tertiary education series - ncte.edu.gh · tertiary education series october 2017 1 exploring...

TERTIARY EDUCATION SERIES

TES

Editorial CommitteeProfessor L. A. Boadi — ChairmanProfessor J. N. Ayertey — MemberProfessor Ohene Adjei — MemberDr. G. Afeti — MemberMr. G. F. Daniel — MemberMrs. Hilda A. Asante — Secretary

© National Council for Tertiary Education 2017ISSN: 2026–6588Vol. 8, No. 2

Published byNational Council for Tertiary EducationP. O. Box MB 28Accra

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CONTENTS

Exploring Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in the Context of Adult Learners:Challenges and StrategiesDr. Isaac Kofi Biney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Orientation Programme at the University of Education, Winneba:Perspectives of Second-year undergraduate students at the Winneba CampusAlfred Anovunga Alunga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Improving the Reading Comprehension of Lower Intermediate Learnersof Spanish through Strategy InstructionIsaac Osei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

% — PercentageA — AgreeABE — Adult Basic EducationAIDS — Acquired Immune Deficiency SyndromeBECE — Basic Education Certificate EducationD — DisagreeEFL — English as a Foreign LanguageF — FrequencyFL — Foreign LanguageGLSS — Ghana Living Standards SurveyGOG — Government of GhanaGSS — Ghana Statistical ServiceHIV — Human Immunodeficiency VirusICT — Information Communication TechnologyILO — International Labour OrganisationJHS — Junior High SchoolLEAP — Livelihoods Empowerment against Poverty ProgrammeM — MeanMSLC — Middle School Leaving CertificateNGO — Non-Governmental OrganisationRC — Reading ComprehensionSA — Strongly AgreeSCDE — School of Continuing and Distance EducationSD — Standard DeviationSD — Strongly DisagreeSFL — Spanish as a Foreign LanguageSL — Second LanguageSYR-2 — Second year student (2nd person interviewed)SYR-4 — Second year student (4th person interviewed)SYR-5 — Second year student (5th person interviewed)SYR-10 — Second year student (10th person interviewed)SYR-11 — Second year student (11th person interviewed)SYR-13 — Second year student (13th person interviewed)SYR-14 — Second year student (14th person interviewed)U — UndecidedUEW — University of Education, WinnebaUNDP — United Nations Development Programme

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TERTIARY EDUCATION SERIES OCTOBER 2017 1

Exploring Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in the Context of AdultLearners: Challenges and Strategies

Dr. Isaac Kofi BineyCollege of Education, University of Ghana


Abstract

T his paper explores Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in the context of adult learners. Itinvestigates the needs of adult learners that influenced their decision to pursue AdultBasic Education (ABE). The challenges adult learners’ encounter in the process of learning

to achieve their goals, and strategies adopted to address them, were also sought. An interviewguide was developed and conducted to a sample of 50 students who were randomly selected.Thus 40 interview guides were used out of the 50 in the study. Purposive and convenience samplingprocedures were adopted in selecting the sample for the study. Simple statistical tool in the formof percentages, analytical and descriptive-narrative approaches were adopted in presenting theresults. It was found that adult learners prioritise their needs such as fulfilment, achievementand improved performance at workplace, in a bid to learn to achieve them step-by-step. Theacquisition of vocational skills, personal development skills and social relationship skillscompelled adult learners to get enrolled in ABE programme. It recommends that sufficient savingsshould be embarked upon by prospective adult learners to facilitate their participation in ABEprogramme.

Introduction

Chao (2009) observes that theemergence of the knowledgesociety, rapid introduction of

technology, and the changing workplacehas increased the importance of adultlearning. Education is no longer just amatter of childhood schooling, but inGhana it has become a lifelong, variedand stimulating activity with greatinfluence in the lives of many men andwomen. This article focuses on theexperience of one adult education schoolin Ghana to discuss issues around themotivation of adults involved in lifelonglearning.

Currently, aside the regular andsandwich students pursuing Diplomas,Bachelors, Masters and Doctor ofPhilosophy degree programmes offered,there are other tailor-made programmesdesigned and offered at the School ofContinuing and Distance Education(SCDE), and its twelve regional learning

centres. There are over 13,000 adultlearners pursuing Adult Basic Education(ABE) programme at the School.

Existing research has not beenconclusive as to whether some humanneeds take priority over others, but Myersasserts that “having all your biologicalneeds satisfied, you seek increased levelsof arousal. But let your need for water gounsatisfied, your thirst will preoccupyyou”. Maslow’s (1970) Hierarchy ofNeeds Theory sought to paint a similarpicture. Oishi et al. (1999, cited in Myers,2011) observe that a life-satisfactionsurvey in 39 nations supports this basicidea that some motivations are morecompelling than others. Maslowemphasised that an individual’s needsmust be satisfied sequentially, thus, anindividual cannot satisfy any higher-orderneeds (love and belongingness, esteem,and self-actualisation) unless the lower-order needs (food, shelter and safety) aresatisfied. This observation poses certainquestions: What needs are to be satisfiedsequentially by adult learners? How


should such needs be satisfied? This paperseeks to address these questions byexamining data gathered from the specificcontext of a Ghanaian school for adultlearning.The researcher first considerswhat learning and learning needs are.

Burton (1963, cited in Maslow,1970) defines learning as a change in theindividual due to the interaction of thatindividual and his/her environment, whichfills a need, and makes him/her morecapable of dealing adequately with his/her environment. In any case, every adultlearner has the capacity to assumeresponsibility to satisfy his/her need.McClusky’s (1971) faith in limitlesshuman potential is seen in his thinkingabout adults as learners:

One can teach an old dog to learnnew tricks! He may not want to learnnew tricks or he may think that hisold tricks are good enough, but an“old dog” can no longer hide behindan assumed lack of ability to learnas an excuse for not learning. In fact,because of his age, there areprobably some tricks that an old dogcan learn better than a younger

To Oishi et al. (cited in Myers,2011), in poorer nations that lack easyaccess to money and the food and shelterit buys, financial satisfaction morestrongly predicts feelings of well-being.In wealthy nations, where most people areable to meet basic needs, home-lifesatisfaction is a better predictor tolearning. Self-esteem matters most in theU.S., Canada, Western Europe, Australiaamong others, whose citizens tend to

focus more on personal achievements thanon family and community identity whichtend to pertain in Africa (Oishi, et al. citedin Myers, 2011). That is not to say povertyis not found in developed countries butpoorer citizens in such economies arelargely cushioned by the welfare system.These systems could be in the form offeedback and determined instructor effortof reinforcement for each individuallearner (Gredler, 2001).

The Government of Ghana has acritical role to play in the provision ofeducation to the adult population. Afterall, it is the adult population that developstheir communities and the society at large,and not children. Wickberg (1991, citedin Newsweek, 1991) asserts that inSweden, you learn as long as you live. Itmeans, therefore, that you are never tooold to learn something new. Learningshould be perceived, in our context, froma lifelong dimension,thus, learning fromcradle-to-grave. For there is no better wayto make good citizens, than educating able-bodied men and women to work. Hence,the provision of scholarship, study leaveand financial support by government,employers and extended family toprospective adult learners’ to engage inlifelong learning is a laudable decisionto take. The government has not put inplace solid systems and structures, to getthe critical adult population educated. Thereality is that there is poverty in Ghana,and adult learners are not cushioned bygovernment, to motivate them to take tocontinuing education.

Ghana, on the average, has madesome progress, however small it is, in thefight against poverty. The official poverty


rate was 51.7 percent in 1991 (GSS,1991/92). The Headcount ratiomeasurement of poverty was used. Thismeasurement of poverty actually gives theratio of the population who are poor, thus,it establishes the poverty line. In Ghana,two poverty lines have beenestablished—an upper poverty line ofGH¢371 and lower poverty line ofGH¢288. The Ghana Statistical Service(GSS) conducts the Ghana LivingStandard Survey (GLSS) at about five-year intervals to ask people about theirincomes and other information that borderon welfare or standards of living. Overthe years, the Ghana Statistical Service(GSS) have conducted five of suchsurveys. Thus, GLSS I in 1982, GLSS IIin 1989, GLSS III in 1991/92, GLSS IVin 1998/99 and GLSS V in 2005/06 (GSS,2007).

Poverty, however, dropped to 39.5percent in 1999 to 28.5 percent in 2006(GSS, 2007) cited in (Biney, 2009). Itfurther dropped to 26.5 percent in 2008.In addition, hunger was reduced from 34percent in 1990 to 9 percent in 2008(GoG/UNDP, 2010 cited in Amedehe, etal., 2012). The introduction of thecapitation grant, school feedingprogramme and the LivelihoodsEmpowerment against PovertyProgramme (LEAP) culminated in thereduction of hunger. The latest figuresindicate that over the past 17 years theaverage level of poverty in Ghana hasreduced by half. This demonstrates firstly,the giant step made by the people of Ghanato overcome poverty and its debilitatingeffects on them. Secondly, it demonstratesthe effort being made by individuals,

corporate organisations and governmentstoward halving poverty targets.

That notwithstanding, adult learnersstill need support to succeed in theirlearning endeavours. In Ghana,individuals’ action and inaction have abearing on the families, and communitiesthey belong to. As a collective society,the norms, traditions and value systemsof Ghana call for togetherness. Thus eachis his/her brother’s or sister’s keeper. Insuch a situation, the success or failure ofan adult learner may be seen as theresponsibility of the family. The familyis, thus, called upon to contribute indiverse ways to help the adult familymember’s education. However, the needsof adult learners in Ghana seem many andto examine these, Maslow’s hierarchy ofneeds was adopted as a framework toexamine and better understand whatcompels them to pursue Adult BasicEducation (ABE).

Statement of the Problem

Adult literacy activities by NGOs and thechurches began in Ghana in 1948, thoughthe pace of development quickened in the1950s. Between 1952 and 1966, thegovernment and NGOs educated a totalof 225,000 (Bhola, 2000) to a level offunctional literacy, but then the politicalwill to eradicate illiteracy collapsed.Data from the Ghana Living StandardSurvey Report of the Fifth Round (GLSS5), indicates that about 31 percent ofadults, which represents a little over fourmillion people, have never been to school(GSS, 2008).

Meanwhile, functionally literateadults may use their literacy skills to


transact businesses and practice betterenvironmental hygiene. Functionalliteracy skills acquired by adults mayalsobe used to undertake income generatingventures. The literate population furtheruses literacy skills to improveperformance and production not only atworkplaces, but also positively influencecommunity groups to initiate self-helpdevelopment programmes, and projects toimprovethe quality of people’s lives.

Many adults of the population inGhana want to see positive changes intheir lives and have thus taken up thechallenge to get educated. There are,however, hurdles to be surmounted tomeet this important need.

Financial difficulties, unemploy-ment, lack of support from the immediateand extended families, workplacecommitments, along with rapid changestaking place at workplaces as a result ofInformation Communication Technologies(ICTs), make it imperative for the adultpopulation to continue to learn to unearththeir hidden potentials. This is significant,especially in Ghana, because childrenmay not have an impact on much neededeconomic development for five, ten,fifteen or even twenty years. Theimproved knowledge, skills, understand-ing and attitudes of adults, on the otherhand, can have an impact now.

In the light of this supposition, thequestion raised is: what needs influenceadult learners to take up ABE in Ghana?As well as addressing this question, thestudy on which this paper is based alsoidentified strategies that could be adoptedto address the challenges that confrontadult learners in Ghana.

Objectives of the Study

The main objectives of the study were to:

(i) Identify the needs of adult learnersthat led them to enrol in ABE.

(ii) Find out the challenges facing adultlearners in achieving these needs.

(iii) Suggest strategies adult learners canemploy to achieve these needs.

Literature Review

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

This study is underpinned by Maslow’sHierarchy of Needs Theory (1970), whichhas had a considerable range ofapplications. He presents his view as atheory of motivation. His theory is simplein that it offers a hierarchy of prepotency.By this it is meant that a person remainsunder the control of the motive at the‘lower’ level until the object of the motiveis achieved or its satisfaction assured, asobserved by Tennant (1993). As soon asthis occurs the person comes under thesway of the motive force at the next(higher) level. When and only when thisis satisfied the person becomes subjectto the next, and so on. A motive of a lowerlevel is always prepotent over one at thehigher level. The near highest, whichcomes into operation only when all otherforces are quiescent, is called the ‘needfor self-actualisation.’ The details of thehierarchy is presented and discussed asfollows:


Discussion of Maslow’s Hierarchy ofNeeds Theory

Maslow talks first about physiologicalneeds: hunger, thirst, sex, sleep,relaxation and bodily integrity. The mostbasic needs are associated with survival,physically and psychologically. Thesemust be satisfied first before there comesinto play what are called safety needs.Safety needs concern a predictable andorderly world; protection, security, lawand stability. While these are not satisfiedthe person will be occupied in attemptsto organise his/her world so as to providethe greatest possible degree of safety andsecurity. If satisfied, he/she comes underthe forces of love and belongingnessneeds. This need calls for one to seek forwarm and fulfilling human relationshipsand is about the family, affection,relationship and the work group. Self-esteem needs are the desire for strength,achievement, confidence, mastery andcompetence, independence and freedom,adequacy, status, responsibility,reputation and prestige.

Self-actualisation needs concernmeeting one’s fullest and unique potentialor potentialities, talents, capacities,personal growth and fulfilment. Thus, theyare about becoming everything one iscapable of becoming. Self-actualisationis, therefore, a healthy person’s primemotivation and Maslow perceives self-actualisation as the ultimate aim oflearning. Supporting Maslow’s assertion,Desautels (2015),argues that self-actualisation is the level of self-evaluation related to service, adding that

to become creative thinkers, people haveto begin discovering the problem, not justcoming up with a solution. She alsosuggests that at this level, learnersbecome self-assessors and self-reflectors.They are able to see and understand howtheir actions, thoughts and feelings affectall lives.

Finally, self-transcendence needs,which are associated with the need to findmeaning and identity beyond the self, werethe last of the needs to be added byMaslow towards the end of his life. Hestates that some people also reach a levelof self-transcendence, thus, a stage in lifewhereby people strive for meaning,purpose, and communion that is beyondthe self, that is transpersonal.

In Maslow’s view, learners, and inthis case adult learners, must satisfy theirneed for food before they can achievetheir goal of securing academicachievement. His view also provides anexplanation of why learners who comefrom poor homes are less likely toparticipate and achieve in educationalprogrammes than those whose basic needsare met. More so, the idea that humanneeds are hierarchically arranged isappealing. The simple idea that somemotives are more compelling than othersprovides a framework for thinking aboutmotivation. These prospects notwith-standing, Maslow’s hierarchy of needsappears somewhat arbitrary, especially ifone considers it in adult learning situation,which this study seeks to investigate. Thisis because the ordering of such needs maynot be universally fixed.

Myers (2011) observes that people


have even starved themselves to make apolitical statement. It is not always thecase those raised in relatively luxurioushomes go on to become creative, originaland self-actualised people. Exceptionsabound. There are some people, comingfrom poor homes, and who have workedhard to get to the highest level in life. Thenagain, for some adult learners, cognitiveneeds might be more fundamental thanesteem needs. Other adult learners mightmeet their cognitive needs even thoughthey have not experienced love andbelongingness.

Added to these suppositions, notmuch research has been able tosubstantiate the idea of a needs hierarchy.Wahba and Bridwell (1979, cited inCherry, 2015: 1) reported that there waslittle evidence for Maslow’s ranking ofthese needs and even less evidence thatthese needs are in a hierarchical order.

Other critics of Maslow’s theorynote that his definition of self-actualisation is difficult to testscientifically. Maslow’s research on self-actualisation was based on a very limitedsample of individuals, including peoplehe knew as well as biographies of famousindividuals that he believed to be self-actualised, such as Albert Einstein andEleanor Roosevelt (Cherry, 2015).Regardless of these criticisms, Maslow’shierarchy of needs theory represents partof an important shift in psychology. Ratherthan focusing on abnormal behaviour anddevelopment, Maslow’s humanisticpsychology was focused on thedevelopment of healthy individuals(Cherry, 2015). His hierarchy of needs

theory has become well-known andpopular both in psychology, education andmany other disciplines.

Continuing Education and LifelongLearning

In a developing country like Ghana,continuing education and learning is anappropriate means to allow adults toacquire new knowledge, skills, attitudes,values and understanding of themselves.The quality of life of a society,accordingly, reflects the standard ofeducation of the people. After all,education is instrumental in promotinggrowth and raising earnings. In globaleconomy today, lifelong education andlifelong learning are accepted by manyas overarching tools for humandevelopment (Sernau, 2009).

Illiteracy has been found as a majoreconomic bane of Ghana. Data from theGhana Living Standard Survey Report ofthe Fifth Round (GLSS 5) indicate that17 percent which represents 2.3 millionpeople attended school but did not obtainMiddle School Leaving Certificate/BasicEducation Certificate Examination(MSLC/BECE) certificate. About 39% ofadults which represents 5.1 million peoplehave the MSLC/BECE certificate, andonly about 14 percent which represents1.8 million adults obtained secondary orhigher level qualification (GSS, 2008).Thus, about half the adult population,which represents 6.4 million people inGhana neither attended school norcompleted Middle School/Junior HighSchool (GSS, 2008). The implication is


that many with poor literacy can neithertake advantage of the opportunities inGhana’s thriving private sector nor securejobs in manufacturing industries due to thelow level skills as a result of illiteracy.This assertion reinforces the study ofCrowther, Hamilton and Tett (2003) andJanks (2010) arguing that there is arelational flow between adult literacieseducation and empower-ment withreference to theory such as the Maslow’shierarchy of needs. Their central argumentis that an empowering literacies educationoffers learners opportunities to createtheir own identities and discourseregarding decisions about job, finance andaccess to education opportunities. Theyargued that this would in turn empowerthem to contribute to social and economicdevelopment of themselves and societyas a whole.

It has been established that people’smotives for participating in an organisedlearning experience are numerous andoverlapping. In a comprehensive andscientific national survey of participationin adult education in the United States,Johnstone and Rivera (1965, cited inJarvis, 1983: 66) discovered that in theUnited States the main motives for adultlearning include: to become betterinformed; to prepare for new job; toobtain on-the-job training; to spend leisuretime in an enjoyable and rewarding way;to meet new and interesting people; tobecome more efficient in carrying outtasks and duties either in the home orelsewhere; to escape from routine; toimprove skills; to increase generalknowledge; to increase income; to

develop personality and to improveinterpersonal relations; and to developsome physical attributes. These motivescan equally be grouped into three maincategories: vocational; personaldevelopment and social relationship. Ifwe take these three categories of motivesand relate them to the concerns of the lifecycle, we have an invaluable formula fordetermining adult learners’ needs.

Knowles, Holton and Swanson(1998, cited in Nafukho et al., 2005: 13)have stated that:

even though adults can be motivatedby external factors such as highersalaries, promotions, better jobs inthe future, they are more motivatedto learn by internal pressures suchas the desire for increased jobsatisfaction, self-esteem and qualityof life issues.

The other important factors that canmotivate adult learners to learn asidentified by Lieb (1999) include socialrelationships such as making new friends;external expectation; social welfare suchas improving the ability to serve others;escape from boredom by providing abreak from the routine of work or home;and cognitive interests, such as satisfyingan inquiring mind and seeking knowledgefor its own sake.

Snowman and Biehler (2006)indicated that the first four needs ofMaslow hierarchy of needs (physiologi-cal, safety, belongingness and love, andesteem) are deficiency needs because theymotivate people to act only when they are


to some degree unmet. Self-actualisationand self-transcendence needs by contrast,are often called growth needs becausepeople constantly strive to satisfy them.This is basically because self-actualisation refers to the need for self-fulfillment—the need to develop all ofone’s potential-talents and capacities.

Criticisms of Hierarchy of NeedsTheory in an African Context

Unfortunately however, Maslow’s theorywas not founded on any research evidence.From an African perspective, Gboku andLekoko (2007) identified flaws inMaslow’s theory. First, in many Africansocieties, needs are not regarded inhierarchical terms with some achievableonly after others have been satisfied.Consequently, people do not necessarilysatisfy lower-level needs before movingon to higher-level needs. For example, avillage chief may feel the same intensityfor lower needs such as hunger, shelterand clothing, despite his elevated statuswithin the community. Second, it isimpossible for educational programmedevelopers to ascertain the precise needlevel of individuals in order to tailorprogrammes based on that knowledge.Most individuals in African communitieswill not express their needs based on thishierarchical conception. Third, it is notclear where to place the learning need ofa typical African adult learner inMaslow’s hierarchy. Does it belong to thelevels of safety, self-esteem, self-actualisation or self-transcendence?

A hierarchical approach to the

learning experience assumes that adultlearners are essentially alike. This isclearly not the case. It is important torecognise that adult learners are uniquein the different aspirations, values,knowledge, skills, experiences andproblems they have. The socialisationthey have had in their respectivecommunities and families are different,and that in itself will influence theirdesires, interests and needs. As a resultof these differences, adults’ learning needsmay differ greatly from one individual toanother. Gboku and Lekoko (2007)concede, however, that the assumption oflearner similarity would be appropriatefor organised efforts addressing anidentified national need, an instance beingHIV and AIDS education programme tobe rolled out across the country. At localand community levels, this may also applyif there is a common community educationneed, such as the need to know how topurify water from water sources,especially in the rural communities inGhana where many of the communitymembers have no access to potable waterfacilities (Amedzro, 2005).

Adult Basic Education (ABE)

The School of Continuing and DistanceEducation (SCDE) which is at the centreof the study runs and coordinates ABE atan Adult Learning and Research Centrewhich was established in August, 2007.The Centre started its literacy programmewith 27 participants. Table 1 providesdetails on seven years running of theCentre at SCDE.


Table 1: Adults Learners Enrolled inAdult Learning Research Centrebetween 2007–2013

Year No. of Adult AdultAdult Learners Learners

Learners who sat for AdmittedEnrolled Diploma into thein ABE Programme Diploma

Programmes

2007 27 – – 2008 69 5 4 2009 127 10 9 2010 137 20 14 2011 65 15 13 2012 112 20 18 2013 83 23 21

Table 1, shows that the number ofadult learners enrolled in the literacycentre has kept increasing steadily fromthe commencement of the programmeexcept for the 2011 and 2013 academicyears.

The Centre is currently undertakingEnglish and Basic Mathematics classesfor out-of-school youth and adults. It canbe argued that if this programme isexpanded, it would help to address thechallenges posed by illiteracy in Ghana.As Table 1 clearly demonstrates, someof the graduates from the ABE or literacyprogramme have managed to gainadmission into the diploma programmes.Cummings and Jecks (2004) observe thatin the global information economy inwhich information and knowledge havereplaced financial and physical capital asthe means of creating value, nations andenterprises are reliant on an educated andskilled workforce to maintain produc-tivity in order to meet global market

challenges. Likewise, individual workers,and unemployed adults need to engage incontinuing and lifelong learning toconstantly upgrade their skills andqualifications to remain in employment.ILO (2002, cited in Cummings and Jecks,2004: 16) re-states this understanding:

The citizens need now to enhancetheir capacity to take initiatives, andneed now, to acquire new skills. Itis necessary to provide learningopportunities for the presentgeneration of adult men and women.Adult learning has become a centralissue. It has become clear that thelearning capacity of human beings,the unfolding of human potential andthe opportunity to continue learningthroughout life, are central to the taskof shaping the new century and thenew millennium. The autonomy, thecreativity and the self-expression ofall citizens are not only theobjectives, but also the conditionsof democracy.

On the basis of this kind of assertion,it becomes imperative for the Ghanaiangovernment, and more especiallyeducational institutions in Ghana, to focusattention and also place premium onensuring that as much of the adultpopulation as possible become literate.When the critical mass of Ghanaians issupported in one form or the other tobecome literate, it will go a long way tohelp promote sustainable development innot only their communities, but the entireeconomy of Ghana as well.


Methods

Adult learners pursuing ABE formed thesampling units and unit of analysis in thedesign. A mixed design method wasadopted. Thus, aspects of quantitative andqualitative characteristics were adoptedat several stages throughout the study. Bothpurposive and convenience procedureswere adopted in selecting the sample. Thenames of the accessible adult learners,who were 112 in number, were compiledand serially labelled on pieces of papers.They were put into a container andreshuffled and 50 adult learners wererandomly selected for the study.

This sample size of 50 respondentsout of the accessible population of 112was representative in terms of theinstitution under study. The researcher’sintention was to understand, analyse anddescribe the situation in whichprospective adult learners identify theirneeds and embark upon ABE to achievetheir goals.The researcher adoptedsampling procedures to identify certaincharacteristics in the learners. Inparticular, the researcher decided thatmarried and working respondents engagedin continuing education may havechallenges in terms of planning, managingand utilising their time sufficiently, so asto gain from the ABE. Such respondentssaddled with numerous productive andreproductive responsibilities can,perhaps, only succeed in ABE througheffective planning and prioritisation oftheir needs. The researcher’s intentionwas, therefore, to get a deeper insight intohow these respondents managed to

unravel challenges involved in addressingtheir learning needs.

This was an exploratory study whichgathered data through interviews and theresults were presented qualitatively interms of themes and quantitatively in termsof statistics. Thus, the data collected fromclosed-ended questions was analysedusing percentages. The responses from theopen-ended questions were summarised,organised and interpreted in the form oftables. A descriptive-narrative approachwas also partially adopted to analysesome of the responses. The study soughtthe views of adult learners on the needsfor enrolling in continuing education, andthus, identifies the challenges facing themin achieving their needs. Finally,suggestions on strategies to achieve theneeds of adult learners in ABE were alsosought. Probing questions were posed tothe respondents to seek for clarificationsand the study also yielded anecdotalevidence to triangulate and elaborate onthe results. This also helped to extend theenquiry and to discover contradictions andsupports.

Results and Discussion

With a sample size of 50 adult learners inall, the majority (40) of them, constituting80 percent of the respondents, participatedin the study. Thus, 40 interviews wereused out of the 50. Some 60 percent ofrespondents were female and 40 percentwere male. The majority (70%) of therespondents were married, working andwithin the age range of 30 to 40 years.


Needs of Adult Learners for Enrollingin Adult Basic Education

On whether the respondents have had anyformal education before enrolling in AdultBasic Education (ABE) programme, themajority (70%) of the respondents werein the affirmative. In terms of the level ofeducation attained by the respondents, lessthan half (45%) have had Junior HighSchool (JHS) education as compared to55 percent of the respondents who couldnot complete their basic education or JHSeducation. Even though more than half(55%) of the respondents could notcomplete basic education, they decidedto continue their education through ABEprogramme and this is encouraging. Themajority (70%) of the respondents wereboth married and working, yet they foundtime to continue their education. Thisresult goes to confirm McClusky’s (1971)assertion of the ‘limitless humanpotential’ when it comes to adult learning.As to what motivated the respondents toenrol in ABE, the responses offered arepresented in Table 2.

Table 2: Motives to Participate in ABEMotives PercentageTo upgrade and empower 64ourselves socially andeconomicallyImprove skills to meet market 26demand on employmentTo fit perfectly into the society 41and secure better jobsGain mastery and improve 25productivity at workplaceAcquire certificate and gain 20promotion at workplace

Note: Multiple responses were madeN = 40

The results as obtained in Table 2confirm Johnstone and Rivera’s finding(cited in Jarvis, 1983) that motives foradult learning include: to become betterinformed; to prepare for new job; toobtain on-the-job training among others.Itcan be deduced from the results thatrespondents participated in ABE to betterposition themselves to contribute to thesociety, and also increase their skills toimprove productivity in workplaces.These motives can equally be groupedinto three main categories, thus,vocational; personal development andsocial relationship as Johnstone andRivera discovered in their study inAmerica. In terms of ranking of deficiencyand growth needs of adult learners thatinfluenced enrolment in ABE, Table 3provides interesting results.

Table 3:Ranking of Hierarchy of Needs byAdult Learners

Ranking of Hierarchy of Needs Percentageby Adult Learners

Self-actualisation (capacities, 80personal growth, fulfilment)

Esteem needs (achievement, 80competence, reputation)

Self-transcendence need 68(meaning, purpose, communion)

Safety needs (protection, order, 60stability, etc.)

Belonging and love needs 55(family, affection, relationship)

Physiological (lack of food, 40shelter and clothing)



The majority (80%) of therespondents ranked growth needs such asself-actualisation and self-esteem needsas factors that influenced their enrolmentinto ABE programme. The resultscontradict the assertion of Oishi, et al.(1999 cited in Myers, 2011) that self-esteem matters most in individualistnations such as the U.S., Canada, WesternEurope, Australia among others, whosecitizens tend to focus more on personalachievements more than on family andcommunity identity which tend to pertainin Africa.

On whether adult learners prioritisetheir needs, the majority (88%) of therespondents were in the affirmative. Thisis the apt way a respondent put it:

because I know that my needs aremany and cannot be satisfied orachieved in a day, I plan andprioritise them, so that I canjudiciously utilise my limitedresources to gain satisfactory results.

Upon further probing, a majority(65%) of the respondents who responded‘Yes’ to the prioritisation of their needsrevealed that they prioritise their needsto enable them make right choices, andalso effectively manage their time so asto achieve their needs step-by-step.However, the remaining (35%) ratherindicated that they prioritise their needsto enable them attain needs they considermost important first. Going by the resultsindicated in Table 3, many of therespondents actually want to realisegrowth in their endeavours—competence

in the manner in which they execute jobsat workplaces. As majority (70%) of therespondents were working, theirenrolment into ABE was probablyinformed by improving their performanceat workplaces. The latter were of the viewthat human motives are based on needs,whether consciously or subconsciouslyfelt. Thus, the concept of a learning needhas a strong link to the theory ofmotivation. The participants in the studywere motivated in one form or the otherto enrol and learn to address their needs,including achievement and improvedperformance at workplaces.

On what vocational needs influencedtheir participation in ABE, the majority(75%) of the respondents mentioned theacquisition of basic knowledge to enablethem to become skilled in driving, fillingforms and signing cheques whentransacting business with the banking andfinancial institutions. They added that theystand to benefit from these skills acquiredand also improve upon their reading andwriting skills and also become self-employed, and by extension, to secure jobopportunities in the private and publicsectors. 25 percent of the respondentswere of the view that the acquisition ofbasic knowledge and skills in reading,writing and calculation will aid them intheir entrepreneurial activities. This wasdescribed by one of the participants:

The vocational skills and knowledgethat I am currently acquiring,especially in entre-preneurship, willsubstantially help me create and


manage job avenues andopportunities for myself and manyothers.

In the case of personal developmentneeds that influenced their enrolment inABE, the respondents offered multipleresponses to the rephrased probingquestion posed to them. Results are shownin Table 4.

Table 4:Personal Development Needs thatInfluenced Enrolment in ABE

Personal Development Needs Percentage

Acquire basic knowledge and 63skills

Secure improved financial status 07

Improve communication skills 17to impact on their communities

Acquire problem-solving skills 18


From Table 4, more than half (63percent) of the respondents said theacquisition of basic knowledge and skillsin reading, writing and calculating basicsums such as bookkeeping was needed forsmall-scale businesses. Less than aquarter (18 percent) and (17 percent) eachof the respondents respectively assert thatthey enrolled in ABE to improvecommunication skills so as to impact ontheir communities, and also acquireproblem-solving abilities through theskills acquired from their learning. Table5 sets out the relationship needs thatinfluenced adult learners’ participation inABE.

Table 5:Relationship Needs that InfluencedEnrolment in ABE

Relationship Needs Percentage

Improve on their marital status 50or relationship

Strengthen/solidify/increase 48chances of getting a goodmarriage partner

Communicate effectively with 25marital partner


From Table 5, it can be seen that allthe results offered centred on love andbelongingness. Words like ‘improve’,‘strengthen’, ‘increase’ and ‘solidify’were used by many of the respondents toqualify their love relationship. Half(50%) of the respondents reveal thatrelationship needs that drove them tocontinue their education were to improveon their marital status or relationship.Nearly half (48%) of the respondents alsosaid that they enrolled in ABE programmeto aid them to strengthen, solidify andincrease their chances of getting goodmarital partners. Only a quarter (25%) ofthe respondents intimated that theyenrolled in ABE programme to enablethem to communicate effectively in theirmarital relationship. These resultsconfirm Houle’s (1964) assertion thatadult learners enrol in learningprogrammes with the hope that they canenlarge the dimensions of their minds andincrease their personal and socialeffectiveness. From the result so far, itappears that established or yet to beestablished social or marital relationshipmatter a lot to the adult learners in this


sample, which links to love andbelongingness needs on Maslow’shierarchy of needs theory. That is to beexpected because many of the adultlearners enrolled in ABE were marriedcouples. There is every cause for them toget educated formally, to help close anygap existing among them, and theirpartners in terms of educational level.This observation was amplified by oneof the respondents who said:

I enrolled in ABE programme to helpme solidify my marital life with mypartner who is an educated person.

Challenges Facing Adult Learners inAchieving their Needs

Notwithstanding the interest and desire ofadult learners to engage in continuinglearning activities such as ABE to bettertheir lot, there are challenges that deterthem from achieving their goals in life.When learners were asked to rankchallenges that confront them, multipleresponses were made. The resultspresented in Table 6 provide furtherexplanation.

Table 6:Challenges Facing Adults Enrolledin ABE Programme

Challenges PercentageFinancial difficulties 70Inadequate knowledge in ICTs 58Unemployment 50Workplace commitments 43Lack of spousal and extended 38families support


Deducing from Table 6, it is clearthat the majority (70%) of the respondentswere faced with financial challenges inpursuing ABE programme, which wereranked highest. More than half (58%) ofthe respondents responded that they hadnot got adequate knowledge ofInformation Communication Techno-logies (ICTs), which is to be expected ina situation where about a quarter (25%)of the respondents were only then learningto read, write and calculate. The issue ofunemployment came third (50%) inranking the challenges confronting adultlearners enrolled in ABE programme.Workplace commitments and lack ofspousal and extended family support wereranked fourth and fifth challengesrespectively. The findings confirmassertions made by Fasokun, et al. (2005)and Neff (1969, cited in Shaw, 1969). Theformer asserted that African adult learnersare poor financially and that affects theirdesire to continue their education. Thisobservation is real and it currently reflectsin the staggering unemployment challengeconfronting many Ghanaians. The latterargued that adults need the cooperationof their families to learn yet many of theABE classes are organised in the evening,it means time spent away from home andthe family.

Strategies to Achieve the Needs ofAdult Learners in Adult BasicEducation (ABE)

On preparation to be made by adultlearners so as to succeed in ABE, it wasindicated by the majority (80%) of the


respondents that enough savings have tobe made by prospective participants soas to have peace of mind to concentrateon their studies. The other 20 percent ofthe respondents suggested that prospectiveparticipants of ABE programme shouldbe mentally and psychologically readybefore they get enrolled into ABEprogramme, as one participant responded;“As I planned to enrol as an adult learnerin the ABE programme, it becamenecessary for me to start studying hard soas to succeed. I have prepared myselfpsychologically and mentally. I have alsodecided to apply myself fully to theacademic work. By so doing, I will beable to achieve the goal I have set, formyself.”

In terms of forms of support to beprovided by spouses and extendedfamilies to prospective adult learners inABE programme, multiple responseswere provided as set out in Table 7.

Table 7: Supports to be offered by Spousesand Extended Families to AdultLearners

Support to be offered bySpouses and Extended PercentageFamilies

Provision of financial support 83to aid adult learners in theirstudies

Encouragement and spousesparticipation in house chores arerequested 38

Moral and spiritual supports areto be offered toward adultlearners studies 25


The majority (83%) of therespondents indicated that prospectiveadult learners must be supportedfinancially to continue to learn to achievetheir goals. 38 percent and 25 percent ofother respondents responded that adultlearners are to be encouraged andsupported in their household chores andbe offered moral and spiritual supportsin their studies. The result confirms theassertion of Oishi, et al. (cited in Myers,2011) that in poorer nations where someadults lack access to money to procurefood and shelter they need, financialsatisfaction predicts feelings of well-being. Considering the findings revealingthat adult learners needed financialsupport to enable them to smoothly pursuetheir studies so as to realise their goals,it only makes a lot of sense that they aresupported. More so, as society that buysinto interdependence and extended familysystem, the only way out is for the spousesand related family members to financiallysupport adult learners to participate inABE programme. The support that is tobe offered to female adult learnerspursuing ABC programme should not onlybe limited to financial support offered,but the spouses should also help inhousehold chores and provide moral andspiritual supports as well. This issignificant because half (50%) of therespondents, who were female adultlearners, asserted that they also had toundertake household chores after theirstudy. The female adult learners alreadyover-burdened with not only productiveand reproductive responsibilities, but alsoundertaking academic work at higher


educational institutions, require thesupport to enable them to manage theirtime meaningfully for their academicwork. This is also one of the surest waysfor female adult learners to succeed intheir academic endeavours.

On support to be provided by theinstitution itself, more than two-thirds(70%) of the respondents were of theview that they should provide appropriateand sufficient teaching and learning aidsto make adult learners feel comfortablein their studies. The other 30 percent saidthat dialogical or conversational approachshould be adopted in facilitating theteaching and learning endeavours. In thecase of employers’ support to be providedto prospective adult learners, nearly all(80%) of the respondents were of theview that adult learners are to be grantedstudy leave with pay to ease the financialchallenges adult learners go throughduring their studies. The majority (76%)of the respondents believed thatscholarship facilities are to be providedto prospective adult learners to help themconcentrate on their studies.

Summary of Major Findings

1. Based on the findings of the study,adult learners engaged in ABEprogramme to upgrade and empowerthemselves socially and econo-mically.

2. The acquisition of basic knowledge,skills, and improvement in maritalrelationships influenced adultlearners participation in ABEprogramme.

3. Financial difficulties, inadequateknowledge in ICTs, unemployment,household chores and workplacecommitments were the majorchallenges encountered by adultlearners in ABE.

4. It was suggested that sufficientsavings could be undertaken byparticipants.

5. It was again suggested that learningcentres should provide sufficientteaching and learning aids to helpadult learners learn.

6. It was further suggested thatemployers grant adult learners studyleave with pay to enable themconcentrate on their studies.

Recommendations

The following recommendations aremade based on the findings of the study:

1. Institutions providing ABE in Ghanashould provide the neededorientation, teaching and learningaids to motivate adult learners toprioritise their needs, and learn tolove and belong, and attain self-esteem and self-actualisation.

2. Prospective adult learners have tosave sufficiently toward theirstudies, including ABE programmes.

3. Government should provide scholar-ship facilities, however rudimentary,to prospective adult learners to helpthem upgrade themselves sociallyand economically.


Conclusion

The paper explored Maslow’s hierarchyof needs in the context of adult learners,taking into consideration the challenges,and strategies to be instituted to enticemany adult population to engage inlearning. An adult education school inGhana identified in 2007 the gap for theneed to continuously build the capacityof people of all walks of life, through theestablishment of Adult Literacy andResearch Centre, to roll out ABEprogramme. Having operated for sevenyears offers the researcher the opportunityto explore and identify challenges andstrategies that can be instituted to aid adultlearners study to achieve their goals inlife. The findings of the study indicate thatadult learners were interested anddesirous in engaging in ABE programme.They also prioritised their needs, asMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theorysought to demonstrate, to afford thelearners step-by-step process in achievingthem. The learners, however, were facedwith financial challenges which need tobe addressed to help entice manyprospective adult learners to engage inABE programme. Considering the paceof technological change in the globaleconomy currently, it becomes imperativefor both employees and employers to form

partnerships toward work and education.The prospective adult learners of ABEshould equally learn to develop savingculture to become financially prepared forthe ABE programme. Then again, whenthe critical mass of able-bodied adultpopulation desirous to learn are offeredsupport in the form of study leave withpay, and supported psychologically andspiritually by their employers and familyrelations, they will actively learn to proveequal to the tasks and responsibilities athome, communities and workplaces.Cherry (2015), referred to earlier in thestudy asserts that in a study published in2011, researchers from the University ofIllinois set out to put the hierarchy to thetest discovered that while fulfillment ofthe needs was strongly correlated withhappiness, people from cultures all overreported that, self-actualisation and socialneeds were important even when many ofthe most basic needs were unfulfilled.Thus, one of the surest ways to secure thefull fulfillment of learners, is to offer themthe opportunity to engage in ABCprogramme, to meet that need of acquiringskills through basic literacy. The adulteducation school, thus SCDE should,therefore, make available in sufficientquantities, the requisite teaching andlearning aids to entice as manyprospective adult learners as possible, toparticipate in ABE programme.

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Orientation Programme at the University of Education, Winneba:Perspectives of Second-year Undergraduate Students at the

Winneba Campus

Alfred Anovunga AlungaSt. John Bosco’s College of Education, Navrongo


Abstract

T his study explores the perspectives of second-year undergraduate students at the Universityof Education, Winneba on their orientation programme. Using a sequential explanatorymixed-method design, a structured questionnaire was administered to 290 second-year

undergraduate students in the Faculty of Educational Studies of the Winneba Campus of theUniversity who were purposively selected. Sixteen second-year undergraduate students wererandomly selected within the same Faculty for interviews. Quantitative and qualitative methodswere used for data collection. Mean and standard deviations, frequencies and percentages wereused to analyse the research questions. The interview data were used to clarify the emergingresults of the quantitative data. The study revealed that the orientation programme at the WinnebaCampus of the University is moreindoor in nature. Respondents were of the view that, there is theneed for improvement in the orientation programme at the Winneba Campus of the University tofacilitate the adjustment of first-year students. The study recommends that the University shouldinclude outdoor activities, online orientation programmes, orientation booklets, and moreresource persons in the orientation programme to facilitate the adjustment of first-year students.

Introduction

Throughout the world, tertiaryeducation is considered to be themost important development

indicator of human resource for all levelsof the economy. Tertiary education enablesindividuals to develop analytical mindsand skills that will help them takeresponsibility of their lives. Theopportunity to study at the tertiary levelis exciting to both students and families.However, the first-year often appears tobe stressful to the majority of studentsbecause gaining admission to the tertiarylevel comes with financial challenges,academic anxiety, the difficulty ofdeparting from family and friends,adapting good study habits, security, howto adjust properly in the new environmentand adapt good social life styles. Manystudents enter the universities/colleges ofEducation and find it difficult to integrateinto the new environment due to thesechallenges (Rentz, and Associates, 1996).

There is the need therefore, foruniversities/colleges to pay attention tothese challenges of first-year students andassist them through orientationprogrammes to enable them make asmooth transition to the universityenvironment after gaining admission.

Despite the efforts made by theWinneba Campus of the University inorganising orientation programmes forfirst-year students in every academic year,it appears the guidance needs of thesestudents are not adequately met during theorientation programmes. Most of the first-year students after going through theorientation programmes still ‘wander inthe dark’ for a long time before settlingdown. This is observed when students’are seen struggling to register theircourses online, locate key facilities andresources on campus, adapt goodinterpersonal relationships, choose safeand secure accommodation among otherswhich contribute to poor academicperformance and dismissal. Therefore,


much need to be done to find out thepossible causes of students’ inability toproperly adjust to the new environment.

The study is significant in three mainways. Firstly, it will expose the variousnatures/forms of orientation programmesto universities and colleges of Educationto enable them organisea effectiveorientation programmes in theirinstitutions. Secondly, the study will bebeneficial to university and collegeauthorities in the development oforientation strategies for students. Thirdly,the study will deepen universities’ andcolleges’ understanding of students’perspectives on the impact andeffectiveness of their orientationprogrammes.

Theoretical Framework

This study is based on Schlossberg, et al.(1995), Transition Theory. The Theoryis an adult development theory which isfocused on the transitions that adultsexperience throughout life and the meansby which they cope and adjust(Schlossberg, et al., 1995). Transition isdefined as “any event or non-event thatresults in changed relationships, routines,assumptions, and roles”. There are fouraspects of a transition that affect how wellindividuals deal with change. Theseaspects (named the 4S System) aresituation, self, support, and strategies(Schlossberg, et al., 1995). Situationexamines the features of a transition andhow they may influence its significanceto the individual. The self variable iscomposed of a person’s outlook on life,

as influenced by personal characteristics(including demographics, such associoeconomic status) and psychologicalresources. Support refers to the resourcesavailable to people to assist them adjust.Finally, strategies are the actions thatindividuals take in response to transitions.

Schlossberg’s situation variableoffers the researcher the opportunity tobetter ascertain the circumstances andchallenges that first-year students undergoin the process of transitioning after gainingadmission to the University/College.Schlossberg et al. (1995) found that ifstudents feel good about the transition andbelieve it is happening at an appropriatetime, it will be easier for them to makethe transition. However, if students feeltransitions come with some difficultchallenges and they are unhappy abouthaving to attend school, their transitionwill be more difficult. Armed with thisknowledge, the circumstances surroundingfirst-year students which may likelyinclude financial challenges, the fear ofmaking appropriate adjustment andacademic anxiety can better be matchedwith the situation variable in the theory.Schlossberg’s self variable can easily beincorporated into the challenges that first-year students go through because it iscomposed of “personal and demographiccharacteristics and psychologicalresources of students in the transitionprocess” (Evans, et al., 1998) which arein line with the mindset or psychologicalstate as well as the personal and familybackground of first-year students whohave gained admission to the University/College.


All these likely challenges discussedunder the situation and self variables ofSchlossberg’s theory can be channeledthrough an orientation programmetoprovide support and strategies for first-year students to better manage and copewith challenges in the process of adjustingto the new environment. The concept oforientation programme directly correlateswith Schlossberg’s support variable.Schlossberg (1995: 67), states, “Theimportance of social support is often saidto be the key to handling stress”. Evans,et al. (1998) describe the types of supportthat adults need as “affect, affirmation,aid, and honest feedback”. This supportcan come from a variety of sources,including intimate relationships, familyunits, networks of friends, and institutionsand communities. Schlossberg’sstrategies variable can be merged withthis phase of providing orientationprogramme to educate students toeffectively handle challenges they mayexperience as they go through thetransition process. Schlossberg (1995), ifindividuals want to change their situationor reduce their distress, they can choosefrom among four coping modes:information seeking, direct action,inhibition of action, and intra-psychicbehaviour which refers to the mindsetsindividuals employ to resolve problemsthat arise. These mindsets include denial,wishful thinking, and distortion, whichenable people to carry on.

By incorporating the 4S System fromSchlossberg’s (1995), Transition Theoryinto first-year students’ orientationprogramme, it exerts a significant andpositive impact on students’ social and

academic lives on campus as they areexposed to various strategies and supportsystems.

Research Design

A mixed method approach, specificallythesequential explanatory mixed-methodsdesign was employed. This design occursin two distinct interactive phases withinone study: the quantitative phase followedby the qualitative phase (Creswell, et al.,2007).

Population and Sampling Procedures

The study population consisted of all the2014/2015 academic year’s second-yearundergraduate students in the Faculty ofEducational Studies of University ofEducation, Winneba (UEW)—Winnebacampus who were 944 (UEW AnnualStatistical Report, 2011). From thispopulation, 165 were males and 125females. The sample size for the study was290 students; thus, 274 for the quantitativephase and 16 for the qualitative phase. Astratified sampling technique was used togroup the population into strata accordingto Departments within the Faculty. Then,a simple random sampling strategy wasused to select 80 respondents from theDepartment of Early Childhood Care andDevelopment, 25 respondents from theDepartment of Psychology and Education,80 from the Department of SpecialEducation, 80 respondents from theDepartment of Basic Education and 25from the Centre for Speech and HearingService based on the student enrolmentin each department. Stratification was usedin selecting the sample for this study


because the respondents share commoncharacteristics. Stratified samplingensures that resulting sample will bedistributed in the same way as thepopulation in terms of the stratifyingcriterion (Ofori and Dampson, 2011).

Data Collection Methods

A structured questionnaire and a semi-structured interview were the instrumentsused for data collection in this study. Thequestionnaire was used to gather data forthe quantitative phase, while the interviewschedule was employed to gather data inthe qualitative phase.

Validity and Reliability of theInstruments

In order to establish the face validity ofthe instruments, colleagues withknowledge in Guidance and Counsellingservices were given the instrument forface validity. To grant the content validityof the instruments, they were given toGuidance and Counselling Professors,Lecturers and Supervisors to scrutinisethem.

To establish the internal consistencyof the questionnaire instrument, tenquestionnaires were pre-tested amongfirst-yearundergraduate students at theUEW, Kumasi Campus. The data obtainedwas subjected to Cronbach’s alphaanalysis to determine the reliability of theinstrument. The coefficient obtained was0.8. According to Bryman and Cramer(1999), any calculated Cronbach’s alphaat 0.8 is acceptable and as such reliable.The interview instrument was validated

through the expert opinions of otherProfessional Counsellors andResearchers.

Kumasi Campus was used for thepre-test because the first-year students atKumasi Campus had similar charac-teristics with the first-year students at theWinneba Campus.

Data Analysis

The results from the quantitative surveywere analysed with the aid of SPSS,version 19 developed by Hull and Nie(1986, cited in Dampson and Mensah,2012). The mean and standard deviationscores and frequency were generatedthrough the use of the software. Accordingto Burns and Grove (2001), descriptiveresearch provides an accurate portrayalor account of characteristics of aparticular individual, situation or groupfor the purpose of discovering newmeaning, describing what exists,determining the frequency with whichsomething occurs and categorisinginformation. These authors state that thepurpose of descriptive research is theexploration and description of thephenomenon in real-life situation.

The interview data was transcribedand used by means of verbatim quotationsto elaborate on the findings of thequantitative data and integrated in theinterpretation of findings of the study.

Results and Discussion

Nature/forms of Orientation Programmes

The following constructs about the nature


of orientation programmes were drawnfrom the interview and questionnaire.

1. Indoor2. Outdoor3. Departmental4. Individual/online

Table 1: Means and Standard Deviationsof the Various Identified Nature/Forms of OrientationProgrammes

Construct Mean Standard Deviation(M) (SD)

Indoor 10.55 3.14

Outdoor 6.77 2.4

Individual/online 2.59 1.31

Departmental 4.07 1.76

Total 290 100

Table 1 shows the means and thestandard deviations of identified nature/forms of orientation programmes for first-year students. The respondents rated the‘indoor’ part of the programme as thehighest (M = 10.55, SD = 3.14) nature ofthe orientation programme used at theWinneba Campus of the University. The‘indoor’ nature of the orientation wasfollowed by ‘outdoor’ nature as shownon the table (M = 6.77, SD = 2.4). Thenext highest rated nature of the programmeon the questionnaire instrument was the‘departmental’ nature of the orientationprogramme with the M = 4.07 and SD =1.76. Then finally the students rated the‘individual/online’ part of the programmeas the lowest (M = 2.59, SD = 1.31) onthe questionnaire.

The study revealed that, Universityof Education, Winneba employs someforms/nature of orientation programmesto facilitate the adjustment of first-yearstudents. These included: Indoor,Outdoor, Departmental and Individual/online nature of orientation programme.This confirms what Robinson (1996: 25)said about the nature of orientationprogrammes for first-year students, “newstudents’ orientation programmes can takemany forms, from online versions, to onground, traditional day events, to outdoorsor wilderness experiences”. The aim ofall of these forms of orientationprogrammes is to assist students in theirtransition into the university, generate ahigher degree of learning both in and outof the classroom, aidin social integration,and help students find their niche in thecampus community (Robinson, 1996).

The various natures of theprogrammes did not assume equalattention from the school authorities asevident in the analysis. The ‘indoor’nature of the programme was highly ratedby the respondent (M = 10.55, SD = 3.14)as being the one which was given muchattention followed by the ‘outdoor’ (M =6.77, SD = 2.4), then ‘departmental’ (M= 4.07 and SD = 1.76) and finally the‘individual/online’ nature was rated as theleast nature which was carried out (M =2.59, SD = 1.31). For example, SYR-1remarked;

For this orientation, we dideverything indoors. I will say it wasorganised like a lecture because allthe first-year students were put indifferent lecture halls and someone


from the administration came to talkto us.

In addition, SYR-5 also shared hisview;

I was expecting that the Universityauthorities will take us round to seeand know the University’s facilitiesbut we were only told about themduring the lecture-like presentationwe had at the old pavilion.

The comments suggest that, theindoor nature of orientation programmeis mostly used by the Winneba Campus ofthe University to facilitate the adjustmentof first-year students. It therefore appearsthat, the needs of first-year students arenot met to some extent as SYR-10 said;

I did not meet my expectation duringthe orientation programme. I thoughtthe orientation programme wasgoing to be done like the way it wasdone in my former school where wewere taken round the four corners ofthe school to see the facilities. Therewas nothing like field trip so it wasnot exciting at all.

Commenting on the ‘outdoor’ natureof orientation programme during theinterview session, one of the intervieweessaid;

The orientation was done indoorswith the exception of libraryorientation where we were takenround the various sections of the

library. After the general orientation,the church that l attend alsoorganised another orientationprogramme for new members. It wasthere that we were told the historyof the church on Campus and takenround to see the church’s facilities(SYR-2).

On the part of ‘Departmental’orientation programme, a femalerespondent from the Department ofPsychology and Education had this to say,

There was departmental orientationin my department after the generalorientation programme by theUniversity. Our lecturers andadministrators were introduced to usas well as the level two and threestudents. Each first-year student alsohad the opportunity to introducehimself/herself. However, we werenot taken round to any place, it wasdone in a conference hall in thedepartment (SYR-4).

On the contrary, some first-yearstudents seem to be satisfied with themanner in which the University authoritiesorganise the orientation programme at theWinneba Campus of UEW as intervieweeSYR-13 shared her view;

To me, the orientation programmewas well organised because thepresenters were punctual and whatthey presented was ok. However, Ithink they should have includedoutdoor orientation activities whereall first-year students could be taken


round to see the important facilitiesand offices in the University for themto know where to go and who tocontact when the need arises. I thinkthis will help reduce the anxiety offirst-year students.

With a careful look at the emergingresults from the analysis and theconfirmation from the verbatim quotationsfrom interviewees, it appears theWinneba Campus of the University ofEducation, Winneba relies mostly onindoor orientation strategy to welcomefirst-year students and assist them adjustto the new environment. This seems to beinadequate since the University has anumber of resources that are located invarious parts of the Campus.

This is a confirmation of the claimthat, less attention is given to other ways/nature of orientation programmes in theUniversity of Education, Winneba. Eventhough, educational authorities andresearchers are of the view that outdoorand adventure orientation programmestypically possess many of the same goalsas most traditional programmes (Gass,1999), they are also of the view that inthe 21st century, orientation programmeshould mostly take the outdoor nature andshould involve adventure experiencescombined with reflection activities(Vlamis, 2002). Finally, authorities areof the view that, to accomplish orientationgoals and for it to have a positive impacton retention, it is imperative thatorientation be considered a compre-hensive process rather than a single event(Mullendore and Banahan, 2005). The

implication of this is that, the Universitymust try to adopt more modern nature orform of the orientation programmes inorder to increase participation, interestand retention of the first-year students.This position is held by Gass (1999) ashe asserted that first-year students’orientation does not have to take only oneform if the institution really wants thestudents to be well acclimatised with theuniversity environment and resources.

Perspectives of UndergraduateStudents on Orientation Programme

Based on the answers provided by therespondents on the five-point likert scale,an item analysis was carried out toascertain the extent to which the studentsperceive the orientation programme.

It is clear in Table 2 that, therespondents had diverse views/perspec-tives on the orientation programme at theWinneba Campus of the University ofEducation, Winneba with most of therespondents strongly agreeing to the itemsin the likert scale. Item 1 for instance, asmany as 142 respondents representing51.4 percent strongly agreed, 42respondents representing 15.2 percentagreed, 7 respondents representing 2.5percent were uncertain, whereas 42respondents representing 15.2 percentwere not in agreement with the statementthat ‘I think the duration for the orientationwas too short’ while only 43 respondentsrepresenting 15.6 percent stronglydisagreed. However, the results indicatedthat the respondents were to some extentdivided on some of the items on theinstrument. For example, on the issues of


Table 2: Distribution of Perceptions of Second-year Undergraduate Studentson the Orientation Programme in UEW

SA A U D SDStatement F F F F F

(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

1. I think the duration for the orientation 142 42 7 42 45was too short (51.4%) (15.2%) (2.5%) (15.2%) (15.6%)

2. In my view, the orientation programme 92 138 16 20 8was the beginning of campus life (33.6%) (50.4%) (5.8%) (7.3%) (2.9%)

3. The orientation activities were boring 67 66 59 63 21because students were not involved (24.3%) (32.9%) (21.4%) (22.8%) (7.6%)

4. There was no opportunity for me to 97 79 25 58 17share my frustration during the (35.1%) (28.6%) (9.1%) (21.0%) (6.2%)orientation

5. There was nothing new to learn from 82 29 12 98 55the orientation programme (29.7%) (10.5%) (4.3%) (35.5%) (19.9%)

6. I think there was the need to take all 129 106 9 18 11first-year students round the campus (47.3%) (38.8%) (3.3%) (6.6%) (4.0%)to expose them to the importantfacilities of the University

7. The orientation programme made 92 85 53 27 13provision for special students (34.1%) (31.5%) (19.6%) (10.0%) (4.8%)(hearing and visual impairment)

8. I think the venue was conducive for 70 76 21 67 37the programme (25.8%) (28.0%) (7.7%) (24.7%) (13.7%)

9. In my view, there was no opportunity 92 60 20 45 49for first-year students to ask (34.6%) (22.6%) (7.5%) (16.9%) (18.4%)questions for clarification

10. The orientation programme was a 96 109 22 24 19measure that reduced the anxiety (35.6%) (40.4%) (8.1%) (8.9%) (7.0%)level of first-year students

11. In my view, orientation should help 86 109 36 19 19students feel wanted and fit to make (32.0%) (40.5%) (13.4%) (7.1%) (7.1%)their own decisions

12. I think the orientation programme 93 106 37 19 17provided the basic knowledge to (34.2%) (39.0%) (13.6%) (7.0%) (6.3%)students about the available resourcesin the University

13. I think there was no adequate 71 52 33 71 43information about the orientation so (26.3%) (19.3%) (12.2%) (26.3%) (15.9%)the attendance was not encouraging


‘There was no opportunity for me to sharemy frustration during the orientation’,respondents were divided on the issue.This was because some of the respondentsperceived that there was no need to begiven the opportunity on such a platformwhile others thought otherwise, thistherefore brought up the division. Anothertwist of event was that a few also attracteda strong opposition from the respondents.A typical example was the item whichstated ‘There was nothing new to learnfrom the orientation programme’, this inthe researcher’s view implies that mostof the respondents had learnt somethingnew or have been exposed to somethingenlightening. As many as 142 representing51.4 percent respondents were also of theview that the duration for the orientationprogramme was too short.

This suggests that first-year studentshave different expectations aboutorientation programmes which theUniversity authorities need to take intoconsideration in order to facilitate theirintegration in the new environment. Thisis in line with Tinto’s (1993) revisedmodel on Student Integration. In thismodel a more explicit discussion ofstudent perception and its importance tolearning more about student integrationwithin the social and academic environ-ments are discussed. Tinto found thatstudent perceptions are paramount to anystudy of student persistence and that nostudy of the roots of student departure iscomplete without reference to studentperceptions.

Based on these diverse views ofrespondents on their perspectives of theorientation programme, the researcher

conducted interview to substantiate thefindings. A female interviewee (SYR-14)shared her view;

when we talk about orientationprogramme, what I know is that, thenewly admitted students areexpected to be introduced to thefacilities in their new environmentso that they can effectively adapt wellto the environment. But theorientation programme that wasorganised for us was somehowdifferent because we were notintroduced to the University’sfacilities. It was about how tomanage campus life and how to study.

In addition, a male interviewee wasof the view that,

I was expecting that the Universityauthorities will take us round to seeand know the University’s facilitiesbut we were only told about them(SYR-5).

Despite these collective views, afemale interviewee between the age groupof 21–25 had a different view about theorientation programme that was organisedfor them. She said,

I was satisfied with the orientationprogramme because I had theopportunity to meet with theUniversity authorities and studentleaders. I also got to know the rulesand regulations of the Universitythrough the orientation programme.


I made so many friends too. So afterthe orientation programme I had awide network of friends (SYR-11).

The second-year undergraduatestudents had diverse perceptions aboutorientation programme at the Universityof Education, Winneba. This presupposesthat students perceive orientationprogramme based on their individualneeds on Campus. Once the programmemeets the needs of an individual student,he/she perceives that the orientation wasgood. From the verbatim quotation ofinterviewees, it could be realised thatthere is no one way by which studentsperceive an orientation programme, andthis confirms the rating of respondents onthe five-point likert scale.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The study revealed that orientationprogramme for the first-year students atthe Winneba Campus of the University ofEducation, Winneba is mostlyindoor innature which does not adequately helpfirst-year students to resolve the difficultyof locating important offices andfacilities/landmarks on campus.Therefore, it is recommended that theoffice of the Director, Office ofInstitutional Advancement and thePublication Unit should combine forcesto provide road maps and directions toimportant landmarks, buildings and officesin the university as part of the orientationactivities.

The study also highlighted thatstudents at the Winneba Campus of the

University of Education, Winneba havediverse perspectives as far as theirpersonal needs are concerned. It isrecommended that, the Office of StudentAffairs should introduce those optimalactivities students perceived to be useful,enjoyable and helpful to their adjustmentinto the university by liaising with theOffice of the Deputy Registrar AcademicAffairs to extend invitations to moreresource persons and student leaders toassist in the dissemination of informationduring orientation programmes.

The study revealed that orientationmaterials for the first-year students at theWinneba Campus of the University ofEducation, Winneba are not usuallyadequately designed. It appearsorientation programme at UEW could bebetter organised if well-designed writtenorientation materials are provided inadvance to students. It is thereforerecommended that, the Office of StudentsAffairs should ensure that the materialsfor the orientation programme such asbrochures, magazines, pamphlets andstudent handouts are readily available anddispatched in advance with the admissionletter. When this is done, students arelikely to come to the University with well-framed minds and understanding ofcampus life and this will help them adjustquickly to the campus environment.

It is revealed in the study that,orientation programme at the WinnebaCampus does not provide adequateinformation for first-year students to helpthem in the online registration of coursesand easy navigation in the student portal.It is therefore, recommended that, the


Division of Academic Affairs through theUnit for Management Information Systemsshould provide practical and adequateexplanation of students’ information online

portal registration to first-year studentsas part of the orientation activities at theWinneba Campus of the University ofEducation, Winneba.

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Burns, N., and Grove, S. K. (2001). The Practice of Nursing Research. Philadelphia: WB SaundersCompany.

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Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., and Guido-Dibrito, F. (1998). Student development in college: Theory,research, and practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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student learning and success. New directions for student services, 75, 55–68.Schlossberg, N. K., Waters, E. B., and Goodman, J. (1995). Counseling adults in transition: Linking

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Chicago: University or Chicago Press.University of Education, Winneba (2011). UEW Annual Newsletter, p.4. Winneba: M Press.Vlamis, E. (2002). The effects of an adventure orientation program on incoming first-year students

(Unpublished master’s thesis). University of New Hampshire, Durham.


Improving the Reading Comprehension of Lower IntermediateLearners of Spanish through Strategy Instruction

Isaac OseiGhana Institute of Languages


Abstract

T his paper reports on a small-scale investigation of reading strategy application in a lowerintermediate Spanish classroom in Ghana. The focus of this study was formulating a trainingmodel of reading strategies, putting such training into practice and analysing the effects

on learners’ development. Using retrospective interviews, class diaries and self-evaluationmethods, the researcher identified the learners’ existing strategy awareness and use, and trainedthem with a view to improving on their reading comprehension. Qualitative analyses suggestthat strategy instruction improved the comprehension proficiency of learners, resulted in changesin, and greater awareness of strategy use, and more importantly, a shift from the complete relianceon the dictionary for word meaning to use of strategies.

Introduction

In today’s globalised world reading ina second language (SL) or foreignlanguage (FL)1 is a necessary skill in

many fields of our daily life and isprobably the most important skill forlearners in academic contexts. Accordingto Giovannini et al. (1996), “he wholearns to read efficiently and does soconstantly, contributes to the developmentof his thoughts (…) therefore, in learning,reading becomes transcendental fortraining and intellectual growth of theperson” (p.25). This investigation emerged upon areflection by the author, a teacher ofSpanish as a Foreign Language (SFL) withthe Ghana Institute of Languages. Heobserved that the students at the lowerintermediate level were deficient inreading comprehension (herein calledRC), contrary to the other skills-listeningcomprehension, oral and writtenexpressions. In order to find solution to this

deficiency, intervention studies whichrevealed the contribution of strategies tolearning in general on one hand (Martín,2009; Oxford, 1990; Chamot, 2004) and,on the other hand, studies specificallydirected at reading as a language skill(Ikeda, and Takeuchi, 2003) wereconsidered. A classroom action researchwas carried out which had its hypothesisthat the reading comprehension difficultiesthe students faced were due primarily tothe limitation in reading strategies andskills. This hypothesis was as a result ofobservation during the time dedicated toteaching SFL.

Context and Population of Investigation

Our investigation was carried out withinan intensive course with a total of sixtyhours divided between thirty classes oftwo hours during a six-week period.Thestudy was undertaken with a total of sevenstudents, two males and five females,aged between 24 and 38 years: all werepursuing a BA course in Translation at

1 We support the conceptual dichotomy between a second language (L2) and foreign language (FL),but for simplicity we will use the term “second language” to refer to both foreign and second language,without distinction.


the Ghana Institute of Languages exceptone, who registered at the languageproficiency course at the School ofLanguages of the same Institute. In spiteof the fact that their First Language (L1)is Akan, they all had a very high level ofEnglish which is the official language ofGhana and all had studied Spanish for, atleast, between two and three academicyears. Additionally, they had a high levelof French and none had visited anySpanish-speaking country.

Literature Review

Not many action research studies withreference to a programme of strategyinstruction on RC have been conducted,contrary to the abundance of quantitativeexperimental studies on this same readingskill. This may be due, in part, to lack oftime, incentives, professional supportskills and inherent difficulties in carryingout classroom research (Dörnyei, 2007;Chamot, 2005).

Descriptive Studies

These group of studies are dedicated toidentifying strategies which learnersnormally deploy with the intention ofdetermining whether there are differencesin their use according to individualvariables (age, L1, level of proficiencyetc.) of the learners.

Yang (2006) employs a quantitativemethod with a one short design to identifythe relationship between readingstrategies and comprehension monitoringstrategies, and how the two sets ofstrategies function to help readers in the

comprehension process. Yang concludesthat the participants (Taiwanese universitystudents of EFL) use the two strategies tohelp in their reading and interpretationand that by engaging in reading strategieslearners solve their problems resultingfrom insufficient language knowledge inunderstanding textual information, but theydeploy the comprehension monitoringstrategies to integrate, monitor and controltheir reading processes. One importantimplication for teachers, according toYang, should be the emphasis oninstruction of comprehension monitoringknowledge and strategy training since ashe puts it, “it not only plays an importantrole for readers in achieving the successof reading comprehension but alsopromotes them into critical readers”(p.339).

Zare-ee (2007) intends to examinethe relationship between the use ofcognitive and metacognitive strategies, onone hand, and EFL reading achievementon the other hand, with Iranian universitystudents. Results show that the use ofmetacognitive strategies can explainvariations in reading achievement andneeds to be promoted by instructors. Forfurther insight see Grabe (2004; 2009;Chamot (2005) Erler and Finkbeiner(2007).

Strategy Based Instruction Studies

This category of studies aim at teachingstrategies often used by successfullanguage learners and are characterisedby raising awareness of the strategieslearners are already using, teacher


presentation and modeling of strategies,multiple practice opportunities and self-evaluation of the effectiveness of thestrategies (Rubin et al. (2007).

Wright and Brown (2006) undertakean explicit instruction of reading strategieswith young English learners of Spanishor French as foreign language. Theobjective consists of raising learners´awareness of reading strategies, extendingthe range of strategies they employ toinclude both lower-processing and higherprocessing, and encouraging learners tomonitor and reflect upon their reading. Atthe end of the intervention (twenty-twoweeks) the researchers conclude that thereis greater awareness of the strategies andan improvement on ability to reflect ontheir reading. However, they suggestcarrying out further studies to measure theRC of learners before and after theintervention to validate the claim ofimproved reading ability.

Similarly, Macaro and Erler (2008)conduct a quasi-experimental,longitudinal study with pre- and post-testdesigns involving adolescent students (L1English) of French as Second Language.Its objective is to investigate if a differentapproach in the teaching of RC will resultin accelerated development of this skilland generate greater motivation in thelearners. The researchers conclude,among others, that “low input but high-scaffolding over a comparatively longtime may be an effective form ofinstruction for young-beginner readers”;that to take advantage of the combinationof top-down and bottom-up strategies,there is the need to encourage learners to

put into practice the use and evaluationof the combination.

Another study of RC strategyinstruction is by Ikeda and Takeuchi(2003) involving 210 Japanese universitystudents learning EFL. In this quantitativestudy with pretest and posttest designs,the authors aim at investigating the long-term effects of explicit instruction onstrategies at different levels of learners´competence. Their main findings are that:i) both explicit and intensive instructionchange the frequency of use of strategiesby students; ii) L2 learners’ level has aninfluence on the effectiveness ofinstruction on strategies, i.e. bottom-upprocessing strategies are effective at lowlevels, while the top-down processingpromote high levels; and iii) the effectsof the instruction on strategies remain fivemonths after the treatment. Ikeda andTakeuchi recommend further studies toclarify the influence on the effectivenessof strategy instruction of certain variablessuch as cultural background andvocabulary knowledge level ofparticipants.

From this literature review, weconclude that there has not been any studyon RC strategies in the teaching of SFLwith Ghanaian learners, in particular, andAfricans, in general, contrary torecommendations which will helpprovide more data on the effects ofstrategy instruction learning onperformance and proficiency (Grabe,2004; Chamot, 2005). Our researchtherefore, with a qualitative methodology,a few in this line of study, is to fill thisgap within the research literature by


shedding more light on the students’reading competence, through effectivestrategy-based instruction and proposinga model of strategy training which RC inthe teaching and learning of Spanish in alinguistically complex context like Ghanamay need.

Theoretical framework to ReadingProcesses

Views of L2 reading are based oninvestigations on L1 learners (Carrell,1998; Grabe, 1991, 2004, 2009) partlybecause L1 research has a long historywith much more stable student population,among other reasons. Reading isconsidered a multidimensional processand constitutes one of the most essentialand complex modalities of linguisticactivity in which variables of manydifferent kinds (cognitive, textuallinguistics, sociocultural, biological etc.)intervene (Urquhart and Weir, 1998:Grabe, 2009).

According to the bottom-up model(Gough, 1972 cited by Acquaroni, 2004)reading is conceived as a sequentialprocess organised hierarchically in whichthe reader applies his decoding skills andinitiates an ascending and unidirectionallineal trajectory of visual discrimination.With respect to the top-down model ofreading, comprehension is arrived atchiefly through the knowledge,experiences and expectations of the reader(Smith, 1971 cited by Carrell et al.,1988). The reader is the real protagonistwho initiates an ascending linealtrajectory. The level of RC depends on

the ability of the reader to actualise theirappropriate mental schema at the time ofmaking significant inferences from the text(Hernández Martín and Quintero Gallego,2001). The interactive model has itsfoundations on the unsatisfactory inabilityto explain the two earlier models andconstitutes a new explanatory model thattries to reconcile, overcome and integratethe more positive and necessary aspectsof the previous postures with the aim ofcreating an acceptable theory thatconsiders the complexity of the readingprocess globally. In this model, theinteraction between text and reader, inwhich the latter relates the information inthe written materials with priorknowledge and experience gained is thebasis of understanding. In support of thispoint Alderson (2000: 6) notes:

A text does not ‘contain’ meaningwhich is waiting to be discoveredby an able reader. Rather, meaningis created in the interaction betweena reader and a text: the text has (…)meaning potential and the potentialis realised—in the product ofunderstanding—only by readersreading.

Reading Strategies and Skills

Research on strategies in the field offoreign language acquisition has beenaccompanied by a discussion about thedeliberate consciousness involved inactions like ‘strategy’ and ‘skill’ (Carrell,1998, Grellet, 1981). Contributing, Pariset al. (1991: 610–611), posit that:


Skills refer to information-processing techniques that areautomatic, whether at the level ofrecognizing grapheme-phonemecorrespondence or summarizing astory. Skills are applied to a textunconsciously for many reasonsincluding expertise, repeatedpractice, compliance withdirections, luck, and naive use. Incontrast strategies are actionsselected deliberately to achieveparticular goals. An emerging skillcan become a strategy when it is usedintentionally. (…) strategies areskills under consideration ....

Methodology

We selected Elliot’s model (1993) aimedat teaching within the classroom actionresearch because it suits the necessitiesof our study, as it employs qualitative datacollection methods including participants’observation and informal interviews, andmore importantly, it is flexible withrespect to the revision of the general ideaat the end of each cycle. Finally, this modeldoes not seek to establish rules but ratheranalyse and interpret what happens in theclassroom from the point of view of thosewho act and interact in the situation-problem, in relation to subjectivemeanings which the participants ascribe(Madrid, 1998: 17).

Variables in the Study

(a) Learners’ reading comprehensionWe begin by reflecting on theimportance and difficulties of this

skill as well as the initial diagnosisof the level of the students.

In spite of the fact that thebibliography advises developing RCas a linguistic skill in conjunctionwith the other skills (Acquaroni,2004), we support its independentpractice as an end in itself.Therefore, it is treated separatelyfrom the others, always from theperspective of considering readingas a process, more than as a product.

(b) Model of reading strategiestrainingOur model adopted the CognitiveAcademic Language LearningApproach (Chamot et al., 1999), andincorporates the steps proposed byMartín (2009) in relation tostrategies training integrated into theteaching of SFL course. Theseinclude adjusting to the needs of thelearners, dealing with individualdifferences, determining the purposeand objectives of the training andestablishing the phases of thetraining, among others. Similarly,attention has been paid to opinionsby Erler and Finkbeiner (2007)concerning participants’ level ofcompetence, context of study,immediate needs of learners,available time and logisticalproblems.

We reproduce below the phases followed:

• Preparation phaseI. By the teacher (before the

commencement of the course)


Figure 1: Elliott’s action research model (1993: 90)


(a) Specification of students’needs

(b) Determination of availabletime

(c) Selection of strategies(d) Integration of strategies into

the programme(e) Selection of materials and

designing activities

II. Preparing the students (first daysof the course)(a) Psychological

i. Discussions on beliefsand attitudes

ii. Explanation of contri-bution of strategies

(b) Methodologyi. Activation of meta-

cognitive awareness onthe processing andproduction processes oflanguage

ii. Gathering of strategiesand techniques alreadyused

• Presentation phasei. Presentation of the strategy

(a) Prior selection of the strategyby the teacher

(b) Presentation of the strategythrough the following stages:

i. Naming the strategyii. Identifying activity it

can be used foriii. Modeling by teacher or

learner.• Practice phase

Practice of selected strategies bystudents leading to teacher´sdiminished role in encouraging

independent use of the strategy bylearner.

• Evaluation phasei. Final evaluation of strategic

competence of each learner.ii. Evaluation of motivation, beliefs

and attitudes concerningstrategies.

• Expansion phase

There was not sufficient time for thisphase.

Materials used include specific textsfor SFL classrooms, textbooks Ejerciciosde comprensión lectora (HernándezMartín y Quintero Gallego, 2004),Español sin fronteras Nivel intermedio(Sánchez Lobato et al., 2000),Materiales, estrategias y recursos parala enseñanza del español 2/L (MorenoGarcía, 2011), Estrategias de lectura.Una propuesta práctica para el aula deE/LE (Miñamo, 2000), Las palabras y elescrito (Cassany, 2004), as well asauthentic texts from the print media (ElPaís, El Mundo, ABC, Marca, Sport).

Teaching Procedure and Methodology

Students are informed of the objectivesof the task as well as what it seeks toachieve through the use of strategies atall times.The preferred form for workingin class is pair work, although instructions,assessment/evaluation of task andexplanation of grammar are done with thewhole group. In accordance with Chamotet al. (1999) and Chamot (2005), weinitially selected English as the languageof instruction in the teaching of the reading


strategies, since both students and teacherwere competent in it. Account was takenof proposals by Giovannini et al. (1996),the illustrative scale for competencedemanded of the reader at the B1 levelaccording to Council of Europe (2006)and recommendation by the CurricularPlan of the Cervantes Institute.

Data Collection Methods

Attention was paid to RC skill which isthe object of our study and the informationwe intend to collect, variables andpeculiarities of each instrument, concernsover viability and validity of the selectedinstruments, and more importantly,budgetary and time constraints (Cohen,1998; Mackey and Gass, 2005).

In the light of the foregoing, thefollowing were selected for theobservation of the different variablesduring the action cycles:

(a) Reading comprehension— Initial diagnostic and final

evaluation tests

Two tests from the RC sectionof DELE (Diploma of Spanishas a Foreign Language)examination organised byCervantes Institute on 15th and16th May, 2009, for B1 level.

— Initial strategy questionnaire— Retrospective interview on

reading processes

(b) Training model— Final self-evaluation question-

naire

— Semi-structured self-evaluationinterview on RC

— Teacher’s dairy— Student’s diary

Developing the Action

Cycle 1: Need analysisAction Step 1:—Collection of informationon students’ reading strategies/techniques,their attitude and their readingcompetence.

This was carried out in week 1. Datacollection instruments were integrated intothe linguistic activities and results werepresented in the second week for thestudents to observe the direct relationshipwith their learning process. Question-naires and interviews were administeredin direct and straight-forward manner inboth English and Spanish.

Action Step 2:—Review-Processing datacollected

Analysis of data on participants

In the first place, it is observed that themain reasons for learning Spanish aredesire to know the Hispanic culture andprospect for job. Secondly, participantsare all unanimous in aspects of thelanguage they need to improve: grammarand oral expression. Thirdly, theirpreferred mode of learning are speaking,and watching TV, followed by reading andwriting. Finally, with respect to workingin class, the students prefer workingprincipally in this order: in groups,individually with the teacher and thewhole class with the teacher.


i. Analysis of questionnaire ondifficulties, needs, objectives andmotivation on RC.It was considered advantageous tointroduce the initial strategyquestionnaire after the students haveread a text without forcing them tobe examined as advised (Auerbachand Paxton, 1997 and Rubin et al.,2007) for two reasons. First,participants were adults with muchexperience in language learning, andsecond, we wanted to move awayfrom the many tests in which studentsare involved during the regularcourses at the centre. All theparticipants (100%) declaredpractising the RC because it helpedthem to learn vocabulary betterwhile at the same time 86 percentdid so because it was compulsory.

ii. Analysis of initial questionnaire ofstrategies/techniques.Firstly, the strategy frequently usedbefore starting to read is skimming(71%), while the least practiced isusing title to make hypothesis (43%).Secondly, the students declaredresorting to translating each sentenceinto the L1 almost always duringreading, while they rarely deployedstrategies like paying attention toexpressions and clauses. Thirdly,with respect to the presence anddifficulty of a task, our participantsacknowledged putting the followinginto practice: identifying the meaningof unknown words or expressionsthrough background knowledge of thetopic (71%), reading difficult parts

several times (71%), using back-ground knowledge on the topic(57%), creating a mental image ofwhat the text says (57%), and takingnotes of key words (57%). Finally,concerning the final phase (afterreading), and the correspondingstrategy of making a summary of thetext in one’s own words only 2students reported to have used it.What we deduce from this analysis,contrary to the initial hypothesis isthat the students are, one way or theother, acquainted with readingstrategies/techniques, perhaps due totheir experience in languagelearning.

iii. Analysis of retrospective interviewon reading processes.

Each learner had an introspectiveindividual interview with the teacherbased on the guidelines in Hosenfeldcited by Oxford, 1990. They had toread a short text—La mano—byRamón Gómez de la Serna, whichfacilitates the application of readingstrategies due to its linguistics andcontent features and then answerquestions related to their readingprocesses. This approach offered theresearcher some indications of howthe learners approached texts, theirstrategies and their abilities to speakon how they read.

Action Step 3: Reflection—Arriving atconclusions and preparing activities forCycle 2.

The approach cited above revealed thatthe students resorted, principally, to


lower-level processes (translating into theL1, trying to understand each word in atext, paying attention to parts of sentences,identifying referents, reading questionsand then text etc.). Analysis of thequestionnaires also revealed that beforereading, the strategy which they utilisedwas making a quick reading of the wholetext—skimming—followed by anintensive one, while the least used strategywas using the heading to make hypothesison what they would be reading. Duringreading, the preferred strategies includedtranslating each sentence into L1 andpaying attention to the beginning andending of each paragraph, while the leastused were beginning reading from the firstparagraph until the last and payingattention to parts of the sentences such asexpressions and clauses. Only 43 percentof the respondents declared makingsummary of the text in their own wordsafter reading.

On one hand, the personal interviewpartially confirmed the conclusions of theinitial questionnaire. They valued the useof lower-level processing (identifyingword category and recognising cognates).We reproduce some responses below:

Student F: ‘I know murió is the preteritefor morir’,

Student A: ‘And when I saw the verbmurió, that made merealised…’

Student D: ‘…then I got to know themeaning of words likevigorosa, meaningvigorous…’

On the other hand, even though the use of

background knowledge was a dominantstrategy, the students did not realise it untilthe teacher gave them a clue:

Question: What do the questions tell?What is the importance of thequestions?

Student F: It’s about the interview. Thepolice are doing the investi-gation, asking questions. Sothese questions helped themto get to the assassin.

Question: Okay, you didn’t get a lot ofwords but the policecoming, and normally whathappens?

Student C: They investigate.

In sum, it could be said that thestudents relied on lower-level processesas is normal with many L2 learners anddeployed few strategies and techniquesrelated to higher-level processesunknowingly (Auerbachy Paxton, 1997).The number of strategies presented inclass was not limited, basically, with theaim of attending to individual learningstyles and objectives of the learners.

Additionally, considering that theirmetalinguistic awareness, strategiccompetence and language learningexperience were developed as adults(Martín, 2009), a wide repertoire ofstrategies was left in their hands forselection. Finally, we were not obliviousof the fact that they were well-motivateddue to their objectives for studyingSpanish as outlined by Erler andFinkbeiner (2007).

All this led to the selection ofreading strategies which include those


from the different levels of processing.We reproduce below those selected forthe next phase:

1. I use the title to help predict thecontents.

2. I consider what type of text itis, such as a newspaper article,a scientific paper, or a novel.

3. I pay attention to sentencestructure, such as subjects andobjects.

4. I skip unknown words.5. I link the content with what I

already know.6. If I don’t understand something

such as a word or phrase, Iguess its meaning using cluesfrom the text.

7. If I don’t understand somethingsuch as a word or phrase, Iguess its meaning usinginformation I know about thetopic.

8. I check what each pronounrefers to.

9. I mark important parts, usingcoloured pens or drawing stars.

10. I go over difficult parts severaltimes.

11. I make a picture in my mindabout what the text is saying.

12. I try to understand the meaningwithout translating the text intomy native language.

13. I predict what will come next.14. I pay attention to linking words

such as “however” and“besides” so that I can under-stand the structure.

15. I write down key words.

16. I summarise the text in my ownwords.

Cycle 2: Introduction of strategicactivities

Action Step 1:—Designing activities.

Action Step 2:—Undertaking the activitiesA dossier with all the activities theywould have to undertake in class as wellas at home during the course was given tothe learners in the first week.

Action Step 3:—determining effects of theteaching interventionThis was done during the last two weeksand, as in Cycle 1, data collectioninstruments are administered in Spanishas well as in English to facilitate a bettercomprehension and resolution.

Data Collection Procedures

• Final self-evaluation questionnaire onRC (Oxford et al., 2004).

• Self-evaluation semi-structuredinterview on RC (Martín, 2007).

• Final evaluation of RC (taken fromDELE, 2009).

Action Step 4:—Processing data in step3

Analysis of self-evaluation question-naire and final interview on RC

(a) Have you achieved your objectivesfor this course?

As observed in Fig. 2, there is a positiveagreement on fulfillment of objectives of


the course. This opinion is also reflectedin the interview. We reproduce the mostimportant ones:

(a) Have you achieved your objectivesfor this course, why?

Student C: Sí, because at first, when Itook any text anything inSpanish to read, I wasted somuch time looking forindividual words, butthrough this course, it hashelped me a lot. I’veimproved a lot because I tryto apply the strategies to getthe meanings without lookingfor words in the dictionarytoo often.

Student D: I’ve learnt how to read, howto write…My objective wasto learn more vocabulary and

I’ve achieved it sincewe always jot down newwords, not all, but at least…

(b) Which aspects of the readingcomprehension have you improvedupon in this course?

Firstly, the most significant responses tothis question, before they begin to readare using heading to make hypothesis,recognising textual genre and making arapid reading (Fig. 3). Secondly, withrespect to strategies deployed duringreading, improvement is recorded in 1)continue reading even if I have difficulty2) I link the content with what I alreadyknow and 3) If I don’t understandsomething such as a word or phrase, Iguess its meaning using clues from the text(Figs. 4, 5 and 6). Finally, concerning thestrategy of summarising of text in one´sown words after reading, a favourableresponse is recorded (Fig. 7).

(c) Do you think you are now a strategicreader?

With this question we intended finding outknowledge of conscious use of the

Figure 2: Have you achieved the objectives for this course?


Fugure 3: Before reading

Fugure 4: During reading

strategies studied in the course amongothers. As can be observed in Figs 8 and9, almost all the learners declared to havetried new strategies although five practicethem only when the teacher or activitiesexplicitly directs them to.

Curiously, a contradiction isobserved when 43 percent respond thatthey do not identify the strategies they use.The predominant opinion is favourable on

the use of strategies even though they arenot sure of their strategic ability.

These observations are supported bystatements in the final interview some ofwhich are reproduced below:

Student A: Still in the Spanish. It wasjust a short text. I look up forthe important words and tryto work around it.


Student E: Reading. Sometimes I wantto get particular information.So I don’t have to readeverything. I only have toskim through to get…

Student G: Sí el periódico de El País,por ejemplo, con lasestrategias puedo leer… ysin el senario, puedo

comprender sin el senario.Por ejemplo, uso del títulopara interpretar y me haayudado mucho…

Student A: The use of vocabulary andexpressions.

(d) Would you like to continue workingon your reading comprehensionstrategies?

Figure 5: Effects of presence and difficulty of task on strategy use (1)

Figure 6: Effects of presence and difficulty of task on strategy use (2)


As far as their interest in continuingworking on their reading strategies, anoverwhelming response (100%) wish tocontinue working (Fig. 10). Similarly,favourable responses in favour of thetraining are recorded in the finalinterview.

Student E: I think that every year, notevery year, every holiday,something should be

organised like what youhave done. It will help someof us beginners.

Student G: Para mí, pienso que lasestrategias son buenas, perolo que es muy buena para míes utilizar el título. Antes dela clase no sabía cómo leerbien, comprender las ideasgenerales de un texto. Perogracias a las estrategias.

Figure 7: After reading

Figure 8: Do you consider yourself a strategic reader? (1)


Student D: Yes, me va a ayudar parahacer mi traducción.

Action Step 5:—Reflection—Arriving atconclusions

First of all, considering the favourableresponse to the continuation of the reading

strategy programme, and consequently, theneed for more practice, we believe thatthe intervention should not be limited toonly a “short” course like ours, but ratherintegrated into the normal course.

Secondly, for the students to takemaximum advantage of the strategytraining, we concur with previous studies

Figure 9: Do you consider yourself a strategy reader (2)

Figure 10:Would you like to continue working on your readingcomprehension strategies?


that support interventions focused onreduced number of strategies so that therecould be enough time for practice andexpansion.

Finally, it is observed that theoccasional use of the mother tongue (inthis study, English and Akan), reduces thelevel of anxiety and takes away possibledifferences among the students, asindicated in the following comments fromthe learners.

Student A-Diary: After today´s lesson, Ifeel more confident thanever in the Spanishlanguage class. This isbecause he (the teacher) hasreally come down to ourlevel to communicateeffectively with us. And sowe were able to fullyparticipate in this session.

Student B-Diary: Hoy me gusta muchocomo el profesor explica las

instrucciones, especial-mente, él utiliza la lenguamaterna (akan).

Conclusions of the Action Research

There are three aspects in relation to thisaction research: evolution of the RC ofthe learners, their strategic competencein reading and efficiency in the strategytraining model.

(a) Reading comprehension

The highlight of this linguistic skill is theimprovement in all the learners (none ofthem scored more than 35% in the initialtest, however, the worst score in the finalevaluation improved to 40%—Student E),but in accordance with Wright and Brown(2006), we are conscious of the possibleeffect the training in the use of thestrategies and the instruction might havehad on the participants.

Figure 11: Evolution of Reading Comprehension


The ideal would be to measure theeffect on the other skills (listeningcomprehension, written and oral) in theface of the training, but our interventionlacked the capacity for this objective.

Regarding learners’ readingcompetence vis-à-vis RC, a positivechange in their reading conceptions isobserved on one hand; and on the otherhand, a change in favour of deploymentof strategies instead of dependence on thedictionary is also observed as highlightedin some responses in the final interview.

Student A: Now if I get a text, I’ll beable to read and understandit because I´m able to getthe main ideas withoutnecessarily looking throughthe dictionary.

StudentB: …I’ve realised that I have toignore those things (words)and search for the important,and those ones will let meunderstand what the text isabout.

Student C: …at first, when I took anytext, anything in Spanish toread, I wasted so much timelooking for individualwords, but through thiscourse, …I try to apply thestrategies to get the meaningswithout looking for words inthe dictionary too much.

(b) Strategy training model

Regarding the preparation andpresentation, which aimed at raisingawareness of the strategies students

already employed and prepare thempsychologically, among others, it seemedthat the learning experience that ourlearners had prior to this study contributedto the rapid awareness of their strategicconsciousness as observed along thecourse. Similarly, the fact that they are quitemotivated because learning Spanish isrelated to their career goals, they are moreprepared to learning to learn, i.e., theyare willing to learn strategies to improvetheir learning.From this we observe thatthe students respond favourably tostrategic awareness through the initialquestionnaire and the use of diary asadvised by Rubin et al. (2007). However,it should be noted that not all trainees wereable to write the diaries appropriately asanticipated. With reference to the implementationand evaluation phases, which targetedpromoting self-evaluation of theeffectiveness of the strategies worked onand their transfer to new strategies, thestudents were able to express their thoughtprocesses and worked independently bytaking advantage of their rich experienceas language learners.Therefore, throughtheir learning diaries and their responsesin the final interview, a positive impacton most of the students on the need to settargets before facing specific tasks,identifying appropriate strategies anddetermining the criteria for assessing thesuccess or failure is observed.

Conclusions

Our research aimed at studying readingcomprehension of students through


strategies and techniques that they displaywhen faced with this linguistic skill, withthe subsequent aim of designing andimplementing training strategies toaddress inherent difficulties. And inaccordance with the fundamental premiseunderlying action research in theclassroom, conclusions reached have toenhance a better understanding of objectbeing studied.

With respect to the readingcomprehension variable, our interventionwas fruitful, so long as all studentsrecorded an improvement at the end ofthe study period, as in Akkakoson andMoyra Sweetnam (2010) and Martin(2009).

Regarding the strategic competition(which also includes reading techniques),as in previous studies (Macaro and Erler,2008, Martin, 2009, Ikeda and Takeuchi,2003), ours suggests, first, a change in theuse of reading strategies related to lowerprocessing (bottom-up) to the higherprocessing (top-down); second, a greaterawareness of conscious and explicit useof reading strategies. A possibleinterpretation would be that, with strategicawareness related to unknown words, ourstudents already had a higher capacity forshort term memory that enabled them todirect their attention to higher processingas happened in other studies (Acquaroni,2004).

Concerning the strategy training thefact that the students accepted andappreciated the explicitness and itsintegration into the usual programme ofcourse, supports the previous relatedstudies. Coincidentally, our participants

evaluated the positive influence of thistraining on the way they handle the RCskill, not only in Spanish but also in otherlanguages they learn. Also reported aregreater awareness of the strategies andan improvement in the ability to reflecton the reading by participants like similarinterventions (Wright and Brown, 2006;Auerbach and Paxton, 1997).

In conclusion, our study supportsprevious interventions which emphasisethat teaching has an influence as far as toraising critical factors incarrying outstrategy training. With respect to what weintended to achieve by undertaking thisresearch, it seems appropriate to end withthe words of one participant:

In conclusion, I really like the course.I would like to do the course forever.The truth is that I can now understandany text and in nearly all languages,thanks to the techniques andstrategies we have learned.

We would like to note, however, thatdespite achieving our overall objectives,our research has suffered somelimitations, inherent characteristics in anyempirical study, that must be consideredin its reading and possible interpretation.

The first to be noted was the lack ofa control group with which to comparethe effects of treatment on teaching.However we must not forget thedifficulties that are specific to researchin the classroom (Chamot, 2004; Mackeyand Gass, 2005; Pica, 2005; Dörnyei,2007).

Another limitation relates to the shortduration of our intervention, in such a way


that the significant effects that have beenachieved in the short term in the RC couldnot be repeated if the assessment were tobe undertaken after some time:

Similarly, we were unable to analyse

the effect of the intervention on eachparticipant, and especially withreference to the use of a set ofreading strategies throughout thestudy with the view to designingspecific RC activities.

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