Textbook ofENVIRONMENTAL

CHEMISTRY

Textbook ofENVIRONMENTAL

CHEMISTRY

Balram PaniFaculty

Department of ChemistryBhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences

Delhi UniversityNew Delhi

I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.NEW DELHI • MUMBAI • BANGALORE

Published byI.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.S-25, Green Park ExtensionUphaar Cinema MarketNew Delhi-110 016 (India)E-mail: ik_in@vsnl.net

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ISBN 978-81-89866-36-5

© 2007 I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or used in any form, electronic ormechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrievalsystem, without written permission from the publisher.

Published by Krishan Makhijani for I.K. International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., S-25, GreenPark Extension, Uphaar Cinema Market, New Delhi-110 016. Printed by Rekha Printers Pvt.Ltd., Okhla Industrial Area, Phase II, New Delhi-110 020.

Dedicated toMy wife

Smt. Rajalaxmi Pani

Environmental science is a well-established discipline, with a plethora ofspecialized areas of studies on the four traditional spheres of theenvironment—atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. To get aclear and pollution free environment, it is necessary to understand theenvironmental impact and proper planning to check the pollution and enforcedifferent laws to get a maintainable environment.

The “Textbook of Environmental Chemistry” is designed to providefundamental knowledge of the principles related to the environment and itschemistry, so as to meet the challenging requirements of students as well asteachers in environmental sciences, environmental chemistry, andenvironmental studies at graduate, postgraduate, polytechnic, andengineering levels of all Indian universities. Students and professors ofengineering and general science may also find this book useful as a referenceor a textbook.

This book comprises twenty chapters, in a logical sequence. It has beenupdated and intelligently approached to give a better understanding of thebasic concepts and a thorough knowledge of the environment and itschemistry. All essential aspects of environmental chemistry have been coveredin this book. The main objective of this book is to deal with principles andchemical reactions that govern the behavior of water, air, and soilenvironment.

The book starts with introductory chapters that deal basic concepts ofenvironmental chemistry and general basic chemistry, includingenvironmental science, inorganic, physical, organic, chemical reactions, andmechanisms.

In this book, water, air, soil, and noise pollution have been described indetail. Main emphasis has been given to the origin of various pollutants, thefate of the pollutants in different environments, their effects, and the methodsavailable to control the pollution.

A unique feature of this book is the description on the new and currentfields of environment—Green chemistry, Environmental biotechnology, andPolymers for environment. These new concepts are very important inenvironmental science, and have been well defined in this book. It details onthe environmental impact, planning and laws. The book is well planned andsatisfies a wide range of readers.

Preface

I take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to my wellwishers, Sri Lingaray Pani, Smt. Sakuntala Pani, Dr. G.B. Nath, andSmt. S. Nath for their sustained support and constructing suggestions to buildup the good will to write this book. I am thankful to I.K. InternationalPublishing House Pvt. Ltd. for giving me an opportunity to become a memberof their family. Finally, I am extremely thankful to my wife Smt. RajalaxmiPani, daughter Akankshya Pani, and niece Barsha Pande, without whoseencouragement, help, patience, and sacrifice this book would not have seenthe light of the day.

I request my fellow teachers as well as students to send me their valuablecomments and suggestions for further improvement of this book.

Balram Pani

viii Preface

Preface vii

1. Our Environment and Its Chemistry 11.0 Introduction 11.1 Understanding our Environment 2

1.1.1 Environmental Pollution 31.1.2 Pollutants 41.1.3 Effects of Pollution 41.1.4 Causes of Pollution 5

1.2 Human Population Growth and the Environment 51.2.1 Human Demography 51.2.2 Population Dynamics 6

1.3 Sustainability and Carrying Capacity 71.3.1 Carrying Capacity 7

1.4 Environmental Perspectives 81.5 Environment and the Society 8

1.5.1 Environmental Problems in Cities 91.6 Environmental Ethics, Values and Knowledge 101.7 Environmental Hazards or Disasters 11

1.7.1 Natural Disasters 111.7.2 Man-made Disasters 19

2. Fundamental Chemistry for Environment 222.0 Atomic Structure 22

2.0.1 The Quantum Theory of Radiation 222.0.2 Quantum Numbers 232.0.3 Electronic Configurations 24

2.1 Periodic Table and Periodic Properties of an Electrons 252.1.1 Classification of Elements in the Periodic Table Based on

their Electronic Configurations 26

Contents

2.1.2 Periodic Properties 262.2 Chemical Bonding 28

2.2.1 Types of Bonds 292.3 Acids, Bases and Salts 33

2.3.1 Ionization of Acids and Bases 342.3.2 Common Ion Effects 342.3.3 Solubility Product 352.3.4 Salts 35

2.4 Thermodynamics 362.4.1 Terminology of Thermodynamics 362.4.2 Thermodynamic Equilibrium 382.4.3 State Function 382.4.4 Perfect Differentials 392.4.5 First Law of Thermodynamics 402.4.6 Enthalpy 412.4.7 Thermochemistry 422.4.8 Second Law of Thermodynamics 432.4.9 Entropy 44

2.5 Phase Rule 462.5.1 One Component System 48

2.6 The Colloids 502.6.1 Classification of Colloidal System 51

2.7 Electrochemistry 522.7.1 Electrode Potential 532.7.2 Electrochemical Cell 552.7.3 EMF of a Cell and Free Energy Change 56

2.8 Chemical Kinetics 572.8.1 Rate of a Chemical Reaction 582.8.2 Factors Influencing Rates of Reactions 582.8.3 Order of a Reaction 602.8.4 Molecularity of a Reaction 612.8.5 Photochemical Reactions 61

2.9 Fundamental Reactions and their Mechanism 642.9.1 Bond Fission 652.9.2 Factors Affecting Acid Base Strength 662.9.3 Inductive Effect 662.9.4 Electromeric Effect 682.9.5 Resonance and Resonance Effect and Tautomerism 692.9.6 Reaction Intermediates 70

x Contents

2.9.7 Classification of Reactions 732.9.8 Types of Attacking Reagent 742.9.9 Conjugation and Hyperconjugation 75

3. Earth as a System 773.0 Earth and Life 773.1 Matter and Energy 793.2 Environmental Parameters and Biota 813.3 Ecosystem 843.4 Ecosystem Structure and Community Dynamics 853.5 Evolutionary Ecology 973.6 Biological Productivity 1003.7 Energy Flow 1013.8 Ecological Succession 105

3.8.1 Primary Succession or Prisere 1063.8.2 Climax Community 1083.8.3 Community Changes 109

3.9 Ecological Restoration 1113.10 Balance of Nature 111

4. Biogeochemical Cycles 1134.0 Introduction 1134.1 Material Cycles and Life 1144.2 Dynamic Earth and Its Chemical Cycles 115

4.2.1 Tectonic Cycle 1164.2.2 Hydrologic Cycle 1164.2.3 Rock Cycle 117

4.3 General Concepts of Biological Cycles 1184.4 The Carbon Cycle 1184.5 The Nitrogen Cycle 1204.6 The Phosphorus Cycle 1214.7 The Sulphur Cycle 1224.8 The Oxygen Cycle 123

5. Resources 1245.0 Introduction 1245.1 Water Resources 1255.2 Forest Resources 1295.3 Geospheric Resources 1365.4 Energy Resources 1405.5 Renewable Sources of Energy 142

Contents xi

xii Contents

5.6 Non-renewable Resources of Energy 1485.7 Overexploitation and Energy Crisis 1535.8 Land Resources 1555.9 Living Resources 157

5.10 Wildlife Resources 1635.11 Environmental Resource Economics 165

6. Atmosphere 1686.0 Introduction 1686.1 Composition of Atmosphere 1686.2 Structure of the Atmosphere 1696.3 Energy Balance in the Atmosphere 1726.4 Weather 1736.5 Climate 1776.6 Effects of Climate Change 179

7. Atmospheric Chemistry 1817.0 Introduction 1817.1 Photochemical Reactions in the Atmosphere 1827.2 Redox Reactions in the Atmosphere 1867.3 Acid-base Reactions in the Atmosphere 1877.4 Ions and Particles in the Atmosphere 1887.5 Evolution of the Atmosphere 1907.6 Chemical Reactions in the Atmosphere 1917.7 Atmospheric Water 194

8. Air Pollution 1968.0 Introduction 1968.1 Sources of Air Pollution 1978.2 Types of Air Pollutants 1988.3 Some Major Air Pollutants and their Effects 2008.4 Properties of Pollutants 2018.5 Control of Air Pollution 2108.6 Fate and Transportation of Air Pollutants 2108.7 Global and Regional Air Pollution Problems 2188.8 Indoor Air Pollution 230

9. Control of Air Pollution 2339.0 Introduction 2339.1 Control of Particulates 234

9.1.1 Gravitational Settling Chambers 235

9.1.2 Bag House Filters 2399.1.3 Scrubbers (Wet Collectors) 241

9.2 Control of Gaseous Pollutants 2449.2.1 Adsorption of Gaseous Pollutants 2509.2.2 Condensation 252

9.3 Control of Some Criteria Pollutants 2569.3.1 Control of Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 2579.3.2 Control of Nitrogen Oxides 2609.3.3 Control of Carbon Monoxide (CO) 262

9.4 Air Pollution Sampling and Analysis 2629.4.1 Ambient Air Sampling 2629.4.2 Stack Sampling 2649.4.3 Sampling of Gaseous Pollutants 2659.4.4 Selection of the Scrubbing Solvents 267

9.5 Air Quality Standards 267

10. Aquatic Chemistry 27010.0 Introduction 27010.1 Structure and Properties of Water 270

10.1.1 Structure 27110.1.2 Physico-Chemical Properties of Water 272

10.2 Solubility 27410.3 Acid-base Reactions in Aqueous System 27510.4 Redox Reaction 27810.5 Coordination Chemistry in Water System 28010.6 Colloidal Material in Water 28110.7 Chemical Speciation 282

11. Water Pollution 28611.0 Introduction 28611.1 Types of Water 28711.2 Types of Water Pollutants and their Sources 28811.3 Organic Pollutants 28911.4 Inorganic Pollutants 29811.5 Sediments 29911.6 Radioactive Materials 29911.7 Thermal Pollution 302

12. Control of Water Pollution and Water Treatment 30412.0 Introduction 30412.1 Water Sampling 305

Contents xiii

xiv Contents

12.1.1 Water Sample Preservation 30612.1.2 Analysis Techniques and Methodology 30812.1.3 Ion Exchange Chromatography 309

12.2 Analysis of Some Specific Substances 31012.2.1 Dissolved Oxygen 31212.2.2 Total Hardness (Ca and Mg) 31512.2.3 Nitrogen (Ammonia) 31612.2.4 Bacteriological Measurements 324

12.3 Engineered System for Water Pollution Control 32412.3.1 Aeration 32512.3.2 Settling or Sedimentation 32812.3.3 Coagulation 33312.3.4 Filtration 33412.3.5 Disinfection 336

12.4 Engineered Systems for Wastewater Treatment 33812.4.1 Primary Treatment 33912.4.2 Secondary (Biological) Treatment 34012.4.3 Activated Sludge System 34312.4.4 Attached Culture System 34412.4.5 Anaerobic Treatment Process 346

12.5 Advanced Wastewater Treatment 34712.5.1 Reverse Osmosis 34812.5.2 Electrodialysis 34912.5.3 Nutrient Removal 350

12.6 Water Quality Characteristics and Standards 35312.6.1 Water Quality Objectives 35312.6.2 Water Quality Criteria 35312.6.3 Water Quality Standards 35512.6.4 Drinking Water Standards 35712.6.5 Irrigation Water Standards 36012.6.6 Stream Water Standards 36112.6.7 Effluent Water Standards 361

12.7 Pathological Parameters 36112.8 Watershed Management 361

13. Soil Chemistry 36513.0 Introduction 36513.1 Soil Texture 366

13.1.1 Soil Structure 367

Contents xv

13.2 Soil Composition 36713.2.1 Mineral Soils 36713.2.2 Organic Matter 36813.2.3 Soil Water 36913.2.4 Soil Air 373

13.3 Soil Organisms 37413.3.1 Autotrophic Organisms 37413.3.2 Heterotrophic Organisms 375

13.4 Soil Profiles 37513.5 Soil Reactions 377

13.5.1 Cation Exchange 37713.5.2 Anion Exchange 378

13.6 The Essential Elements 37913.6.1 Macronutrients 37913.6.2 Micronutrients 380

14. Soil Pollution and Its Control 38314.0 Introduction 38314.1 Sources of Soil Pollution 383

14.1.1 Soil Erosion 38414.1.2 Land Degradation 385

14.2 Types of Soil Pollutants 38514.2.1 Pesticides in Soil or Pesticidal Pollution 38614.2.2 Behaviour of Pesticides in Soil 38714.2.3 Effects of Pesticides on Soil Organisms 388

14.3 Inorganic Contaminants in Soils 38814.3.1 Behaviour of Inorganic Contaminants in Soils 388

14.4 Solid Waste in Soils 38914.4.1 Types of Solid Wastes 38914.4.2 Sources of Solid Wastes 39114.4.3 Properties and Effects of Solid Wastes 391

14.5 Radionuclides in Soils 39214.6 Soil Salinity 39314.7 Effect of Acid Rain on Soils 394

15. Noise Pollution and Its Control 39615.0 Introduction 39615.1 Human Acoustics 39715.2 Sound Measurement Scale 39715.3 Noise Pollution 400

15.3.1 Sources of Noise Pollution 400

15.4 Effects of Noise Pollution 40315.4.1 Health Effects of Noise 40315.4.2 Hearing Damage due to Impulsive or Impact Noise 40415.4.3 Noise Standards and Limits 405

15.5 Noise Propagation 40715.5.1 Absorption of Sound 40815.5.2 Indoor Noise Propagation 41015.5.3 Outdoor Noise Propagation 411

15.6 Measurement of Noise 41215.6.1 Frequency Band Analysis 41415.6.2 Characterizations of Acoustic Materials 41615.6.3 Sound Power and Sound Intensity Measurement 417

15.7 Noise Pollution Control Methods 41815.7.1 Noise Control at Source 41915.7.2 Noise Control of Transmission Path 42015.7.3 Noise Control at the Receiver End 422

16. Environmental Biochemistry 42416.0 Introduction 42416.1 Bioaccumulation 42516.2 Biodegradation 427

16.2.1 Reductive Degradation 42816.2.2 Oxidative Degradation 42816.2.3 Factors Influencing Biodegradability 429

16.3 Cometabolism 43016.4 Bioremediation 43116.5 Bioleaching 43316.6 Biomethanation 434

16.6.1 Microbial Kinetics 434

17. Polymers for Environment 43717.0 Introduction 43717.1 Polymer Synthesis 43817.2 Environmental Degradation of Polymers 439

17.2.1 Composting and Polymers 44017.2.2 Evaluation of Degradability 441

17.3 Photodegradable Polymers 44117.4 Hydrolysis and Hydro-biodegradable Polymers 44317.5 Biopolymers and Bioplastics 443

17.5.1 Preparation of Bioplastics 444

xvi Contents

Textbook of Environmental Chemistry

Publisher : IK International ISBN : 9788189866365 Author : Balram Pani

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