important role in the siege as well, primarily the elevated positions

of both the American compound and Castle Rock. The location of the city relative to the other

villages also made it possible for refugees to flee there for protection, which ironically contributed to

the prevalence of disease within the besieged city.

23 IBID, 314

While it is usually faux pas to claim what might or might not have been when discussing

historical matters, it seems clear that had there not been an international, especially American,

presence within the Empire during this period, that events would have transpired very differently,

likely for the worse. It is impossible to know one way or another, but at the very least, the accounts

of these witnesses, Dr. Ussher in particular24, have chronicled these atrocities, leaving history to

judge the perpetrators and honor the heroes of the Battle of Van.

24 While this paper has focused on Dr. Ussher’s accounts of these events, almost all of them are corroborated by other witnesses. These accounts can be found in 1) Chapter 2 of The Treatment of the Armenians by Arnold Toynbee, 2) Chapter 13 of Ambassador Morgenthau’s Story by Henry Morgenthau, 3) in various witness and survivor testimony collected at the Armenian Genocide Museum-Institute and the Armenian National Institute, and are discussed in various passages in The Burning Tigris by Peter Balakian and The Armenian Genocide by Raymond Kevorkian

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