Environmental contaminants are a globalproblem. Their presence and role in the Arcticreflects the physical, biological, and socialcharacteristics of the region, as well as the waythe Arctic interacts with the rest of the world.Current concern about Arctic contaminantsbegan with discoveries of high levels of persis-tent organic pollutants (POPs) in some indi-genous inhabitants of the Arctic. Subsequentresearch confirmed that Arctic animals haveelevated levels, posing a threat not only to thepeople who eat them but also to the animalsthemselves, and their ecosystems.

In 1997 and 1998, the Arctic Monitoringand Assessment Programme (AMAP) pub-lished a comprehensive assessment of whatwas then known about contaminants in theArctic. In light of recent discoveries and newinformation, AMAP has prepared five newscientific assessments, covering persistent or-ganic pollutants, heavy metals, radioactivity,human health, and changing pathways. In ad-dition, this volume presents a plain-languagesummary of each of the scientific assessments.To set the stage, this chapter describes the pre-vious assessment and what it led to, providesan overview of the Arctic and its special char-acteristics, and outlines the contents of the restof the volume.

AMAP Phase IIn 1991, the eight Arctic countries – Canada,Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden,Russia, and the United States – initiated theArctic Environmental Protection Strategy.

Under this framework, the countries pledgedto work together on issues of common con-cern. Recognizing the importance of the envi-ronment to the indigenous communities of theArctic, the countries at that time included threeindigenous organizations in their cooperativeprograms. In 1996, the eight Arctic countriescreated the Arctic Council, incorporating theArctic Environmental Protection Strategy andexpanding it to include sustainable developmentissues. They have also included three more indi-genous organizations for a total of six perma-nent participants.

One of the programs created under the Arc-tic Environmental Protection Strategy and con-tinued under the Arctic Council is the ArcticMonitoring and Assessment Programme.AMAP was designed to address environmentalcontaminants and related topics, such as cli-mate change and ozone depletion, includingtheir impacts on human health. Its specific taskin Phase I of its existence was to prepare acomprehensive scientific assessment on thesematters.

The 1998 scientific assessment

The AMAP Assessment Report: Arctic Pollu-tion Issues, published in 1998, was the resultof collaboration between over 400 scientistsand administrators from all eight Arctic coun-tries plus several non-Arctic countries andinternational programs. Its conclusions andrecommendations were adopted by consensusof the eight Arctic countries.

The assessment described the geography,ecology, and people of the Arctic. It then re-

ar1The Arctic

A R C T I C C O U N C I L

A R C T I C C O U N T R I E S

A M A PArctic Monitoringand Assessment

Programme

A C A PArctic Council

ActionPlan

C A F FConservationof Arctic Flora

and Fauna

E P P REmergency, Prevention,

Preparednessand Response

PA M EProtection of

the Arctic MarineEnvironment

S D W GSustainable

DevelopmentWorking Group

Observers (countries and organizations)

Permanent Participants (indigenous peoples organizations)

Setting the Stage

viewed the state of knowledge about pathwaysof contaminants; their levels, trends, and effects;human exposure; and potential threats. Its ex-tensive recommendations addressed futureresearch and monitoring, the need for remedialaction, and the need for international agree-ments to reduce emissions of contaminants.

Overall, AMAP concluded that the Arcticremains a clean environment compared withmost regions of the world. Nonetheless, theassessment warned that for certain contami-nants, Arctic residents are among the most ex-posed populations in the world. This is espe-cially true for Arctic indigenous people, whosetraditional diets place them at the top of Arcticfood webs. Through their dietary exposure,some groups are exposed to levels above nat-ional and international guidelines for dailyintakes. The health risk was considered great-est for newborns and infants. Concerns werealso raised about the potential effects onsome wildlife populations.

Results from AMAP Phase I

The conclusions and recommendations fromthe first scientific assessment led to substantialprogress in addressing the problem of contami-nants. They raised the profile of environmentalcontamination in the Arctic as a public policyissue, and helped in the preparation of dietaryguidelines in several countries.

At the time AMAP began its work, theUnited Nations Economic Commission forEurope (UN ECE) Convention on Long-rangeTransboundary Air Pollution was already con-sidering whether it should take action on POPsand heavy metals. The data compiled by AMAPover the next several years established a strongcase for restricting or eliminating several POPs.In 1998, a protocol to the Convention cover-ing 16 POPs was adopted, as was a protocolon heavy metals.

As the protocols were being completed,the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) began negotiations for addressing12 POPs worldwide. Here, too, Arctic dataand Arctic countries were instrumental in pro-moting, negotiating, and concluding, in 2001,the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Or-ganic Pollutants. Arctic indigenous organiza-tions also played a significant role in the nego-tiations. They were able to do so in part be-cause they had learned much from AMAP con-cerning transboundary contaminants in theArctic. Indeed, the preamble to the StockholmConvention explicitly recognizes the risksPOPs pose to Arctic ecosystems and indige-nous health and well-being.

The findings of the first AMAP assessmentalso led the Arctic Council in 2000 to askUNEP to take action on mercury. As a result,UNEP is currently conducting a global studyon mercury and is also tackling the issue oflead in gasoline.

The Arctic Council also decided to take co-operative actions to reduce pollution of theArctic. In 1998, the Regional Programme ofAction to Prevent Pollution of the Arctic Mar-ine Environment from Land-Based Activitieswas adopted. As a direct follow-up of theAMAP scientific assessment, the Arctic Coun-cil Action Plan to Eliminate Pollution of theArctic was created to address sources identifiedby AMAP. This plan was approved in 2000and several projects have begun.

The assessment had made it clear that therewas a general lack of data about contaminantlevels in the Russian Arctic. A special project,Persistent Toxic Substances, Food Security,and Indigenous Peoples of the Russian North,was initiated to fill this gap. The work is spon-sored by the Global Environmental Facility,Arctic countries, and others and is being coor-dinated by the AMAP Secretariat and the Rus-sian Association of Indigenous Peoples of theNorth. Some of the first results are presentedin the updated AMAP assessment.

In addition to its recommendations on con-taminants, the AMAP assessment recommendedfurther work on climate change and ultravioletradiation. In 2000, the Arctic Council approvedthe Arctic Climate Impact Assessment, over-seen by AMAP, its sister working group onConservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, andthe International Arctic Science Committee.This impact assessment will deliver a report tothe Arctic Council in 2004.

The ArcticThe behavior of environmental contaminantsdepends in part on the characteristics of theenvironment they are in. Several physical, bio-logical, and cultural features of the Arctic aredistinct from those of lower latitudes, with sig-nificant implications for contaminants. Theprevious AMAP reports contain general back-ground chapters on geography, ecology, peo-ple, and pathways. The information in thesechapters is still relevant. A brief summary isprovided here for readers new to these topics.

Geography

The Arctic covers the northern part of the Earth;it has been given various boundaries (see mapon top of the opposite page). Key characteris-tics, especially of the High Arctic, are dry andcold air, prolonged darkness in winter con-trasting with continuous daylight in summer,permafrost over much of the land, and seasonalsea ice over much of the ocean.

The Arctic climate is variable both fromplace to place and from year to year. The oceanis a moderating influence, reducing seasonaltemperature variation along the coast. Inlandareas can experience annual ranges in tempera-ture as great as 100°C. The extreme variability

2Setting the Stage

in climate and weather means that Arctic spe-cies must be prepared for a variety of condi-tions, or have the ability to wait several yearsto grow or reproduce.

The Arctic landscapes and seascapes includemountains and lowlands, wetlands and deserts,deep basins and shallow continental shelves,rivers and ponds, isolated islands and vast land-masses. Geologically, it includes the still-form-ing land of Iceland, and some of the oldestrocks in the world in Greenland. Across thisdiversity, snow and ice dominate the land andwaters of the Arctic, shaping all that lives there.

Pathways

Air, water, and ice carry contaminants greatdistances, to, from, and within the Arctic.In the global climate system, the Arctic coolsthe air and water warmed in lower latitudes.Cooler air can hold less moisture, and thus theArctic is dry. As the cooling air releases rainand snow, contaminants are deposited as well.These contaminants end up on the ground, inmeltwater in rivers, and in the top layer of theocean, where biological productivity is highest.Sea ice can carry contaminants across the Arc-tic and release them in the productive meltingzone of the North Atlantic (see map right).

Ocean currents are a slow but importantpathway for contaminants to, within, andfrom the Arctic. The significance of oceanpathways appears higher than once realized.For radionuclides in particular, it is a majorroute from coastal sites outside the Arctic tomarine food webs in the Arctic.

Rivers carry contaminants and process themthrough sedimentation and resuspension ofparticles. Lakes, deltas, and estuaries serve assinks for contaminants in sediment.

The transport and deposition of contami-nants follow seasonal patterns. In winter, theArctic is home to a stable zone of high pressurecentered over the Arctic Ocean and reachingfar to the south (see map at bottom of page).This polar air mass becomes a trap for airbornecontaminants, especially those generated in theindustrial areas of Eurasia that are within thestable zone. In spring and summer, the energyfrom sunlight breaks up this system, causinggreater mixing with air from lower latitudes.

Ecology

In terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosys-tems, Arctic plants and animals have developedmany strategies for coping with Arctic condi-tions. These include long periods of inactivity,the storage of nutrients and fat, the ability togrow and reproduce quickly when conditionsare good, and flexibility in behavior. Arcticplants and animals also tend to be long-lived.

These characteristics, combined with thegeography of the region, have a great influenceon the uptake of contaminants in food webs.

Transpolar DriftBeaufort Gyre

Ocean currents

River inflow

Arctic front, winter

Arc

tic

front,

summer

Wind frequenciesWinter: 25%Summer: 5%

Wind frequenciesWinter: 15%Summer: 5%

Wind frequenciesWinter: 40%Summer: 10%

60°N

70°N

80°N

Arctic Circle

Treeline

Marine

AMAP area

Southern boundaries of the High Arctic and the subarctic delineated on a basis of vegetation

High Arctic

subarctic

10°C July isotherm

Surface watercirculation

Winds provide a fast route forcontaminants from industrialareas to the Arctic, especiallyin the winter.

Rivers and ocean currents areimportant pathways for water-soluble contaminants andthose that are attached to par-ticles in the water.

Boundaries of the Arctic.

The ability to store fat is critical to many spe-cies, and predators tend to prefer fatty tissuesfor their great energy content. Many contami-nants, especially among POPs, dissolve in fat,and thus become concentrated in Arctic ani-mals. Moving up the food web, these concen-trations increase in a process called biomagni-fication. This is especially prominent in thelong, fat-dominated marine food webs.

Some contaminants are difficult for animalsto excrete. Long-lived species can accumulatethese substances throughout their lives, so thatold animals have much higher levels thanyoung ones. This process is called bioaccumu-lation. Scavengers can bring these contami-nants back into the food web, keeping themavailable for long periods even without addi-tional inputs.

Rapid bursts of productivity accompany theonset of favorable conditions, such as snow-melt in spring. When contaminants have beendeposited in snow and ice, this burst can resultin the uptake of contaminants available in melt-water. At other times, nutrient shortages maycause plants and animals to take up contami-nants that have similar chemical properties tothe unavailable nutrient elements.

When animals are inactive for long periods,they lose weight, thereby concentrating the

contaminants that remain in their bodies.In extreme cases, contaminant concentrationsin fatty tissues can increase greatly in marinemammals that fast for months at a time, suchas pregnant polar bears. In that case, the prob-lem is made worse as the mother bear nursesher cubs, injecting them with a heavy dose ofcontaminants dissolved in the fats of her milk.

People

There are great economic, social, cultural,and demographic variations around the Arctic.These variations reflect not only geographyand climate, but also national conditions andpolicies, as in Russia where economic hardshiphas caused many people to move south. The pro-portion of the population that is indigenousvaries from 85% Inuit in Canada’s NunavutTerritory, to 2.5% in the Saami region of Fen-noscandia and the Kola Peninsula, Russia, to0% in Iceland and the Faroe Islands.

Historical factors are significant, too, includ-ing the rush to exploit whales, gold, fur, oil,fish, seabird eggs and down, and other naturalresources around much of the Arctic. As largenumbers of people moved into the region, theyspread disease and caused social dislocationand competition for land and resources. At the

4Setting the Stage Aleuts*

Aleuts**Aleuts*

Yup’ik*Alutiiq

Iñup

iat *

Chuvans*

Athabaskans*Tlingit

Dene/Métis

Gwich’in*

Saami*Saami**

Komi

Nenets*

Ne

ne

ts*

Inuit*

Inuit*

Inuit*

Khanty*

Evenks*

Cree

Innu

Evenks*

Yakuts

Evenks*

Evenki*

Evens*

Yupik**(Eskimo)

Evens*

Evens*

Koryaks*

Nganasans*Dolgans*

Mansi*

Selku

ps*

Selku

ps*

Chukchi*Yukaghirs

*

Kets*Enets*

Enets*

Inuit*

Inu

via

luit*

Inuit*

Inuit*

Indigenous peoples of theArctic and their affilia-tions with the six perma-nent participants of theArctic Council.

Inuit CircumpolarConference

Saami Council

Gwich’in Council International

Arctic Athabaskan Council

Aleut International Association

RAIPON Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North

*

*

*

*

*

*

same time, modernization brought benefits toArctic communities.

Despite these challenges, Arctic indigenouspeople retain distinct cultures with long-stand-ing traditions of land occupancy and resourceuse. Their hunting, fishing, trapping, herdingand gathering take place over vast areas ofland and sea. They also retain their close andcomplex relationship with the environment,including a wealth of detailed ecological knowl-edge and a powerful spiritual connection withthe animals and places surrounding them.Traits and customs vary from group to group,but practices such as the sharing of foods arefound throughout the Arctic, reflecting theneed for a communal approach to survival ina harsh climate.

Today’s Arctic residents range from urbandwellers in large cities to isolated families andsmall villages largely dependent on their localenvironment. Traditional hunting and fishingcontrast with large-scale commercial fishing.The development of oil, gas, and minerals pro-vides wealth, attracts new residents, and threat-ens landscapes supporting reindeer herdersand others.

Contaminants enter this picture as anotherthreat to the integrity of the Arctic way of life.The discovery that contaminants were presentin breast milk was an unwelcome surprise.The fact that living one’s life in the traditional

manner and with a traditional diet posed a riskto one’s children was deeply shocking. The tra-ditional foods that had been a mark of culturalstability were turned into a pathway for toxiccontaminants. For indigenous people, this prob-lem raises fundamental questions of culturalsurvival, for it threatens to drive a wedge offear between people and the land that sustainsthem. In response, Arctic indigenous groupshave staunchly supported AMAP and relatedresearch, and have pushed hard for nationaland international action to combat the problem.

5Setting the Stage

�Iñupiat, Anaktuvuk Pass,Alaska.

Dene, Midway Lake,NWT, Canada.

�Saami, Kautokeino,Norway.

Chukchi, Kanchalan,Russia.

Russia1 999 711

Greenland55 419

Iceland266 783

Faroe Islands43 700

Norway379 641

Sweden263 735

USA, Alaska481 054

Canada92 985

Finland200 677 Indigenous

population

Total Arctic population

Non-indigenouspopulation

Total and indigenouspopulations of the Arcticin the early 1990s, by Arctic area of eachcountry.

HE

NR

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HU

NT

IN

GT

ON

ST

AF

FA

N

WI

DS

TR

AN

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GN

WT

/N

WT

A

RC

HI

VE

SP

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P

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CT

Special concernsabout interpreting dataThe different contaminants found in the Arctichave substantial differences in sources, path-ways, trends, and effects. Nonetheless, a fewgeneral points apply to the data presented inthe subsequent chapters of this report.

First, identifying spatial trends is often com-plicated by a lack of standardization. This isparticularly true for samples from plants andanimals. Not only must collection and analyti-cal methods and techniques be comparable,but researchers must take into account sex,age, and food-web structure. Although theserequirements pose a problem for quantifyingthe differences from place to place, it is pos-sible to identify general trends.

Second, determining temporal trends is alsocomplex, particularly when other environmen-tal changes have been occurring at the sametime. The climatic regime of the Arctic hasshifted dramatically from the conditions thatprevailed during most of the 1970s and 1980sto those that prevailed during the 1990s, andthese changes may have had significant effectson contaminant pathways. This period isexactly the time covered by most of the dataavailable for the assessment of recent temporaltrends. This raises the question of the extent towhich observed trends may reflect changes inpathways as opposed to changes in, for exam-ple, emissions. As discussed in the chapterChanging Pathways, shifts in climate andweather can greatly alter contaminants path-ways to and within the Arctic.

Third, there is still little information oneffects of contaminants on Arctic biota. Thisis especially true for the effects of low-level,chronic exposures, which may result in subtleeffects such as stress responses or reduction inoverall fitness. Risk assessments often have torely on comparisons between levels in the Arc-

tic and threshold levels for effects that havebeen determined in other parts of the world,sometimes using other species. This may bemore or less valid depending on the speciesand the contaminant of concern. Effects thresh-olds for Arctic animals are largely unknown.

The structure of this volumeFive scientific reports have been prepared fordelivery to the Arctic Council in 2002 pres-enting the results of AMAP’s second phase.*The main findings of the reports and the rec-ommendations of the AMAP Working Groupare contained in the Executive Summary. Eachof the scientific reports is summarized by achapter in this volume:

Persistent Organic Pollutants describes newfindings in trends, levels, and effects of POPs,including several contaminants that have re-cently been detected in the Arctic. The implica-tions of POPs for people are addressed in thechapter Human Health.

Heavy Metals reviews recent data and discov-eries concerning mercury, lead, and cadmium.It also looks at the localized impacts of smeltersin the Russian Arctic. As with the previouschapter, the implications of metals for peopleare addressed in the chapter Human Health.

Radioactivity covers the sources, pathways,uptake, and effects of radionuclides. Emphasisis on the behavior of radionuclides in ecosys-tems and on hazards connected with potentialsources. In contrast to POPs and heavy metals,human health implications of radioactivity areaddressed in this chapter.

Human Health examines what has beenlearned recently concerning Arctic people andthe ways in which contaminants affect them.It describes the basic health parameters ofArctic populations as a basis for consideringthe potential impacts of contaminants.

Changing Pathways discusses the potentialimpacts of climate change on the ways inwhich contaminants are carried to the Arcticand taken up in Arctic food webs. The antici-pated changes may greatly alter the distributionand trends of many contaminants throughoutthe Arctic.

The inside front cover has a circumpolarmap, a list of species with their scientific names,and a list of units. The inside back cover has alist of contaminants with their abbreviations.

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––* AMAP Assessment 2002: Human Health in the Arctic.

isbn 82-7971-016-7AMAP Assessment 2002: The Influence of Global

Change on Arctic Contaminant Pathways.isbn 82-7971-020-5

AMAP Assessment 2002: Persistent Organic Pollutants in the Arctic. isbn 82-7971-019-1

AMAP Assessment 2002: Heavy Metals in the Arctic.isbn 82-7971-018-3

AMAP Assessment 2002: Radioactivity in the Arctic.isbn 82-7971-017-5

6Setting the Stage

Samples were taken froma gray whale in theLavrentiya Bay duringthe Persistent Toxic Sub-stances project in Russia. P

TS

P

RO

JE

CT