the aza framework for zoo and aquarium social science research

TheAZAFrameworkforZooandAquariumSocialScienceResearch 1

TheAZAFrameworkforZooandAquariumSocialScienceResearch

Preparedby:JohnFraser,Ph.D.,AIA,InstituteforLearningInnovation

JoeE.Heimlich,Ph.D.,TheOhioUniversityExtension&InstituteforLearningInnovationJackieOgden,Ed.D.,Disney’sAnimalKingdom

AllysonAtkins,M.M.S.,Disney’sAnimalKingdom;StacyMcReynolds,SanAntonioZoologicalAssociation;

CarrieChen,AquariumofthePacific,VickiSearles,M.S.,ClevelandMetroParksZoo;

PeggySloan,M.S.NCAquariums;NettePletcher,M.S.,AZAPaulBoyle,Ph.D.,AZA

PublishedFebruary28,2010forreviewandcomment

RecommendedCitation:

Fraser,J.,Heimlich,J.E.,Ogden,J.,Atkins,A.,McReynolds,S.,Chen,C.Searles,V.,Sloan,P.,Pletcher,N.&Boyle,P.(2010).TheAZA’sFrameworkforZooandAquariumSocialScienceResearch.SilverSpring,MD:AssociationofZoosandAquariums.ThispublicationwasproducedthroughfundingfromNSFGrant#0205843bymembersoftheAssociationofZoosandAquariumsinassociationwiththeInstituteforLearningInnovationandTheOhioStateUniversityExtension


WhyaFramework?

TheAssociationofZoosandAquariums’(AZA)ConservationEducationCommittee(CEC)supportstheappropriateuseoflivinganimalsinzoosandaquariumsasanimportantandpowerfuleducationaltooltoadvanceaconservationagenda.Inrecentyears,thesocialsciencestudyofzoos,aquariums,theirvisitors,andtheirrelationshipstotheconservationmovementhasincreasedexponentially.Inlessthanadecade,socialscienceresearchhasgrownfromafewindividualsmainlypursuingbasicquestionsintoafull‐fledgedcommunityseekingthisknowledge.Today,thecommunityhasbenefittedfromstudiesconductedatindividualAZA‐accreditedzoosandaquariums,AZACECsponsorednationalstudies,internationalparallelstudies,andanincreasingnumberofthesesanddissertations.Thesestudiesaddressquestionssuchas:Whatisknown?Wherearethegapsinknowledge?Whatinformationismostusefulforthefield?Andhowcantheinformationgainedgenerateneworconfirmatoryknowledgethatispartofalargerwhole?AnswerstothesequestionshavecreatedasolidbaselineofinformationthatcanbeusedtohelpAZA‐accreditedzoosandaquariumsmeettheirmissions.Therapidgrowthinsocialscienceresearch,however,alsopresentsnewchallengesforresearchers.Whatcurrentresearchwillbemostusefulforthefield?Howcaneachstudygenerateneworconfirmatoryknowledgethatispartofalargerwhole?

Researchonlearninginzoos/aquariums,andevenzoo/aquariumeducationitself,ismaturingandbuilding.Priorto2000,therewaslittlecomprehensiveresearchonexperiencesinzoosandaquariums,andverylittlerelatedtotheconservationgoalsthatAZA‐accreditedinstitutionshopetoachievetoday.Inthelastdecade,sincetheCECfirstsponsoredoneoftwoMulti‐InstitutionalResearchProjects(MIRP)nowcollectivelyknownastheWhyZoosandAquariumsMatterprojects,,socialscienceresearchhasgrownbyordersofmagnitude.CECleadersandscholarsseetheneedforazooandaquariumsocialscienceresearchframeworktohelpthoseintheeducationandconservationcommunicationsfieldunderstandhowtheycancontributetoagreaterbodyofknowledge.ThisreportrepresentstheCEC’sdeterminationtoviewzooandaquariumsocialscienceresearchasacollectiveendeavorthatvaluesandrepresentsamoreholisticviewofhowfree‐choicelearninghappensinandaroundAZA‐accreditedinstitutions.

Todate,morethan30%ofAZA‐accreditedzoosandaquariumsintheU.S.havehadatleastonerepresentativeparticipateinthecontinuingeducationprogrambasedonthefindingsanduseofinstrumentsfromthetwonationalstudiescomprisingWhyZoosandAquariumsMatter(Fraser&Sickler,2008).Zoo/aquariumsocialscienceresearchisnowpublishedinawiderangeofpeer‐reviewedjournalsandincreasinglyappearsinthepopularpress.Audiencesarenowreadytousethefindingspresentedtocreatenewstrategiesbasedonthisscientificallysoundresearch.Aswewritethisintroduction,wecanstatecategoricallythatzoosandaquariumsarewellpreparedtoassertivelyadvancetheirconservationmission,buttodosowillrequirestrategicthinkingindustry‐wide,notjustwithinindividualinstitutions.

ThefollowingframeworkprovidesanopportunityforallAZA‐accreditedinstitutionsandindependentresearcherstobecomeinvolvedinsocialscienceresearchandtoworkcollaborativelyinordertoenhancetheimpactofzoosandaquariumsandtheconservationfieldasawhole.

Thisresearchframeworkalsoprovidesastructureforindividualinstitutionandmulti‐institutionalstudiestobeinterpretedinthelargerpictureofwhatweknowaboutzoosandaquariums,theirvisitors,andtheircommunityrelationships.Theoverarchingquestionspresentedinthefollowingsections


facilitatethesynthesisofinformationthatisusefulforandaccessibletoresearchers,educators,marketers,administrators,andotherlike‐mindedindividuals.

Withineachquestionthatfollowsaremanyopportunitiesfordescriptive,phenomenological,structural,andpredictiveresearch.TheCECbelievesthatthisframeworkwillhelpindividuals,institutions,andthelargerzooandaquariumcommunitytobetterserveourvisitorsandcommunitiesasawhole.

ConceptualizingtheChallengeAsconservationorganizations,zoosandaquariumsarecommittedtoachievingsocialchange.Theyenvisionaworldwhereallpeopleliveinsustainablebalancewiththebiodiversityonwhichalllifedepends.Toaccomplishthismission,zoosandaquariumsrecognizethattheirconservationbiologyresearchcandescribetheproblemsassociatedwithspeciesloss,habitatloss,anddisruptionofbiologicalsystems.Whileasmallamountofthislosscanbeattributedtonaturalcyclesthatgovernalllife,forthepastcenturyithasbecomeincreasinglyclearthatthemajorityofthislossisdirectlyattributabletohumanaction.

Zoosandaquariumsrecognizethattheymustalsodirectlyfocusonhowtochangepublicknowledge,attitudes,andideallybehaviorinordertocreatethissustainableworld.Theworld‐wideubiquityofzoosandaquariumshasalsocreatedanunprecedentedopportunitytoactlocallyandcoordinatetheseactionsgloballytowardachievingtheirsharedgoal.

Zoosandaquariums,however,donotoperateinasocialvacuum.Themajorityoftheseinstitutionsareprimarilysupportedbylocalgovernmentsandregionalnon‐profitsthatmayormaynotcompletelyagreewiththeseorganizations’specificconservationmission.Theyworkwithinaregionalmatrixofcommunityorganizationsdevotedtoconservationconcernswhichallshareacommongoal,butmaynotagreeonthemeanstothatend.Moreover,theyalsoworkwithinachangingregional,nationalandglobalstoryabouthumanrelationshipstothenaturalworld,whichmeansthattheirsolutionsandstrategiesmaynotalwaysbeapplicabletothelargersociety,eventhoughtheprinciplesfortheirinterventionsmaybethesame.

Thisresearchframeworkestablishestheprinciplesandissuesthathavethemostbenefitforthelargestcommunity.Itprovidesgoverningquestionsthatcanhelpadvanceknowledge,andorganizesthosequestionswithingeneraldisciplinarytraditions.Itrecommendsidealizedconditionsforstudyinordertohelpindividualssituatetheirworkalongsidethatoftheirpeers.Andmoreimportantly,itoutlineswhereeffortmayleadtonewanduniversallyvaluableknowledge.Inthecaseofzoosandaquariums,thefollowingframeworkcanalsohelpadministratorsandthosewhosupportzoosandaquariumstoidentifyandassesstheirownfieldsforactionasconservationistsseekingtohelpshapeamoresustainablesociety.


TableofContents

THEAZAFRAMEWORKFORZOOANDAQUARIUMSOCIALSCIENCERESEARCH ...................................1ConceptualizingtheChallenge ............................................................................................................. 3

OVERVIEWOFTHEFRAMEWORK ..................................................................................................................... 5WHATWEKNOW.......................................................................................................................................... 7KeyReadings: ....................................................................................................................................... 9

AFRAMEWORKFORSOCIALSCIENCEWORK ................................................................................................... 10Question1:WhatRoledoZoos/AquariumsplayinLifelongLearningExperiences?......................... 10Question2:HowDoZoosandAquariumsComparewithOtherInformalLearningInstitutions? ..... 12Question3:HowDoZoosandAquariumsShapeSocialActionandSocialActivism? ....................... 14Question4:WhatRoledoZoosorAquariumsplayregardingSocialServices? ................................ 16Question5:WhataretheUniqueCharacteristicsofLearninginZoosandAquariums?................... 18Question6:AZooandAquariumEducationProfession? .................................................................. 20Question7:HowdoweAssess,DisseminateandApplyExistingKnowledge?.................................. 21

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................. 22


OverviewoftheFrameworkOnthefollowingpages,wehavegroupedcorequestionsunderavarietyofdisciplinaryinquiries,allofwhichcanhelpadvanceknowledgeabouthowzoosandaquariumscanadvancetheirconservationmission.Webeginwithabriefoverviewofquestionsthathavebeenresolvedforthemediumterm,synthesizingtheresultsofafewdecadesofcommittedworkbymoreprofessionalsthancanbecreditedinthesepages.Wethenmoveintoadiscretediscussionofthedisciplinespecificquestionsthathaveemergedfromtheworkofthesescholarsandpractitionersandsuggestidealizedcasesforsuchstudy.

Inthefirstsectionfollowingtheoverview,wesuggestthatrecentresearchhasbeguntoestablishanimportantfocusontherolethezoooraquariumplaysinthecommunity.Heretheresearchisprimarilyfocusedontheperceivedpsychologicalandsociologicalvaluesthatareeitherreinforcedorchallengedbythepresenceoftheinstitutions.Therehasbeenagreatdealofmoraldebateregardingmaintaininglivinganimalsinzoos/aquariums,butonlyrecentlyhasthisissuebeentestedinqualitativeandquantitativestudy.Directlyaddressingthisconcernhelpszoosandaquariumsarticulatemoreclearlyhowtheirmissionispartofthelargergoalssharedbytheircommunities.

Inthesecondsection,werecognizethattheseinstitutionsarepartofalargercommunityofinformallearninginstitutionswithbothsharedandcompetinggoals.Atthiswriting,thereisadearthofknowledgeaboutthenichevalueofzoosandaquariumswithinthislargerlearningcommunity,andwhatmakestheirlivinganimalssovaluableforaccomplishingtheirspecificmission,incontrasttolikemindedinstitutionssuchasnaturecenters,sciencemuseums,orothermuseumsofconscience.Inthissection,thereisacallforaconcertedefforttounderstandzoos’andaquariums’uniquepsychological,sociological,politicalandeducationalfunctionsbyengagingincomparativeresearchwithotherinstitutions.

Inthethirdsectionwedescribekeyquestionssurroundingthesociologicalandanthropologicalcontributionofzoosandaquariumswithintheircommunity.Forthesequestions,theframeworkrecognizesthatzoosandaquariumshavetheabilitytooperateassocialagents,aggregatingconcernsundertheirbanner,andadvocatingonbehalfofaconstituencyintheirlargercommunity.Forthesequestions,legitimacyandauthorityarecentraltounderstandinghoweffectivetheseinstitutionscanbeatpositioningsocialpolicyandadvocatingforchange.

Inthefourthsection,weofferanotheranewdirectionforstudythathasonlybeenanecdotallydescribedinafewveryrecentstudies.Itseemsthatsocialserviceagencieshavediscoveredthepotentialoftheseinstitutionsasimportantpartnersastheycommittosupportingfamiliesatrisk.Theyreportontheseactivities,butthereremainslittleresearchontheeffectivenessorimportanceofthatwork.

Inthefifthsection,wefocusonthedevelopmentofthefieldasaprofession.Werecognizecommunicatingconservationconcernstothepublicisarapidlydevelopingfieldrequiringspecialknowledgeandterminology.Thisquestionshouldbeproactivelyaddressedinordertodirectlyimpactgrowthinthefieldandthecommunitywhowillworkwiththeresultsofthisresearch.

Lastly,theframeworkrecognizesleadersinconservationpsychologyandconservationbiologywhohavedemonstratedthatsynthesizingresearchfromacrosstheirdisciplinaryfieldsintheinterestofadvancingaconservationagendahasbeenimportanttocreatingnewknowledgethatcanleadtosocialchange.


Webelievethatthisstrategyhasgreatpromiseacrossallthesocialsciences,especiallyifapproachedfromtheperspectiveofzoosandaquariumsassocialchange‐agents.

Theframeworkconcludeswithsomerecommendationsfromtheadvisorycommitteeontheneedforfundingtohelpfleshoutthisresearchframeworkandsomethoughtsonorganizationalstrategiesthatcanhelpaccomplishthatgoalatthegrassrootslevel.Theauthorsareconfidentthatthisinitialframeworkwillbecomealivingdocumentthatwillspawnnewdisciplinarycontributionsandnewtheoriesthatwillexpandknowledgeforthefield.


WhatweknowTwonationalstudiescomprisedthemulti‐institutionalresearchprojectWhyZoosandAquariumsMatter.Onefocusedonvisitors’motivationtovisitzoosandaquariumsandwhatthosevisitorstookawayfromasinglestudy,andthesecondexploredtheattitudespeoplehaveabout—andthevaluestheybringto—zoosandaquariums.FundedbyNSFandIMLSrespectively,thesestudiesgiveusastrongbaselineforfuturestudybyusingmixedmethodsandengagingmorethan16,000people.Anationalpoll,commissionedbyAZA,laterconductedanationalstudyof2020individuals.CoupledwithmanyindividualzooandaquariumstudiesandevaluationsconductedintheUnitedStatesandinternationally(mostnotablyinEnglandandAustralia)wecanclaimtoknowthefollowingaboutzooandaquariumvisitors:

Dotheylikeus?Yes.Morethan88%viewusfavorably,andlessthan3‐9%viewzoosandaquariumsunfavorably.

Dotheytrustus?Yes.ZoosandaquariumsarefarmorecredibletotheU.S.publicthanareextremists.73%seezoosandaquariumsashighlycredibleversus40%forPETA.85%viewourstaffasexpertsinanimalcare.

Doweknowwhatworks?We’relearning,especiallythroughevaluationstudiesinlotsofdifferentsettings.Weknow,forexample,thatvisitorshavepreferencesastowhatengagesthem:

LeastEngagingExperiences

MostEngagingExperienceFigure1:Typesofzooandaquariumexperiencesthatincreaseaudienceengagement. Dotheylearnanything?Yes.First,theyvalueourroleaseducationalfacilities.Theycomebecause

we’refun,safeplacestobewiththeirfamilies,butvisitorsdefinitelyvaluewhatthey(andtheir)childrenlearnaboutanimalsandnature.Second,theyknowmorethanwethinktheydo.Avisithaslesscognitiveimpactthanwewouldhavethought.Ourvisitorsknowmorethanthegeneralpublicandtheyalreadyknowthebasicconceptswhentheyenter.Further,monthsafteravisit,morethanhalfofvisitors(61%)wereabletotalkaboutwhattheylearnedduringthevisit(whichrelatedto

NoAnimalsVisible

NoInteraclon

Interaclon


whattheyclaimedtheylearnedimmediatelyafterthevisit).Otherstudieshavefoundsignificantimpactonincreasedunderstandingrelatedtoconservationversusmererecitationoffacts.

Dozoosandaquariumspromoteconnectiontonature?Yes.93%ofthepublicfindzoosandaquariumsa“goodwayforchildrentoconnectwithnature.”Ourvisitorsknowthedifferencebetweenanaturalvs.natureexperienceandtheyvaluethezoo/aquariumforprovidinganexperience,oftenanopportunitytobeoutsidewiththeirfamilies,innature.Further,forsomevisitors,thismaybetheonly“nature”experienceaccessibletosomeurbanresidents.

Doweknowwhatworks?Wehavelearnedtherearesomecomponentswhich,alongwiththesocialexchangewhichisbothamotivationforsomemanyvisitorsandaheldvalueofvisitorsingeneral,cancontributetothepotentialforapeakexperience:

Figure2:Elementsthatcontributetopeakexperiences.

Doweaffectvisitors’attitudestowardwildlife,conservation,andzoos/aquariums?Yes—ingeneral.Mostvisitors(61%)foundthattheirvisitexperiencereinforced/strengthenedvalues/attitudestowardsconservation.Visitspromptedmany(54%)toreconsidertheirroleinconservationaction,andespeciallytoseethemselvesaspartofthesolutiontoenvironmentalissues.Nearlyhalf(46%)offeredunpromptedcommentsrelatedtopersonalactionstheyplannedontakingasaconsequenceofvisitandmonthsaftertheirvisit,and35%reportedthatthevisitreinforced/strengthenedtheirbeliefsaboutconservationandstewardship.

Doweaffectvisitors’behaviors?Sometimes.Behaviorsareverycomplicated,andthereisatremendousarrayofbehaviorsassociatedwithconservationlessonsfromzoos/aquariumsandfromtalkingtotherightpeople.

Doweknowwhatworks?Asinglevisithasimpact,butcumulativeeffectsarepossibleanddesirable:

Figure3:Encounterswithmessagingthatleadtochangeinknowledge,attitude,orbehavior.


Asaresultofthisearlierdefinitiveresearch,wenolongerneedtoaskthesame,basicquestions.Thisgiveszoosandaquariumsatremendousopportunitytomoveforwardandengageinthenextgenerationofevaluationandresearch,drivenbyaneedtocontinuepushingthefieldforward.

KeyReadings:

AssociationofZoosandAquariums.(2006).ThecollectiveimpactofAmerica’szoosandaquariums.RetrievedOctober12,2006,fromhttp://www.aza.org/AboutAZA/CollectiveImpact1/

Dierking,L.D.,Burtnyk,M.S.,Buchner,K.S.,&Falk,J.H.(2002).Visitorlearninginzoosandaquariums:Aliteraturereview.Annapolis,MD:InstituteforLearningInnovation.

Falk,J.H.,Heimlich,J.E.&Bronnenkant,K.(2008).Theidentity‐relatedmotivationsofadultzooandaquariumvisitors,Curator:TheMuseumJournal.51(1),55‐79.

Falk,J.,Reinhard,E.,Vernon,C.L.,Bronnenkant,K.,Heimlich,J.E.,&Deans,N.L.(2007).Whyzoosandaquariumsmatter:Assessingtheimpactofavisittoazoooraquarium.SilverSpring,MD:AssociationofZoosandAquariums.

Fraser,J.&Sickler,J.,(2008).Whyzoosandaquariumsmatter.Edgewater,MD:InstituteforLearningInnovation.

Mason,P.(2000).Zootourism:Theneedformoreresearch.JournalofSustainableTourism,8(4),333‐339.

Melson,G.F.(2001).Whythewildthingsare.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.


AFrameworkforSocialScienceWork

Question1:WhatRoledoZoos/AquariumsplayinLifelongLearningExperiences?TheresearchonvaluescitedinWhyZoosandAquariumsMatterhasoutlinedastrategicframeworkandbaselinedataonvisitors’conservationattitudesandmotivationsforvisitingzoosandaquariums,theperceivedroleofthezoosandaquariumsinAmericansociety,andmethodsforassessingtheinstantaneousexperiencesattheseinstitutions.Educatorshavedevelopedtoolsforassessingfree‐choicelearningoutcomesbasedonindividualexperienceswithprogramsorexhibitsandconservationpsychologistshavedescribedbasicrelationshipsbetweenzoo/aquarium‐goingexperiencesandthedevelopmentofconservationbeliefsandvaluesbyvisitors,staff,andvolunteers.Todate,however,thisresearchhasbeenretrospective,correlative,orpre/postexperience,andhasbeenprimarilyfocusedontheperceivedpsychologicalandsociologicalvaluesthatarereinforcedorchallengedbythepresenceoftheinstitutions.Thetheoriesthathaveemergedare,atbest,tentativebecauseitdoesnotincludealongitudinaldimensionthatreflectshowthechangingfaceofzoosandaquariumscanbemoreproactiveinthefuture.

Newresearchinthisareawillexpandonthisfoundationalresearchbydevelopingrefinedevaluationmetricsthatdescribethelinksbetweenindividualexperiencesandlifelonglearning.Theresearchwillfocusondescribinghowthoseexperiencescanbecausallylinkedtoactionsbeyondthatinstitution.Furtherexaminationofhowvisitorsintegratethezoo/aquariumintheirengagementwithotherculturalinstitutionswillhelpexpandthinkingabouttheplaceofzooandaquariumexperiencesinthelifeoftheindividual.Thisresearchfocuswillpushresearcherstoinvestigatetheperceivedanddesiredroleorrolesthezoooraquariumplaysinpartnerships,events,andthelearninglifeofthecommunity‐at‐large.

Inparticular,weneedtoconsidersocialgroupexperiences—howzoosandaquariumsoperatebeyondtheirpropertylimits—throughexaminationofoutreachprograms,wordofmouth,andcommunityengagementbyzooandaquariumadvocates.Itisalsoimportantthatweunderstandhowtooptimizeparentandvisitorgoalsforcasualvisitswithonsitemessagingandexperiences.

Zoos,AquariumsandOtherCulturalInstitutions:Researchinthisareawillfocusonhowzooandaquariumvisitorsalsoengagewithotherinstitutionsandhowtheyintegratetheseexperiencesintheirlives.Projectsfocusingonadvancingtheorywilladdresshowvaluesaredevelopedacrossinstitutionswithlikemessages,orhowinstitutionswithdissimilarmessagesareintegratedintovaluesdevelopment.Evaluationdevelopmentwillfocusoncreatingsharedinstrumentsthatareabletodeterminethecontributionofzoosandaquariumstothedevelopmentofvaluesacrossinstitutiontypesbybuildingonthesharedgoalsandaffiliationsthatexistamongcultural,scientific,andrecreationalprovidersincommunities.Twoprimaryfociforthesestudieswillbeexpandingknowledgeofhowavarietyofout‐of‐homeexperiencesshapevaluesandbeliefs,andtheroleofsocialnetworksintersectwiththeseexperiences.

InstitutionalRolesintheLivesofFamilies:Significantliteratureonfamilydevelopmentexists,butverylittleaddressesthefamily’sout‐of‐homelearningexperiences.Zoosandaquariumsofferauniquesitetodevelopnewtheoryandresearchstrategiesforlearningabouthowfamiliesdevelopmeaningfromtheirexperiences.Inparticular,socialconversations,andmeaningdevelopedthroughsocialinteractions,remainswithoutsufficientstudytoguidethedevelopmentofmorefocusedparkexperiencesthatbuildontheroleofintergenerationallearninginthelivesofvisitors.


ZoosandAquariumsasLearningCommunities:Therehasbeenagreatdealoffocusoninstitutionsasplacesthatdeliverlearningtovisitors,butlittleattentiontotheinstitutionsaslearningcommunitiesthemselvesandhowtheirstaffintegrateintootherprofessionalcommunities.Researchinthisfocusareawilladdressthewholeinstitutionasalearningorganization,developingtheoryregardingwherethevaluesofeducationinourinstitutionslie?Whatarethevaluesrelatedtoadultlearningthatmightexpandexistingprogramstonewaudiences,eveninternalorcollegialaudiences?Whatvariousaudiencescouldbereachedandhow?Whatarethemechanismsbywhichvalues,motivations,engagement,andtheconservationmissionmostmakesenseforthosetargetaudiencesandourmembers/visitors?

ZoosandAquariumsintheLifeofaCommunity:Onthecommunitylevel,thereisaneedtodevelopandassessmorefocusedresearchquestionsonhowzoosandaquariumscontributetoacommunity’sculture.Forexample,canweanalyzethelargersocialandrelationalnetworksofindividuals,organizations,beliefs,values,andengagement?Isitpossibletopredictwhomightrespondtodifferentexperiencesandhow?Fociforthisresearchmayinvestigategeographiccommunitiesorculturalcommunitiesrepresentedbyethniccommunitygroups,religiousorganizations,orsocialwelfaregroupssuchastheBoysandGirlsClubsorScouting.Oneaspectofthisareaofresearchfocusesonthecommunityasopposedtotheindividualscale,andexpandstheworkonvalueperceptionstoincludevalue‐addedmeasures.

KeyReadings:Banks,J.A.,Au,K.H.,Ball,A.F.,Bell,P.,Gordon,E.W.,Gutierrez,K.,etal.(2007).Learninginandoutofschoolin

diverseenvironments:Life‐long,life‐wide,life‐deep.Seattle,Washington:CenterforMulticulturalEducation,UniversityofWashington.

Burns,A.L.,Mitchell,G.,&Obradovich,S.(1989).Ofsexrolesandstrollers:Femaleandmaleattentiontotoddlersatthezoo.SexRoles,20(5/6),309‐315.

Fraser,J.,Clayton,S.,Sickler,J.,&Taylor,A.(2009).Belongingatthezoo:Retiredvolunteers,conservationactivism,andcollectiveidentity.AgeingandSociety29(3),351‐368.

Fraser,J.,Condon,K.,&Gruber,S.,(2008).TheTouristValuePropositionofZoosandAquariums,TourismReviewInternational,11(3),279‐293.


Holzer,D.,&Scott,D.(1997).Thelong‐lastingeffectsofearlyzoovisits.Curator,TheMuseumJournal,40(4),255‐257.

NationalResearchCouncil.(2009).Learningscienceininformalenvironments:People,places,andpursuits(Vols.CommitteeonLearningScienceinInformalEnvironments.BoardonScienceEducation,CenterforEducation,DivisionofBehavioralandSocialSciencesandEducation.).(P.Bell,B.Lewenstein,A.W.Shouse,&M.A.Feder,Eds.)Washington,D.C.:TheNationalAcademiesPress.

Reade,L.S.,&Waran,N.K.(1996).Themodernzoo:Howdopeopleperceivezooanimals?AppliedAnimalBehaviourScience,47,109‐118.

Reed,E.S.(1996).Thenecessityofexperience.YaleUniversityPress.

Russow,L.(1989).Changingperceptionsofanimals:Aphilosophicalview.InR.J.Hoage(Ed.),PerceptionsofanimalsinAmericanculture,(pp.25‐40).Washington,D.C.:SmithsonianInstitutionPress.

Tomasello,M.,Kruger,A.C.,&Ratner,H.H.(1993)Culturallearning.Behavioralandbrainsciences,16,495‐552.

Tunnicliffe,S.D.(1995).Zootalk:Thecontentofconversationsoffamilyvisitorgroupswhilstlookingatliveanimals.1995AZAAnnualConferenceProceedings,Atlanta,GA.645‐647.

Turley,S.K.(2001).Childrenandthedemandforrecreationalexperiences:Thecaseofzoos.LeisureStudies,20(1),1‐18.


Question2:HowDoZoosandAquariumsComparewithOtherInformalLearningInstitutions?Inthissection,weaddresstheneedforresearchandevaluationstudiesandtoolsthathelpinstitutionsassesstheirrolesinthelargercommunityofinformallearninginstitutionswithbothsharedandcompetinggoals.Itisimportanttonotethatlittlehasbeendonetodescribethenichevalueofzoosandaquariumswithinthislargerlearningcommunity.Writersonmoralphilosophyandchilddevelopmenthavefocusedonimpliedlearningorformativeexperiencesthatrelatetoencounterswithlivinganimals,butlittlehasbeendonetocomparethislearningtoothertypesofencounters.Furthermore,thesestudieshavetendedtofocusonchildrenandyouthratherthantheentirelife‐coursewherepeoplecontinuetovisitandlearnatzoosandaquariums.

Inasimilarfashion,manyorganizationssharethegoalsofzoosandaquariums,andsomeincreasinglyfocusonbringinglivingbeingsintotheirdisplayswithoutnecessarilymeetingtheaccreditationcriteriaoutlinedforAZAinstitutions.Clearly,therearemanylearninginstitutionsthatbelievethatlivinganimalsareimportanttoaccomplishinglearningwiththeseanimalsbutnotallsharethespecificconservationmissioncentraltoAZAinstitutions(citations!).Therefore,itisimportantforzoosandaquariumstodevelopnewtheoryabouthowtheirapproachtotheuseoflivingcollectionsfulfillstheirspecificmissionincontrasttolike‐mindedinstitutionssuchasnaturecenters,sciencemuseums,orothermuseumsofconscience.

Off‐PropertyandVirtualFree‐choiceLearning:Researchandevaluationstrategiesareonlystartingtoemergeonthewiderangeoffree‐choicelearningconditions,notallofwhichhavephysicalconnectionstolivinganimalsorexhibitions.Off‐siteprograms,onlinelearningenvironments,virtualenvironments,andwebcamremoteobservationsarebutsomeoftheemergingmediacreatingnewinformallearningconditionswhichimpacthowaudiencesexperiencezoosandaquariums.Thereisaneedtoadvancetheoryaroundtheroleoftheseexperiencesinthesuiteofstrategiesemployedbyzoosoraquariums,andhowthevirtualencounterswithlivinganimalsinthewildoratzoosandaquariumsarechangingknowledge,learning,andthevisitorexperiencewhentheyarriveatthephysicalplace.

EnvironmentalLearningExperiences:Increasingly,learningexperiencesinrestorationareas,publicnatureparks,internationalecotourism,andothernature‐basedlearningcentersarechangingvisitors’perceptionsofwhatisauthenticaboutthezooandaquariumexperience.Environmentalimmersion,asasimulationstrategy,cannolongercompetewithrealopportunitiesthatareshapingtheecologicallyfocusedgreeningofurbanareasandnatureopportunities.Itisknownthatzoosandaquariumsarerecognizedasnatureexperiencesbutnotnaturalexperiencesbytheirvisitors.Furtherinquiryintothe“natureofnature”atzoosandaquariumswillbeessentialtohelpingdesignersandprogramdevelopersaddressthepsychologicalshiftsinwhatexperiencesareappropriateatzoosandaquariumsandtherolethatlivingcollectionsatzoosandaquariumswillplayinpeople’slivesastheperceptionofnaturechangesinthe21stcentury.

TheRoleofZoosandAquariumsintheInformalScienceEducationCommunity(ISE):TheISECommunityisrapidlyworkingtoadvancetheorythroughknowledgeexchangenetworks.Zoosandaquariums,however,havenotbeenadequatelydistinguishedfromothertypesofsciencelearningenvironments.ComparativeresearchisnecessarytotrulyunderstandhowlivinganimalsimpactISEoutcomes,whythesevenuesareuniqueintheISEcommunity,andhowconservationeducationissimilartoanddifferentfromeitherscienceorenvironmentaleducation.


TheArts&Humanities:Recentresearchontheperceivedvalueofzoosandaquariums,andexperimentswithartsandhumanitiesprogrammingatsomeleadinginstitutions,haveradicallyshiftedourunderstandingabouthowvisitorswanttousetheseinstitutions.Moraldecision‐making,perceptionsofselfinsociety,andthemetaphoricfunctionofzoosandaquariumsastheysupportthediscoursearoundurbanconservationquestionsareopenforinvestigation.Itisclearfromcurrentresearchthatvisitorssupportthesetopics,butthereisadearthofempiricalresearchonhowthemanydisciplineswithintheartsandhumanitiesintersectwiththeconversationandsocialmissionsofzoosandaquariumsintheircommunities.Redressingthisdeficitthroughdirectedanthropological,psychological,andsociologicalstudyofhowartsandhumanitiesprogramsfosterconservationvaluesinzoosandaquariumscanhelptoadvancetheoryandguidethedevelopmentofinnovativeprogrammingwhichcanthenbeevaluatedagainstthemissionofzoosandaquariums.

KeyReadings:Burton,C.,&Scott,C.(2003).Museums:Challengesforthe21stcentury.InternationalJournalofArts

Management,5(2),56‐67.

Benbow,S.M.P.(2000).Zoos:Publicplacestoviewprivatelives.JournalofPopularCulture,33(4),13‐23.

Borun,M.,Chambers,M.,Dritsas,J.,&Johnson,J.(1997).Enhancingfamilylearningthroughexhibits.Curator,TheMuseumJournal,40(4),279‐295.

Crane,V.,Nicholson,H.J.,Chen,M.,&Bitgood,S.(1994).Informalsciencelearning:Whattheresearchsaysabouttelevision,sciencemuseumsandcommunity‐basedprojects.Dedham,MA:ResearchCommunications,Ltd.

Falk,J.H.,Heimlich,J.E.,&Foutz,S.(Eds.).(2009).Free‐choicelearningandtheenvironment.Lanham,MD:AltaMiraPress.

Griffin,J.(1994).Learningtolearnininformalsciencesettings.ResearchinScienceEducation,24(1),121‐128.

Leinhardt,G.,Crowley,K.,&Knutson,K.(Eds.).(2002).Learningconversationsinmuseums.Mawah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.

Moussouri,T.(2002).Researchinglearninginmuseumsandgalleries,1990‐1999:Abibliographicreview.Leicester,UK:ResearchCentreforMuseumsandGalleries,DepartmentofMuseumStudies.

Packer,J.(2006).Learningforfun:Theuniquecontributionofeducationalleisureexperiences.Curator,TheMuseumJournal,49(3),329‐344.

Pekarik,A.,Doering,Z.,&Karns,D.(1999).Exploringsatisfyingexperiencesinmuseums.Curator,TheMuseumJournal,42(2),117‐129.


Question3:HowDoZoosandAquariumsShapeSocialActionandSocialActivism?Onegoalofconservationeducationisthecreationofenvironmentallyliteratecitizenswhowillmakedecisionsandactinawaythatbenefitsthemselvesandtheenvironment.Toachievethis,advancingcriticalthinkingandpromotingsocialactionbecomecomponentsofsuccessfulconservationeducationefforts.Engagementincommunityimprovement,socialactivism,orsocialactiononbehalfofanimals,wildlife,orconservationarepotentialoutcomesofzooandaquariumeducationprograms,butonlyifthereisadequatetheorytodefinehowtheseactionscanaccomplishtheintendedoutcomes.Evaluationtoolsandstrategiesforassessingsuccess,andadirectedcycleoflearningwithinthecommunitycanhelprefinethesetacticsacrosstheAZAcommunity.Toaccomplishtheseends,therearethreespecificneedsfornewresearchtohelpshapetheseconservationeducationstrategies.

StudiesAssessingtheRoleofScale:Zooandaquariumstudieshavetraditionallyfocusedonanindividualagentwhocanmakechangeintheirpersonalbehaviorfollowingavisit.Itisknownthatpeoplelearnoverrepeatedvisitsandcanattribute,atleastinpart,somechangeintheirbehaviorstotheirexperienceswithlivinganimalsatzoosandaquariums.Intermsofpersonalchangeandindividualaction,however,thediscoursewithinthezooandaquariumeducationcommunityhascontinuedtofocusonthevisitorinisolationratherthanasalearnerwithinasocialworld.Thelackofknowledgeaboutthedifferenceinwhatactionsindividualscantakeorchoosetotakegiventheirsocialcontextappearstolimitcurrenteducationstrategies.Developmentofresearchintohowzooandaquariumeducationprogramsworkwithgroupshasthepotentialtoshiftcurrenteducationstrategiesandtheirevaluationtothelevelofsocialchange.Furtherstudyofhowindividualbehavior‐changeimpactsthepersonchangedonapersonallevelandwithintheirsocialgroupcanalsohelpclarifyeducationoutcomesandanticipatedresults.Lastly,developingknowledgeandcommonevaluationstrategiesforassessinghowindividualconservationactionshelpmoveacommunity,andincombinationwithresultsfromotherAZAinstitutionsthenationaswell,towardlargerconservationgoals,isessentialtoanoverarchingeducationstrategy.

Secondly,therehasbeenlittlestudyoftheroleofgroupscreatedthroughthezoooraquarium’sagency,andhowthosegroupsaccomplishchangeintheircommunity.Furthermore,theinstitutionsthemselvesmayserveassocialagentsinacommunityofculturalinstitutions.Manyzoosoraquariumsfostercommunityinitiativesandhavestaffservingoncommunityboardswhereconservationissuesarecontestedorlaunched.Theseareasofsocialactionarenotstrategicallyrepresentedwithinanysocialactionframework,norhasthesociologicaltheoryofsocialchangebeenadequatelyorganizedinamannerthatcanaidtheseinstitutionstoevaluatetheiropportunitiesforsuccess.Asaneducationalstrategy,itisnecessarytobuildthistheoreticalframework,assesstheknowledgeofhowscaleandperceivedlegitimacyofzoosandaquariumsassocialagentsofchangecanbeusedtoaccomplishtheseoutcomes,andconstructanevaluationprogramtoassessthislearningthroughoutthezooandaquariumcommunity.

Issuesofbehaviors:Whilethetraditionaleducationgoalofzoosandaquariumshasbeentopromotemoreconservationbehavior,thereremainslittletheorydevelopedaroundtheconstraintsthatlimitvariousbehaviorstheypromoted.ResearchinAustraliahasdemonstratedthatdevelopingbehavioralrecommendationsfornon‐nativespecieswasdifficultbecausetherewerefewcausallinksbetweenthestorytellingstrategiesinzoosandaquariumsandwhatvisitorscoulddotoimpactthefuturelivesforspeciesrepresentedthere.Basedonthisresult,thereissubstantialneedforresearchintohowpeopleunderstandthedegreeofproximityofabehaviorinrelationtoaconservationmessage—thatis,thenearnessofthe


stimuliprovidedinanexhibitorprogramtotheactitself.Thereisalsoaneedtoarticulatethepsychologicalbarrierstobehaviorspromotedbyzoosandaquariums,suchastheabilityandauthoritytoact.Althoughthesebehavior‐changetheorieshavebeenresearchedextensivelyinmediaandconsumerpsychology,thereremainslittleresearchonhowtheseconditionsapplytofree‐choiceenvironmentsandspecificallyinzoosandaquariumswherethebehaviorsaresomewhatabstractbecausethestimulifrequentlyrepresentconservationissuesremotefromthevisitor.Therefore,furtherstudyoftheuniqueissuesofagencyandproximitytotheissueshouldbespecificallyinvestigatedinthesesettings.Tofacilitatethis,itisreasonableforzoosandaquariumstoalsodevelopamoreclearlyarticulatedsetofbehavioralmessagesandinstructionsforat‐homeimplementation,andthendefinethosethatofferthegreatestefficacyforbehaviorchangeorreinforcement.Lastly,concertedfocusoncomparativestudyoftargetedbehavioraloutcomesthatmostresonatewithazoo/aquariumvisitwouldhelpfocuseducationstrategiesandgoalstowardthecapabilitiesoftheseinstitutions.

Issuesofmeasurement:Duringthewritingofthisdocument,wedevelopedsomestandardizedmeasuresforentrymotivations,beliefs,andconservationvalues.However,thesemeasureswerestandardizedforeaseofuseacrosstheUSA,anddonotaddresscontextualchangesthatmayexistwithincommunities,norhowspecificissuesmaybeopportunisticallyusedindifferentregionstohigheradvantage.Thereisanemerginggroupofregionalassociationsofzoosoraquariums,aswellasworldwidegroupsseekingtoachievethesameends.GroupslikeTheOceanProjecthavedoneagreatservicebydemonstratingthatnationalandinternationaldatacanhelpframeandshapemessagesandmeasurementbenchmarksfortheirmembers.TheYearoftheFrogdemonstratedthattherecanbeaworldwidecollaborationonissue‐basedconservationmessaging.Inthistopicarea,however,coherentsub‐groupsofzoosandaquariumscouldadvanceresearchsubstantiallybyfocusingonhowculturalcommunitiessuchasOhio,thezoosandaquariumsofthePacificNorthwest,orothercoherentcommunitiesaddresssocialissuesandchangeregionallyinordertoassesstheireffortsasacollectivegroup.Thiscooperativeresearchstrategywouldgatherresourcesaroundthedevelopmentofevaluationmetricsthatreflectthecommunityandfree‐choicelearningcommunityinaggregateratherthaninstitutionsactinginisolation.

KeyReadings:Cialdini,R.B.2001.Influence:Scienceandpractice(4thed.).Boston:Allyn&Bacon.

Fraser,J.,&Wharton,D.(2007).Thefutureofzoos.Curator,TheMuseumJournal,50(1),41‐54.

Hanna,M.G.&Robinson,B.(1994)Strategiesforcommunityempowerment:Direct‐actionandtransformativeapproachestosocialchangepractice.Lewiston,NY:EdwinMellenPress.

McKenzie‐Mohr,D.,andW.Smith.1999.FosteringSustainableBehavior:AnIntroductiontoCommunity‐basedSocialMarketing.BritishColumbia,Canada:NewSocietyPublishers.

Mezirow,J.(1991)Transformativedimensionsofadultlearning.SanFrancisco:Jossey‐Bass.

Rothman,J,Erlich,J.L.,&Tropman,J.E.(2001)StrategiesofCommunityIntervention:MacroPractice.Independence,KY:WadsworthPublishing.

Smith,L.,Broad,S.,&Weiler,B.(2008).Acloserexaminationoftheimpactofzoovisitsonvisitorbehaviour.JournalofSustainableTourism,16(5).RetrievedOctober18,2008fromhttp://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t794297833.

Swanagan,J.S.(2000).Factorsinfluencingzoovisitors'conservationattitudesandbehaviour.JournalofEnvironmentalEducation,31(4),26‐31.

Tett,L.(2006)Communityeducation,lifelonglearningandsocialinclusion.2ndEdition.PolicyandPracticeinEducation.Edinbourgh,Scotland:DunedinAcademicPress.


Question4:WhatRoledoZoosorAquariumsplayregardingSocialServices?TherecentlycompletedPerceivedValueofZoosandAquariumsstudyidentifiedanewroleforzoosandaquariumsnottraditionallypartoftheAZAdiscourse,butwhichrepresentsadistinctopportunityandresearchneedforzoosandaquariums.InterviewswithpoliticalleadersandinterceptsurveysatafewzoosandaquariumsuncoveredthatsocialserviceagenciesexpectanduseAZAinstitutionstofurthertheirefforts.Whilesomezoosandaquariumshaveexperimentedwithanimaltherapyoranimalcontactprograms,fewhaveconsideredthesocialvalueorsocialserviceoftheseinstitutionsasenvironmentsthatcanimpactdevelopmentofskillsandrelationshipsaspartofcommunitysocialserviceprograms.Althoughmuchofthismaterialhasbeenanecdotallydescribedinafewveryrecentstudies,itwouldseemthatsocialserviceagencieshavediscoveredtheseinstitutionsasanimportantvenue.Inaddition,somepoliticianswouldliketoseetheseinstitutionscommittosupportingat‐riskfamilies,andreportingontheseactivities,butthereremainslittleresearchontheeffectivenessorimportanceofthatwork.

Perceptionsofrole:Inthefirstinstance,thereisneedforqualitativestudytoassesswhetherthesocialserviceagencies,suchasstateandfederalgovernmenthealth‐care,incomeassistanceandhumanserviceagencies,themselvesbelievethatzoosandaquariumscanofferthemsupport.Atanationallevel,AZAstaffcoulddevelopalistofsocialservicecollaborationscurrentlysupportedbymemberzoosandaquariumsandataskforcecouldidentifyataxonomyofthecurrentlevelsofengagementandpossiblepartnersforexploringhowthesetypesofengagementrelatetothedevelopmentofenhancedmotivations,skillsorknowledgerelatedtoanimals,wildlifeorconservation.Usingthesedata,anewmulti‐institutionalexploratorystudycouldbedevelopedtoexplorehowtherolesandthecommunitiesthemselvesenhanceorlimitthemissionobjectivesoftheseinstitutions.

Potentialaudiences:Fewzoosoraquariumsarefree‐accessatalltimes.Morethan95%ofzoosandaquariumsoperateatleastinpartthroughadmissionfees,butmanyoftheseinstitutionsdoofferfreeorsponsoredaccessaspartoftheircommunityservices.Inafewcases,zoosandaquariumspartnerwithotherculturalinstitutionsandsocialserviceagenciestoprovideaccessforlow‐incomevisitorsorthosereceivingsocialassistance.Clearlytherearequestionsrelatedtotheefficacyandthelonger‐termimpactofprovidingaccess.

Theresearchquestionsinthisareadonotfocusonbuildingminorityorunderservedaudiencesforthesakeofaudience,butratherontheservicesofferedandthecomparativevalueoftheseuniquevenuesforprovidingsuchservices.Professionalandpoliticalaudiencesmightpotentiallysupportzooandaquariumworkwithsocialserviceagencies,orinstitutionsmightuseincreasedengagementwithsocialservicesprofessionalstohelprefineandtargetprogramsthataidtheirlocalcommunitymembersandbuildlong‐termconstituenciesforpositiveexperiencesatzoosandaquariums.

Existingpsychologicaluseandvalence:Again,anecdotally,itisreportedthatsocialserviceagenciesusezoosandaquariumsaspublicvenuestosupportsupervisedparentalvisits,asdestinationsforschoolorothergroupswithlearningdifferencesordevelopmentalchallenges,andaspublicservicesmadeavailabletosupportparentswithchildreninlow‐incomeorat‐riskcommunities.Familyguidesandworkshopshavebeencreatedtohelpthesevisitorsusetheinstitutionforsciencelearning,butthereappearstobeadeficitinunderstandingtheotherpsychologicalandsociologicaldevelopmentalbenefitsthatalsoaccruefromdirectandguided


engagement.Futureexplorationofthistopiccouldhelpzoosandaquariumsdevelopamorecomprehensivestrategyforcollaborationwiththesocialservicesintheircommunity.

KeyReadings:Devault,M.L.(2000).Producingfamilytime:Practicesofleisureactivitybeyondthehome.QualitativeSociology,

23(4),485‐503.


Shaw,S.M.,&Dawson,D.(2001).Purposiveleisure:Examiningparentaldiscoursesonfamilyactivities.LeisureSciences,23(4),217‐231.


Question5:WhataretheUniqueCharacteristicsofLearninginZoosandAquariums?Conservationeducationthusfarhasfocusedthemissionofzoosandaquariumsonchanginghowpeoplebehave.Currentknowledgetellsusthatlearningmustincorporateknowledge,affect/attitude,andskillinastrategicrelationshipinordertomanifestdesiredbehaviorchanges.Theuniqueaspectsofthezoooraquariumasafree‐choicelearninginstitutionbasedontheirdistinctcollectionsandexperiencesoffersafertilegroundforcontinuedtheoreticalandpracticalexploration.Thefollowingareseveralkeyareasofinquiryforlearninginzoosandaquariums.

Relationshipsbetweenvariouslearningdomains:Nowthatbaselineinformationaboutlearningiswelldefined,itisimportanttofocusthenextstepontrans‐disciplinarystudies.Thatis,toexaminewhereandhowspecificdomainsofknowledgeintersectinazoooraquarium.Questionscanfocusonhowcharacteristicsofalearningdomainrelatetothedevelopmentofintentionality,orthewaysthatlearningoccursasvisitors,repeatvisitors,members,volunteers,staff,andorganizationscometoarriveatnewknowledge.

Thecharacteristicsoflearners/learninginzoosandaquariums:TherecentNRCreportonLearningScienceinInformalEnvironments(Belletal,2009)buildsonrecentresearchintoidentity,temporalidentity,andmotivations.Thisnewstrandofresearch(Strand6)focusesonidentityprocesses,whichinthiscaserefertothedevelopmentofthesenseofselfasastableconstructthatcanpredictbehaviors,beliefs,andattitudestowardotherpeopleandtheenvironment.Identitytheorydoesnothavearobustresearchtraditioninzoosoraquariums.Furtherresearchonthistopicinsituationsoutsidethehomeorschoolisimportanttofurtherunderstandhowidentitycanbeimplicatedinthedesireforself‐directedlearningorfacilitatingthelearningofothers.Inparticular,thereisgreatneedforexperimentalresearchtoidentifystrategies,exhibitconfigurations,andothercontextsthathelpvisitorsperceivethemselvesassuccessfullearners.Aretheredifferentapproachestolearninginzoosandaquariums,preferencesforlearninginthesetypesofenvironments,orcognitiveprocessesinstigatedbyconditionsinzoosandaquariumsthatsetthemapartfromotherlearninginstitutions?

Thesocialnatureofgrouplearning:Secondly,oneofthecorechallengesfacingzoosandaquariumsisthesocialnatureoftheirexperiences.Recentresearchhasdemonstratedthatlearninginzoosoraquariumsissubstantiallyalteredbythecontext,priorities,andvaluesofanindividual’ssocialgroup.Unfortunately,themethodologyforunderstandinglearningingroupsorintergenerationallearninglagsbehindthemethodsforothertypesofassessment.Thereisneedtodevelopmorerobustmethodsforassessinggroupengagementandlearningaswellastheoryandstrategyaroundcomparingsocialorgrouplearningconstructsandprocesses.Furtherexplorationofwhetherthereareuniqueaspects,opportunities,orconditionsthatsupportsocialandgrouplearninginthesesettingsisalsoworthyofpursuit.

Thenatureofscienceinzoosandaquariums:Zoosandaquariumsfocusonconservationactionasthelogicaloutcomeofsciencelearning.ThisfocusiscloselytiedtotheNRCstrandof“reflectonthenatureofscience”(Strand4).Thecharacteristicsofthescientificenterprisebasicallyassumethatscienceisa)subjecttochange(i.e.,tentative),b)empirically‐basedonevidencefromthenaturalworld,c)subjectivelydefined,d)involvesinference,imagination,andcreativitybytheinterpreter,ande)isembeddedintheculture.Zoosandaquariumsofferusefulenvironmentsforinvestigatinghowindividualsintheirgroupsexplorethenaturalbehaviors


ofanimals,knowledgeaboutspecies,andculturalassumptionsandtheimplicationsofthatexplorationontheoverallculturalunderstandingofthenatureofscience.

Questionsrelatedtospecificcontextandlearning:Philosophically,zoosandaquariumscontinuetodebatewhatislearnedwhenviewingcaptivewildanimals,andhowtheexhibit’ssetting(forexample,immersionversusforced‐flowexhibits)impactslearning.However,thesecontextvariableshavenotbeenadequatelyarticulatedforcomparativeempiricalresearch,relyinginsteadoncasestudydataalone.ThisleavesopenanimportantquestionforfutureresearchersthattheNRCreportalsocalledfor:Doesthecontextofthezoooraquariumalterthewaysinwhichpeoplelearnconceptsanddevelopskills?(TwoindependentstrandsintheNRCreport.)Thisstudyareawouldbestservethecommunityifitfocusedonwhethertherearecontextualbarrierstolearningrelatedtohowanimalsareexhibited,whatcontradictorymessagesvisitorsascertainduringtheirvisitandhowtheydrawmeaningfromthoseconflictingmessages.Thisresearchwouldmovebeyondstudyoftheanimalorinterpretivetexttoexplorewhichspecificdomainsoflearningarebestfacilitatedthroughtheoverallcontext,andhowthecontextitselfservestoteach.

KeyReadings:Acampora,R.(2005).Zoosandeyes:Contestingcaptivityandseekingsuccessorpractices.SocietyandAnimals,

13(1),69‐88.

Balmford,A.,Leader‐Williams,N.,Mace,G.,Manica,A.,Walter,O.,West,C.,andZimmermann,A.(2007).Messagereceived?QuantifyingtheimpactofinformalconservationeducationonadultsvisitingUKzoos.InA.Zimmermann,M.Hatchwell,L.Dickie&C.West(Eds.),CatalystsforConservation:aDirectionforZoosinthe21stCentury(pp.120‐136).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Beardsworth,A.,&Bryman,A.(2001).Thewildanimalinlatemodernity:ThecaseoftheDisneyizationofzoos.TouristStudies,10(1),83‐104.

Broad,S.&Weiler,B.(1998).Captiveanimalsandinterpretation–ataleoftwotigerexhibits.TheJournalofTourismStudies,9(1),14‐27

Bruni,C.,Fraser,J.,&Schultz,P.W.(2008).Thevalueofzooexperiencesforconnectingpeoplewithnature.VisitorStudies,11(2),139‐150.

Clayton,S.,Fraser,J.&Saunders,C.D.(2009).Zooexperiences,conversations,connectionsandconcernforanimals.ZooBiology28(5)377‐397.

Lee,K.(2005).Zoos:Aphilosophicaltour.Basingstoke,UK:PalgraveMacmillan.

Marsick,V.J.,Volpe,M.,&Watkins,K.E.(1999)Theoryandpracticeofinformallearningintheknowledgeera.Advancesindevelopinghumanresources.1(3):80‐95.

Pekarik,A.,Doering,Z.,&Karns,D.(1999).Exploringsatisfyingexperiencesinmuseums.Curator,TheMuseumJournal,42(2),117‐129.

Rabb,G.,&Saunders,C.D.(2005).Thefutureofzoosandaquariums,conservationandcaring.InternationalZooYearbook,39,1‐26.

Schauble,L.,Leinhardt,G.,&Martin,L.(1997).AFrameworkforOrganizingaCumulativeResearchAgendainInformalLearningContexts.JournalofMuseumEducation,22(2&3),3‐8.

Smith,M.C.&Pourch,T.(1998)Adultlearninganddevelopment:Perspectivesfromeducationalpsychology.Mahwah,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates,Inc.

Tofield,S.,Coll,R.K.,Vyle,B.&Bolstad,R.(2003)Zoosasasourceoffreechoicelearning.ResearchinScience&TechnologicalEducation.21(1),67‐99.


Question6:AZooandAquariumEducationProfession?Aszooandaquariumeducationmatures,questionsregardingthedevelopmentofthefieldasaprofessionareboundtoemerge.Atpresent,zooandaquariumeducatorsshareagreatdealwiththeircounterpartsinotherenvironmentalandscienceeducationinstitutions,buttheyhavealsorecognizedthatsomeconditionsareuniquetothezoooraquariumsetting,inthesamewaythatanimalbehavioralresearchandanimalhusbandryprofessionalsinzoosandaquariumshaveuniqueknowledgesetsthatdistinguishthemfromtheirpeers.Thisuniqueconditionsuggeststheneedforanewcomparativestudyofzooandaquariumeducationpracticeagainstthecharacteristicsthatdefineaprofession.Thesequestionschallengewhetherthereisadifferencebetweenzoo/aquariumeducationandotherfree‐choicelearningsettings,whatprofessionaldevelopmentisnecessarytotrulyengageinthebusiness,andwhatstandardsofpracticeareuniquetothisfield.

Componentsofaprofession:Toengagewiththesequestions,itisnecessarytobeginanexploratorystudytoarticulatetheuniquecomponentsofthisprofessionandtodistinguishthesecomponentsfromthoseheldbyalliedprofessions.Undertakingthisprofessionalizationstudywouldprovidetheopportunitytodefinewhatchangesarenecessaryforthefieldtobeviewedasaprofessionbythoseoutsidethecommunity,andhowtoengageinthatdiscussioninternally.Lastly,aprofessionisdefinedbyacodeofethicsinpractice,andclarificationoftheseethicsisessentialtotheadvancementofaprofessionaldefinitionofpractice.

Conditionsofaprofession:Asecondtierofresearchintotheprofessionwouldestablishwhetherthereareuniquecharacteristicsofzoo/aquariumeducatorsthatdistinguishthemfromothereducators.Inthiscase,anexplorationoftheuniqueskillsetsneededtobesuccessfulinzoo/aquariumeducationwouldfocusontheeducatorsthemselvesastheresearchpopulation;examinethepedagogicalstancethatleadstosuccess;anddeterminewhetherthefieldistrans‐disciplinary,interdisciplinary,orauniquefielduntoitself.Detailedexaminationofthecareerpathsofzoo/aquariumeducators;theabilitytomoveoutsidetheprofessionafterestablishingexpertisewithinthefield;andtheirprofessionalaspirations,wouldenhancethestudy.

Progressoftheprofession:Lastly,historicalresearchintothezooandaquariumfieldwouldoffervaluableinstructiononhowthefieldhaschangedandwhystandardsthatsupporttheevolutionofaprofessioninzooandaquariumeducationhavedeveloped.Thiscomparativestudywouldexaminetheemergenceofenvironmentaleducationandmuseumeducationasseparatedisciplines,whereandwhythesepedagogiesweredistinct,andhowthetraditionaltrainingofeducatorsinzoosandaquariumshasadaptedwithinthesetwofields.Thisresearchshouldseektoanswerthequestionofhowthepracticeofeducationinzoosandaquariumshaschangedovertimeandtowhatend,whatemergenttrendscharacterizethefieldtoday,andhowexcellenceinpracticeisdefinedandmeasured.

KeyReadings:Evetts,J.(2003).Thesociologicalanalysisofprofessionalism.InternationalSociology,18(2),395‐415.

Friedson,E.(2001).Professionalism:Thethirdlogic.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Hargreaves,A.(2000)Fouragesofprofessionalismandprofessionallearning.TeachersandTeaching:TheoryandPractice,6(2):151‐182.

Kultgen,J.H.(1998)Ethicsandprofessionalism.Philadelphia:UniversityofPennsylvaniaPress.

Vollmer,H.M.&Mills,D.M.(1966)Professionalization.Prentice‐Hallseriesonsociology.UpperSaddleRiver,NJ:Prentice‐Hall.


Question7:HowdoweAssess,DisseminateandApplyExistingKnowledge?Inanyfield,thereisanongoingneedtocontinuallyreviewnewresearchbothwithinandbeyondthefielditself.Thepracticeofsynthesizingandapplyingknowledgeinserviceofthefieldisessentialtoexpandingknowledge.Exploringwhatisknownacrossdisciplineshelpstoidentifyconceptsoropportunitiesthatresideinthatworkthatmaybelessevidenttothoseworkingwithinthefield,helpstochallengeassumptions,andoffersnewperspectivesthatcanenhancepractice.Thisexerciseof“datadiving”isbestcharacterizedunderfourcategoriesofwork.

Breadthofparentdisciplines:Asanappliededucationfield,thereisbasicresearchconductedinseveraldisciplinesthatcaninformthework.Forthisactivity,itisnecessarytothinkbroadlyaboutdisciplinesandreachouttoleadingscholarsinthosefieldstodeterminehowthatmaterialapplies.Inzoosandaquariums,forexample,educatorshaveembracedconservationandenvironmentalpsychology,whereasconsumerpsychologyandtranspersonalpsychologyofferdifferentperspectivesonlearning.Moreimportantly,anthropology,sociologyandpoliticalscienceremainunder‐sourcedbythoseseekingtoadvancenewknowledgeincommunities.Continualattentiontothesub‐disciplineswithinthesocialsciencesandhumanitiescanoffermanynewopportunitiestoexpandthinkingaboutthezooandaquariumexperience.

Deepliteraturesynthesis:Inadditiontothebroadassessmentacrossdisciplines,thereisvalueindelvingdeeplyintowhatisknown,howitisknown,andhowithascometohavemeaningwithinadiscipline.Synthesizingdeeplyisavaluabletoolforunderstandinghowmeaninghasbeenappliedtocurrentlyacceptedwisdom.

Meta‐analysisofstudies:Thereisnolongeradeficitofresearchorevaluationinthezooandaquariumfield.Asshownintheopeningpagesofthisreport,thereareagreatnumberofbothresearchandevaluationstudiesthathavehelpedprovethatzoosandaquariumsachievetheirgoals.Unfortunately,manyofthesestudieshavebeenconductedinisolation.Theliteraturereviewandpost‐hocanalysisofexistingdatasetsaretwoareaswarrantedforfurtherstudygiventhisexplodingtreasuretroveofdata.Forinstance,aresearchermaychoosetolookforanswersacrossexistingstudiesandbringnewresearchtraditionstobearonexistingresults.Forthemajorityofthiswork,secondaryanalysisofreportedfindingshasthepotentialtounlockapplicabletheorythatisconcealedbycasestudiesorlocationspecificanalysis.

Archivaldatadiving:Often,researchandevaluationstudies’datasetscanbeusedtoaskneworadditionalquestions.Delvingintoolddatasetstore‐analyzeortoasknewquestionsusingtheexistingdatacanbeapowerfultool.Thisisparticularlyrelevantwhennewmodelsemergefromcross‐disciplinarystudies.Thisstrategyhasprovenparticularlyusefulinqualitativeresearchwhentranscriptsallowsecondarycodingorexaminationforunderlyingmeaning.Forexample,combiningfivestudiesthatusedtranscriptstoreportexperiencesinzoos/aquariumsmayrevealnewinformationthatwasconcealedinthecontextofanyoneofthestudieswhenconsideredinisolation.

KeyReadings:Brown,J.S.&Duguid,P.(1991).Organizationallearningandcommunities‐of‐practice:Towardaunifiedviewof

working,learning,andinnovation.OrganizationScience,2(1),40‐57.Gupta,B.,Iyer,L.S.,&Aronson,J.E.(2000)Knowledgemanagement:practicesandchallenges.Industrial

Management&DataSystems,100(1),17–21.


ConclusionWhatdoestheCECenvisionasthefutureforresearchinzooandaquariumeducation?Thereisnoonerecommendedapproach,butrather,theCECseesavarietyofstudies—evaluative,applied,andbasic—conductedthroughamixtureoflevels.

Wesee:

Independentstudiesinlocalzoosandaquariums Collaborative,confirmatory,andreplicationstudiesatoneortwosites Smallactiongroupsthatmightbedefinedregionally,byspecies,byprogram,orby

interest Nationallyrepresentativestudies Universityresearchersworkingbeyondtheboundariesofzoosandaquariums

Thisframeworkdoesnotaddressfundingneeds,butdoesrecognizethesubstantiveneedfortheimplementationofanaggressiveresearchagenda.Clearly,evaluativeworkmustbeconductedasapartofallprofessionaleducationactivity.Suchworkcouldbegintocontributetosubquestionsintheaboveframeworkandthusbeincorporatedintonormalroutine.Onthecollaborativeandsmallactiongrouplevel,fundedprojectscan,andshould,usetheframeworktodemonstratehowtheprojectwillprovideinsightintopartofanyoftheframeworkquestions.Forthelargerstudies,externalfunding,oftenfromFederalagenciesorfundingorganizationswhoseektolearnabouthowthenationisdevelopingaconcernfornaturewouldberequired,andsuchstudiesshouldemergeatleastinpartnershipandwiththeknowledgeoftheCECandAZA.

Ultimately,whatwelearnhelpszoosandaquariumsmeettheirconservationmission.Thus,theCECstronglyencouragesthatallresearchbeshared,bothacademicallyandpractically.Itwillultimatelybeimportantthatanyresearchfindingsfittingintotheaboveframeworkshouldbedigestibleandusablebythosedoingeducationinourinstitutions,andthosewhoareresponsibleforthedirectionandmanagementofourinstitutionsandourfuture.

the aza framework for zoo and aquarium social science research

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