test one. terminology anatomyform of organism ana = up, tome = to cut physiology physis = nature,...
TRANSCRIPT
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TEST
ONE
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TERMINOLOGY
Anatomy Form of organism
Ana = up, Tome = to cut
Physiology
Physis = nature, Logia = to study Function
Iris – rainbow
Autopsy
Auto = self, opsis = to view
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HOMEOSTASIS
Homeo = same, Stasis = Still Maintain a stable internal environment
e.g. Body temperature (98.6°), Heart rate (72beats/min), pH balance
Consumes most metabolic energy of all processes
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REQUIRMENTS FOR HOMEOSTASIS 1. Receptors – Provide information about environment
Thermoreceptors –detect temperature
2. Control Center with Set point
Control Center = sets the range at which the value is maintained Hypothalamus = Control Center
Set point = range of values 98.6°F = set point
3. Effectors
Muscles or glands Responds to input from control center Alters conditions
e.g. Sweat glands secrete sweat to cool body
Example of Homeostatic Mechanism
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EXAMPLES
Example of Homeostatic Mechanism Stimulus = hot environment → Body temperature increases →
Detected by thermoreceptors (receptors) → info into hypothalamus (control center) → Hypothalamus detects deviation from body temp (set point) →
output signal to sweat glands (effectors) → Sweat glands secrete sweat →
response = body temp cools → Stimulus decreases
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HOMEOSTASIS
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TWO TYPES OF FEEDBACK
Negative Feedback = response to decrease the deviation from a set point
Most homeostatic mechanisms rely on negative feedback
Positive Feedback = response to increase deviation from set point
Short lived and uncommon e.g. Child birth
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CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
• Organized system
• 1 or more cells, humans have 50-100 Trillion cells
• Reproduction
• Consumes energy, usually ATP
• Maintains homeostasis
• Growth
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REQUIREMENTS TO MAINTAIN LIFE
• Water (H2O) – Transportation & required for metabolic processes
• Food – energy & building blocks
• Oxygen – required to release energy from metabolic processes
• Heat – energy, regulates metabolic reactions
• Pressure – force, for breathing & circulation
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LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
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Subatomic Particles Protons, Neutrons, Electrons
↓
Atom Hydrogen, Oxygen, Carbon
↓
Molecules H2O (water), C6H12O6 (Glucose)
↓
Macromolecules Proteins, Nucleic Acids, Polysaccharides
↓
Organelles Mitochondria, Golgi Apparatus
↓
Cell Neuron, Muscle Cell, Osteocyte
↓
Tissue Neural tissue, Epithelial Tissue, Bone tissue
↓
Organ Liver, Stomach, Brain
↓
Organ System Digestive, Skeletal, Cardiovascular
↓
Organism Human
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CHEMISTRY
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COMMON TERMS
Common Terms
Biochemistry = chemistry of living things
Matter = Anything that has mass and takes up space
Solids, Liquids, Gas
Element = Fundamental substance of matter
Groups of atoms of 1 type, e.g. Carbon, Oxygen, Hydrogen
Compund = Combination of 2 or more atoms, e.g. H2O, C6H12O6
Molecule = 2 or more atoms chemically bonded together May either be an element or may be a compound
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BULK ELEMENTS
Carbon (C) Oxygen (O) Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N) Magnesium (Mg) Sulfur (S)
Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Calcium (Ca)
Chlorine (Cl)
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TRACE ELEMENTS <0.1% OF ELEMENTS, BUT HAVE IMPORTANT FUNCTIONS
Cobalt (Co) Zinc (Zn) Copper (Cu)
Iron (Fe) Fluorine (F) Mangenese (Mn)
Iodine (I)
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Nucleus Protons Neutrons
Electrons – Orbit nucleus
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Subatomic Particle Atomic Weight (Daltons)Charge
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 0 -1
For most atoms, number of protons = number of electrons, and therefore are neutral
Number of neutrons may vary
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Atomic Number (AN) = Number of protons in an atom Defines the identity of an atom Changing the atomic number changes the atom
Atomic Weight (AW) = Number of protons + number of neutrons
Examples:
Hydrogen = 1proton, 1 electron, 0 neutrons Atomic Number = 1, Atomic Weight = 1
Helium = 2 protons, 2 electrons, 2 neutrons Atomic Number = 2, Atomic Weight = 4
Lithium = 3 Protons, 4 Neutrons, 3 Electrons Atomic Number = 3, Atomic Weight = 7
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ISOTOPESIsotopes Same atomic number, but different atomic mass Number of neutrons may vary
Example:
Isotope 1: Isotope 2
Oxygen (O) Oxygen (O)
8 protons 8 protons
8 electrons 8 electrons
8 neutrons 9 neutrons
Atomic Number: 8 8
Atomic Weight: 16 17
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MOLECULAR FORMULA
Shorthand of molecules Water = H2O……2 Hydrogen + 1 Oxygen Molecule
Glucose = C6H12O6……6 Carbon + 12 Hydrogen + 6 Oxygen
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BONDING ATOMS
Electron Orbit (Shell) Electrons orbit the nucleus in discrete orbits
Inner orbit = holds 2 electrons 2nd orbit = holds 8 electrons 3rd orbit = holds 8 electrons
Octet Rule Except for the 1st electron orbit, which holds 2 electrons, each
additional orbit holds 8 electrons
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IONSIon = atom that gains or looses electrons Cation – Positively charged ion Anion – Negatively charged ion Example:
Sodium (Na) = 11 protons, 12 neutrons, 11 electrons 1 electron in outer orbit Outer lone electron is easily lost Na + = cation
Chlorine (Cl) = 17 protons, 18 neutrons, 17 electrons 7 electrons in outer orbit, which can hold 8 electrons 1 electron is easily gained Cl- = anion
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IONIC BOND
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IONIC BOND
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BONDS CONT.
Ionic Bond Oppositely charged ions attract and form a bond Ionic bonds form arrays such as crystals, but do not form molecules
Covalent Bond Atoms share electrons
Hydrogen forms single bonds, H-H Carbon forms four bonds, Oxygen forms 2 bonds, O=C=O
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COVALENT BONDS
NonPolar Covalent Bond Equal sharing of electrons, e.g. H2 (H-H)
Polar Covalent Bond
Unequal sharing of electrons, e.g. H2O (H-O-H) Oxygen has stronger attraction to electrons & is slightly –
charged Hydrogen partially gives electrons to Oxygen & is + charged
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HYDROGEN BOND
Attraction of + hydrogen end to – Oxygen end Weak bonds at body temperature
Forms crystals at lower temperatures, e.g. ice
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CHEMICAL REACTIONS1. Synthesis
A + B → AB
2. Decomposition
AB → A + B
3. Exchange
AB + CD → AD + BC
4. Reversible
A + B ↔ AB
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ELECTROLYTESElectrolytes = release ions in water
e.g. NaCl → Na⁺ + Cl⁻ (ions dissociate in water)
2. Acids – electrolytes that release H⁺ (protons) in water
e.g. HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻
3. Base – electrolytes that release OH⁻(hydroxide ions) in water
e.g. NaOH → Na⁺ + OH⁻
4. Acid + Base → Salt + Water
e.g. HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
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PH
Neutral, pH = 7.0 number of protons = number of hydroxide ions (H⁺ = OH⁻)
e.g. Water H2O → H⁺ + OH⁻
Acids, pH < 7.0 Number of protons is greater than number of hydroxides (H⁺ > OH⁻)
Bases, pH> 7.0 Number of protons is less than number of hydroxides (H⁺ < OH⁻)
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PH
average pH is 7.35-7.45 Acidosis = pH < 7.3 Alkalosis = pH > 7.5 Buffers = chemicals that resist changes in pH, stabilizes blood plasma
pH levels
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INORGANICWater (H2O) 2/3 of weight in person Most metabolic reactions occur in water Transports gasses, nutrients, wastes, heat
Oxygen (O2)
Used to release energy from nutrients
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
waste byproduct of metabolic reactions in animals
Inorganic Salts
Na⁺, Cl⁻, K⁺, Ca2⁺, HCO3⁻ (bicarbonate), PO42⁻ (Phosphate), ect.
Role in metabolism, pH, bone development, muscle contractions, clot formation
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CELLS
Basic unit of life 50-100 Trillion cells in human body Size and shape vary
Size measured in micrometers (µm) 1 µm = 1/1000mm Red Blood Cell = 7.5 µm
Varieties 260 types of cells in body, all from 1 fertilized egg Differentiation = forming specialized cells from unspecialized cells Cells include neurons, skeletal muscle, osteocytes (bones), red blood cells,
ect.
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CELL MEMBRANE
Maintains integrity of cell Fluid membrane
Flexible & elastic Selectively Permeable
Allows only selective substances into and out of cell Permits communication between cell and environment
Signal Transduction = cell interprets incoming messages
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STRUCTURE
Bilayer of phospholipids Phosphate “Head”
Polar group Hydrophilic “water loving” = water soluble
Fatty Acid Chains “tail” Nonpolar groups Hydrophobic “water fearing” = insoluble in water Oily
Cholesterol Membrane Proteins
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FORMATION OF MEMBRANE Phospholipids align in water
Expose polar heads to water = polar outside Hide nonpolar tails from water = oily inside
Nonpolar interior Allows nonpolar molecules to cross into and out of cell
e.g. O2,CO2, steroid hormones
Polar molecules cannot cross cell membrane
e.g. H2O, sugars, amino acids
Cholesterol Rigid steroid rings that add support to cell membrane
Membrane Proteins = Many types embedded in cell membrane
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MEMBRANE PROTEINS Integral Proteins
Spans across membrane Forms channels and pores
e.g. aquaporins, Na+ channels Peripheral Proteins
Project from outer surface May be glycoprotein (protein + sugar) Does not penetrate hydrophobic portion of membrane Usually attach to integral proteins
Transmembrane Protein Spans from outside cell to inside cell Example 1 : Cellular Adhesion Molecules (CAM)
CAMs bind cells to other cells, or to proteins May anchor cell, or communicate with other cells
Example 2: Many receptors Transmits signals from extracellular environment into cell
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NUCLEUS
Nuclear Envelope Double layered membrane Nuclear Pores
Channel proteins that allow specific molecules into and out of nucleus Messenger RNA leaves nucleus through pores Ribosomes leave nucleus through pores
Nucleolus “little nucleus” Dense body of RNA & Proteins Produces ribosomes
Chromatin “colored substance” DNA wrapped around proteins, called histones Tightly coil and condense during mitosis to form chromosomes “colored
body”
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MOVEMENTSPassive = requires no energy from cell
Active = requires energy from cell in form of ATP
Passive Movements Diffusion
Random movement of molecules from higher to lower concentration Molecules tend to diffuse = become evenly distributed Requirements:
Cell membrane must be permeable to substance (small & nonpolar) e.g. CO2, O2, Steroids
A concentration gradient must exist across membrane One side of cell membrane must have a greater concentration than the other
Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion with the aid of a carrier protein Allows selective molecules to cross membrane
e.g. ions, sugars, proteins, amino acids Carrier protein changes conformation Substances move down concentration gradient Limited by number of carrier protein
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Osmosis Diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane
Water passes through channels, called aquaporins Large solutes (salts) cannot cross membrane Water follows salts
Osmotic pressure exerted on cell Isotonic = same solute concentration inside and outside cell Hypertonic = Greater solute concentration outside cell than
inside cell Water leaves cell & cell shrinks
Hypotonic = Greater solute concentration inside cell than outside Water enters cell and cell swells Cell may lyse “burst”
Filtration
Fluid is pushed across a membrane that larger molecules cannot cross Separates solids from liquids
Force = hydrostatic pressure – derived from blood pressure
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Active TransportMovement against a concentration gradientRequires ATP for energy (up to 40% of cell’s ATP)
Includes carrier proteins e.g. Na+/K+ pumps can pump sodium out of cell and potassium into cell
Establishes a concentration gradient
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Endocytosis Cell membrane surrounds and engulfs particle Types include
Pinocytosis Cell takes up a fluid
Phagocytosis Cell takes up a solid Example: white blood cell engulfing a bacteria
Receptor mediated endocytosis Selective endocytosis Receptors on cell membrane bind to substance and
trigger endocytosis Provides specificity Removes substances in low concentrations
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ExocytosisReverse of endocytosis
Transport substances out of cellVesicle merges with cell membrane and releases contentExample- neuron releasing neurotransmitters
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Transcytosis Endocytosis & Exocytosis Allows passage through a cell
e.g. HIV enters body by transcytosis through epithelium of anus, mouth, or reproductive tract.
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Cell CycleInterphaseMitosisCytokinesis = division of
cytoplasmDifferentiation
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INTERPHASE
G1 (Gap) Phase Cell is active and grows Growth followed by a checkpoint that determines cell’s
fate. Cell May:
Continue to grow, then divide Remain active, but not divide Die
S phase (S = synthesis) DNA replicates
G2 phase Cell prepares for cell division
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MITOSISMitosis occurs in somatic (non-sex) cellsSex cells divide by meiosis46 chromosomes –paired23 paternal & 23 maternal
Chromatin condenses to become chromosomeEach replicated chromosome consists of 2 sister chromatids
Chromatids held in place by centromeres
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KNOW WHAT HAPPENS IN PMAT