The Army Corps of The Army Corps of Engineers and US Engineers and US

Flood ManagementFlood ManagementBetsy AlbrightBetsy Albright

Fulbright ScholarFulbright Scholar

Duke UniversityDuke University

Overview of LectureOverview of Lecture

History of River Regulation and Dam History of River Regulation and Dam Management in the United StatesManagement in the United States Emphasis on the Army Corps of Emphasis on the Army Corps of

EngineersEngineers Mississippi Floods of 1993Mississippi Floods of 1993 Hurricane KatrinaHurricane Katrina

Army Corps of EngineersArmy Corps of Engineers 1794 Congress organized a Corps of 1794 Congress organized a Corps of

Artillerists and EngineersArtillerists and Engineers 1802 that it reestablished a separate 1802 that it reestablished a separate

Corps of Engineers. Corps of Engineers. 19th century Corps 19th century Corps

construction of coastal fortifications and construction of coastal fortifications and mapped much of the American West with the mapped much of the American West with the Corps of Topographical Engineers (1838—Corps of Topographical Engineers (1838—1863).  1863).  

also constructed lighthouses, helped develop also constructed lighthouses, helped develop jetties and piers for harbors, mapped the jetties and piers for harbors, mapped the navigation channels. navigation channels.

History of Army Corps of History of Army Corps of EngineersEngineers

1824 the Supreme Court ruled in Gibbons 1824 the Supreme Court ruled in Gibbons v. Ogden that federal authority covered v. Ogden that federal authority covered interstate commerce including riverine interstate commerce including riverine navigation.  navigation.  

Congress passed two laws that was the Congress passed two laws that was the beginning of the Corps' continuous beginning of the Corps' continuous involvement in civil works.  involvement in civil works.   The General Survey Act The General Survey Act

Roads, canals Roads, canals Navigation improvement on Mississippi and Navigation improvement on Mississippi and

Ohio Rivers. Authorized the president to have Ohio Rivers. Authorized the president to have surveys made of routes for roads and canals.surveys made of routes for roads and canals.

Hetch Hetchy Dam San Hetch Hetchy Dam San FranciscoFrancisco

Dam project for water supply for San Dam project for water supply for San Francisco early 20th centuryFrancisco early 20th century San Francisco Fire of 1906San Francisco Fire of 1906 Dam in Yosemite National ParkDam in Yosemite National Park

Debate between conservationists Debate between conservationists versus preservationistsversus preservationists John Muir, Sierra Club vs. Gifford John Muir, Sierra Club vs. Gifford

PinchotPinchot "The greatest good for the greatest number "The greatest good for the greatest number

for the longest time." Pinchotfor the longest time." Pinchot Senate voted in 1913 to develop damSenate voted in 1913 to develop dam

http://members.aol.com/americacruising/aiww-south.htmlhttp://members.aol.com/americacruising/aiww-south.html

Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Chesapeake and Delaware Canal in 1919in 1919 Intracoastal waterwayIntracoastal waterway 1200 miles course humanmade 1200 miles course humanmade

canals, bays, natural river channels, canals, bays, natural river channels, and estuariesand estuaries

Intracoastal Waterway

Army Corps of EngineersArmy Corps of Engineers President Franklin Roosevelt President Franklin Roosevelt

favored the development of federal favored the development of federal hydropower projects to low-cost energy. hydropower projects to low-cost energy.

New Deal (1933-1938)New Deal (1933-1938) Three major hydroelectric power projects: Three major hydroelectric power projects:

Passamaquoddy Tidal Power Project in Maine, Passamaquoddy Tidal Power Project in Maine, Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River, and Bonneville Dam on the Columbia River, and Fort Peck Dam on the Missouri River. Fort Peck Dam on the Missouri River.

Post WWIIPost WWII Multi-purpose (flood control, hydropower, Multi-purpose (flood control, hydropower,

recreation) projects proliferatedrecreation) projects proliferated Columbia and Snake rivers in the Pacific Columbia and Snake rivers in the Pacific

Northwest Northwest

Army Corps of Engineers Army Corps of Engineers TodayToday

Beginning in the 1960s Beginning in the 1960s focused more on recreation, environmental focused more on recreation, environmental

preservation, and water quality than on preservation, and water quality than on irrigation, navigation, or flood control. irrigation, navigation, or flood control.

Rising opposition to water projects. Rising opposition to water projects. Water Resources Development Act of Water Resources Development Act of

1986 1986 Emphasis on nonfederal spending and Emphasis on nonfederal spending and

interestsinterests Greater emphasis on environmental concernsGreater emphasis on environmental concernshttp://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history/

Mississippi River BasinMississippi River Basin

Mississippi River Basin Mississippi River Basin FloodsFloods

Floods of 1849 and 1850Floods of 1849 and 1850 1850 Congress passed legislation for topographical 1850 Congress passed legislation for topographical

and hydrographical survey of Mississippi Delta in and hydrographical survey of Mississippi Delta in response to disasterous flooding in the 1800sresponse to disasterous flooding in the 1800s 20 foot navigation channel in mouth of river20 foot navigation channel in mouth of river Report Upon The Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi Report Upon The Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi

River River river flow, channel cross sections, and general topographical river flow, channel cross sections, and general topographical

and geological features.  developed their own formula to and geological features.  developed their own formula to measure the flow of water in rivers—however it was faulty, measure the flow of water in rivers—however it was faulty, ignored degree of roughness of slopes of river channels.  ignored degree of roughness of slopes of river channels.  

Developed „Levees Only” policy, affected river regulation in Developed „Levees Only” policy, affected river regulation in the US through mid 20th centurythe US through mid 20th century

Mississippi River Commission formedMississippi River Commission formed

http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/history/brief.htm#1beg

Mississippi River FloodsMississippi River Floods Floods of 1882, Mississippi DeltaFloods of 1882, Mississippi Delta Floods of 1912 and 1913 Floods of 1912 and 1913

Lower Mississippi ValleyLower Mississippi Valley 1916 Flood1916 Flood

First Flood Control Act PassedFirst Flood Control Act Passed Dependent on Levee controlDependent on Levee control

1927 Flood1927 Flood 500 people were killed, 16 million acres were 500 people were killed, 16 million acres were

flooded, and over 500,000 people were forced flooded, and over 500,000 people were forced from their homesfrom their homes

Mississippi River and Mississippi River and Tributaries ProjectTributaries Project

1928 Flood Control Act  This act started what 1928 Flood Control Act  This act started what now is called the Mississippi River and now is called the Mississippi River and Tributaries Project Tributaries Project „„leveeslevees for containing flood flows; for containing flood flows; floodwaysfloodways for the for the

passage of excess flows past critical reaches of the passage of excess flows past critical reaches of the Mississippi; Mississippi; channel improvement channel improvement and and stabilizationstabilization for stabilizing the channel in order to provide an for stabilizing the channel in order to provide an efficient navigation alignment, increase the flood-efficient navigation alignment, increase the flood-carrying capacity of the river, and for protection of the carrying capacity of the river, and for protection of the levees system; and levees system; and tributary basin improvements”tributary basin improvements”

http://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/pao/bro/misstrib.htm http://www.mvn.usace.army.mil/pao/bro/misstrib.htm 1936 Flood Control Act 1936 Flood Control Act

Federal Government should be involved in flood controlFederal Government should be involved in flood control—commenced reservoir construction—commenced reservoir construction

Mississippi River BasinMississippi River Basin Mississippi River 6,270 km longMississippi River 6,270 km long Land use is predominantly agricultureLand use is predominantly agriculture Includes 32% of total US farm acreageIncludes 32% of total US farm acreage Major population areas along Mississippi and Major population areas along Mississippi and

Missouri RiversMissouri Rivers Major urban areas protected by levees and flood Major urban areas protected by levees and flood

impoundmentsimpoundments 8,000 miles of levees in Upper Mississippi basin, 8,000 miles of levees in Upper Mississippi basin,

built by federal and local governmentsbuilt by federal and local governments 27 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, 27 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi,

most of which were built in the 1930s most of which were built in the 1930s Below St. Louis the Mississippi is relatively free-Below St. Louis the Mississippi is relatively free-

flowing, constrained by numerous leveesflowing, constrained by numerous levees

Mississippi RiverMississippi River

http://stlouis.missouri.org/images/river.html

Mississippi RiverMississippi River

National importanceNational importance Transportation, environment, recreation, Transportation, environment, recreation,

cultural heritage, agriculturecultural heritage, agriculture Migratory birds, fish and mussel speciesMigratory birds, fish and mussel species

In 1986, Congress designated the Upper In 1986, Congress designated the Upper Mississippi River System as both a Mississippi River System as both a nationally significant ecosystem and a nationally significant ecosystem and a nationally significant navigation system. nationally significant navigation system.

66% of flood plain in Upper Mississippi 66% of flood plain in Upper Mississippi agricultureagriculture

Mississippi Floods of 1993Mississippi Floods of 1993 May through September of 1993 May through September of 1993 North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas,

Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Illinois Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Illinois Hundreds of levees failed along the Mississippi and Hundreds of levees failed along the Mississippi and

Missouri Rivers Missouri Rivers 9,300 km of levees were damaged following 9,300 km of levees were damaged following the 1993 flood the 1993 flood

$15 billion damages$15 billion damages Flooding submerged eight million acres of farmland Flooding submerged eight million acres of farmland 75 towns totally and completely flooded75 towns totally and completely flooded Des Moines, Iowa, located in the center of the flood Des Moines, Iowa, located in the center of the flood

region, largest U.S. city to lose its water supply region, largest U.S. city to lose its water supply

Critical Factors Affecting Critical Factors Affecting FloodsFloods

Continuous nature of the rainfall Continuous nature of the rainfall Rain on 20 days or more in July, compared Rain on 20 days or more in July, compared

to an average of 8-9 days with rain to an average of 8-9 days with rain Rainfalls with amounts achieving 75- to Rainfalls with amounts achieving 75- to

300-year frequencies. 300-year frequencies. Exceeding flood recurrence intervals of Exceeding flood recurrence intervals of

100 years 100 years Approximately 80% of the original Approximately 80% of the original

wetlands along the river were drained wetlands along the river were drained since the 1940’s since the 1940’s

Issues with Flood Issues with Flood Management in Mississippi Management in Mississippi

(Galloway, 1995)(Galloway, 1995) Unclear division of responsibilities in flood management Unclear division of responsibilities in flood management

Federal, state, tribe, local governmentsFederal, state, tribe, local governments No unified program of floodplain managementNo unified program of floodplain management Development in the floodplainDevelopment in the floodplain

LeveesLevees Locally constructed levees weaker than federal, little oversight Locally constructed levees weaker than federal, little oversight

of levee constructionof levee construction National Flood Insurance ProgramNational Flood Insurance Program

Premiums reflect flood riskPremiums reflect flood risk Lack of public participationLack of public participation Post Flood Emergency Assistance versus Flood InsurancePost Flood Emergency Assistance versus Flood Insurance

Principles and Guidelines (US Water Resources Council)Principles and Guidelines (US Water Resources Council) Water resources planning documentWater resources planning document Structural versus non-structural approachesStructural versus non-structural approaches

U.S. Soil Conservation Service spent $25 million to buy U.S. Soil Conservation Service spent $25 million to buy flood-prone farmlands for conversion to natural conditions flood-prone farmlands for conversion to natural conditions (e.g. wetlands) (e.g. wetlands)

Post Mississippi River Post Mississippi River FloodsFloods

Review of U.S. flood-control policy, both Review of U.S. flood-control policy, both before and after the 1993 flood before and after the 1993 flood limit or reduce infrastructure on floodplains limit or reduce infrastructure on floodplains

New emphases on flood-damage prevention New emphases on flood-damage prevention (FEMA) buyouts of floodplain properties. (FEMA) buyouts of floodplain properties.

Around St. Louis new development on flood Around St. Louis new development on flood plainplain

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers U.S. Army Corps of Engineers $197 million on nine local levees in its St. Louis $197 million on nine local levees in its St. Louis

District since 1993 District since 1993

http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/308/5719/207

Hurricane KatrinaHurricane Katrina

http://www.hq.usace.army.mil/hqhome/

New Orleans Flood of New Orleans Flood of 20052005

http://www.kathryncramer.com/photos/new_orleans_flooding/38640798_e084f7a713.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Pontchartrain

New Orleans and SE New Orleans and SE LouisianaLouisiana

City lies below sea levelCity lies below sea level Surrounded by water Surrounded by water

Lake Pontchartrain (North)Lake Pontchartrain (North) Mississippi River (South and West)Mississippi River (South and West)

Mississippi Delta wetlands disappearingMississippi Delta wetlands disappearing Hurricane 1947Hurricane 1947

Levees built along Lake PontchartrainLevees built along Lake Pontchartrain Hurricane Betsy 1965Hurricane Betsy 1965

Levees raised to protect for a Category 3 Levees raised to protect for a Category 3 hurricanehurricane

New Orleans and SE New Orleans and SE LouisianaLouisiana

Army Corps of Engineers requested Army Corps of Engineers requested funds from Congress to upgrade funds from Congress to upgrade levees in 1990slevees in 1990s

Southeast Louisiana Urban Flood Southeast Louisiana Urban Flood Control Project Control Project Funding cut 80%Funding cut 80%

FEMA study in 2001 suggested FEMA study in 2001 suggested hurricane in New Orleans one of top hurricane in New Orleans one of top three likely disasters in USthree likely disasters in US

Hurricane KatrinaHurricane Katrina Hurrican Katrina hit as a Category 4Hurrican Katrina hit as a Category 4 Levee Breaches in New OrleansLevee Breaches in New Orleans

17th Street Canal Breach, London Street, Industrial 17th Street Canal Breach, London Street, Industrial CanalCanal

80% of city covered by flood water80% of city covered by flood water Army Corps of Engineers began pumping water Army Corps of Engineers began pumping water

back into lake on September 6thback into lake on September 6th September 24th breaches reoccured due to September 24th breaches reoccured due to

Hurricane RitaHurricane Rita Estimated that 2% of volume of lake pumped Estimated that 2% of volume of lake pumped

back into lakeback into lake Heavy metals, petrochemicals, sewage, corpsesHeavy metals, petrochemicals, sewage, corpses

Hurricane KatrinaHurricane Katrina

Approximately 1,000 deathsApproximately 1,000 deaths Damages in the billionsDamages in the billions Homeless 100,000Homeless 100,000 Environmental ImpactsEnvironmental Impacts

http://www.kathryncramer.com/photos/new_orleans_flooding/319526.html

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17020

Coastal Wetlands SE Coastal Wetlands SE Louisiana Louisiana

The coastal wetlands of Louisiana (approximately 3 million The coastal wetlands of Louisiana (approximately 3 million acres) encompass approximately 40 % of the coastal acres) encompass approximately 40 % of the coastal wetlands of the United States, wetlands of the United States,

It has been estimated that the state of Lousiana is losing It has been estimated that the state of Lousiana is losing 75 square kilometers annually (75 square kilometers annually (httphttp://://marine.usgs.govmarine.usgs.gov//fact-sheetsfact-sheets//LAwetlandsLAwetlands//lawetlands.htmllawetlands.html). ).

This loss of wetlands represents approximately 80% of the This loss of wetlands represents approximately 80% of the total loss of wetlands across the United States. total loss of wetlands across the United States.

Dredging wetlands for canals or draining and filling for Dredging wetlands for canals or draining and filling for agriculture, grazing, or development. agriculture, grazing, or development.

The Mississippi Delta (300 km wide) formed from sediment The Mississippi Delta (300 km wide) formed from sediment deposits of Mississippi River over past 7,000 years.deposits of Mississippi River over past 7,000 years. Levees and natural processes have changed sediment deposit Levees and natural processes have changed sediment deposit

patternspatterns Salt water intursion from Gulf of Mexico to freshwater Salt water intursion from Gulf of Mexico to freshwater

wetlandswetlands Energy explorationEnergy exploration

SE Louisiana WetlandsSE Louisiana Wetlands

SE Louisiana WetlandsSE Louisiana Wetlands

http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/la-wetlands/figures/fig3.html

Post Katrina AnalysisPost Katrina Analysis

White House and Congress plan to White House and Congress plan to review response to Hurricane review response to Hurricane KatrinaKatrina Will review include factors associated Will review include factors associated

with increased flood risk?with increased flood risk? What will happen to New Orleans? What will happen to New Orleans?